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0
ANNUAL REPORT
OP THE
BOARD OF REGENTS
OF THB
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
SHOWING
THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION
YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1902.
l'.\-
REPORT
OP THE
IT. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM.
WASHINGTON:
* - - -
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1904.
t1%
AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE PrSLIC PRINTING AND BINDING, AND THB DISTRIBUTION
OP PUBLIC DOCUMENTS.
Approved January 12, 1895.
''Of the Report of the Sntijii^nian I])8^iitlfQn,*tefi thousand copies; one thousand copies for the Senate, two thmiftrthd for?fie«Il^ft^1ive thousand for distribution by the Smithsonian Institi^on,; and* ^vci*Uftousaad« for* distribution by the National
Museum." :-.: ;•'• ;•; :.: •• • ..! A ../
3
R
LIST OF ILLUSTEATIO:^^
PLATES.
Aboriginal American BAtKETRv: Studies in a Textile Art Without Machinery
By Otis Tufton Mason.
Facing page.
1. Modified forms on basketry 548
2. Pima basketry showing fretwork 548
3. Pomo fine coiled basket 548
4. Hazelnut {Corylua ccdifomioa) 548
5. Wolf moss ( Evenrda mUpina) 548
6. Klamath gambling tray 548
7. Sitka, a^ruce {Picea gUcherms) 558
8: Threeleaf sumac (Rhus trUobata) 648
9. Tule {Scirpvs lacugtris) 548
10. Giant cedar ( Thuja plicaia) 548
11. Klikitat imbricated basket 548
12. Pomo basketmaker 548
13. Tlinkit basketmaker 548
14. Checkerwork in cedar bark 548
16. Cigar case in twilled weaving 548
16. Hopi twilled basketry 548
17. Mohave carrying basket 648
18. Attn woman weaving baskets 548
19. Pomo twined baskets : 548
20. Pomo diagonal twined baskets 548
21. Ute twined jars 548
22. Pomo twined baskets 548
23. Furcated stitches on coiled basketry 548
24. Openwork coiled basket 548
25. Pomo coiled treasure baskets 548
26. Alaskan Eskimo coiled basket 548
27. Hopi coiled basketry 548
28. Zufii old coiled baskets 548
29. Pomo three-rod coiled basket 548
30. Hopi coiled plaques 548
31. Ancient openwork coiled basket 548
32. Ancient basket bottles 548
33. Apache ancient water jar 548
34. Pomo three-strand border 548
. 85. Salish imbricated baskets 548
36. Mission Indian coiled bowl 548
37. Tlinkit twined baskets 548
38. Tulare gambling plaques 548
M31359
XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Facing pa^re.
39. Navaho sacred baskets 548
40. Kern and Tulare hats and mush bowls 548
41. Kern and Tulare bottle-neck baskets 548
42. Apache coiled ollas 548
43. Salish and Klikitat imbricated baskets 548
44. Tlinkit false embroidery 548
46. Old imbricated baskets 548
46. Washoe fine coiled baskets 548
47. Hopi wickerwork plaque 548
48. Klamath old twined bowls 548
49. Ancient basket jars 548
50. Pima basket bowls 548
51. Skokomish twined wallet : 548
52. Apache coiled basket 548
63. Kern, Inyo, and Tulare bowLs 548
54. Tularecoiled bowls 548
56. Salish imbricated baskets 548
66. Maidu coiled baskets 548
57. Maidu coiled baskets 548
58. Pima coiled bowl 548
59. Pima coiled bowls 648
60. Ancient Pima coiled bowls 648
61. Pima coiled basket 648
62. Mission Indian coiled bowls 648
63. Pima basket bowls 648
64. Chetimacha twilled basket :. 548
66. Tlinkit modem twined baskets ". 548
66. Oregon and California twined basketry 648
67. Tlinkit twined covered jar 548
68. Salish imbricated ware ' 548
69. Pomo coiled feathered basket 648
70. Pomo coiled feathered basket 548
71. Tlinkit twined wallets 548
72. Ancient Tlinkit twined wallets .' 548
73. Tlinkit covered twined baskets 548
74. Symbolism on Salish basketry 548
76. Symbolism on Salish basketry 548
76. Sjrmbolism on Salish basketry 548
77. Symbolism on Salish basketry 548
78. Symbolism on Salish basketry 548
79. Symbolism on Salish basketry 548
80. Yuki sun basket 548
81. Pomo gift basket 548
82. S3rmbolism on Washoe baskets 1 548
83. Tulare bottle-neck baskets 548
84. Ancient Cliff-Dwellers' baskets 548
86. Hopi wicker plaque 548
86. Hupa burden bearer 548
87. Sandals of ancient Cliff-Dwellers .- 548
88. Hupa twined sandal 548
89. Tulare coiled cup and jar 548
90. Hupa and Pomo feathered baskets 548
91. Klikitat imbricated baskets 548
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV
Facing page.
92. Hapafood baskets 548
93. Hopi Bacred coiled trays 548
94. Otaibi woman drying com 548
96. Amazonian basketry and materials 548
96. Hupa harvesting baskets 548
97. Pomo milling baskets 548
98. Tulare meal and mortar baskets 548
99. Yokut woman sifting meal 548
100. Havasupai woman screening corn 548
101. Coahuilla woman grinding acorns 548
102. Mohave storage basket 548
103. Hopi bridal costume case 548
104. Ancient mortuary baskets 548
105. Ancient Peruvian lace work 548
106. Relationship between basketry and pottery 548
107. Basketry preserved by pottejiy 548 p
108. Tlinkit twined baskets 548
109. Tlinkit twined covered basket 548
110. Hopi sacred dance baskets 548
111. Hupa woodpecker dance 548
112. Pomo wedding baskets 548
113. Pomo jewel baskets 548
114. Pomo jewel baskets 548
115. Tulare gambling tray and dice 548
116. Tulare gambling tray and dice 548
117. Paiute basket bottles... 548
118. Navaho water carriers 548
119. Algonkin Indian basketry 548
120. Abenaki Indian basketmaker 548
121. Chippewa Indian basketmakers 548
122. Chippewa bark matting 548
123. Athapascan snowshoe detail 548
124. Ojibwa coiled baskets 548
125. Central Eskimo coiled basket 548
126. Central Eskimo coiled basket 548
127. Comanche coiled tray 548
128. Coiled basket of pine needles 548
129. Dog Rib Indian game bag 548
130. Potsherds showing textile impressions 548
131. Ojibwa twined wallet 548
132. Chetimacha twilled basketry 548
133. Chetimacha twilled basketry 548
134. Choctaw twilled baskets '. 548
136. Attakapa twilled baskets 548
136. Alaskan Eskimo basketry 548
137. Alaskan Eskimo twined wallet 548
138. Chukchi twined wallet 548
139. Kamtchatkan twined wallet 548
140. Chukchi coiled baskets 548
141. Alaskan Eskimo coiled basket 548
142. Aleut twined basket 548
143. Aleut twined basket 548
144. Attu basketmaker 548
XVI LIST OF ILLUflTRATIONS.
FacinR pAKC.
146. Aleut manual training 548
146. Tlinkit twine<i walleta 548
147. Tlinkit basketmakere 548
148. Chilkat ceremonial blanket 548
149. Haida twined wallets 548
150. Haida basketmakers 548
151. Nutka Indian hata 548
152. Salish twilled basket 548
153. Makah Indian basketmakers 548
154. Types of Salish basketry 548
155. Types of Salish basketry 548
156. Salish imbricated baskets 548
157. Salish imbricated baskets . 548
158. Cowlitz and Klikitat imbricated baskets 548
159. Klikitat imbricated basketry (old forms) 548
160. Klikitat imbricated basketry (modem forms) 548
161 . Klikitat imbricated basket 548
1 62. Quinaielt twined wallets 548
163. Salish basketry 548
164. Skokomish twined wallets 548
166. Clallam twined baskets 548
166. Tillamuk and Chinook twined wallets 548
167. Modoc and Nez Perc^ women's hats 548
168. Wasco twined wallets 548
169. Waaco twined wallets 548
170. Hupa twined baskets '. 548
171. Hupa basketmaker 648
172. Klamath and Wintun basketmakers . 548
173. Pomo basket in Tee weave 548
174. Klamath three-strand baskets 548
1 75. Pit River twined baskets ". 548
176. Shasta twined baskets 548
177. Hat Creek Indian basketry 548
178. Hat Creek Indian basketr>' 548
179. Washoe basket lx>wls 548
180. Washoe coiled basket 548
181. Washoe basketmaker 548
182. Eastern Califomian coiled baskets 548
183. Panamint Indian coiled bowls 548
184. Panamint coiled bowls 548
185. Tulare coiled baskets ^ 548
186. Tulare coiled basket 548
1 87. Tulare coiled jars 548
188. Kern and Tulare coiled baskets 548
189. Tulare coiled baskets 548
190. Tejon coiled baskets 548
191. Keni and Tulare coiled baskets , 548
192. Caliente Creek Indian baskets 548
193. Kern coiled basket 548
194. Kern coiled basket 548
195. Kern coiled basket 548
196. Kern ix)iled baskets 548
197. Mission Indian basketmaker 548
LIST OF ILLU8TBATI0:^fS. XVII
Facing: pa^e.
198. Saboba Indian basketmaker 548
199. Mission Indian basket bowl 548
200. Havasupai basketmaker 548
201. Ancient cave baskets 548
202. Ancient cave baskets 548
203. Mission Indian twined bag 548
204. Paiute water bottles 548
205. Ancient Basket Makers' coiled trays 548
206. Ancient Basket Makers' coiled ware ^ 548
207. Ancient Basket Makers' coiled tray 548
208. Ancient Basket Makers' coiled tray 548
209. Ancient Basket Makers' coiled bowls 548
210. Ancient Basket Makers' food receptacles 548
211. Ancient Basket Makers' hopper 548
212. Sia ancient coiled baskets 548
213. Ancient Zufii basketry 548
214. Ancient Pueblo coiled basketry 548
215. Hopi basketmaker 548
216. Hopi coiled plaques 548
217. Oraibi basket weaver 548
218. Ancient baskets from Oraibi 548
219. Ancient wicker basket 548
220. Ancient twilled and coiled ware 548
221. Ancient Pueblo basketry 548
222. Ancient Pueblo basketry 548
223. Ancient Pueblo basketry 548
224. Apache coiled bowls 548
225. Apache coiled bowls 548
226. Apache coiled bowls 548
227. Mescalero coiled baskets 548
228. Navaho coiled bowls 548
229. Havasupai coiled basketry 548
230. Havasupai coiled bowls 548
231. Havasupai basketmaker 548
232. Chemehuevi coiled baskets 548
233. Piraacoiled bowl 548
234. Pima coiled baskets 548
235. Pima basketmaker 548
236. Yaqui plume basket 548
237. Yaqui covered baskets 548
238. Venezuelan basketmaker 548
239. Arawak Indian basketry 548
240. Brazilian carrying baskets 548
241 . Brazilian carrying baskets 548
242. Ecuador twilled weaving 548
243. Ancient Peruvian workbasket 548
244. Peruvian ancient twined carrying frame 548
245. Ancient Chilean coiled basketry 548
246. Ancient Chilean coiled basketry 548
247. Ancient Chilean coiled basketry 548
248. Peruvian modem coiled basketry 548
NAT MU8 1902 ^11
XVIII LIST OF ILLUSTBATION8.
The Hkrpetoloc'.y op Porto Rico.
By Leonhard Ste.inisger.
Facing pa^e.
1. Anolis krugi 549
WoKAS, A Primitive Food of the Klamath Indians.
By Frederick Vernon CJoville.
1. Nymphaea polysepala 725
2. Nympheea polysepala 740
3. A wokas gatherer's camp j 740
4. The wokas gatherer's lx)at and pole 740
5. Ten thousand acres of wokas 740
6. One day's wokaa har\'est of two women 740
7. AVokas on a mealing stone 740
8. Wokas drying pile and implements 740
9. An opened drying pile of wokaa 740
10. Wokas pods ready for firing 740
11. Extracting wokas seeds " 740
12. Seeds of wokas 740
13. The end of a wokas camp 740
TEXT FIGURES.
Aboriginal American Basketry— Studies in a Textile Art AVitholt Machinery,
BY Otis Tufton Mason.
Paffe.
1. Mud shoes, Klamath Indians, California 215
2. Coarse checkerwork 223
3. Fine checkerwork 223
4. Open checkerwork 224
5. Twilled work 224
6. Twilled work 224
7. Ancient twilled work, Alal>ama 225
8. Ancient twillled work, Tennessee 225
9. Twilled weavinp, Cherokee Indians, North Carolina 22t>
10. Wicker basket, Zufii, New Mexico 227
11 . Close wickerwork, Ilopi Indians, Arizona 228
12. Twilled and wicker mat, Hopi Indians, Arizona 229
13. AVrapped weaving, Mohave Indians, Arizona 230
14. Wrapi)ed weaving, from mound in Ohio 231
15. Plain twined weaving 232
16. Optm work twine<l wallet, Aleutian Islands 233
17. Twined openwork, Aleutian Islands 234
18. Crossed warp, twined weave, Makah Indians, Washington 2.34
19. Diagonal twined weaving, Ute Indians, Utah 234
20. Diagonal twined basketry, Pomo Indians, California 235
21. Wrapped twined weaving 235
22. Wrapped twined weaving, Makah Indians, Washington 236
23. Detail of mixed twine<i weaving (outside) 237
24. Detail of mixed twined weaving (inside) 237
25. Variety in twined weaving (outside) 238
26. Variety in twined weaving (inside) 238
27. Tee or lattice-twined weaving, Pomo Indians, Calif* )rnia 239
28. Three-strand braid and twined work (outride) 239
LIST OF ILLU8TBATIOK8. XIX
Page.
29. Three-strand braid and twined work (inside) 239
30. Basket- jar in 3-strand twine, Hopi Indians, Arizona 240
31. Three-strand and plain twined weaving * 241
32. Three-strand braid, (a) outside, (6) inside 241
33. Carrying basket, 3-strand braid, Klamath Indians, Oregon - 242
34. Warp stems crossed in pairs 243
35. Warp stems crossed in fours 243
36. Sixteen stems woven in fours 243
37. Warp stems crossed in fours and twined 243
38. Six warp stems parallel 244
39. Warp stems crossed in threes ; held by wicker 244
40. Bone awl for coiled basketry : 245
41 . Cross sections of varieties in coiled basketry 247
42. Carrying basket, Pima Indians, Arizona 248
43. Detail of interlocking stitches 248
44. Foundation of three rods laid vertically, Mescalero Apache Indians 249
45. Detail of figure 44 250
46. Detail of single-rod coil in basketry 250
47. Foundation of two rods, vertical 251
48. Rod and welt foundation 252
49. Water jar in coiled basketry, Wolpi, Arizona 252
50. Foundation of three rods, stitches catching rod underneath 253
51. Foundation of splints 254
52. Imbricated work detail, called Klikitat 254
53. Imbricated coiled work, called Klikitat 255
54. Imbricated basketry detail, Thompson River 255
55. Overlaying in coiled work 256
56. Foundation of straws in coiled work 256
57. Coil with open sewing, inclosing parts of foundation 257
58. Foundation of grass or shredded materials 257
59. Fuegian coiled basket, and details 258
60. Coiled border on checker weaving 260
61. Weft and warp fastened down with twine, (a) front, (b) back 261
62. Three-strand warp border in wickerwork 262
63. Border made by weaving warp rods in pairs 262
64. Single-strand coiledlborder, Moravian Settlement, North ( -arolina 263
65. Braided border from warp 263
66. Twined wallet, Quinaielt Indians, Washington 264
67. Single-strand twined border. Porno Indians 264
68. Three-strand twined border 265
69. Border of Hupa twined basket 265
70. Wrapped warp border, Zuf5i, New Mexico 266
71. Border of Paiute twined basket 266
72. Three-strand warp border, Pomo Indians 267
73. Two-strand twine, onlaid for border, Tlinkit Indians 268
74. Three-strand braid woven in for border, Tlinkit Indians 269
75. Border of braid, onlaid, Tlinkit Indians 269
76. Border of turned-down warp with 2-8trand twine, Tlinkit Indians 270
77. Border of 4-strand braid, tumed-dow^n warp, Tlinkit Indians 271
78. Border of 4-8trand braid onlaid, warp turned down, Tlinkit Indians 271
79. Border inclosing hoop, Tlinkit Indians 272
80. Border of 3-strand braid, Tlinkit Indians 272
81. Mixed twined work, Haida Indians, British Columbia 273
XX LIST OF ILLU8TBATI0NS.
82. Simple coil border, Paiute Indians, Utah 274
83. Simple wrapped border 274
84. Three-etrand coiled border, Hopi, Arizona 275
85. Detail of figure 84 275
86. Single-etrand plaited border 276
87. Single-Btrand plaited border, Havasupai Indians, Arizona 276
88. Plain coiled border on bark vessel 277
89. Coil and knot border on bark vespel 277
90. Plain coiled border on bark vessel 278
91. Coil and knot border on bark vessel 278
92. Checker ornament in two colors 288
93. Amazonian basket decorations in checker 288
94. Twilled work in two colors 289
95. Diaper twilled work in two colors 289
96. Diagonal twilled ornament, British Guiana 290
97. Human figures in twined weaving, ancient Peru 291
98. Design on coiled bowl, Tulare Indians 292
99. Detail of figure 98 293
100. Pima carrying frame, southern Arizona 294
101. Wrapping weft fillets with darker ones 307
102. Beading on twined work, Klamath Indians 308
103. Beading on coiled work, Clallam Indians, Washington 309
104. Overlaid twined weaving 309
105. Breast bands for hauling, Zufii, New Mexico 339
106. Carrying frame, Papago Indians, Mexico 339
107. Twined cradle, Hupa Indians 340
108. Stick armor twined together, California 341
109. Ceremonial basket, Hupa Indians, California 358
110. Ash log for making splints, Menomini Indians 375
111. AVooden mallet for loosening splints 376
112. Basket-maker's knife of native workmanship 376
113. Coil of basket strips 377
114. Finished wicker basket 378
115. Coiled basketry, Hopewell Mound, Ohio 380
116. Coiled basketry, Hopewell Mound, Ohio 380
117. Wickerwork from cave in Kentucky 381
118. Charred fabric from mound 382
119. Charred fabric from mound 382
120. Twined fish trap, Virginia Indians 383
121. Twined weave from ancient pottery, Tennessee 385
122. Twined weave from ancient pottery, Tennessee 385
123. Detail of twilled basketry border, Choctaw Indians, Louisiana 387
124. Border of twilled basketry, Choctaw Indians, Louisiana 887
125. Twilled basket, Arikara Indians 389
126. Ancient twilled matting, Petit Anse Island, Louisiana 390
127. Coiled workbasket, Tinn^ Indians, Alaska 392
128. Coiled workbasket, Tinn6 Indians 393
129. Coiled workbasket, Tinn6 Indians 393
130. Coiled workbasket, Tinn6 Indians 394
131. Detail of coiled basket, Tinn6 Indians 394
132. Tobacco basket, Hupa Indians, California 396
133. Detail of Eskimo twined wallet 397
134. Coiled basket, Eskimo Indians, Alaska 398
LIST OF ILLUSTBATI0N8. XXI
Pa«e.
135. Bottom of figure 134 399
136. Detail of Eskimo coiled basket 400
137. Twined basket wallet, Tlinkit Indians, Alaska 409
138. False embroidery, Tlinkit Indians, Alaska 410
139. Detail of false embroidery 410
140. Carrying wallet, Tlinkit Indians, Alaska 411
141. Twined and wicker weave, Tlinkit Indians, Alaska 411
142. Wallet, Chilkat Indians, southeastern Afeska 412
143. Hat in fine twined weaving, Haida Indians, British Columbia 413
144. Detail of figure 143 413
146. Twined openwork basket, Haida Indians 414
146. Detail of figure 145 414
147. Unfinished basket, Haida Indians 415
148. Virginia Indian woman weaving a basket 416
149. Detail of wrapped basket, Clallam Indians 417
150. Wrapped twined basket, Makah Indians, Cape Flattery 418
151. Bottom of Makah basket 418
152. Detail of Nutka hat 419
153. Cross section of Nutka hat 419
154. Checkerwork basket, Bilhula Indians, British Columbia 422
155. Coiled and imbricated basket 426
156. Imbricated basket, Yakima Indians, Washington 431
157. Imbricated basket, Cowlitz Indians 432
158. Twilled basket work, Clallam Indians^ Washington 433
159. Water-tight basket, Clallam Indians, Washington 434
160. Detail of figure 159 435
161. Twined wallet, Nez Perc6 Indians, Idaho 438
162. Detail of figure 161 439
163. Linguistic map of California 442
164. Old feathered baskets from Oregon 446
165. Tiny coiled basket, Pomo Indians 458
166. Tiny coiled basket, Pomo Indians 458
167. Coiled basket, Hoochnom Indians, California 459
168. Detail of figure 167 460
169. Twined basket bowl, Klamath Indians, Oregon 461
170. Detail of figure 169 462
171. Carrying basket, McCloud River Indians, California 464
172. Grasshopper basket, Wikchumni Indians, California 480
173. Detail of figure 172 480
174. Coiled bowl, Coahuilla Indians, California 484
175. Inside view of figure 174 585
176. Square inch of figure 174 485
177. Coiled bowl, Coahuilla Indians, California 486
178. Twined basket, Dieguefios Indians, California 487
179. Woman's hat, Ute Indians, Utah 490
180. Harvesting fan, Paiute Indians, Utah 491
181. Harvesting fans, Paiute Indians, Utah 492
182. Gathering basket, Paiute Indians, Utah 493
183. Bottom of figure 182 493
184. Border of figure 182 494
185. Carrying basket, Paiute Indians, Utah 494
186. Roasting tray, Paiute Indians, Utah : 495
187. Coiled jar, Paiute Indians, Utah 496
XXII LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Pi«e.
188. Square inch of figure 187 497
189. Coiled basket jar, Zufti ludians. New Mexico 503
190. Coarse wickerwork, Hopi Indians, Arizona 506
191. Ancient basketry gaming wheel, Pueblo Indians, New Mexico 508
192. Coiled bowl, Coyotero Indians, Arizona 512
193. Basket jar, Apache Indians - 613
194. Coiled basket bowl, Apache Indians 614
195. Coiled plaque, Navaho Indians 515
196. Sacred basket tray, Navaho Indians 516
197. Border of figure 196 516
198. (xourd in coiled network, Pima Indian?, Arizona 619
199. Coiled bowl, Pima Indians 620
200. Coiled bowl, Pima Indians 621
201. Coiled bowl, Pima Indians 622
202. Coiled bowl, Pima Indians 523
203. Coiled granary, Pima Indians 624
204. Carrying net, Araucanian Indians 531
205. Carrying net, Chiriquf, Colombia 532
206. Detail of figure 205 532
207. Ancient Peruvian work basket 535
208. Detail of figure 207 536
209. Detail of a Peruvian basket 536
210. Detail of a Peruvian basket 536
211. Detail of a Peruvian basket 536
212. Ancient coiled basket from Chile 537
The Herpetology of Porto Rico. By Leoxhard Stejnbgbr.
1. Bufo lemur. Head 570
2-6. Bufo lemur, 2, side of head; 3, top of head; 4, underside forefoot; 5
underside hind foot 571
6-10. Leptoductylus albUabris. 6, side of head; 7, top of head; 8, inside of
mouth; 9, underside of forefoot; 10, underside of hind foot 575
11-14. Leptodactylus albilabriSf tadpole. 11, lateral view; 12, dorsal view;
13, ventral view; 14, mouth 577
15-19. Eleutherodactylus auriciUatus. 15, side of head; 16, top of head; 17, inside of mouth; 18, underside of forefoot; 19, underside of hind
foot 584
20-24. Eleutherodactylus antillensU. 20, side of head; 21, top of head; 22, inside of mouth; 23, underside of forefoot; 24, underside of hind
foot 591
25-29. Eleutherodactylus richmoudi. 25, side of head; 26, top of head; 27, inside of mouth; 28, underside of forefoot; 29, underside of hind
foot 594
30-34. Eleutherodactylus monerisut. 30, side of head; 31, top of head; 32, inside of mouth; 33, underside of forefoot; 34, underside of hind
foot 596
35-39. Eleutherodactylus unlcolor, 35, side of head; 36, top of head; 37, inside of mouth; 38, underside of forefoot; 39, underside of hind
foot 597
40-46. Hemidactylus mabouia, 40, side of head; 41, top of head; 42, under- side of head; 43, portion of upper surface of tail; 44, underside of
hind foot; 45, lateral view of last joint of toe 600
LIST OF ILLUSTBATIONS. XXIII
Page. 46-60. Sphserodadylus grandisquamis. 46, side of head; 47, top of head; 48, underside of head; 49, scales on middle of back; 50, underside of hind foot 603
51. SphaerodcLCtylxis grandviquamis. Color pattern of head and shoulder. 604
52. Sphxrodactylus grandisqiuzmis. Color pattern of head and shoulder. 605
63-55. Head-shields of Scincid lizard 608
66-^8. Mabuya aloaniL 56, top of head; 57, side of head; 58, underside of
head 610
59-65. Ameiva extd. 59, top of head; 60, side of head; 61, underside of head; 62, dorsal view of fore leg; 63, ventral view of hind leg; 64, dor- sal view of hind foot; 65, preanal plates 613
66. Ameiva exul. Dorsal view of portion of tail 614
67-72. Ameiva alboguttaia, 67, top of head; 68, side of head; 69, under- side of head; 70, dorsal view of fore leg; 71, dorsal view of hind
foot; 72, preanal plates 619
73. Shields on top of head of Celestns 621
74-79. Celesiua pleiL 74, top of head; 75, side of head; 76, underside of head; 77, underside of right forefoot; 78, underside of left hind
foot; 79, scales on back, showing arrangement and striation 623
80. Sctttellation of top of head of Anolis 626
81-84. Anolis cuvieri. 81, side of head; 82, top of head; 83, underside of
hind foot; 84, skin on side of neck and dorsal crest 628
85-^. Anolis ricordii. Santo Domingo. 85, side of headj 86, top of head. 629
87. Anolis cuvieri. Side of tail at level of fifth spine 630
88. Anolis ricordii, Santo Domingo. Side of tail at level of fifth spine. 630 89-91. Anolis gundlachi. 89, top of head; 90, side of head; 91, side of tail
at level of fifth spine 634
92-94. Anolis cristateUus. 92, top of hea<i; 93, side of head; 94, side of tail
at level of fifth spine 638
95-97. Anolis cristateUus. 95, top of head; 96, side of head; 97, side of tail
at level of fifth verticil 640
98-101. Anolis monensis. 98, top of head; 99, side of head; 100, underside of
head; 101, side of tail at level of fifth spine 646
102-104. Anolis evermanni. 102, top of head; 103, side of head; 104, side of
tail at level of fifth verticil 648
105-107. Anolis stratvlus. 105, top of head; 106, side of head; 107, side of tail
at level of fifth verticil 652
108-111. Anolis hrugi, 108, scales around middle of lx)dy; 109, side of head;
110, top of head; 111, side of tail at level of fifth verticil 656
112-116. Ajiolis pulchellus. 112, scales around middle of body; 113, side of
head; 114, top of head; 115, underside of hind foot; 116, side of
tail at level of fifth verticil 661
117-120. Anolis poncensis, 117, scales around middle of body; 118, side of
head; 119, top of head; 120, side of tail at level of fifth verticil 666
\2\. Anolis poncensis. Top of head 668
122-126. Cyclura comuta. 122, top of head; 123, side of head; 124, underside
of head; 125, toes, showing *'comb**; 126, scales on side of tail . . . 672
1 27-128. Shields on head of A mphishicna 675
129-130. AmphisbsEna cxca. 129, top of head ; 130, side of head 679
131-132. Amphisbsena cwca. 131 , top of head ; 132, side of head 679
133. Amphisbima bakeri. Top of head 681
134-137. Amphisbsena bakeri. 134, top of head; 135, side of head; 136, under- side of head; 137, anal region 682
XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Pa«e
138-140. Head shields of Typhlopa 683
141-144. Tifphlops lumbricalis. 141, top of head; 142, side of heatl; 143, under- side of head; 144, anal region and underside of tail 685
145-147. Ti/phlops rosteUatus. 145, top of head; 146, side of head; 147, under- side of head 686
148-150. Epicrates inomatuSf adult. 148, side of head; 149, top of head; 150,
underside of head 689
51-152, Epicrates inomatuSf young. 151, top of head; 152, side of head 690
5:1-157. Epicrates monensisy young. 153, color pattern, top of head; 154, color pattern, top of head of another specimen; 155, side of head, scutellation; 156, color pattern of body, lateral view; 157, color
pattern, side of head and neck 692
r>s-nto. Head-shields of a Coronellide snake 694
1 111. LeimadophiB stakli. Side of head 695
H2-1 "13- Leimadophis stahli, 162, top of head; 163, underside of head 696
I 'H, Leimadophis stahli. Color pattern around middle of body 696
i ! 15. Leimadophis stahli 696
166. Leimadophis parvifrons. Haiti. Color pattern around the middle of
the body 697
167-169. Leimadophis exiguus. 167, top of head; 168, side of head; 169,
underside of head 698
170. AUophis portoricensis 701
171-173. Alsophis antillensis. 171, top of head; 172, side of head; 173, under- side of head , 704
174. Alsophis antillemis. Color pattern around middle of body 705
175. Dermochelys coriacea^ young. Entire animal from above 708
17^178. Dermochelys coriacea, young. 176, underside of shell; 177, side of
head; 178, underside of head 709
179. Pseudemys palusiriSj adult. Shell from above 711
180-184. Pseudemys palustriSf young. 180, shell from above; 181, shell from below; 182, shell from side; 183, top of head; 184, upper side of
forefoot 712
185-186. Pseudemys palustrisy young. Color pattern of head; 185, underside;
186, side .' 713
187. CareUa carettay young. Entire animal from above 715
188-190. CareUa carettaj young. 188, shell from below; 189, head from side;
190, underside of head 716
191-192. Chelonia mydas, Florida. 191, top of head; 192, side of head 717
193. Eretmochelys imbricata. Shell from above 718
194-197. Eretmochelys imbricata, 194, shell from below; 195, t<^)pof head; 196,
side of head ; 197, right fore flipper, dorsal view 719
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY: STUDIES IN A TEXTILE ART WITHOUT MACHINERY.
OTIS TITFTO
(hiraUiTt DimMtm
•x[mason",
of hAhrwIogy,
171
j3J '1-
i
f
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Vnge.
Introdui^ion *. 186
I. Definition of baaketry 188
Kinds of woven !)asketry 19^
Kinds of coiled bafiketry 190
Vocrabulary of basketry 193
II. Materials for basketry 197
Plants used in basketry (F. V. Coville) 199
III. Basketmaking 214
Harvesting materials 215
Preparing materials 217
Processes of manufacture 221
Woven basketry 222
Coiled basketry 244
Water-tight basketry 258
Borders on basketry 259
IV. Ornamentation on basketry 279
Form and structure 280
Shapes of baskets as a whole 282
Mosaic elements in decoration 286
Designs in decoration 295
Ornamentation through (rolor 300
V. Symlx)lism 312
VI. Uses of )>a8ketry 3:^
In the carrying industry 338
In defense and war 341
In dress and adornment 342
In fine art and culture. . ^ 343
In preparing and serving foo<i 345
In gleaning and milling 347
In house building and furniture 352
In mortuary customs 353
In relation to the potter*8 art 354
As a receptacle 356
In religion 356
In social life 358
In trapping 359
In carrying water 360
Alphabetical list of uses 361
VII. Ethnic varieties of basketry 363
List of basket-making tribes 367
Eastern North America 372
Alaska and the North Pacific ." 391
Athapascan coiled basketry 392
Eskimo basketry 395
^'v^ 173
190 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
4. Pots for cooking, with cylindrical sides and rounded or flat bottoms. These vary into cones, truncated cones, and trough-shaped baskets.
5. Jars and fanciful shapes, in which the mouth is constricted, fre- quently very small, and now and then supplied with cover. They are spindle shaped, pyriform, napiform, and, indeed, imitate fruits known to the natives. The influence of civilization in giving modern shajx^s to basketry has not always been beneficial to this class of forms.
W. H. Holmes, writing of the transition from service to decoration, speaks of form in and on basketry as (1) functional and essential only, (2) functional and testhetic combined, and (3) as suprafunctional and wholly aesthetic.
There are two distinct types of technic in basketry, namely, (1) hand- looveii basketry, which is built on a warp foundation, and (2) sewed or coiled basketry, which is built on a foundation of rods, splints, or straws.
KINDS OF WOVEN BASKETRY
A, Checkerwork: The wai-p and the weft having the same width, thickness, and pliability.
B, Diagonal or twilled basketry : Two or more weft strands over two or more warp stmnds.
C, Wickerwork: Inflexible warp; slender, flexible weft.
D, Wrapped weft, or single weft wrapped: The weft strand is wrapj>ed, or makes a bight about the warp at each decussation, as in the Mohave Klho.
E, Twined or wattled l)asketry : Weft of two or more elements.
KINDS OP COILED BASKETRY
A. Coiled work without foundation.
B. Simple interlocking coils.
C. Single-rod foundation.
D. Two-rod foundation.
E. Rod and welt foundation.
F. Two-rod and splint foundation.
G. Three-rod foundation. //. Splint foundation.
I, Grass-coil foundation.
K, Fuegian coiled basketry.
These will be described at length in the proper place.
In basket-making there are several characteristics to be observed which will enable one to classify the objects and to refer them to their several tribal manufacturers. These characteristics are the material, the framework, the methods of weaving, the coiling or sew- ing, the border, the decoration, the use, etc.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY. 191
The tool almost universally employed in the manufacture of coiled 'Ware is a bone awl or pricker. Of the manipulation of the material previously to the weaving little is known.
In the technical drawings accompanying this paper the actual size of the specimens is generally indicated by a series of inch marks in the margin. The inches on the standard line are shown by spaces between dots. In order to indicate exactly the manner of weaving, a fcjiquare, usually an inch in dimension, is taken from a portion of the surface wherein all the methods of manipulation occur. This square is enlarged sufficiently to make the structure comprehensible. This plan enables one to show form and ornamentation in the whole figure, as well as the method of treatment in the enlarged inch.
The writer is indebted to a large number of friends in various part^ of the United States, especially on the Pacific slope, who have given hun access to their valuable collections, furnished information, and sent photographs. Especial thanks are due to F. V. Coville for writing the chapter on plants, to William H. Holmes for advice in matters of ornamentation, and to Dr. C. Hart Merriam for privilege of studying the precious collection made by him. Many friends who have gener- ously given their special knowledge and supplied photographs and illustrations will be mentioned in the proper place. At the same time he would express his admiration of their zeal and generosity, through which the Sybilline leaves of an almost lost chapter in human industrial history has been rescued from oblivion.
With a few exceptions the makers of baskets are women. In the division of labor belonging to the lowest stages of culture the indus- trial arts were fostered by women, the military and aggressive arts by men. It is a well-known rule in these first stages of progress that, with few exceptions, the user of an implement or utensil was the maker of it. There are people on the earth among whom the men are the basket makers. Indeed, for ceremonial purposes our own Indian priests or medicine men are frequently the makers of their own basket drums, etc.
As soon as the products of this art* entered into the world's com- merce, and uncanny machinery was necessary for the manufacture, the art of basket weaving passed from the hands of its foster mothers and became man's work, but in the Western Hemisphere almost exclusively the basket makers have been women.
It is a matter of profound regret that already over much of the United States the art has degenerated, or at least has been modified. In methods, forms, and colors truly old things have passed away, and, behold, all things have become new. But proof is forthcoming that the contrary is true in some places. The Hyde Expedition and other associations have made determined efforts to resist the demoralizing influences of trade.
192 BEPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
This process of extinction has gone on with differing lupidit}' in the several areas. Nothing ancient in mechanical processes, in form, and design can be predicated of the basketry sold at summer resorts. The trees are felled by the white man and the trunks divided into riby)ons by his latest machinery. The Indian woman uses a steel gauge to regulate the width of her weft, steel awls for sewing. Even in West- ern ware the demand and influence of mercenary motives drown the cry of the ancient spirit in the lowly artist. Plate 1 will show the conflict for preeminence between t\w old and the new. Dogs and horses are mingled with designs older than the Discovery. (See also Plates 42, 168.)
But it is not alone the unrefined public who eliminate the delightful classic from th6 decoration of basketry; men and women with the most exalted motives have for centuries substituted Europt^an and Asiatic foniis for aboriginal in basketry.
Plate 2 is worthy of notice in this regard. Eliminat-*^. the human figures altogether as pictorial and realistic and without standing in an art whose designs are preeminently symbolical. The others are divided into two series, those bearing some suggestion of old patterns and those covered with classical f network as the underlying motive and then run wild with savage freehand. (See also Plates 50, T^S, 283.)
The reason for the genuine unspoiled art of the tribes in northwestern California is given b\' Carl Purdy. The Franciscan fathers who built the missions in the central and southern portions of the State never penetrated these wilds; the traders of the Hudson's Ba}' Company, whose presence and traffic changed the arts of other Indians so pro- foundh% did not come so far south, and Mexican soldiers were driven out of the country. It was not until settlers in the middle of the last century began to maltreat the Indians that bloody conflicts arose which resulted in their present status, but, fortunatel}', these pioneers had no interest in baskets and probably did not notice them. There are in possession of old families in the Eastern States baskets sent home by the Forty-niners that now are worth their weight in gold. The forms and designs on these are similar to many still made. This indicates that the art has kept its old-time purity.
It must be distinctly understood that many basket-making Indians are not now in their priscan homes. Besides the migration occasioned by the ordinary motives operating on the minds of savages, the rapid intrusion of white settlers and the strong arm of the Government have hastened these movements. For our purposes these compulsory migra- tions must be noted specially in the case of basket makers. For example, on the Round Valley reservations in northern California are the Conco w (Pujunan) ; and from the eastern side of the Sacramento Val- ley, the Nomelakki and Wailaki (Copehan), Little Lakes (Kulanapan), Ukie (Yukian), and Pit rivers (Palaihnahan), belonging to five abso- lutely different linguistic families. Now, in a collection of baskets
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY. 193
from Round Valley one must not be surprised to find shapes, uses, decorations, and names for the same form or part or design extremely varied and mixed.
The author is aware that he has come far short of doing justice to his theme. Omissions will be noticed, and it is feared that some refer- ences of work to the wrong band or tribe have been made. This is unavoidable in a great museum. It is only in such rare collections as have been gathered with one's own hands that such errors can be avoided.
VOCABULARY OF BASKETRY
So much is said and written on the subject of Indian basketry that a vocabulary is desirable. On some terms all are even now agreed. All things considered, words in common use should be adopted. There are, as before mentioned, two absolutely different kinds of technic employed, dividing basketry into woven and coiled. The former leads to the loom, the latter to the needle. It is not correct to speak of wai-p and Weft in the latter, only in the former; the parts of coiled basketry are th^foundatimi and the seiring. The following terms and definitions are suggested, not arbitrarily, but subject always to amendment and conmion consent. Words from Indian languages are purposely omitted. A few of them, however, ought to be retained, such as "tee," for the Pomo twined weaving:
Basket. — A vessel or receptacle in textile material; a technic product resembling this.
Basketry, — A general term including (1) basket making, the process or art; (2) basket work, the technic or stitches, any textile motive resembling work in baskets; (3) basket ware, a collection of finished products.
Beading, — A strip of bark or a splint run in and out through the spaces in woven or among the stitches in coiled basketry.
Braidwork. — Fabric in which three or more elements are braided, as in some three-strand twined basketry. See False braid. Preferred to the word plaited. There may be flat, round, or square braid. The term sennit is also allowable.
Buttonhole stitch. — A series of half hitches, as in Fuegian coiled basketry.
Check. — Where waip and weft cross.
Checkencork. — Basket work in which the warp and weft are equally flexible and the checks are square, or at least rectangular.
Cheiyron. — V-shaped ornament, in Avhich two or more colored lines meet at an angle; for example, the device on the sleeve of a non- commissioned oflicer. (See Herri nqhone and Zigzag.)
Chinking. — Soft materials between hard stems in the foundation of coiled basketry.
NAT MUS 1902 13
194 BEPOBT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
Coll, — ^An element in basketry ornamentation. The varieties are plain coil, reversed coil, loop coil, continuous loop coil.
Coiled hasketry, — ^Type of basket work in which a foundation of hard or soft material, arranged in a spiral, is held together by means of over-and-over sewing.
Crossed warp. — Type of basket work in which two sets of warp cross each other at an angle — for interlacing weft, for seizing or wrapping (Makah), or for twined weaving, common in Attu wallets.
Decussations. — Crossing of warp at acute angles.
Diagonal weamiig. — Passing weft over two or more warp elements, but not the same in adjoining rows. Used here chiefly of twined weaving to distinguish it from twilled weaving with single weft element; also running the weft at an angle, as in matting.
Diaper. — A surface decoration which shows a pattern b}' the relief or direction of warp and weft.
Designs. — Figures and patterns used in the ornamentation of bas- ketry. Must not be confounded with Symhol.
Emhroidery. — Ornamentation added after the basket is finished. (See False embroidery.^
Fagotting. — Same as HeinstitcK.
False hraid. — An appearance of braid work on the margin of a bas- ket made with a single splint in ball stitch or '' racking-seizing.'*
FaUe ertitbroidery, — An appearance of embroidery made on Tlinkit and other twined ware by wrapping the strands on the outside with colored material in the process of weaving.
Fiber. — A flexible substance composed of filaments such as cedar bark, wild hemp, etc.
Frap. — To bind one element about another.
Fret. — ^The Greek ornament occurring in endless variety on Imsketry.
Furcate. — Said of stitches i^ coiled sewing intentionally and sym- metrically split — bifurcate, trifurcate, etc.
Fylfot. — Ornament imitating a Greek cross with arms extended at right angles, all in the same direction; called also Swastika.
Goirita. — The shallow basket bowl of the Pimas and other south- western tribes.
Ilevistltch. — Drawing warps together in groups of two or more and holding them by twined weavings. Seen in Aleutian openwork wal- lets. Called also fagotting.
Herringhone. — Basketry designs in which chevron patterns are in parallel series.
Ilerringhone horder. — On coiled basketry a finish in which with a single splint the appearance of 3-ply braid is given. (See Fohe hraid.)
Hitched vjeft. — Basket work in which the weft makes a half hitch about each warp element. In coiled work it would be hitched sewing, same as buttonhole stitch.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY. 195
Hurdle, — A coarse form of basket work in brush and trees for hunt- ing and fishing purposes.
Imbricated ornavient. — Coiled basketrj" in which a strip of soft material is folded back and forth over the stitches, overlapping like shingles on a roof or the folds in knife plaiting. Klikitat and Fraser -^ .. River basketry- are imbricated.
Impacted. — Driven close together, as the weft or stitches in basketry.
Imet. — A pattern worked separately into a basket. The Chileat . blankets are thus woven.
InterUicmg, — ^The crossing and intertwining of parts, as in woven baskets and borders.
Interstices. — Open spaces left in weaving.
Knife jAaititig, — See Imbricated mmamimt.
Lattice weaving, — Basket work in which a frame of rods crossing at right angles is held together by wrapping the intersections with a single splint or ribbon, as in Makah basketry, or by a twined weft, as in the Porno Tee weaving.
Multiple coil, — The foundation of coiled basketry made up of fila- ments, grass stems, or splints.
MnskemooL — Loucheux netted bags of babiche. Coiled work with- ^ out foundation.
Meander, — Crossed frets in basketry ornament.
Oblique weamng, — Chiefly in matting, where the weaving begins at one corner.
Osie7\ — Basket materials prepared from small stems of willow or similar plants. Shoots of dogwood {Cormis stohnifera) are called red osier.
Overlaying. —Laying a split straw or other colored material on a tough weft splint or sewing material in basket making, to take the place of colored bark. If the two are not twisted on each other, the figure does not show inside the basket.
Padding, — Soft material in the foundation of coiled basketry, help- ing to make the structure water-tight. (See Chinkiyig,)
Pefiitach, — In basket ornament a 5-pointed star, whose lines inclose a pentagon.
Pier*ced warp, — The form of weaving in cat-tail and other soft mate- rial when the weft strings pass through the wai*p. The warp stems are strung on the weft strings.
Radial warp, — The arrangement of warp elements or spokes in the bottom of a cylindrical basket. They may be (1) crossed, (2) cut awa3% or (3) inserted. Kadial patterns or designs are such as proceed from the central portion of a bowl-shaped basket outward to the border.
Scroll worl\ — Imitjition of art scroll on basketry. It is usually angular.
Seioing, — The joining of parts with an awl and splint. Coiled Ims- ketry is sewed, not woven.
196 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUBKUM, 1902.
Shoots. — ^The young and pliable growth of plants in the first year. Rough shoots, prepared shoots, and split shoots are used.
Shreds. — ^Irregular strips of plants used in foundations of coiled baskets.
Spiral. — Term applied in basket making and decoration: (1) To the whorled coil, wound about a center and receding, as in Hopi plaques, flat spiral; (2) to the helical coil, winding on a cylinder, cyliiidrkal spiral.^ as in coiled jars; (3) to the conical coil, rising in a cone, conical spi/ral.
Splint. — In basketry, a long strip of split wood, uniform in width and thickne;5S for weaving or sewing materials. Often the term is more loosely applied to the split pieces that make up the foundation of coiled work.
Spolce. — ^Term sometimes applied to each of the elements in radiating basket warp.
Stalk. — ^The stems of reeds, grass, cattails, etc., for basket materials.
Stitches. — The separate elements in sewing coiled basketr3\ They may be close or open, whole or split (furcate), and interlocked.
Strand. — One of the elements of the weft in twined basketr}', which may be two-strand, three-sti'and, etc.
Strip. — A narrow ribbon of leaf or other thin basket material answers in function to the harder splints.
Strmg. — ^Two or more small yarns twisted together. The warp of twined wallets is of strings.
Sytnhol. — ^Thc meaning of a design on a basket. Care nuist be exer- cised in the use of this word. Only the maker of the design knows the s3'mbol or meaning.
TeHselate. — Inlaid, as .in checkered mosaic. The checks and stitches as well as the designs in baskets have a tosselate appearance.
Ticme. — ^To bend something around another object. In basketry-, to make twined ware in any of its varieties, plain, twilled, wrapped, latticed, three-stmnd, etc.
Warp. — The elements of woven basketry on which the fabric is built up; may be parallel, decussated, latticed, radiated, zigzag, etc.; also a single one of these. Each element may be called a warp. (See Spoke.)
WattluKj, — Coarse fence or fish weir in wicker or twined basketiy.
^Veft. — The filling of woven basketry, same as woof.
^Veftage. — ^The texture of woven basketry.
II7<[//> or w/iipstitch. — To sew with an overcast stit<*h, with long wrapping stitches. The sewing of coiled basketry may be so called. Borders of baskets are often whipped on.
Wlchnrork. — Weaving in which the warp is I'igid and the weft flexi])le.
Wind. — To wrap one element about another. Same as Frap. In Thompson River wallets the twined weft is wound or f rapped with corn husk.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY. 197
Wrapped weft, — Basket work in which the plain or twined weft is wrapped with soft decorative material.
lF7/^6'/y/^rrx>/fn</.— Resin of the pine and mesqurte for covering and lining basket jars, rendering them waterproof.
]fV>^/.— See Weft,
Yam. — Fibers twisted together, as in receptacles made from native hemp.
Z!^2ag, — A broken line of equal angular portions applied to struc- ture or decoration in basketry.
II. MATERIALS FOR BASKETRY
^Man is one world, and hath another to attend him.— Emerson. 1
In the manufacture of their baskets the Indians have ransacked the three kingdoms of nature — mineral, animal, and vegetal. For the first named Gushing has shown how the Havasupai Indians line the inside of a basket with clay in order to render it fireproof. A great many of the paints or dyes with which the baskets are colored are dmwn from the mineral kingdom. In the decoration of basketry beautiful stones and the mineral shells of mollusks are employed, either whole or cut into beads and pendants. (See Plate 3.)
Besides the beautiful shells, teeth, wings of insects, and other hard animal substances used for added ornament, softer parts enter into the ver}^ texture of basket work. In a few localities the tribes have relied on them largely. It will be seen that wool of goat, sheep, and llama are treated in precisely the same manner as splints of wood. The undressed skins of smaller mammals, notably the rabbit, are cut into strings and twisted; and dressed hides into babiche to serve as weft in woven baskets and bags. Sinew thread was employed in making coiled basketry about the Great Lakes and farther north. But the most serviceable animal substance for basketry was the feather, its plume for decoration and its quill for hard work as well as ornament. Por- cupine quills were likewise split and worked into coiled basketry, in addition to their embellishment of birch-bark utensils. The multitude of uses for feathers in this art will be described later.
The chief dependence, however, of the basket maker is upon the vegebil kingdom. Nearl}' all parts of plants have been used by one tril)e or another for this purpose — roots, stems, bark, leaves, fruits, seeds, and gums. It would seem as though in each area for purposes intended the vegetal kingdom had been thoroughly explored and exhausted above ground and under ground. Is it not marvelous to think that unlettered savages should know so much botany ? Mr. Ches nut, in his Plants used by Indians of Mendocino County, California, calls attention to the fact that in our advanced state we are yet behind these savages, not having caught up with them in the discovery and uses of some of their best textile materials.
198 REPORT OF NATIONAL KITBEUM, 1902.
How did the savages find out that the roots of certain plants hid away under the earth were the best possilile material for this function i And for another use the stem of a plant had to }h} found, perhaps miles away, so that in the makeup of a single example leagues would have to be traveled and much discrimination used. Unless the utmost care is exercised the fact will be overlooked that often three or four kinds of wood will be used in the monotonous work of the weft. One is best for the bottom, another is light and tough for the body, a third is best for the flexible top. This in addition to the employment of half a dozen others for designs, for warp or foundation, or for decorative purposes.
Among the Imsket maker's materials must not be forgotten the demand for water-tight vessels. Besides the widely spread faculty of securing this result b}" texture, there were present in certain areas natural substances such as the gum of the pinyon {PlniM edvJiH)^ the resin of various pines, and even the mineral asphalt.
The making of canteens and other water vessels, in lieu of pottery, in this way was most prevalent among the Shoshonean tribes of the Interior Basin and the migratory Apache farther south. Barrows'" calls attention to Humboldt's Essay on New Spain,* in which the Indians around Santa Barbara are spoken of as '' presenting the Span- iards with vases very curiously wrought of stalks of rushes" and "covered within with a very thin layer of a^^phaltum that renders them impenetrable to water."
The author is greatly indebted to Mr. Frederick V. Coville, Botanist of the Department of Agriculture, for the identification of plants used in basketry by the Indians of America north of Mexico. This list contains those that have been certainly identified. There are other plants alleged to be used in basketry, but of which no scientific determination has been made as yet. A complete discussion of this part of the subject would demand that for each tribe making baskets there should be a list of the plants employed by them, and for each plant used a list of the tribes by whom it is used. Such a discussion requires a long and tedious investigation by a number of talented workers cooperating. It is hoped that the chapter here given by Mr. Coville will be a starting point for a complete stud}^ of Indian phytotechny.
« The Ethno-bc3tany of the Coahuilla Jiidiaiiy of Southern California, (-hicago, IfKX), p. 41.
&Vol. II, p. 297.
ABOBIGENAL AMEBIC AN BASKETRY. 199
PLANTS USED IN BASKETRY
By Fbbdbrick V. Coville.
While some of the materials used by American Indian tribes in their basketry have long been known, by far the larger number had not been identified with precision prior to the beginning of the past decade. Most students of Indian plants had been satisfied with casual names applied by themselves or given to them by botanists after the examination of fragmentary specimens. Since the year 1890 a few botanists, notably Mr. V. K. Chesnut, of the Department of Agricul- ture, have turned their attention to the plants used by the aborigines and have made new records with definite identifications of the plants concerned, covering among other subjects of Indian activity that of basketry. When, therefore, after Professor Mason's invitation to prepare a chapter on the subject, the compilation of existing records was begun it was found that the earlier publications contained much that was indefinite, considerable that was incorrect, and a little that was both correct and exact. The notable exception to the general rule was the publications of Dr. Edward Palmer, whose work as a botanical collector in the western United States and Mexico extended from the late sixties of the last century to the present time. Under the circumstances it was determined to admit only such matter as was capable of verification, based, first, on the writer's own observation; second, on published records that seemed to come under the last of the categories mentioned above; and, third, on the collections of the United States National Museum. A few unverified statements have been admitted for the purpose of bringing them to the attention of those who may be in a position to verify them. In the case of state- ments which did not originate with the writer a parenthetic reference indicates the source of the information and, if published, the year of its publication. The work as here presented is recognized as by no means complete, but it is oflFered as a substantial basis for future investigation.
Acer xnacrophylliun. Oregon Maple.
Pal-gun^-shi (Yuki).
The Indians of Mendocino County, California, particularly the Con- cows, who now occupj?^ a reservation there, use the white inner bark, preferably gathered in spring, in making baskets. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902.) From its inner bark the Indians of the Pacific slope make baskets so closely woven as to hold water. (J. T. Rothrock, 1867.)
Adiantum pedatum. Maidenhair Fern.
The slender, black. or dark-brown, shining stems, after splitting, are used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California, in the orna-
V.
200 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
mentation of some of their liaskets, particularly those worn as hats. (V. K. Chesnut, 11M)2.) The Hupa Indians of Humboldt County, Cali- fornia, and other nearby tribes use the stems in the same way. The pnu'tice extends also to the Snohomish Indians of western Washington (C. M. Buchanan, letter) and to the Tlinkit Indians of southern Alaska. (G. T. Emmons, letter).
Agrave deserti. Desert Agave.
In the coiled basket bowls of the Coahuilla Indians of southern California the cleaned fiber from the leaves is used to form the first few turns of the coil, which is then continued with grass stems. Evi- dently the grass is not sufficiently flexible to make these first turns without breaking, but the Agave fiber answers the purpose admirably. (Cat. Nos. 207580 and 207581, U.S.N.M.) Some of the basket hat« of the Diegueno Indians of San Diego County, California, are woven from cords made of the cleaned and twisted fiber, and from their great strength must be almost indestructible by any ordinary wear. (Cat. No. 19751, U.S.N.M.)
AlnuB oreg^ana. Red Alder.
Among the Hupa Indians of northern California the roots are some- times used as weft at the beginning of a basket and in a round between the bottom and the sides (P. E. Goddard, notes).
Alniis rhoxnbifolia. White Alder.
Various species of alder have been used by the American aborigines to produce an orange or red-brown dye, but the onh' authenticated use of alder in dyeing basket materials seems to be that of Alnm rhombifolia among the Hupa, Yuki, and other Indians of northern California. The dye is obtained from the bark by infusion in water, or sometimes the bark is chewed and the material to be dyed is dmwn through the mouth.
Amarantbus pahneri. Amaranth.
K(/-mo (Moki).
This is the source of a pink to puiple dye used in the coiled and wicker plaques of the Moki Indians of northern Arizona. (W. Hough, notes.) The identification is by C. F. Millspaugh.
Amelanchier alnifolia. Sarvioeberry.
l-ta''-g^ (Apache). Chak (Klamath).
The small, straight, peeled branches of this and other species of Amelanchier are used by the Apaches of the White Mountain Indian Reservation, Arizona, to form the uprights in their large carrying baskets, a use for which the very touo-h wood is well adapted. The
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY. 201
Klamath Indians of Oregon often weave a stout branch, peeh^d or not peeked, into the rims of their hirge coarse baskets to stiffen and strengthen them.
Apocynum cannabinuxn. Indian Hemp.
The well-known Indian hemp, including a number of plant forms once referred to Apocynmib canmibhium^ but now treated axS belong- ^
ing to several species, occurs from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast and ^
was and still is widely used by the aborigines in the making of man}' kinds of cordage articles. It is commonly cited as an Indian basket material, and although it has not been possible to secure a veriliable record of its use in a basket, it is altogether probable that some of the strings and cords so frequently used in beginning a basket, or in making the carrying loops, are twisted from the inner bark of this plant. (See illustration in Chesnut's Plants used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California.*')
Artemisia ludoviciana. WormwtKxl.
Hang-al (Coahuilla).
In that portion of the Colorado Desert of California known as the /
Cabeson Valley the Coahuilla Indians make from the stems of this plant the large granary baskets in which they store seeds and other dried vegetable foods. (D. P. Barrows, 1900.) The plant was identi- fied b}' W. L. Jepson.
Arundinaria tecta. Cane.
The split outer portion of the stems of the cane was the favorite basket material of the Southern Indians, including the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, and other tribes from Texas and Arkansas to the Carolinas, and it is still in use among the remnants of these peoples. The handsome baskets of the Chetimacha and Attakapa Indians of Louisiana are made from split c^ne.
Berberis nervosa. Oregon Grape.
Among the Hupa Indians of northern California a yellow dye is obtained by steeping the twigs and bark of one of the species of evergreen barberr}^ or Oregon grape. (Mary H. Manning, letter.) Leaves of squaw gniss {Xerophyllmn Umxne) dyed with this are some- times used in the yellow patterns occBsionally seen in the Hupa hat baskets. The same material and dye are used in the huckleberry | ' j baskets of the Snohomish (C. M. Buchanan, letter) and Klikitat Indians of western Washington. The particular species used has been definitely identified in one instance as Berherh nervosa. Another species, B, (Ujulfolhtnu is undoul)tedly used also.
« U. S. National Herbarium, Vll, p. 879, fijij. 75.
202 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
Betula populifolia. Whito BIreh.
The soft wood of this tree i.s still employed in the northeastern United States and Canada by the descendants of the Algonkin and Iroquois in the making of baskets. (V. Havard, 1890.) These bas- kets are thoroughly modernized and doubtless give little idea of the aboriginal methods of using this material.
Brornus sitchensiB. * BromegnMB.
The split stems are sometimes used by the Tlinkit Indians of the south Alaskan coast as an overlaying material for the white patterns of spruce-root baskets. (G. T. Emmons, notes.)
Butneria occidentalis. Calycanthus.
Sal ka-le' (Pomo).
Both the wood and the bark from young shoots of this shrub are used in basketry by the Indians of Mendocino County, California. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902.)
CalamagrostiB lang^sdoxffii. Bluejoint
Chu''-kan shark ki-kark-tush^ (Tlinkit).
The split stem is sometimes used for overlaying material in the spruce-root baskets of the Tlinkit Indians of the south Alaskan COast. (G. T. Emmons, notes.)
Carex barbarae. Sedge.
Karhum^ (Pomo).
The long, tough, woody, interior portion of the rootstocks of this sedge is used to form the white sewing strands in the fine coiled bas- kets of the Pomo Indians of northern California. Among the neigh- boring Wailakis the roots of another unidentified species of Carex are used in the same way, and the leaves are made into hats and crude, somewhat flexible baskets. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902.)
Cartbamus tinctorius. False Saffron.
A-sap-zTtLU^'l (Moki, from the Spanish).
This plant, introduced by the Spanish, produces a bright yellow dye, used in basketry by the Moki Indians of northern Arizona. (W. Hough, notes; Cat. Nos. 11724 and 11726, U.S.N.M.)
OeanotbuB integenimus. . Califomia lilac
HiM)i (Concow).
The long, flexible shoots are used in basket making by the Concows of northern California. (V. K, Chesnut, 1902.)
ABOBIGINAL AMEBIGAK BA8KETBT. 20<S
Cercis occidantalis. Redbud.
Ch€-e (Yuki).
The wood of the branches, with or without the bark, is used in bas- ketry by many California tribes, notably by the Round Valley Indians of northern Calif ornia. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902). Among the Nishinam Indians of Bear Valley, Placer County, the willow foundations in cer- tain coiled baskets are sewed together with a thread of redbud wood. (Stephen Powers, 1877.) The dark red patterns in the baskets of the Pit River Indians and the Tulare Indians are formed from split branches with the bark left on.
Ceropteris txiangxilaris. Goldenback.
This little fern, known usually as Gymnogramma triangularis^ has a black stipe or stem which is sometimes used by the Round Valley Indians (V. K. Chesnut, 1902) and the Hupa Indians (Mary H. Man- ning, letter) of northern California as a substitute for maidenhair stems,' when these are not available, in black basket patterns.
CliryBOthaxnnus laricinus. Babbitbrush.
Ma^-i-bi (Moki).
The branches are sometimes used by the Moki Indians of northeastern Arizona for the weft of their finer wicker plaques. (W. Hough, notes.)
CbxyvotlianmuB moquianiis. Rabbitbrash.
Ha^-no shP-va-pi (Moki).
The twigs are used at Oraibi, Arizona, to form the weft in the wicker plaques of the Moki Indians. (W. Hough, notes.) The identi- fication of the plant (U. S. Nat. Herb. 274057) is by E. L. Greene, the species being one closely related to the widely distributed Chryso- thamrms [Bigdovm] graveolens.
Ginna latifolia. Wood Reedgrass.
Chu^-kan shark (Tlinkit).
Among the grasses employed by the Tlinkit Indians of the south Alaskan coast for the white patterns in their spruce-root baskets this species is the commonest. The part used is the stem, from which sections are split to be applied as an overlay on the spruce-root strands. (G. T. Emmons, notes.)
Cladiuxn mariscus. Cladium.
From the root, coiled baskets of excellent quality are made by tribes on the lower Sierra from Fresno River to Kern River, Califor- nia. (C. Hart Merriam, 1903.) Identified by Miss Alice Eastwood.
Coryliis califomica. Hazelnut.
01 mam (Yuki).
The shoots of the hazelnut are used by many of the Indian tribes from northern California to Washington, west of the Cascade Moun-
^
204 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUflETTM, 1902.
tains, in the making of baskets, especially as i-adials or uprights. ji (Mary II. Manning, letter.) The burden Imsket, })aby basket, and salmon plate of the IIui>a8 are made entirely of the shoots of hazelnut. (P. E. Goddard, notes.) (See Plate 4.)
Covillea tridentata. Creosote Biwh.
A gum-lac found upon the branches of this desert bush haa a wide application among the southwestern Indians as a cement and among the Cocopas of northern Lower California it is used for pitching baskets. (E. Palmer, notes.) The gum, which occurs in conspicuous nodules of a reddish amber color, is not a direct exudation from the plant, but is deposited by a minute scale insect, Carteria larreae.
Dasyllrion wheeleri. SotoL
The leaves, split into strands about a quarter of an inch wide and the coarse marginal teeth removed, are used among the Pima Indians of southern Arizona in coarse twilled baskets. (Cat. No. 218027,
U.S.N.M.)
Delphinitun scaposuxn. Larkspur.
»So-ro''-Hi (Moki).
The flowers are the source of a light-blue dye used by the Moki Indians of northern Arizona in their coiled and wicker plaques. (W. Hough, notes.)
Descliainpsia caespitosa. Tufted Hairgrass.
Kftt-kCik-kli^-te shark (Tlinkit).
This is one of the grasses the split stems of which are used among the Tlinkit Indians of the south Alaskan coast to form the white pat- terns on their spruce-root baskets. (G. T. Emmons, notes.)
Dondia sujBE^tescezLs. Sea Blite.
The Coahuilla Indians of the Colorado desert in southern Califor- nia, blacken the stems of their basketry rush (Juncm (unitus) by steep- ing them for several hours in a decoction of this plant. (E. Palmer, 1878.) The identification of the species is by W. L. Jepson.
ElymuB mollis. Beach Rye.
The split stems of this grass are sometimes used for the white pat- terns in the spruce-root baskets of the Tlinkit Indians on the south Alaskan coast. This material is emplo3^ed only for coarse work, and when other grasses better adapted for the purpose are not available. (G. T. Emmons, notes.) ifii4^*t^ AiltiJt ^^^il^ ^^^
^
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY. 205
Epicampes rigrens. Epicampes.
In the region of the Mohave and Colorado deserts of southeastern ^ California the Panamint, Coahuilla (D. P. Barrows, 1900), and* other tribes use this grass for the packing of their coiled baskets. The part used, at least in the better baskets, is that portion of the stem above the uppermost joint, which sometimes reaches a length of 45 centi- meters (18 inches).
Eqiiisetum palustre. Horsetail.
Dabte (Snohomish). Hin m<in-Y' (Tlinkit).
The rootstocks of this plant, which sometimes reach a diameter of 1.5 centimeters (f inch) and a length of 20 centimeters (8 inches) T> \ between the joints, were used in the early days, though rarely now, * '^
in the patterns on spruce-root Tlinkit baskets of the south Alaskan coast. Strips are split from the surface of the rootstock and used as an overlaying material. The color is a rich, very dark purple, which appears as a black. (G. T Emmons, notes.) A similar use was made of the plant, in their cedar-root baskets, by the Snohomish Indians, of Puget Sound, Washington. (C. M. Buchanan, notes.)
Equisetum robustum. Scouring Rush. _
The coal-black surface of the rootstock is sometimes used b}^ the ' ' Cowlitz Indians of southwestern Washington as a substitute for the / ,
rootstock of RiuisetunipaZiistre in the black overlay patterns on cedar- root baskets.
Evemia vnlpina. Wolf Moss.
Se^-ho-ir (Tlinkit). Swa''-u-8ani (Klamath).
This yellow tree-lichen was widely used as a dye by the Indians of ^ the timbered area of the western United States. The Klamath Indians of Oregon, as well as the Hupas of northern California (Mary H. Manning, letter), use this dye in their baskets, the coloring matter being extracted by boiling. In the case of the Hupas the dye is applied to Xerophyllum leaves, but the Klamaths use it only for the porcupine quills which form the beautiful canary yellow patterns of their twisted tule baskets. The Tlinkit Indians of the south Alaskan coast also use the dye in their spruce-root baskets, the lichen being secured by them not on the coast, but from the interior. (G. T. Emmons, notes.) (See Plate 5.)
Fraxinus nigrra. Black Ash.
The remnants of the Six Nations in New York, Pennsylvania, and adjacent portions of Canada make extensive use of ash, presumably black ash, in their modern splint-basket industry. (T. Donaldson,
206 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
HelianthuB petiolaris. Sanflower. I
A-kaMi-8hi (Moki). J
I The seeds are used by the Moki Indians of northern Arizona to make a blue dye for use in both coiled and wicker plat^ues. (W. Hough, notes.) The color produced in the coiled j^laijuos, on sewing material of Ymx'a glauai^ is of a dark, almost prussian-blue shade, when the sewing strands are applied with their broken inner surface outward, but of a much lighter shade when the epidermal surface is outward. (Cat. No. 128708, U.S.N.M.)
Hicoria ovata. Hickorv.
The wood of some unidentified species of hickory, probably ITieoria ovata^ is employed among the remnants of the Six Nations in New York, Pennsylvania, and adjacent portions of Canada in the manufac- ture of modern splint baskets. (T. Donaldson, 1894.) The inner bark of a hickory is used by the North Carolina Cherokees for yellow pat- terns in their baskets. (Cat. No. 63077, U.S.N.M.)
Hilaria jameBii. . Gralleta.
Ta'-ka-ehu (Moki).
The stems of this grass, roughly stripped of leaves and seeds, are used for the filling in of the coiled plaques of the Moki Indians of northern Arizona. (W. Hough, 1898.) In the first few turns of the spiral, which are too short to be made of the grass stems, the packing is of shredded leaves of Yucca glauca, (Cat. No. 128467, U.S.N.M.)
Juglans nig^ra. Black Walnut.
The Cherokee Indians of North Carolina use the split inner bark to make black patterns in their baskets. (Cat. No. (33077, U.S.N.M.)
Juncus acutuB. Eush.
The Coahuilla Indians of the Colorado Desert, southern California, use the stems to make patterns in their coiled basket bowls. The material, as gathered in a marsh at Palm Springs, is immersed for several days in the muddy water of the spring to render it flexible, and is then dyed a dark olivaceous or almost black color with the juice of a sea blite. (E. Palmer, notes.) (See DondJa fniffruteiscens,)
Juncus balticus. Rash.
Tsin-a^-ii (Klamath). Kloh-tso''-s^ ( A pache) .
The stems of this rush, which is commonly known as wire grass, are often used by Indian children to make small baskets. The pi^ac- tice has been noted among the Klamaths of Oregon and the White Mountain Apaches of the Arizona plateau.
ABOBIGIT^AL AMERICAN BASKETRY. 207
Juncua efhisus. Rush.
LalMlm (Yuki).
The stems of this rush, or wire grass, are used amond the Round Valley Indians of Mendocino County, California, to make temporary baskets, particularly in teaching the Indian girls the art of basketry. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902.)
JunciuB textilis. Basket Rush.
The Luiseno Indians of southern California use the split stems of this rush as the sewing material of their coiled baskets. (C. Hart Mer- riam, notes.) The varying natural colors of the stem at different heights produce a very attractive effect,
liibocodrus decurrezLs. Poet Cedar.
Wu'-lu-an»h ( Klamath ) .
The split wood of this tree is occasionally woven into rough V-shaped pack baskets by the Klamath Indians of Oregon.
Lonicera interrupta. Honeysuckle.
Hai-wat^ (Yuki).
The long flexible stems are used to a slight extent among the Round Valley Indians of California in the coiled '^one-stick" baskets, in which the foundation consists of a single stem. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902, and notes.)
Maitynia loiiisiana. Devil Horns.
Ta-g'at'-e (Apache).
This plant, which is often known in books as the unicorn plant, has a large green pod with a slender terminal projection. At maturity the green outer layer becomes dry and falls off, the remaining interior portion of the projection splitting into two parts or horns which are exceedingly tough and black, and sometimes reach a length of 35 centimeters (13 inches). Moistened and split they are used extensively to make black patterns in the baskets of various Indian tribes, notably the Apaches, in the desert region of Arizona, southern Nevada, and southeastern California.
Panicularia nervata. Manna GraflS.
Among the Tlinkit Indians of the south Alaskan coast, strips split from the internodes of this grass are sometimes used as an overlay for the patterns in spruce-root baskets, either white or variously dyed. (G. T. Emmons, notes.)
Paroaela emoryi. Parosela.
The Coahuilla Indians, of the Colorado Desert, in southeastern Cal- ifornia, give a yellowish-brown color to the rush {Jujieim andu^s) they use in basket making by steeping it in water with the branches of this plant. (E. Palmer, 1878.)
208 REPOBT OF NATIONAL MrSKUM, 1W2.
PhiladelphuB grordonianus. Kyrin}?a.
nanMI (Yuki).
The pithy stems of this shrub, which is locally known as arrowwcxxl, are employed by the Indians of Mendocino (younty, California, in the manufacture of baskets for carrying babies, a use to which the stems, on account of their lightness, are well adapted. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902.)
Phragmites -phxeLgmiteB, Ree^l.
Tkap (Klamath).
The white patterns in the twisted-tule l)askets of the Klamath and Modoc Indians of Oregon are made from this reed. The part used is the shining surface covering of the stem, taken from less thrifty plants, particularlj" those which have produced no flower cluster.
Plate 6 is a twined gambling tray of the Klamath Indians living on the head waters of Klamath River, Oregon. The warp is of twined tule st<?ms, the body of the weft is of the same material, the overlay- ing in white is with split pieces from the stem of the reed. The black is twisted tule dyed in mud springs, the yellow borders of the trefoil are in porcupine quills dyed with wolf moss.
Design unknow^n; the projections on the large ornaments are called arrowheads. Collection of Frederick V. Coville.
Picea sitchensis. Sitka Spruce.
Sit (Tliiikit).
The roots of this tree, boiled and split, are the basis material of the
baskets manufactured by the Tlinkit Indians of Yakutat Iky, Alaska.
^ • (F. Funston, 1896.) The same use prevails among the Tlinkits of the
(n^ ' Alexander Archipelago, notably those of Sitka, Juneau, and Douglas.
^ The Indians of Neah Bay, Washington, and doubtless other tribes
also, use the split roots for their coarse burden baskets. (See Plate 7.)
PinuB edulis. Arizona Nut Pine.
0-bi^ (Apache).
The Apaches of the White Mountain district, Arizona, use the resin of this tree, often called pinyon, as a pitching material for their water baskets.
Pinus lambertiana. Sugar Pine.
Slender strands split from the root of the sugar pine, woven about uprights of California hazel, are the foundation material of the acorn- soup baskets of the Hupa Indians, northern California. To make them split more easily the roots are steamed by burying them in sand and building a fire over them. (Mary 11. Manning, letter.)
Pinus monophylla. Nevada Xiit Pine.
The Panamint Indians of southeastern California use the pitch of this tree to make their water baskets impervious to water.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY. 209
Tinus ponderosa. Yellow Pine.
The split wood of the root is one of the materials used by the Hupa Indians of northwestern California for the principal part of the weft in closety-woven baskets. (P. E. Goddard, notes.)
PiniiB sabiniana. Digger Pine.
PoK-kAm ol (Yuki).
The Little Lake^Inaians of Mendocino County, California, use the split roots to make their large V-shaped baskets for carrying acorns. The root is warmed in hot damp ashes, and the strands are split oflf before cooling. (V. K. Chasnut, 1902.) A similar use extends north- ward among the Hupa and other California coast Indians as far as Klamath River. (V. Havard, 1890.)
Populiis tridiocarpa. Balm of Gilead.
In northwestern California the Hupa Indians sometimes used the root to fasten the ribs of their baskets at the beginning and to form a round at the base of the sides of the basket. (P. E. Goddard, notes.)
Pseudotsuga, mucronata. Red Fir.
According to the authority of J. W. Hudson, the Pomo Indians of Mendocino County, California, use the roots of this tree in the man- ufacture of some of their fine baskets.
Pteridiiun aquilinum. Bracken.
Bis (Calpella).
A form of the common bracken occurring in the western United States is occasionally employed as a basket material among the Indians of Mendocino County, California. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902.) The part used is the two flat strips of black hard-celled tissue in the rootstock. Querciis alba. White Oak.
Splints from the wood of a white oak, presumably this species, are still used by the Cherokee Indians of North Carolina as the material for certain of their baskets. (Cat. No. 63073, U.S.N.M.)
Quercus lobata. California White Oak.
The Concow Indians of Mendocino County, California, sometimes blacken their basket strands of redbud ( Cercis occidentalls) on which the bark is still attached, by soaking them in water containing the bark of this oak and scraps of rusty iron. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902.)
Shu8 diversiloba. Poison Oak.
Kat*K-te(Wailaki). Ma-t y u^-ya''''-ho ( Pomo ) .
The slender stems are occasionally used for horizontal withes in some of the baskets of the Mendocino County Indians of California NAT MUS 1902 14
210 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM^ 1902.
(V. K. Chesnut, 1902), while the juice, which turns black rapidly on f
exposure to air, is the source, according to J. W. Hudson, of a ;'
dye sometimes used to stain the purest black strands of the Pomo ' basketry.
Bhus trilobata. • Threeleaf Samac.
8iM-bi (Moki). Chn-cMii (Navaho). Tsfih'kanM (Apache).
Among the desert Indians the slender branches of this bush are used extensively, perhaps more extensively than any other plant except willow, in the manufacture of their baskets. For warp the peeled branches are used. For weft and for the sewing material of coiled baskets the branch is usually split into three strips and the bark and brittle tissue next the pith removed, leaving a flat tough strand. The use of the threeleaf sumac has been noted among the Apache, Panamint, Paiute, Navaho (W. Matthews, 1886), Moki (W. Hough, 1898), and Coahuilla (D. P. Barrows, 1900). (See Plate 8.)
Salix. Willow.
Brancnes from various undetermined species of willow were widely used among the western Indians, probably more generally than anj- other plant, particularly in the various forms of coarser l>askets. Among the tribes in which travelers have recorded the manufacture of willow baskets, in addition to those given below under the identified species of willow, are the Mission, Mohave, Coahuilla, Cocopa, Yuma, and Coconino Indians of Arizona and southern California; the Zuni of New Mexico; the Hupa, Yurok, Modoc, Chimariko, Gualala, Nishi- nam, and Yokut of northern and middle California, and the Tinn^ of the Yukon Valley, Alaska. The split roots of willow are sometimes used for the weft in beginning the hat baskets of the Hupa Indians. (P. E. Goddard, notes.)
Saliz argopliylla. Willow.
Bam ka-le'' (Pomo).
The Pomo Indians near Ukiah, California, consider this their best willow for the manufacture of coarse baskets. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902.)
Salix lasiandra. Willow.
A willow, which is referable to SaJlxl(if<l(mdm in its broad sense, is used to some extent b}" the Panamint Indians of Inyo County, Cali- fornia, in their twined baskets, and by the Apaches of the White Mount4iin K<'servation, Arizona.
SambuciLB mezicana. Elder.
The Coahuilla Indians of San Diego County, California, give a deep black color to strands of the threeleaf sumac, used as a sewing mate-
ABORIGINAL AMEMCAN BASKETBY. 211
rial of their coiled baskets, by soaking them for about a week in an infusion of the berry stems of this elder. (D. P. Barrows, 1900.)
Savastana odorata. Holygrass.
The Indians of the northeastern United States and adjacent parts of Canada, such as the Penobscots of Maine (V. Havard, 1890) and the Abenakis of Ontario (Cat. No. 206394, U.S.N.M.), use the long, sweet- scented leaves of this grass in some of their baskets.
ScirpuB lacustris. Tale.
MaM (Klamath).
The principal basket material of the Klamath and Modoc Indians of Oregon is the tule, a plant widely used by the tribes of the Pacific coast States in the manufacture of mats. Narrow strips from the surface of the stem are twisted into long threads and these used for their finer twined baskets, giving a great variety of green and brown shades or, when dyed, a black. For coarser baskets whole or split stems are commonly employed, without twisting. The very slender roots of the tule, which occur in great abundance on the stout root- stocks, are used, without any other preparation than drying, to make patterns of a maroon color in the twisted tule baskets. (See Plate 9.)
ScirpiiB mazitimuB. Balrush.
Tsu-teh^ (Porno).
The Pomo Indians of California use for the brown and black patterns of their fine coiled baskets a fiber extracted from the rootstock of this bulrush. Structurally the fiber is the same as that described under Carex harharae. The identification is by Miss Alice Eastwood.
Smilax califomica. Greenbriar.
The long and exceedingly strong stems, brought from the watershed of the Sacramento River, are sometimes employed by the Indians of Mendocino County, California, in their basketry. (V. K. Chesnut,
1902.)
.'CO i^cOP3/5 \ Thelesperma gracile. Thelesperma.
^ O-ha'-u-shi (Moki).
A decoction of the whole plant was formerly used to give a red- brown color to the stems of rabbitbrush ( Chrysothamnus moquianus) for the patterns in the wicker plaques of the Moki Indians of northern Arizona. (W. Hough, 1898; Cat. No. 128708, U.S.N.M.)
Thuja plicata. Giant Cedar.
The split roots of this tree arc the common sewing material for the strong, water tight huckleberry baskets of certain tribes of the North- west Coast from northern Oregon to British America, including the
212 BEPOBT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
Klikitat, Cowlitz, Puyallup, Tulalip, Snoqualmie, Skagit, and Fraser River Indians. Tho Indians of Neali Bay, Washington, and of Van- couver Island, British Columbia, use the split brown inner }>arkas the warp of their finely woven but artificially dyed flexible baskets. The Nis([ualli Indians of Puget Sound, and doubtless many other tribes of the Northwest coast, employ the same material in coarser strands in making rough burden l)askets, frequently' in conjunction with a wai-p of split branches from the same tree. (See Plate 10.)
Tsugra mertensiana. Black Hemlot-k.
The Indians of Neah Bay, Washington, sometimes use split hemlock roots in their coarse openwork quadrangular V-shaped burden baskets. ' . The tree was described by a Neah Bay Indian as having cones 2^ inches
long, in which case the species would be the black hemlock instead of the Western hemlock {Tf<uga lieteropliylld)^ which is the commoner of the two at low elevations in that vicinity.
Tumion calif omicum. California Nutmeg.
K'(/-bi (Porno).
The split roots of this tree are sometimes used by the Pomo Indians of Mendocino County, California, in the manufacture of their finer baskets. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902.)
Typha latifolia. Cattail.
Po-'-iMiB (Klamath).
Twisted strands made of slender ribbons split from the sheathed
\ - portions of the leaves are used by the Klamath Indians of Oregon in
' . " their smaller flexible baskets, either to form the body of the basket or
to make an ornamental band. The color is a histerless, slightly ashy
white.
XJlmiis americana. Elm.
The Sioux Indians of the northern plains region used the inner bark of the elm to make a coarse basket. (V. Havcrd, 1890.)
Vaccinium membranaceuxa. Blueberry.
Ka-na-ta' (Tlinkit).
The juice of some species of blueberry, probably Yacciniiwi metn- l)ran((cenn(/\s used as a purple dye in spruce-root baskets by the Tlinkit Indians of the south Alaskan coast. (G. T. Emmons, notes.)
Vitis califomica. Grape.
8hi-tn' (Pomo).
Among the Hupa Indians of northern California the root is some- times used to fasten the ribs of a basket at its beginning, and to make a round at the outer edge of the basket's bottom, while in fine hats
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY. 213
grape root sometimes makes up the whole weft. (P. E. Goddard, notes. ) Portions of the woody stem are used b}^ the Pomos of Mendocino County, California, as a sewing strand for attaching the rims to their pack baskets. The grape strands completely cover the stout withe that forms the basis for the rim, making it more durable and at the same time thickening it so as to give a good means of firmly grasping the basket. (V. K. Chesnut, 1902, and notes.)
Woodwardia spinulosa. Giant Chain Fern.
The Hupa Indians of northern California use a portion of this fern, either white or dyed orange brown with alder bark, in the patterns of their hat baskets. (Mary H. Manning, letter). The parts employed are two slender flat strands, very flexible and leathery when moist, which are extracted from the stalk of the frond.
Xerophyllum tenaz. Xerophyllum.
The long, tough, minutely serrated, grass-like, lustrous leaves of this plant, often called squawgrass, are very commonly used by the Indians of the Northwest Coast as an overlaying material to make the white patterns of their baskets. Occasionally it is dyed. The base of the leaf for an inch or more often has a natural faint purple color which \l , o is used to good effect. The use of the material extends from the Pit River, Shasta, and Hupa Indians, in northern California, northward through most of the tribes west of the Cascade Range to the Neah Bay and Vancouver Island Indians of the Straits of Fuca. These last two use Xerophyllum leaves, cut to a unifonu width by a gauged knife-edge, as the weft of their gaudily dyed flexible baskets.
Tucca arborescens. Tree Yucca.
The slender roots are sometimes used for red figures in baskets of the Panamint Indians of Inyo County, California.
Tucca arkansana. Yucca.
The leaves are used in the basketry of the Kaiowa Indians of Okla- homa. (J. Mooney, notes.)
Yucca baccata. Banana Yucca.
The Mescalero Apaches of southern New Mexico and adjacent parts of Texas, in the region between the Rio Grande and Pecos rivers, use the split leaves of this plant for the main portion of their baskets, and its roots for the led patterns (Cat. Nos. 204646 to 204653, U.S.N. M.). It is probable, I am informed by Mr. Vernon Bailey, that they use also in the same way the leaves and roots of Y^icca mdcrocarpa, an arborescent species growing at lower elevations in the same region.
214 RKPOBT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
Tucca fllamentosa. Silkgraas.
The leaves of this plant were formerly in use among the Indians of North Carolina jus a basket material. (J. Ijawton, 1714.)
Yucca grlauca. Plains Yucca.
Mo^-hu (Moki).
This plant is used in the basketry of the Moki Indians (W. Hough, 1902) of northern Arizona. In some of the coarser twilled baskets the warp and weft are made up of the narrow unsplit leaves thinned by the removal of a strip from the back. {Cat. No. 218251, U.S.N.M.) In the coiled plaques the sewing material consists of narrow strips split from the leaves. The outer surface of the leaves gives various shades of green and greenish yellow or, in the case of the young leaves, white, or they are dyed in several colors. The d3'ed strips are often applied with the inner, broken surface outward. This surface takes the dye more readily and gives a deeper shade. For the use of the shredded leaves as a packing material in the first few turns of the spiral, see Ililaria jamesiL
III. BASKET MAKING
The sallow knows the basket maker's thumb. — Emrrsok.
Under the head of basket making are included all the activities involved in and fostered by construction, nameh^:
1. Harvesting viateriah, — This embraces intimate acquaintance with the places where just the right substances abound, knowledge of the times when each element is ripe, methods of growing, harvesting, and conveying involved, as well as the tools and apparatus used in gathering. In their rough state much of the materials would be as unfit for the use as quarry clay would be for the potter or crude ore for the metallurgist.
2. Pre2)aring materiah. — Frequently the mw materials are stored away at the time of harvesting until required for manufacture. Nature makes the rules for gathering in her own good time. But this might be the busy season, wherejis this ait may go on in different seasons. When the time comes for their use special manipulations are neces- saiy, such as peeling, splitting, making splints, 3'arning or twisting, twining, braiding, soaking, gauging, coloring. These should each be noted carefully and described for the several basket areas.
3. Processes of inanufacture, — The materials being ready, the maker seats herself in the midst and begins the technical operations that should be minutely watched, and photographed, if possible. Collec- tions should also be made of tools, apparatus, and patterns.
Each of these will be examined with minute care, especially the third. If this art is to be imitated and become a stimulus in technical
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
215
instruction it is of the utmost importance that the substances be cor- rectly known, that the manipulations of material be familiar, and, above all, that the course of each element in the warp and weft, the foundation, and sewing be understood. Care has been taken to draw correctly the figures used in illustration. They are all in the basketry of the Indians, and, more than that, they are the beginnings of more refined processes and structures.
HARVESTING MATERIALS
Since the materials used in basketry are derived from different parts of a great variety of plants, the gathering of them involves many industries. The harvesting of basket material is no exception to the rule that every human activity begins with a natural process slightly modified. The birds are in a sense the original basket makers, and it is known that some very expert Indian tribes take the gmsses and the stems of plants as they find them. They know nothing of drying or
Fio. 1.
KVD SHOES, CALIFORNIA.
Klamath Indians. Cat. No. 24109, U.S.N.H. Collected by L. S. Dyar.
manipulating. . Improvement grows out of study into the nature of substances, until with some tribes the obtaining of raw materials involves quite as much sagacity, toil, and travel as the making of the basket.
For procuring the roots, the apparatus of digging is necessary. To be sure, the hand was the first hoe and the strong arm draws the root from its hiding place, but our Indians had gotten beyond that. The northern Indians, especially those of the Columbia River in west- ern Canada, use quite elaborate forms of this device. It is wonderful to think of the sagacity developed in savage minds by the quest for underground substances and the proper discrimination of the places
216 RKPORT OF NATIONAL MUSKUM, 1902.
where the best examples abound. From the farthest north, in the neighl)orhood of Point Barrow to the southern portions of South America, roots form substantial materials in basket making, both twined and coiled. It is not enough to say simply that roots of plants were the materials of the baskets, but it is well known that the savag-e women knew in each section what plant furnished the toughest and most pliable roots, the localities in which this kind of root reached its best, the plants that yielded brown, red, and black colored splints, which produced unrivaled effects, though the portion above ground gave no sign of the treasures held or the time of year when it was proper to obtain these substances, and the processes by which they could be extracted and saved most economically. Incidentally to this quest of material, of course, was that of carrying, so that here in the very beginning of our art a host of useful human activities are engendered. The Klamath invented a peculiar kind of mud shoe to wear when wading about in shallow marshes after roots for their basket work. (See tig. 1.)
The stems of plants, of grass, rushes, and woody species are to be found in the basketry of almost every portion of the Western Hemi- sphere. The young and tough shoots of a single year's growth are choice materials for some purposes, and were eagerl}' sought. In those regions where spinous plants j'ielded the materials, a sort of gathering knife was employed resembling a miniature sickle with a wooden handle. There is a time of year when- they are in the best condition for the basket woman's craft. There are certain parts of the stems which are useful in this direction, while others are valueless. In woody species the outer layer next to the bark has the toughness of leather, while a little way inward the wood is almost as brittle as glass. Furthermore, the stems of plants vary greatly in color — different parts of the same stem are in different colors.
Now, the student would be surprised to find in the East, in the West, in the North, and in the South that there is very little more for the savage woman to learn. Distinguished botanists will say that instead of trying to teach the Indians the use of new plants, the best way to search for new materials to introduce into modern textile arts can be learned from these savage artisans. The leaves of plants are used in basketry, especially in the South. In the extreme North, among the Eskimo and Athapascan tribes, no leaves are suitable for basketry. Among the Aleutian Islanders stems and leaves of grass come into play. Down the Pac»ific coast of the continent, in southeastern Alaska, British Colum})ia, and the coast States of the Union leaves, either in their natural color or dyed, are employed with great effect in many types of ornamentation, as will be seen further on. The range of use- fulness, either for texture or ornament, is well known to the basket maker. In Mexico and tropical America this division of the subject
\
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY. 217
has been developed most. Little mechanism is necessary in this part of the world. A sharpened stick for the root gatherer and a flint knife and mussel shell for the stem harvester complete the outfit. Nimble fingers aided with the teeth were the most useful appamtus.
In her textile gleaning, the savage woman has not been slow to avail herself of the metal appliances introduced by the whites. You will now see her afield with pick and knife of steel gathering the old- time substances.
PREPARING MATERIAI^;
As is well known, every industry may be divided, either in savagery or in civilization, into four parts: First, that which is associated with taking tlie gifts of nature, called in this particular instance harvesting; ^ second, the transformation of this material into proper form for special trades; third, the manufacture of useful and ornamental objects; and, \ final 1}% the activities of consumption and enjoyment, by which the things may take their places as servants to supply the wants and desires of mankind.
The preparation of materials for basketry consists in splitting and separating the desirable from the undesii*able portions; in removing the bark; in taking the soft and spongy matter from the fibrous por- tion, like soaking and hackling in flax; in making ribbon-like splints of uniform width and thickness; in shredding, as in cedar bark; in twisting, twining, and braiding; in gauging, and coloring.
The apparatus for this intermediate work must have been in abo- riginal times very simple, a stone knife and shell for scraping supple- menting the work of the fingers and the teeth. The qualitv of the finished workmanship depends largely upon this secondary process. In those regions of very uniform moisture the plants used were of quick growth and pliable, and it would be easy, even without metal tools, to secure fine splints and other elements in the manufacture; but in those localities where the raw substances were more brittle, fine work would be difiicult and indeed was impossible until quite recently. It is a question, therefore, whether anciently some of the modern processes in basketry were known at all. Certainly there was no such delicate basketry made in Canada by the untaught aborigines as can now be procured from their descendants; but in the old graves of California and the adjoining areas wonderful pieces of delicate workmanship are brought from ancient pre-Columbian tombs.
It must not be forgotten that coloring matters were in ancient times among the prepared materials of basketry. Nature furnishes oppor- tunities for diversity of color in the substances themselves. The Indian also knew how to change or modify the natural color of different materials by burying them in mud. The juices of the plants and the mineral substances in the mud combined to produce darker shades of
218 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSKUM, 190S.
the same color or an entirely different one. But the savage woman had gone further, for they well knew that certain plants were useful as dyes. In point of fact, the l)est dyestuffs of each area had Ijoen exhaustively exploited. A list of these for each area would include a large number of useful plants. As in gathering materials the simplei^t processes involve slight artificiality, so in this intermediary art the most primitive basket makers modified little their raw materials. The^^ did not store them away for the convenient season, and, save that they soaked them before using, practiced none of the refining processes necessary to the highest results.
In each of the culture areas of Anierica the methods of preparing materials were peculiar.
Dr. Walter J. Hoffman ^ described in 1895 the aboriginal process of preparing material for wicker baskets among the Menomini Indians (Algonquin Family) on Lake Michigan. See figures 110 to 114 of this paper.
A small log of wood, 3 or 4 inches in diameter and as long as it is possible to procure one without knots, furnishes the splints. (Hoff- man's fig. 37.) These logs are cut when the rings of annual growth are most easily iTiptured. The log is beaten with a wooden mallet. The example shown in Hoffman's illustration (fig. 38) is of modern type, made with steel tools, but the ancient Indian, no doubt, had a much rougher but quite as efficient implement. The strips thus loos- ened are torn off one by one as long as the material is sufficiently flex- ible for basket making. The next process is the shaping of these splints for the desired work — splitting them, shaving them down thin and smooth, and finishing them for the hand of the weaver.
The basket-maker's awl of bone, the old aboriginal implement, may be seen at work in many camps; but the knife with which the pre- Columbian woman cut her basket material has utterly disappeared from use. Now, among the Algonkin, the knife of steel vastly improved their art and it raises a question whether in the pristine condition of savagery some forms of basketry were as good as they are at present. This query applies only to work done in hard wood.
The knife now in use among the Indians for this and other wood- working purposes is an interesting sur\dval from the remote past in Europe. It is now active in the farrier's shop for paring the frog of the horse's foot, prior to putting on the shoe; but two or three centu- ries ago, under name of man's knife,* it found its way through the entire English and French area of North America.
A curved blade of steel is inserted or laid in a groove on the side of
« Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Part I, figs. 37-41.
& The man's Knife among the North American Indians: A study in the Collections of the U. S. National Museum, by Otis Tufton Mason, Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1897, pp. 726-745, 17 figs.
ABOBIGINAL AMEBICAN BASKETRY. 219
the handle, made fast by wrapping with strong twine. The groove is shouldered so as to take the pressure. The blade is detachable for the purpose of grinding it. It will l>e seen that if held in the right hand the opei'ator cuts toward himself. This is the ancient method of whittling practiced by the peoples on the western shores of the Pacific Ocean, the Ainos, Japanese, etc. (Hoffman's fig. 39.)
A bundle of splints is shown in fig. 40 of Hoffman's paper of dif- ferent widths ready for the hand of the basket maker, and in fig. 41 (Hoffman) is a coarse-finished product showing the method of setting up the warp and applying the weft in wicker basketry of the Menomini. It is not known that the ancient Menomini used any dyes on their baskets whatever. In their modern ware they procure these substances through traders.
The sweet grass {Savastana odorata)^ of which large quantities of baskets are manufactured, was dried in the shade to hold its color. Further, it was rolled into bunches and sewed with sinew, as the Eskimo do in making their coiled baskets. Very old specimens of such ware are preserved in collections. But in the ware now in the market twine and braid of this material are prepared beforehand in large quantities for the future use of the weaver and frequently by different hands.
Farther south in the Eastern basket area the canes for twilled bas- ketry needed no knife for the splitting. A slight blow would crush the stalk, the spongy jnatter adhering to the inside was scraped away, and the splints were ready for the dyer or the weaver if they were not to be colored.
The following information concerning natural sources of color for basketry and other objects among the Cherokee Indians comes from Miss Harriet C. Wilkie, of Raleigh, North Carolina. The petals of the iris rubbed on a slightly rough surface are said to yield a rich and lasting purple. The blossoms and tender green tops and leaves of the common sneeze weed {Ilelenium autuimiale) made into a tea yield a beautiful and fadeless yellow. Long boiling dulls this to a yellowish olive. The common broom sedge {Andvopogon scopa/rvui)^ winter dried, yields another yellow, less pure and brilliant, also much affected by continued boiling. The color is known as burnt orange and works beautifully in basketry.
In central Alaska the Athapascan tribes use both spruce and willow for their coiled basket jars and trinket material. Much care is bestowed in splitting the roots and stems, in order to procure uniform sewing material. In the U. S. National Museum the specimens all show care in this regard. The Alaskan Eskimo on Bering Sea also manufacture coiled basketry as well as twined, but it is from dried grass and shows very little care in the preparation. Crossing over to the Aleutian chain, the care bestowed on materials is different.
220 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSKUM, 1902.
When Attn weavers wanted the grass to be white it was cut in November, the whole stalk (wild rye), and hung points down out of doors to dry. If grass was to be yellow, the common color, it is cut in the middle of July, and the two youngest blades that are full grown are then cut out and split into three pieces, the middle one bein<r thrown away. The other pieces are then tied into bunches about li inches in diameter and hung up to dry out of doors (points down). If the grass is to be cured green it is prepared as when it is wanted tt> be 3^ellow, but the first two weeks of the curing is carried on in the shade of the dense growth of grass and weeds that is found in the villages. After that it is taken out and dried in the house. Under no circumstances is the sun allowed to shine on any of the gi-ass in the process of curing, which takes about a month or more.
Beautiful coiled basketry is made by the Chilcotin, Harrison Lake, Lower Thompson Indians in British Columbia, Salish on the coast.» as well as Klikitat and Tulalip in Washington. Only women and girls occupy themselves with this work. The baskets are made from the small, trailing roots of the cedar {Thuja pi icatd). These are dug up with an ordinary root digger, and pieces of the desired length and of about the thickness of a finger are cut off. These are buried in the ground to keep them fresh. When required they are taken out and peeled or scraped with a sharp stone or knife. They are then hung up until dry enough for use. Next they are split into long strips by inserting and pressing forward the point of the awl used in basket making, made from the long bone of a deer. The pieces which have the desired width and thickness throughout their entire length are used for stitching purposes, while others which split irregularly, or are too short or too thin to be used for that purpose, are put together in bundles to form the foundation of the coils. In the sewing these foundations are kept continuous and of uniform thickness by adding fresh pieces as required. (See Plate 11.)
In other basketry, thin, pliable strips of cedar sap or other wood in pairs, having both smooth sides out, are used for foundation instead of the bunches of split roots. These are stitched in the same manner, but are neither as strong nor as durable nor are they water-tight.^
The Upper Fmser and the Lytton bands sometimes use Elymu8 triticoides instead of XerophyJluin. The bark used is that of Prunus demissa^ which is either left its natural light reddish-brown color or is dyed by burying it in damp earth. By thus keeping it under ground for a short time it assumes a dark-brown color; if kept longer it becomes quite black. (Teit.)
The Makah Indians make a red color by mixing vermilion with chewed salmon eggs; black color is a combination of bituminous coal
« James Teit, The Thompson Indians of British Columbia, Memoirs of the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History, II, Pt. 4, 1900, pp. 1G3-392.
ABORIGINAL AMEBICAN BASKETRY. 221
and the same carrier; cedar bark is colored black by soaking in mud, and red by means of alder bark chewed/ (Swan.)
The Twana Indians, on Skokomish Reservation, Washington, now use a steel-bladed knife and an awl of the same material in basket making. Formerly they emploj^cd a pointed stick or bone for their imbricated ware and for pressing home the weft of twined basketry; but in large measure their fingers are their tools. (Myron Elells.) The same remark applies to basket makers in all the culture areas. Fingers and teeth are still in vogue and can not be dispensed with. The metal awl, however, quite displaces that of bone, and it is not surprising to find scissors of the best make added to the steel-bladed knife, especially for clipping off the projecting ends of materials.
Hazel stalks are gathered by Oregon tribes in best form on ground that has been burned over, the young ones springing up straight and strong from the rich soil. The peeled stems are the warp, those split by means of tHe teeth are the weft, and a dye is made from the bark chewed by the basket maker. (Mrs. Harriet K. Mc Arthur.) The fine white grass, like ivory in smoothness and tint, is obtained at great elevations, their excursions leading them to the summer snow line of Mount Shasta.
PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE
As you gaze on the Indian basket maker at work, herself frequently — ■*- unkempt, her gannents the coarsest, her house and surroundings sug- gestive of anything but beauty, you are amazed. You look about you, as in a cabinet shop or atelier, for models, drawings, patterns, pretty bits of color effect. There are none..» .Her pattettts a^e in her soul^ in her memory and imagination, in the mountains, water courses, lakes^and forests, and in those tribal tales and myths which dominate the-aetio«» of every hour. She hears suggestions from another world. Her tools are more disappointing still, for of these there are few — a rude knife, a pointed bone, that is all. Her modeling block is herself. Her plastic body is the repository of forms. Over her knee she molds depressions in her ware, and her lap is equal to all emergencies for •convex effects. She herself is the Vishnu of her art, the creator of forms.
The Tlinkit in weaving, saj^s Emmons, sits with the knees drawn up to the chin, the feet close to the body, the shoulders bent over, the arms around the knees, the hands in front. Sometimes one knee is dropped a little to the side, and, in the case of old women, they often recline on one hip, with the legs dmwn up, the elbows resting on a pillow or blanket doubled up.
In all types of weave the working strands are constantly dampened \
by dipping the fingers into a basket or cup of water close at hand, or, i
in the case of embroidery, by drawing the section of grass stem
I
222 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
through the lips. The material is kept in a plaque-like work "basket called tarlth ('' .spread out/' from its flat lM)ttom and low, flaring sides). Besides the shell or metal knife there is j^eneiiiUy a rude awl, consisting of a spike of goat or deer horn, a bear's claw, or a piece of bone rubbed down to a tapering point, and a large incisor of the brown bear or the tooth of the killer whale. These constitute all of the tools and accessories used in basketry. (Emmons.)
^ Plate 12 represents a Pomo Indian basketmaker. In front of her is an unfinished water-tight basket jar in plain twined weaving. The warp elements are willow rods dressed down to uniform thickness; the weft is of carex root and cercis stems split, the patterns being made in the latter. Photographed by II. W. Ilenshaw.
Plate 13 represents a Tlinkit woman of Sitka, Alaska, making a twined basket. All the native surroundings are absent — the environ- ment, as men are wont to say — but the artist's mind and skillful fingers remain. She has four elements to handle simultaneously — warp, two wefts, and decorative material. The mouth, therefore, is brought into requisition, as may be seen. The operation consists in twining with finely divided spruce root and wrapping each outside splint with colored straw. The work resembles embroidery when finished and is, in this work, called false embroidery.
There seems to be always an affectionate fellow feeling between the skillful hand of the artisan and the materials which it fashions. The more tractable the latter, the more deft the former. That is not always true in culture. The best endowment does not always yield the best results. But the statement holds good in our art with few exceptions. Where the finest grass(\s grow, and the toughest roots and stems, they set up a school of mutual refinement between the woman and her work. It needs only a few miles eastward or north- ward to change the garden into a desert and correspondingly to degen- erate the artist. It would be unjust to her ingenious mind to over- look the fact that she has not been utterly cast down by the failure of one kind of material. She is not long in finding out new substances and new technic processes for each environment.
WOVEN BASKETRY
The various processes of manufacture will now be definitely explained. In technic, Kij-alyeady tiaid-(^».-44^), basketry is either hand- woven or sewed. The hand-woven basketry is further divisible into (A) Chechenrorl^, (B) TirUhdworl^, (C) Tr/r/v/vm/'/J-, (D) Wmppedvyorl^ , and (E) TwhwAhriprk^ in several varieties. The sewed work goes by the name of coiled basketry, and is chissod }>()th by the foundsition and the fastening. In addition to these technical methods on the body, special ones are to be found in the border.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKKTRY.
223
COARSE CHECKERWORK.
A. ChecherworJc. — This occurs especially in the bottoms of many North Pacific coast examples, and also in the work of eastern Canadian tribes (fig. i); in matting ita use is well nigh universal.
In this ware the warp and the weft have the same thickness and pliability. It is impossible, therefore, in looking at the bottoms of the cedar-bark baskets and the matting of British Columbia (fig.^ or Eastern Canada to tell which is warp and which is weft. In very many exam- ples the warp and weft of a checker bottom are turned up at right angles to form the warp of the sides, which may be wicker or twined work, j A great deal of bark matting is made in this same checkerwork, but the patterns run obliquely to the axis of the fabric, giv- ing the appearance of diagonal weaving. The fine hats of Ecuador are especially noticeable in this deceptive appearance, which is caused by the weaver's begin- ning the work at the center. Perhaps, though there is no positive information on this subject, the North Pacific coast women proceed in the same manner to give a tiled effect to the surface of their matting, j When warp and weft are fine yarn
or threads the result is the simplest fonn of cloth in cotton, linen, piila fiber, or wool. The cheap fab- rics of commerce are of this species of weaving. In art and industry lattice- work frequently shows the bars intertwined as in checker basketry (figi 4). From this results a most stable figure, the elasticity of the material and the friction of the surfaces holding the fabric to- gether. (See figs. 4, 5, 6.) The pleasing effects that may be produced in checker are shown in Plate 14. At the bottom is coarse work. At the end of seven rows the warp strips of bark are held firmly in place by a row of twined weaving and then split into four, each sixth one
FlO.X; PINK CHECKERWORK.
224
REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
being left whole for artificial effects. At proper intervals broader strips of weft are introduced. In the chapter on ornamentation atten- tion will be called to the variety in this mass of unity by the individual characteristics of each square in the weaving.
B. Twill edwm'Jc, — ^This is seen espe- cially in those parts of the world where cane abounds. In America it is quite common in British Columbia, Washington, Southern United States, Mexico, and Cen- tral America, and of excellent workman- ship in Peru, Guiana, and Ecuador. The fundamental technic of diagonal basketry is in passing each element of the weft over two or more warp elements, thus producing either diagonal or twilled, or, in the best samples, an endless variety of diaper patterns. (See figj^.3^{ ^NM,^) The example shown in Plate 15 represents a cigar case made by the women of Bolivia, who weave the celebrated Panama hats, the texture being fine twilled work. The ornamentation should be studied care- fully, for it consists of twined weaving, in which both warp and weft strands are brought together in pairs and one twined about the other.
I'
Fig. 4. open checker work.
Fig. \ twilled work.
• Fig. 6.
TWILLED WORK.
There is no attempt at anything but plain over-two weaving elsewhere in this specimen. To the student of technology it is charming to read in this connection from lire's Dictionary" the labored description of twilled loom work with its hundreds of parts in the climax of a series of invcMitions initiated with savage women's figures. Twill, or twecl. A diagonal appearance given to a fabric by causing
« Article Weaving, fourth (uUtion, London, 1853.
ABOBIQINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
225
the weft threads to pass over one warp thread, and then under two, and so on, instead of taking the warp threads in regular succession, one down, one up. The next weft thread tjikes a set oblique to the former, throwing up one of the two deposed by the preceding. In some twills it is one in three, or one in four. The Latin trilix^ a cer- tain pattern in weaving, became drillich in Genuan, and hence our word drill. Twill is derived from zwillit'h^ which answers to the Latin hiliu'^ and the Greek diniitos. The latter survives in dimity. See also saniitt^ derived from Greek h^ixamiton^ six thread.
Fig. 7. ancient twilled work.
Preiwed on pottery of Alabama. After W. H. HoImeH.
The French touaille has also been suggested as the (Etymological source of the word.
The fabrics thus woven are very numerous — satin, blanket, merino, bombazine, kerseymere, etc. When the threads cross each alternately in regular order it is called 2)laiti weavtiuj; but in twUl the same
Fig. 8.
anciknt twilled work.
rrfHKMl 1)11 p<»tt<*r>' of TfMiit'HBtH'. After W. H. Holmer*.
thread of weft is fiimhed,, or separated from the warp while passing over a number of wai^p threads, and then passes under a warp thread.
The ix)ints where the threads of the warp cross form diagonal lines, NAT MUS 1902 15
226
REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1»02.
parallel to each other, across the face of the cloth. In "blanket twill every third thread is crossed. In some fabrics 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 threads are crossed. In full satin twill there is an interval of 15 threads, the warp {orgamine silk) being floated over 15 threads of the woof {tratn)^ giving the glossy appearance.
Twills require heddles equal in number to the threads that are included in the intervals between the intersections. This disposition of the warps in the heddles is termed mounting the looni^ and the
Fig. 9.
twilled weaving.
Cherokee IndiaiiH, North Carolina.
heddles are termed le/ives. A twill takes its name from the number of leaves employed, as a three-leaf twill, a five-leaf twill, etc.
Twills are used for the display of color, for strength, variety, thick- ness, or durability.
On a fragment of ancient pottery from Alabama, Holmes also discovered marks of basketry in twilled weaving, as shown in fig. 7.
It will be noticed that material of cat- tail or split c^jie was used. The effect shown in the figure was produced by passing each weft strand over three wai*p strands and under one on the side exhibited. On the other side of the texture, no doubt, the process was reversed,
ABORIGINAL AMEBICAN BASKETRY. 227
the warp strands passing over three and under one. In such work there was opportunity to use double warp and weft, the strips of cane laid together so as to expose two bright surfaces.
In order to vary the texture of twilled work, the ancient inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley knew how to use for warp and weft sub- stances of different widths. On a fragment of ancient pottery from PopeCounty,Tenne8see,Holme8 found impressionsof ancient basketry. Fig. 8 shows how these ancient weavers utilized wide fiber of bast or split cane for the warp, and string for the weft, passing in their work over two each time. For the uses of woven fabrics on making pottery
WICKER BA8KBT.
Zufii, New Mexico.
and the interesting way in which the hivstory of lost ai*ts have been preserved, see Part VII.
Excellent variety was also produced in this kind of weaving by means of color. Almost any textile plant when split has two colors, that of the outer, or bark surface, and that of the interior woody surface or pith. Also the different plants used in diagonal basketry have great variety of color. By the skillful manipulation of the two sides of a splint, by using plants of different species, or with dyed elements, geometric patterns, frets, labyrinths, and other designs in straight line are possible. (See tig. %) . -
228
BEPOBT OF NATIONAL MUSEHM, 1902.
Examples from the saltpeter caves, and modern pieces from the Cherokee, both in matting and basketry, are double. By this means both the inside and the outside of the texture expose the glossy siliceous surface of the cane. By changing the number of warp splints or a stem over which the weft passes, it will l)e seen in the figure here given that great variety of diaper or damask effect may be produced. C. Wickerwiyrk, — The name is from the Anglo-Saxon toican^ to bend. Common in eastern Canada, it is little known on the Pacific coast and in the Interior Basin, excepting in one or two pueblos, but is seen abundantly in southern Mexico and Central America. It consists of a wide or a thick and inflexible wai-p and a slender flexible weft (fig. 01^. The weaving is plain and differs from checkerwork only in the fact that one of the elements is rigid. The effect on the surface is a series of ridges. It is possible also to produce diagonal effects in this type of weaving.
Wickerwork must have been a very early and primitive form of textile. Weirs for stopping fish are made of brush, and wattled
fences for game drivers are set up in the same manner. A great deal of the coarse basketry in use for packing and transporting is made in this fashion. The Zuni Indians make gathering baskets of little twigs after the same technic, the inflexible warp being made up of a small number of twigs of the same plant, laid side by side. The transi- tion from checker to wicker in some examples is 5asy. The moment one element, either warp or weft, is a little more rigid than the other, the intersections would naturally assume a wicker form.
The^est specimens in America are the very pretty Hopi plaques made of GliryHotJiamiim moqulanui^ and C, larichim. Short stems are dyed in various colors for weft, the ends worked into the war^ and the whole driven tightly home, so as to hide the ends of the warp and even the manner of weaving. (See fig. 11.)
Various patterns are effected on the surface — geometric figures, clouds, mythical animals and pereons, and symbols connected with worship. Wickerwork has pleasing effects combined with diagonal and other work. Fig.iohi is a square Hopi plaque, having twilled weaving in the middle and a band of wicker outside of this, the whole finished with rough, coiled sewing on the border.
It has passed into modern industry through the cultivation of osiers, rattan, and such plants for market baskets, covers for glass bottles,
Fig. 11. cl06e wickerwork. Hopi Indians, Arizona.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
229
and in ribbed cloth, wherein a flexible weft is worked on a rigfid warp, Also, good examples are now produced by the Algonkin tribes New England and eastern Canada.
For commercial purposes, wicker baskets precisely like those of the Abenaki Indians are thus made.
The white-oak timber is brought to the yard in sticks running from 6 to 40 inches in diameter and from 4 to 18 feet long. It is first sawed into convenient lengths, then split with a maul and wedges into fourths or sixteenths. The bark is then stripped off with a drawing knife. The next process is cutting it into bolts at what is called the splitting horse, to be shaved down with a drawing knife into perfectly smooth, even bolts of the width and length desired. These are then placed in
••i
FIG. K. (^ TWILLED AND WICKER MAT.
Hopi Indians, Arizona. ifttiiWi B. nutfiwii
the steam box and steamed for a half hour or so, which makes the splints more pliable. They are taken thence to the splint knife, which is arranged so that one person, by changing the position of the knife, can make splints of any desired thickness, from that of paper to that of a three-fourths-inch hoop.
The oyster baskets and most small baskets have the bottom splints laid one across another and are plainly woven in checker.
But the round- bottomed baskets, used for grain and truck, are made by taking from 10 to 18 ribs and laying them across each other at the middle, in radiating form, and weaving around with a narrow thin splint until the desired size for the bottom is reached, when the splints are turned up and set in other baskets, about a dozen in a series, for twenty-four hours.
230
REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
They are then woven around with a fine Hplint and placed on a revolving drum or form and filled up the required hight and set in the 8un to dry for six hours. They are then shaken hard by striking the bottom on the floor, which causes the splints to settle tight t<^ether and prepared for the rim. They next proceed to fasten the handles to the sides and put the rims or hoops on by fitting them into the notches made in the handles and binding them tightly with fine splints. The diffei'ent styles are made by using different-shaped drums and vari- ously colored splints, the lat- ter being done by dipping the splints before weaving into dyes.
The most curiously made baskets are those for the char- coal and eelpots.
The charcoal baskets are shaped like a tray and are car- ried on the head by the coal carriers.
The eelpots are used as traps for catching eels. The wood is prepared for them in the same manner, and they are made on a form about 40 inches long and in the shape of a bot- tle minus the bottom, and have a funnel arrangement at either end, which is detachable. |
D. WrappedworJc. — Wrap- ped basketry consists of flex- ible or rigid warp and flexible weft. Examples of this tech- nic are to be seen in America at the present time among the Indians of southern Arizona for their carrying frames. (See fig7|>8.)
The warp extends from the rigid hoop, which forms the top, to the bottom where the elements are made fast. Fimmess is given to the structure by means of two bowed rods crossing at right angles at the bottom and securely lashed at the top. The weft, usually of twine, is attached to one of the corner or frame pieces at the bottom and is wrapped once around each warp element. This process continues in a coil until the top of the basket is reached. In some of its features this method resembles coiled work, but as a regular warp is employed and no needle is used in the coiling, it belongs more to the woven series. Hudson mentions the siime among the Pomos for holding roof
Pig. li^. \
WRAPPED WEAVING.
Mohave Indians, Arizona.
Otet. Mo. B4146l UiHjNM: — ^V^
ABORIGINAL AMEl|I(UM/ 'iS^f f]^T:
231
poles in place. The wrapping is very olbse where^tfhe i-af ters come to a point. As they widen the weft comes to be farther apart, being quite open on the outer margin. This method of weaving was employed by the mound builders of the Mississippi Valley. Markings of wrapped weaving pressed on ancient pottery taken from a mound in Ohio are io be seen in the Third Keport of the Bureau of Ethnology. (See fig%)
This style of weaving had not a wide distribution in America and is used at the present day in a restricted region. When the warp and the weft are of the same twine or material and the deinissations are drawn tight, the joint resembles the first half of a square knot. The Mincopies of the Andaman Islands construct a carrying basket in the same technic. Specimens of their work were collected and presented to the U. S. National Museum by Dr. W. L. Abbott.^ The^e baskets resemble most closely the Mohave specimens, only they are smaller and more attractive. The M incopies and their neighbors far and near have the incomparable rattan for warp and weft, which combines the strength and flexibility of copper wire. The distribution of this wrapped weav- ing has not been studied. | PlatB, 17 is\a carrying basket in Strapped weaving fronV. the Mohave Indians, photographed^ from thev()riginal now in the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago.
E. Twinedworl\ — This is found in ancient mounds of the Missis- sippi Valley, in bagging of the Rocky Mountains, down the Pacific coast from the island of Attn, the most westerly of the Aleutian chain, to the borders of Chile, and here and there in the Atlantic slope of South America. Indeed, it is found among savages through- out the world. It is the most elegant and intricate of all in the woven or plicated series. Twined work has a set of warp rods or rigid elements as in wickerwork, but the weft elements are commonly administered in pairs, though in three-strand twining and in braid twining three weft elements are employed. In passing from waip to warp these elements are twisted in half-turns on each other so as to form a two-strand or three-strand twine or braid and usually so deftly as to keep the smooth, glossy side of the weft outward.
The position of the weaver at her task on twined work, in Plate 18, shows the ti^ansition between the humble posture of the primitive basket maker and her successor later on seated at a loom. The name
Fig. IK -
WRAPPKD WEAVING, FROM MOITND IN OHIO. Afteg W. Ill Ilttlmwi.
o Smithsonian Report, 1901, pp. 475-492, pi. ii.
232 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEITM, 1902.
of the weaver in the lower figure is Elizat)eth Propokoffono. Her home is on the island of Atka, far out in the Aleutian chain. The Tlinkit weaver sits on the ground in the old-fashioned way, because her warp is rigid and self-supporting; Elizabeth, however, is working in soft grass, both for warp and weft. For this reason the former is suspended, and she is working from below upward. The Haida Indians on Queen Cliarlotte Archipelago south of her, as will be seen later on, weave in the same manner, the waip resting on a disk fastened to the top of a stake. Enough of modern technical appliances are mingled with this thoroughly aboriginal process to mark a sharp contrast between the woman's fingers and her teautif ul basket on the one hand,
and her loom-woven clothing, her flat- iron, and the iron hinges on her door on the other hand. _^^^_ _ The upper figure is from the Attn
^ ir^^^^ ^^Â¥JU "^t^jT^^ Island, also weaving a grass wallet in
twined work in front of her under- ground home or barabara. It is most interesting to observe that her work is supported from a stick in the top of the house, and is mounted precisely as one shown in Plate 1, of Holmes's Prehis- toric Textile Art, taken from Harlot/'
I 'TIS '*
â– /^ V^,^,^ and illustrating industries of the eastern
Indians at the period of discovery. According to the relation of the weft elements to one another and to the warp, different structures in twined weaving result as follows:
1 . Plain twined weaving over single w^arps.
2. Diagonal twine<l weaving or twill over two or more warps.
3. Wrapped twined weaving, or bird-cage twine, in which one weft element remains rigid and the other is wrapped alwut the crossings.
4. Lattice-twined w^eaving, tee or Hudson stitch, twinetl work around vertical warps crossed by horizontal warp element.
5. Three-strand twined weaving and braiding in several styles.
1. Plain ttrlned 'Weaving, — ^Plain twined weaving is a refined sort of wattling or crating. The ancient engineers, who built obstructions in streams to aid in catching or impounding fish, drove a row of sticks into the bottom of the stream, a few inches apart. Vines and brush were woven upon these upright sticks which served for a warp. In passing each stake the two vines or pieces of brush made a half turn on each other. This is a very primitive mode of weaving. Plain twined basketry is made on exactly the same plan. There is a set of warp elements which may be reeds, or splints, or string, arranged radially on the bottom and parallel on the body. The weft consists
"Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1896, Plate 1.
FiG.I PLAIN TWINED WEAVING.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
233
of two strips of root or other flexible material, and these are twisted as in forming a two-strand rope passing over a warp stem at each halfturn. (See tig. "i^ Many wastebaskets are woven on this plan. Plate 19 shows two bowls in plain twined weaving, called Bamtush by the Pomos, which are excellent examples of the possibilities and limitations of this style. They are in the collection of C. P. Wilcomb, of San Francisco. The upper figure, 10 inches in diameter, is from Cloverdale, Russian River, Sonoma County; the lower from Potter Valley, in Mendocino County. The warp is of willow rods, the weft of carex root and splints of cercis. A small space at the bottom is in three- ply braid and the nar- row Imnd near the top, w^ith wide twists, is plain twined work over more than one warp stem. (See Plates 3i, 44, 71, 1±)
In this connection must not be overlooked a va- riety of twined weaving in which the warp plays an important part. It is a transition between the plain twine and the next type, the halves of the double warp standing for the independent warp stems of the diagonal weave. If the weft be administered in open work with the rows from a fourth to a half an inch apart and the warp ele- ments be flexible under the strain of weaving, they will assume a zigzag shape.
Pleasing varieties of this type of twined weaving will be found in the Aleutian Islands. .-^SiiteiijF^W^Jt resembles hemstitching. The Aleuts frequently use^f or their warp stems of wild rye or other grasses, in which the straws are split, or a pair used, and the two halves pass upward in zigzag form. Each half of a waip is caught alternately with the other half of the same straw and with a half of the adjoining straw, making a series of triangular instead of rectangular spaces.
} (See figl"^.)
' A still further variation is given to plain twined ware by crossing
i
Fig. 16.
openwork twined wallet.
Aleutian Island^.
f-at ^-.>, 11070 V «^,]^,v f^.v
234
REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
the warps. In bamboo ])asketry of eastern Asia these crossed warps are also interlaced or held together by a horizontal strip of bamboo passing in and out in ordinary weaving. In such examples the inter- stices are triangular, but in the twined example here described the weaving passes across between the points where the warps intersect
^«- "• Fig. 13. '
TWINED OPENWORK.
Aleutian I.slands. crosskd.warp. twined weave.
â– KwlargBflj Makah IndiauH, Washington.
each other, leaving hexagonal interstices. (See fig. M nnAiJJatr 1#S.) This combination of plain twined weft and crossed warp has not a wide distribution in America, but examples are to be seen in southeastern Alaska and among relics found in Peruvian gi'aves.
2. Diagonal twhwd weaving. — In diagonal twined weaving the twist- ing of the weft filaments is precisely the same as in plain twined weaving. The differ- ence of the texture is caused by the manner in which the weft crosses the warps. This style abounds among the Ute Indians and the Apache, who dip the bottles made in this fashion into pitch and thus produce a water-tight vessel, the open meshes receiv- ing the pitch more freely. The technic of the diagonal weaving consists in passing over two or more warp elements at each turn, just as in weaving with a single ele- ment. But the warp of the diagonal twined weaving never passes over or under more than one weft as it does in twilled weaving. There must be an odd number of warps, for in the next round the same pairs are not included in the half turns. The ridges on the outside, therefore, are not vertical as in plain weaving, but pass diagonally over the surface, hence the name. (See PiatE!36, and figs. 1^ and ISO.)
Fig. V9.
diagonal twined wkavino.
rtc Indians, Utah.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
235
Fig. ^.
DIAGONAL TWINED BASKETRY.
Porno Indians, California.
Plate 20 will make clear the difference between plain twined weav- ing and diagonal twined or twilled work. The figures are of the bur- den basket, the granary, and the mush bowls of the Pomo Indians, in Lake, Sonoma, and Mendocino counties, California, in the collection of C. P. Wilcomb. Especial attention is here drawn to the infinitel}- greater possibilities of decoration in the twilled work. The foregoing plate shows that the ornamentation of plain twined basketry is confined chiefly to bands, but here the artist revels in the cycloid, which widens and becomes more intri- cate as it ascends. It rivals in com- plexity the best coiled work of the Pomos and should be compared with Plates 29 and 56.
3. Wrapped twined weaving.— In wrapped twined weaving one element of the twine passes along horizontally across the warp stems, usually on the inside of the basket, forming a lattice. The binding element of splint, or strip of bark, or string, is wrapped around the crossings of the horizontal element with the vertical wai-p. (See fig.^^^.)
On the outside of the basket the turns of the wrapping are oblique;
on the inside they are vertical. It will ])e seen on examining this fig- ure that one row inclines to the right, the one above it to the left, and so on alternately. This was occasioned by the weaver's passing from side to side of the square car- rying basket, and not all the way round as usual. The work is simi- lar to that in an old-fashioned bird cage, where the upright and hori- zontal wires are held in place by a wrapping of finer soft wire. The typical example of this wrapped or bird-cage twine is to be seen among the Makah Indians of the Wakashan family living about Neah Bjiy, Washington, and in the soft hats of Salish and Shapaptian. (See fig.^.) In this t^^pe the warp and the horizontiil strip behind the warp are both in soft material. The wmpping is done with a tough straw- colored grass. When the weaving is beaten home tight the surface is not unlike that of a fine tiled roof, the stitches overlying each other
Pig. 1H.
WRAPPED TWINED WrikVING.
286
REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
with perfect regularity. Such a wimple style of fastening wai*p and weft together would seem to have occurred to tribes of savages in many parts of the world. Strange to relate, however, excepting in Washington and the ocean side of Vancouver Island, the process is not known. The exception to this statement is to be found in a few spo- radic cases where, pi^rhaps, Nutka and Makah women had married into adjoining tribes. \ A few of the Salish women make similar ware, and it will be seen in Imsket hats of the Nez Perc^ Indians. A small col- lection of this ware came to the Museum through the Wilkes fc^A- ploring Expedition, but the orna- mentation is decidedly Skokomisb. Figs. 23 and 24 show the detail of mixed twined weaving, diago- nal twined weaving, and wrapped twined weaving, inside and outride view. The facility with which the basket maker combines these weaves in the same texture gives her complete control over her mate- rial in the matter of ornamentation. The coloring of the two sides of the splints of cercis shows, in the figures, the difference between the outside and the inside of the basket. Another element of technic, not mentioned hitherto, is made apparent here in the requirements of these three different styles of workmanship controlling the space somewhat of the warp rods. Perhaps in no other tribe than the Porno is there such free use of any number of textile methods on the same piece of workmanship to secure different results.
It is possible to combine the several methods of twined weaving and, calling the aid of color, to produce good effects even in unpromis- ing materials. Figs. 25 and 26 show back and front of a square from a Ute basket jar. The first two rows are plain twined work, then come three rows of plain tw ined work also, though it does not look like it. It incloses warp stems in pairs, and the back and front are alike. It changes to diagonal merel}^ by alternating warps. Below these three rows are diagonal twine, wrapped twine, or Makah weave, combined with diagonal. Plate 21 contains five figures, all in diagonal twined weaving. They were made by the Ute Indians and collected long ago by Major J. W. Powell. They represent first of all the dif- ferent results of the same technical process in varied materials. The specimens are all woven precisely alike. Fig. 1 has a coarse, inflexible warp. Fig. 2 has a finer warj), and hence the twists may be driven closer home. Fig. 4 shows the adaptation of modern shape in facili-
FlG. ^ WRAPPED TWINED WEAVING.
Makah Indians, Washington.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
237
tating the carrying. In fig. 5 a fine weft assumes a diagonal shape in being twisted, while fig. 3 is the last word in the story of the water jar. 4. Lattiee-twined weaving. — The lattice-twined weaving, so far as the collections of the National Museum show, is confined to the Pomo Indians, of the Kulanapan family, residing on Russian River, Cali- fornia. It is so called because it has a vertical and a horizontal warp
Fig. 23. ^ detail of mixed twined weaving.
(Outside.)
resembling latticework. Dr. J. W. Hudson calls this technic tee. This is a short and convenient word, and may be used for a specific name. The tee-twined weaving consists of four elements, {a) the upright warp of rods, {b) a horizontal warp crossing these at right angles, and (c^, d) a regular plain-twined weaving of two elements, holding the warps firmly together. (See fig.*5<.)
In all these examples in the National Museum the horizontal or extra warp is on the exterior of the basket. On the outside the tee
HI
Fig. 24.
detail of mixed twined weaving.
(Inside.)
basket does not resemble the ordinary twined work, but on the inside it is indistinguishable. Baskets made in this fashion are very rigid and strong, and frequently the hoppers of mills for grinding acorns, and also water-tight jars, are thus constructed. The ornamentation is confined to narrow bands, the artist being restricted by the technic.
238
BEPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
Fig. 25.
vabisty in twined weavincs.
(Outeide.)
Aroeiicmn Anthropologrist. Ill, 1901, ttg. 18.
Plate 22 shows two cxamplos of tee weaving. The upper one, 19
inches in diameter, i.s from Pinole rancheria, Mendocino County, Cali- fornia. The lower one is from Lake C/Ounty, and both are in the collection of C. P. Wilcomb. The waq> is in stems of the wil- low, the dull colored material of the weft is the root of sedge, the brown and very white colors are in the stem of cercis — the former color being outside bark, the latter of wood next to the bark. (See also Plate 173. )
The technic of these two bas- kets is as follows: Beginning at the upper edge there is no spe- cial border, the ends of the warp stems being cut off; two or three rows of plain twined weaving are at the top; just below will be seen three or four rows of alternating brown and white rectangles; these are also in
plain twined weaving, although the twists pass over two or three warp
stems instead of one; after that twined tee weaving follows over the
entire surface. With an ordinary
hand glass the two sets of warp,
vertical and horizontal, can be
made out, and also the way in
which the weft of thin splints is
administered. The limitations of
ornament to the narrow bands
with triangles and parallelograms
for the elements are clearly seen.
On the plain bands a form of orna- ment will be noted, in which splints
of cercis unite with those of sedge
root to form an alternation of
wood color and very white. In
the colored bands the effects are
produced by exposing now the
outside or bark of the cercis, now
the inside or wood color. No at- tempt has been made to change the color of these splints artificially. 5. Thy^ee-strand twined weaving, — Three-strand twined weaving is the
Fig. 26.
variety in twined weaving.
(Inside.)
American Anthropoloirlst, III, 1901, flff. 81.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
239
use of three weft splints and other kinds of weft elements instead of two, and there are four ways of administering the weft:
(a) Three-strand twine.
(b) Three-strand braid.
(c) Three-strand, false embroiderj% Tlinkit.
(d) Frapped twine, Thompson River.
It will be seen in studying these four methods that they are partly structural and partly ornamental, especially the last two. Inasmuch, however, as the Indian woman makes her ornamental work a part of her industrial work, the four methods may be all studied here. Very little was known among the American aborigines concerning additional ornaments given to the textile after the foundation was woven. The part which furnishes strength to the fabric and that which gives deco- ration were in technic one and the same process.
(a) Three-strand twine, — In this technic the basket-weaver holds in her hand three weft elements of any of the kinds mentioned. In twisting these three, each one of the strands, as it passes inward, is carried behind the warp stem adjoining, so that in a whole revolution the three weft elements have
Fig. ^. \ .
TEE OR LATTICE-TWINED WEAVING.
Pomo Indians, California.
^rf^
ID AND TW
Pig.
THSZE-8TRAND BRAID AND TWINED WORK.
(Outside.) ^umilfii AlllliiuiiuluglBt, 1H| iWI. <lg. 83.
FlG.^. ^ . THRES-RTRAND BRAID AND TWINED WORK.
(Inside.)
in turn passed behind three warp elements. After that the process is repeated. By referring to the lower halves of ligs. '&§ and ^^ the outside and the inside of this technic will be made plain. On the out- side there is the appearance of a three-strand string laid along the warp stems, while on the inside the texture looks like a plain twined weaving.
240
REPORT OF NATIONAL MI SEUM, 1902.
The reason for this is apparent, since in every third revolution one element passes behind the warp and two remain in front. Three- strand twined work is seldom used over the entire surface of a basket. , In fig. 30 will be seen the drawing of a very old piece of twined work from the ancient Hopi or Moki Pueblo. The bottom of this old basket jar and a portion of the body, as will be seen, are covered with plain twine weft. The shoulder and neck and two bands of the body are in three-strand twined weaving. A small portion of the inside, seen in the top of the drawing, as will >)e seen, has the appearance of small two- strand twined work. In fig. 31 is shown a square inch from the sur-
FiG. 30.
BASKBT-JAR IN THREE-STRAND TWINE.
Hopi Indians. Arizona.
ColIe<'te<I hy J. W. Powell.
face of this jar, enlarged to make plain, the appearance of the two types of technic. The upper portion of the figure has all the api>earance of twilled and twined work in two-strand weft. The three-strand work shown in this figure is a Ute motive. The U. S. National Museum col- lections represent at least seven diflFcrent styles of basketry technic attributed to the Hopi people of Tusayan, and philologists have come to the conclusion that the Hopi are a very mixed people.
{b) Three-8tr(md hrald. — In three-strand braid the weft elements are held in the hand in the same fashion, but instead of being twined simply they are plaited or braided, and as each element passes under
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
24i
one and over the other of the remaining two elements, it is carried behind a warp stem. Jhis process is better understood ])y examining the upper part of fig. 9^4»m^^*> On the surfac*o, when the work is driven home, it is impossible to discriminate between three-strand twine arjd three-strand braid. The three-strand braid is found at the starting of all Pomo twined baskets, no matter how the rest is built up. Fig. 33 is a conical carrying basket of the Klamath Indians of Oregon, collected by L. S. Dyar. It is made of coarse stems of rushes. The warp begins with a few stems brought together to a point at the bottom and as the specimen widens out fresh warp stems are added. These are securely joined together by a continuous coil of weft, which is a three-strand braid. At the be- ginning these turns of the coil touch one another, but as the work pro- gresses and the basket widens the distance from one row to the next increases until they are nearly an inch apart at the top. The braiding is done from the outside, two of the stems showing always there and only one on the inside, resembling common twined weaving. This is the only specimen in the Museum in which the whole surface is braided. In many twined baskets of the
Fig. 31.
THREE-STRAND AND PLAIN TWINED WEAVING.
Fi«. :a
THREE-STRAND HRAID.
Pomo an inch or so at the bottom is thus woven. The top is finished off in the following manner: Three warp ends arc braided together for at least 2 inches, turned down and cut off. The hook-shaped ends are held in place by a row of common twined weaving at the top. Just below this and close to the ends is a row of three-strand braid. NAT MUS 1902 16
'242 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
Another row of the same kind is made half wa}^ between the upper edge of the solid weaving and the l>order. A hoop of wood is held in place on the inside by a wrapping of coarse twine. The appearance of three-strand braid in the drawing on the inside of the basket is given by the strands of twined weaving and the ends of the warp bent over. The basket is strengthened on the outside by five vertical rods, and the carrying string is in three-strand braid, precisely as in the body and margin of the basket. Height 22 inches, diameter 23 inches. In the collection of Dr. C. Hart Merriam are two closely woven Klamath baskets in the same technic (see Plate 174).. Styles (c) and {(l) belonp^ rather to ornamentation and will be described under that heading.
«f
Fig. 83. carrying ba8kkt, three-strand braid.
Klamath Indians, Oregon. Cat, No. 24104, U.8.N.M. After W. H, Holmw.
Something should be said in this connection about the manner of laying the foundation for weaving baskets. In many of the specimens illustrated in this work it will be seen that very little tasteful care has been bestowed upon this part of the work. The Eskimos, for instance, do not know how, seemingly, but use a piece of rawhide, and it is said that the Indians of British Columbia formerly inserted apiece of board or wood at the bottom of their coiled baskets and sewed the coils around an edge of it, but there is method in much of the basket weav- ing in this point, as will be seen on examining the plates. Miss Mary
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
243
White, in her book, More Baskets and How to Make Them, has worked this subject out very carefully.^
Figs?^ tS^^ inclusive, show the result of her studies.
Fig?%4 5s the simplest form of starting the bottom of a basket. Four warp stems are arranged in pairs and crossed at the center. A
Fig. M. wabp stems crosskd in pairs.
Attw Mniy Wklto.
Pig. a^
WARP STEMS CR(WSED IN POURS.
strip of wood or a flexible stem is wound twice around the intersection. The figure also shows how additional warp stems may be introduced into this pattern, being thrust between the regular stems. Once they are held firmly in place by two or three rows of common basket weav-
PlG. ^ SIXTEEN STEMS WOVEN IN POURS.
iftirr Mr-T ^"*'"-
Fig. 3V.
WARP STEMS CROSSED IN FOURS
AND TWINED.
i ffop Mii»8i iniiinr
ing, additional waip stems are added, and they are bent out radially as a foundation for the work.
Fig.^^ shows how a start may be made with 16 warp stems crossing in groups of four at the center. Two sets begin at once to divide and
« How to make Baskets, New York, 1902; also More Baskets and how to make Them, 1903,
244
REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
radiate, and after they are hold together by three. rows of weft the other eight are spread out in the same way. The drawing illustrates exactly the manner in which this is done.
Fig.^S§ shows another method of beginning with 16 warp stems,
plaiting them into checker pattern at first, then afterwards spreading them out radi- ally. ^
Fig. Sj brings us into the Hopi Indian type of twined weaving. Here four stems in one direction cross the same number at right angles and are held in place by a row of twined weaving, additional warp stems being inserted at the corners, which spread out radially.
Fig. 38 is a Hopi application of coiled sewing to the beginning of the basket. In Fig. 39 the warp stems are woven to- gether in wicker work in two sets; the first vertical, the second horizontal. As soon as they are in place and held together the work proceeds as in ordinary weaving.
Fig. 38. bix warp stems parallel.
After Mm7 White.
(X>ILED BASKETRY
I Coiled basketry is produced by an over-and-over sewing with some
\ kind of flexible material, each stitch interlocking with the one imme-
-^iately underneath it. | The exception to this is to be seen on Salish,
Maidu, and other baskets, in which the
passing stitch is driven through the wood
of the one underneath and splits it.
In the coiled basketry of British Colum- bia, as well as here and there farther south, this splitting of stitches, so clumsy look- ing when done without plan, is turned into an element of beauty. The top of each stitch is carefully bifurcated or tri- furcated, so that to the uninitiated the sew- ing appears to have been done vertically instead of horizontally. This type of work may be called furcate coil. (See Plate 23 and figs. 51 and 55.)
The specimen (Plate 23) is a remarkable old piece found near Death's Valley, California. Diameter, 6i inches; depth, 4 inches; colors, dark wood, with line of brown around top. This is one of the finest specimens of furcated stitches. It resembles common Ute bas- ketry of the two-stem variety, and in the sewing the stitches are not driven home tight, but left as wide apart as possible. On the inside
FlO. 89. WARP errEMH crossed in threes; held
BY wicker. After Mary White.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
245
mmP
,T"F
of the basket it is plain coiled sewing, showing the foundation rod
clearly between the stitches. Passing the awl point between the
stitches on the inside, it is carefully pushed through so as to divide
the sewing splint of the previous coil exactly in the middle. This
gives the appearance of embroidery stitches from
the center of the bottom to the outer margin. This
specimen of furcated stitching is in the collection of
Edward L. McLeod. Those familiar with the coiled
basket making taught in the industrial schools will
compare this work with their own, in which the
colored rafia is hidden in the foundation for a space
of wrapping and comes out at the point where the
double stitch is to be made.
The transition between lace work and coiled bas- ketry is interesting. In the netted bags of pita fiber, common throughout middle America, in the muskemoots or Indian bags of fine caribou skin thong from the Mackenzie River district, as well as in the lace-like netting of the Mohave carrying frames and Peruvian textiles, the sewing and inter- locking constitute the whole texture, the woman doing her work over a short cylinder or spreader of wood or bone, which she moves along as she works. When the plain sewing changes to half hitches, or stitches in which the moving part of the filament or twine is wrapped or served one or more times about itself, there is the rude beginning of point lace work. This is seen in basketry and soft wallets of the Mac- kenzie River tribes, the Hopewell mound relies in Ohio, here and there in California, and especially among the Fuegians, as well as in many pieces from various parts of the Old World. (See figs. 59, 115).
The sewing materials vary with the region. In the Aleutian Islands it is of delicate straw; in the adjacent region it is spruce root; in British Columbia it is cedar or spruce root; in the more diversified styles of the Pacific States every available material has been used — stripped leaf, grass stems, rushes, split root, broad fillets, and twine, the effect of each being well marked. The gathering and preparation of these materials for use have already been described in the first por- tion .of this paper. It is understood that, as in woven basketry, the grasses, roots, and splints of wood are soaked in water and kept as pliable as possible until the work is done.
In all coiled basketry, properly so called, there is a foundation more
Fig. 40.
bone awl for coilkd
basketby.
Collected by Edward Palmer.
246 REPOBT OF KATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
or less rigid, inclosed within stitches, the only implement being an awl ' of some kind. Fig. 40 shows the metatarsal of an antelope sharpened in the middle and harder portion of the column, the joint serving for a grip for the hand. It was the universal prehistoric sewing imple- ment of savage women and persists to our day.
In every living tribe of basket makers these awls are among the com- monest of woman's tools, most serviceable in sewing garments as well. They are dug up in mounds, found in caves, and are rarely absent from the work baskets of mummies in the arid regions.^
Frank H. Gushing was of the opinion that the bone awl was far
better for fine basket work than any implement of steel; the point,
being a little rounded, would find its way between the stitches of the
coil underneath and not force itself through them. The iron awl,
being hard and sharp, breaks the texture and gives a very rough and
clumsy appearance to the surface, as will be seen in fig. 51.
â– p Coiled basketry in point of size presents the greatest extreme.
» There are specimens delicately made that will pass through a lady's-
; finger ring, and others as large as a flour barrel; some specimens
J have stitching material one-half inch wide, as in the Pima granaries,
I and in others the root material is shredded so fine that nearly 100
: stitches are made within an inch of space. In form the coiled ware
may be perfectly flat, as in a table mat, or built up into the most
exquisite jar shape. In design the upright stitches lend themselves to
the greatest variety of intricate patterns.
Coiled basketrj^ may be divided into ten varieties, based on struc- tural characteristics. , The foundation of the coil may be (1) a single element, either splint, » or stem, or rod; (2) a stem or other single element, with a thin welt laid on top of it; (3) two or more stems one over another; (4) two stems or other elements laid side by side, with or without a welt; (5) three stems in triangular position; (6) a bundle of splints or small stems; (7) a bundle of grass or small shreds.
The stitches pass around the foundation in progress (1) interlocking with and sometimes splitting stitches, but not inclosing the founda- tion underneath; (2) under one rod of the coil beneath, however many there may be; (3) under a welt of the coil beneath; (4) through splints or other foundation, in some cases systematically splitting the sewing material underneath. With these explanations it is possible to make the following ten varieties of coiled basketry, matting, or bagging: A. Coiled work without foundation. J?. Simple interlocking coils.
C. Single-rod foundation.
D, Two-rod foundation.
« Smithsonian Report, 1882, p. 724, fig. 3.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
247
E. Rod and welt foundation.
F. Two-rod and splint foundation.
G. Three-rod foundation. //. Splint foundation.
/. Grass-coil foundation.
K. Fuegian coiled basketry (i^^'^5&).*
These will now be taken up systematically and illustrated. (See
A. Coiledwork without foundation, — Specimens of this class have been already mentioned. The sewing material is babiche or fine raw- hide thong in the cold noith, or string of some sort farther south. In the Mackenzie Basin will be found the former, and in the tropical and
Fig. 4^ , A-T
CR068 SECTIONS OP VARIETIFS IN COILED BASKETRY.
subtropical areas the latter. If a plain, spiral spring be coiled or hooked into one underneath, the simplest form of the open coiled work will result. An improvement of this is effected when the moving thread in passing upward after interlocking is twined one or more times about its standing part. (See figi. 4llA.jaa4-i00:)
The technical process just mentioned is pmcticed among the Atha- pascan tribes of the Mackenzie River drainage. It is doubtful whether anciently the predecessors of these Indian women did such fine work in rawhide. The steel-bladed knife made slender babiche possible, and the thrift brought about by the Hudson Bay Company made it desirable. But it will be seen that the Mound-builders had the weave and could produce in flax texture even more delicate than the muske- moots or hunting bags of the northern tribes.
248
REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSKUM, 1902.
Fijj. 42 reprosonts a rarrying frame and not of the Pima and other trilifs on our Mexiam JK)rder. It is supported by a rude framework
of sticks. The network is of agave twine and is made of interlocking coils, looking as all-coiled Ixis- ketry would if the foundation wore removed.
Further on illustrations will l>e given showing the wide extent of this technical process of coiled Imsketry without foundation. Ex- amples in the U. S. National Mu- seum come from as far south as Paraguaj^ and even the Straits of Magellan. It is in common use as far north as northern Mexico. Both the possession of diflForent material and the demands of a tropical life have occasioned the employment of this particular tochnic in articles of common use about the household. Its relation to coiled basketry and bead work is shown by the fact that women in making the fabric use a nee- dle to cany the thread or string around through the row of work preceding. A small rod or mesh gauge is used to secure uniformity in tlie size of the meshes.
B. Sliiiplr Infrrlork'nuf coils, — Coiled work in which there viiKy be any sort of foundation, l)ut the stitches merely interlock without catching under the rods or splints or grass beneath. This form easily passes into those in which the stitch tiikes one or more elements of the foundji- tion, l)ut in a thorough ethnological study small differences can not be overlooked. (See fig. a^,)
Fig. 48 represents this style of workman- ship on a coiled basket in grass stems from Alaska, collected by Lucien M. Turner. The stniws for sewing merely interlock without gathering the grass roll.
In the imbricated basket work of British Columbia and Washing- ton the sewing is done with splints of cedar root and the stitches
Fig. 42.
carrying ba8ket.
Pima Indians, Arizona.
Cat. No, 126M0. l.S.N.M. CoIIi'^'UhI liy Kdward Palmer.
m^'itmt
Fig. 43.
DETAIL OF INTKRIX)CKING STITCHES.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
249
interlock. Two quite distinct styles of foundation are used, namely, bunche8 of splints taken from the more brittle and rough interior of the cedar root, and two flat strips of the smooth layer on the outside of the root. The surface of the one will be rugose, of the other, flat and smooth. (See figs. 62, 63, and 54 and Plates 156-161.)
Figs. 44 and 45 represent a type of coiled work in vogue among the Mescalero Apaches. As has been said previously, the Apache Indians, who live in the arid regions of Arizona, made the foundations of their coiled basketry of hard rods. In various tribes these rods are arranged in a foundation after different patterns. It will be seen by examining the drawing here given that three rods form the basis of the coil. They are laid one on another in a vertical row, the
Pig. 44.
foundation of three rods laid vertically.
Meacalero Apjichc Indians.
stitches simply interlocking so that the greatest economy of work is effected. It is not known that any other tribe in America practices this peculiar arrangement of the foundation rods. This specimen, (yat. No. 211941, in the U. S. National Museum, was collected by F. M. Covert.
Plate 24 shows a style of coiled weaving called openwork. This specimen, in the collection of C. E. Rumsey, Riverside, California, is termed a gi'asshopper basket, but it belongs to a type of technic that has a very wide distribution, and probably has nothing to do with holding liye insects. The foundation is a bundle of shredded material or grass. The sewing is a splint of hard wood. This is wrapped a certain number of times around the foundation and then caught under the sewing of the coil underneath, the stitches interlocking. Perhaps a few bits of the
250
REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
Fio. 45.
DETAIL OF KIO. 44.
foundation are caught also in the stitch. After two stitches are made in this way the wrapping continues. It is possible by counting this last as well as the number of stitches to reproduce beautiful patterns on the surface. The ornamentation also may be varied by the use of different colored splints. This si>ecimen is from the Watchumna (Mariposan) Indians of middle California, but examples are in the
National Museum collected from Norway, Porto Rico, and Peru. (See Plates 224 and 248.)
C. Single-rod founddtiori. — In rattan basketry and Pacific coast ware, called by Dr. J. W. Hud- son tsai in the Pomo language, the foundation is a single stem, uniform in diameter. The stitch passes around the stem in prog- ress and is caught under the one of the preceding coil, as in fig. 4i-CJ^ "* ^ In a collection of Siamese basketry in the U. S. National Museum the specimens are all made after this fashion. The foundation is the stem of the plant in its natural state; the sewing is with splints of the same material, having the glistening surface outward. As this is somewhat unyielding it is diflScult to crowd the stitches together, and so the foundation is visible between. California is not far behind the East in the quality of material, willow for the basis of the coil, and plants in a variety of colors for the sew- ing. The Siamese coiled basketry has little of design on its surface, but the American basketmaker may fix whatever her imagination may suggest. The effect of the plain stitching Ls pleasing to the eye by reason of the regular broken sur- face. In America single-rod bas- ketry is widely spread. Along the Pacific coast it is found in northern Alaska and as far south as the bor- ders of Mexico. The Pomo Indians use it in some of their finest work. The roots of plants and soft stems of willow, rhus, and the like are used for the sewing, and, being soaked thoroughl}', can be crowded together so as to entirely conceal the foundation. (See fig. 4^
Plate 25 represents a collection of Pomo treasure baskets, all in single-rod foundation, called tsai by Dr. Hudson and bam tsha or bam
DPrrAlL OP SINULK-Ror> COIL IN BASKETRY.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
251
tshai by Carl Purdy. These specimens are in the collection of C. P. Wilcomb; the foundation is of willow rod, the sewing material of sedge root, the design in the cercis splints, the decoration with shells, beads, and partridge plumes. The method of sewing is on all of these baskets the same as shown in fig. 41 C.
Plate 26, Cat. No. 89801 U.S.N.M., is from Point Barrow, Alaska, and was collected by Capt. P. H. Ra}', U. S. Army. The material is shoots and roots of willow, and the specimen was secured from Eskimo people living at the extreme northern point of Alaska. It had evi- dently been procured, however, from Indians near by. On the bot- tom small rods are used for the foundation and the sewing is in stmight lines backward and forward until this portion is finished. Here the foundation rods are somewhat larger and the sewing splints wider. Comparing this specimen, then, with a great many others from the same area, the uniforaiit}" in size of the foundation rod is noticeable. It will also be noted that the stitches are not driven home closely, a feature which occurred over and over again in coiled basketry between Point Barrow and the Republic of Mexico.
D. Two-rod foimdaticnu — One rod in this style lies on top of the other; the stitches pass over two rods in progress and under the upper one of the pair below, so that each stitch incloses three stems in a vertical series (fljgt .i^f). A little attention given to fig. -Kt iD will demonstrate that the alternate rod, or the upper rod, in each pair will be in- closed in two series of stitches, while the other or lower rod will pass along freely in the middle of one series of stitches and show on the
^.^ outer side. | Examples of this two-rod foundation are to be seen among the Athapascan tribes of Alaska, among the Ponio Indians of the Pacific coast, and among the Apache of Arizona. An interesting or specialized variety of this type is seen among the Mescaleros of New Mexico, who use the two-rod foundation, but instead of passing the stitch around the upper rod of the coil below simpl^Mnterlock the stitches so that neither one of the two rods is inclosed twice. This Apache ware is sewed with yucca fiber and the brown root of the same plant, producing a brilliant effect, and the result of the special technic is a flat surface like that of pottery. The U. S. National Museum possesses a single piece of precisel}^ the same technic from the kindred i of the Apache on the Lower Yukon. ^See figs. 4A and 45.)
E. Rod andiceltfoundatkm, — In this kind of basketry the single- rod foundation is overlaid by a splint or strip of tough fiber, some-
FlG. 47.
FOUNDATION OF TWO RODS, VERTICAL.
252
BEPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
Fig. 48. bod and wki-t forxdation.
times the same as that with which the sewing is done; at others, a strip
of leaf or bast. The stitches piss over the rod and strip which are
on top down under the welt only of the coil telow, the stitches inter- locking. The strip of tough fiber between the two rods which serves for a welt has a double purpose — strengthening the fabric and chink- ing the space between the rods (fig. 48). This style of coil work is seen on old Zuiii basket jars and on Cali- fornia examples. This type of foun- dation passes easily into forms C, D, E, and F. In fact, it is impossible to distinguish between them without marring the specimen. (See fig. 41.) The specimens shown on Plate 27 are a water bottle and a gathering
basket of the Utes; that is, they are of Ute motive. Such pieces,
however, are often seen among other tribes and in some of the later
pueblos. By looking carefully at the surface of the pictures it will be
seen that there may be two
rods, the upper much smaller
than the other; or on the top
of the principal rod will be
a splint or two of material.
The foundation of such bas- ketry is not uniform in
composition, but in motive
they are all the same. The
strength of the basket is in
the principal rod. The joint
is made stronger by having
between the stitches of two
coils an additional rod or
smaller piece. There are no
wide gaps separating any
two styles of weaving, and
it will be easily seen that this
Ute type passes readily into
other forms.
Cat. Nos. 84596 (upper figure), 42126 (lower figure), U.S.N.M.
F. Two-rod and sj)li7it foimdutlon, — In this style the foundation is
made thicker and stronger by laying two rods side by side and a splint
or welt on top to make the joint perfectly tight. The surface will be
corrugated. Tribes practicing this style of coiling generally have fine
Fig. 49.
water jar in coiled basketry.
Wolpi, Arizona.
CRt. No. 421», U.S.N.M. Collected by J. 8. Stevenson.
K
2JfF
253
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
material and some of the best ware is so made up. | It passes easily, as one might guess, into the Lillooet style, in which the tW elements of the foundation are thin and flat. Fig. 40 is a. water jar from the Wolpi pueblo, one of the Hopi group, ^llected long ago by James Steven- son. It is Cat. No. 42129 U.S.N.M.,^nd was first figured in the Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. {See fig. 41 ¥:f
Plate 28 represents two fine old coiled baskets from the pueblo of Sia, on the Rio Grande River, New Mexico. In addition to the struc- ture, which consists of two rods and a splint above sewed with willow splints, the stitches interlocking and catching in the welt below, the ornamentation a stepped design, suggestive of pueblo architecture on the upper figure and spirals made up of colored rectangles on the lower figure, needs to be merely pointed out. The characteristic sought to be illustrated here in this connection is the false braid made on the sur- face produced by sewing a single splint in a figure of eight weaving, shown in the plate. The modern Indians of this pueblo do not make basketry of this character, and it is altogether reasonable to think that in the olden times these pieces came into the possession of these people by traffic from Shoshonean tribes near by. Catalogue No. 134213, U.S.N.M. Collected by James Ste- venson.
G. Three-rod foun datum . — This is the type of foundation called })y Carl Purdy bam shi bu, from bam, sticks, and sibbu, three. Among the Pomo
and other tribes in the western part of the United States the most delicate pieces of basketry are in this st} le. Dr. Hudson calls them *'the jewels of coiled basketry." The surfaces are beautifully cor- rugated, and patterns of the most intricate character can be wrought on them. The technic is as follows: Three or four small willow stems of uniform thickness serve foj the foundation, as shown in fig.^u^ also in cross section in tig. 5-G^. The sewing, which may be in splints of willow, black or white carex root, or cercis stem, passes around the three stems constituting the coil, under the upper one of the bundle below, the stitches interlocking. In some examples this upi>er rod is replaced by a thin strip of material serving for a welt (see fig. ?1.F). In the California area the materials for basketry are of the finest (juality. The willow stems and carex root are suscep- tible of division into delicate filaments. Sewing done with these is most compact, and when the stitches are pressed closely together the
Fig. 50. foundation of three rods, stitcheh <atch-
IM; rod UNDERNEATH.
254
REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
foundation does not appear. On the surfa<»e of the bam shi bu basketry the Porno wmiver adds i)retty bits of bird feathers and deli- cate pieces of shell. The basket represents the wealth of the maker,
and the gift of one of these to a friend is considered to Ije the highest compliment.
Plate 29 is a beautiful example of I^m shi bu coiled basketry, having a foundation of three Bams, or shoots of Hind's willow {Salijc se^ili folia). The sewing of the lighter portions is in carefully prepared roots of a sedge, Kahum {Carex harhara^)^ while the designs are in the roots of a })ulrush, Tsuwish {Sdrpm viari- tu/tius). Red feathers of the Cali- fornia woodpecker are scattered over the surface. This faultless speci- men, now in the collection of C. P. Wilcomb, was made in the year 1896 hy Squaw Mary, a noted basket maker, wife of Ned Dunson (Indian), then living at Santa Rosa Creek, Sonoma Count}^ California. She belonged to the Tsar walo division of the Pomos. Diameter of the basket Sf inches, collected by J. P. Stanley.
ForXDATlON OF SI'UNTS.
Fuj. hi.
IMBRICATKI) WORK DETAIL, CALLED KLIKITAT.
Showiiij? meUiod of concealing coil stitches.
H. Splud fimndatlon, — In })asketry of this type the foundation consists of a number of longer or shorter splints massed together and sewed, the stitches passing under one or more of the splints in the
ABORIGINA^L AMERICAN BASKETBY.
255
Fig. .13. imbricated coil work, called klikitat.
coil beneath (hR*../a). In the Porno language it is called chilo, but it
has no standing in that tribe. In the Great Interior Basin, where the
pliant material of the California tribes is wanting, only the outer and
younger portion of the stem will do for sewing. The interior parts
in such examples are made up into
the foundation. All such ware is
rude, and the sewing frequently
passes through instead of around
the stitches below. In the Kli-
kitttt basketry the pieces of spruce
or cedar root not used for sewing
material are also worked into the
foundation. (See tig. is( H.)
In a small area on Fraser River, in southwestern Canada, on the upper waters of the Columbia, and in many Salishan tribes of north- western Washington, basketry, called imbricated, is made. The foundation, as said, is in cedar or spruce root, while the' sewing is done with the outer and tough por- tion of the root; the stitches pass over the upper bundle of splints and are locked with those underneath. On the outside of these bas- kets is a form of technic, whi(^h also constitutes the ornamentation. It is not something added, or overlaid, or sewed on, but is a part of the texture effected in the progress of the manufacture. (See fig. 9^.) The method of adding this ornamentntion in strips of cherry bark, cedar bast, and grass stems, dyed with Oregon grape, is unique, and
on this account I have applied the term "imbricated" to the style of weave here shown. (See iigif«M:)
The strip of colored >)ark or grass is laid down and caught under a passing stitch; before another stitch is taken this one is bent forward to cover the last stitc^h, doubled on itself so as to be undernea,th the next stitch, and so with each one it is bent backward and foi^ward so that the sewing is entirely con- cealed, forming a sort of " knife plaiting."
In some of the finer old baskets in the National Museum, collected over sixty years ago, the entire surface is covered with work of this kind, the strips not being over an eighth of an inch wide. James Teit describes and illustrates this type of weaving among the Thomp-
, Fio. M.
IMRKKATKD BAHKETRY HFTTAIL.
Thomiison River. After JameN Telt.
256
REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
son River Indians of British Columbia, who are Salishan. The body of the basket is in the root of Thuja plirata^ and the ornamentation in strips of ElymuH trititxndi^s and Prunns denn^sa. (See fig. 54.)
Imbrication is one of the most restricted of technical processes. E^lls says that some women in every tribe on Puget Sound could pro-
•^ai'(i¥iii^*M
o
'ftlT'.
tmmmf^m
Fig. &5. overlaying in coiled work.
duce the stitch, and he names the Puyallups, Twanas, Snohomish, Clallam, Makah, Skagit, Cowlitz, Chehalis, Nisqualli, and Squaxon. It doubtless originated here. It Is the native art of the Klikitat, Yak- ima, and Spokanes, all of whom are of the Shahaptian family. The Thompson and Fraser River In- dians have long known the ail. (See Plates 68, 74-79, 156-167.)
Fig. 55 is a square inch from the bottom of a Fraser River imbri- cated coiled basket. It illustrates several important features in the basket maker's art. In the fii-st place, the Indians of this area did not know how to make a beginning of the bottom of a rectangular basket with coiled work, so a block was inserted or foundation strips were laid parallel and were whipped together after the manner of coiled work. This figure also shows how the splitting of stitches before mentioned in sewing may have at first been accidental, the basket maker having in mind only the pur- pose of placing the stitches in vertical rows. From this unintentional fur- cation of the stitches comes the pur- poseful splitting, the forked stitches being made alike and uniform. Thus, out of a careless habit hjis come one of the beautiful ornamentations in coiled basketry. A third puriK)sc in this figure is to show, perhaps, the initial step in imbricated work. In- deed, this form of overlaying is seen on many examples of it. A straw of squaw grass {Xeroj^hyllunh tcruw) is inclosed under a stitch; it is then turned back; a second stitch is made and the strip of grass laid over it. Thus, over the surface there is an alternation of exposed and concealed stitches l)y means of this material. This is elsewhere called "beading.''
I; Grass-coil fomxdatlon, — The foundation is a bunch of grass or rush
Fig. 56. foundation ok straws in coilkd work.
ABOBIGIKAL AHERICAK BASEETBT.
257
Fig. 67. <x)il with open sewing inclosing parts
OF tX)UNDATION.
stems, or small midribs from palm leaves, or shi*edded yucca. The effect in all such ware is good, for the reason that the maker has per- fect control of her material. Excellent examples of this kind are to be seen in the southwestern portions of the United States, among the Pueblos and Missions, and in northern Africa. The sewing may be done with split stems of hard wood, willow, rhus, and the like, or, as in the case of the Mission baskets in southern California, of the stems of rushes {Junciis acutus) or stiff grass {Epicarwpes rigens). (See '^^^i^kA, SiMl the cross section given in fig. *i"I.) In the larger granary baskets of the Southwest a bundle of straws furnishes the foundation, while the sewing is done with broad strips of tough bark, uu in fij^. 5f.
Plate 30 shows specimens of Hopi coiled plaques on shredded founda- tion made up of the harder parts of the yucca split and rolled into a bundle. The sewing is with tne tough, leafy portion and passes simply under the coil in preparation, the stitches interlocking. Between the refined type of coiled work of this class and the old-fashioned straw beehive or the Mohave gran- arj^ is a long distance. These thick Hopi plaques have their nearest
resemblance in the Moorish basketry of North Africa and leave the question on the mind whether from long contact the Hopi themselves may not have got- ten a suggestion therefrom. These specimens are Cat. Nos. 166856 and 166858 in the U. S. National Museum and were collected by James Mooney. (See also fig. 58.)
K. Fxieg Ian colled hii^ketry. — In this ware the foundation is slight, consist- ing, of one or more rushes; the sewing is in buttonhole stitch or half hitches, with rush stems interlocking. The i-esemblance of this to Asiatic types (See fig.^.) Plate 31 is one of the most interesting specimens of basketry found in America, because in its structure it practically imitates the speci- mens just illustrated from the Straits of Magellan. It is described by NAT MU8 1902 17
Fig. 68.
foundation of grass or shredded
materials.
on the Pacific is most striking.
258
REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
George H. Pepper in Guide Leaflet No. (> of the American Museum of Natural History. It is called a "sifter,'" and was found among the relics of the ancient basket makers of southeastern Utah. The outer rows of coiling belong to the single-stick variety. On the re^t of the surface the binding material in passing around the foundation rods makes a whole turn on itself between them. The basket is 9i inches in diameter and 2 inches deep.
WATBR-TIGHT BASKETRY
Basketry is rendered water-tight by closeness of texture and by daubing with pitch or asphaltum. Both twined and coiled ware are useful for this latter purpose. It is said of the mother of Moses that she "took for him an ark [a boat-shaped basket] of bulrushes and
•../
Fig. 5^. fuegian cx)iled basket, and details.
daubed it with slime and with pitch and put the child therein, and she laid it in the flags by the river's brink." (Exodus ii, 3.) Now, the Egyptians and other Hamites of our day make coiled basketrj'^ of type fig. 41 1; that is, with a foundation of shredded material sewed with finely split palm leaf. The foundation is quite thick, so that the ware is strikingly like the Hopi plaques of the Middle Mesa. There is no reason for believing that the ancient ware differed from the modern. In the Interior Basin also baskets are used for pottery by tribes that are not sedentary. (See Plate 32.)
Major J. W. Powell, during his topographical and geological sur- vey of the valley of the Colorado River of the West, in company with Prof. A. H. Thompson, made a collection of water-tight basket work
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETBY. 259
from the Paiute Indians (Shoshonean family) in southern Utah, and additions have been made by Dr. Walter Hough and others. Both coiled and twined work are found in great varieties. Plate 32 represents the varieties of these water-tight carrying jugs or bottles. Fig. 1 of the plate, Cat. No. 11882, is a Tsai a wats, in twined weaving, the pattern being twilled work. Lugs on the side support the broad, soft, buckskin band. The pitch is evenly laid on, just revealing the texture beneath. Height, 7i inches.
Fig. 2, Cat. No. 10760, is a globose jar in coiled weaving, carelessly done on a splint foundation, as among the Utes. Height, 7i inches. There are no lugs on the outside, so this piece would be a pitcher rather than a canteen.
Fig. 3, Cat. No. 10758, is a Tsai a wats of squat form in single-rod coiled weaving, with three lugs at equal distances around the shoulder for carrying. Height, 41 inches.
Figs. 4 and 5, Cat. Nos. 213101-2, in the U. S. National Museum, are small canteens, collected from the Havasupai Indians, in Cat- aract Canyon, by Dr. Walter Hough. They are precisely the same in structure as the foregoing, though the Havasupai are of the Tuman family, while the Utes are Shoshonean. Height, 7i inches and 8i inches.
Fig. 6, Cat. No. 211020, U.S.N.M., is Paiute water jar for carrying, from the collection of Captain Carr, U. S. Army. The foundation is of splints, and the pitch is carefully restricted to the inside. Horse- hair lugs support the headband of old leather. Height, 9 inches.
Fig. 7, Cat. No. 11880, U.S.N.M., is an excellent specimen of twined work in twill, with single rows of three-ply twine and the neck in openwork. In many examples like the one here shown the melted pitch or asphaltum is poured inside and rinsed around until the sur- face is covered. Height, 9 inches. The rope handle gives the appear- ance of a pitcher.
Fig. 8, Cat. No. 10769, U.S.N.M., is pear shaped and has wooden lugs upon the sides for the carrying bands. It is twined and twilled weaving and thoroughly overloaded with pitch. The rounded bottom serves to keep the bottle erect. Height, 8i inches.
Plate 33 is a water jar of the White Mountain Apaches, Cat. No. 213278, U.S.N.M., collected by Dr. Walter Hough. It is made in diagonal twined weaving and covered with pitch. Three lugs of wood attached to the sides are for the purpose of suspension and carrying. The height is 12 inches.
BORDERS ON BASKETRY
Having studied the structural processes on the body of these textiles, it will now be in order to note how the work is finished off. A glance at a lady's workbasket or a waste-paper basket shows how. important
260 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
such an examination must be. Both in woven and in twined ware many beautiful specimens will be seen, whose edges differ not in the slightest degree from other portions of the basket. Indeed, the Tlin- kit, the Pomo, and the Mission weavers all frequently affect the plain border on their ware, and certain kinds of plaques of the Hopi Indians, said to be the workmanship of unmarried women, leave the foundation exposed, and the work is suddenly brought to an end.
Another fact will surprise the student, namely, that technically the border is often in quite another class of weave. This grows, as will be seen, out of the exigencies of the case. A checker weaving, with the edges left open all around, would be a flimsy affair. Coiled work lends a hand in putting a finish on woven work; the latter, or an imitation of it, on the contrary, becomes an embellishment of the former. The drawings and the plates will explain more clearly than words the stnicture of borders. The motive in this inquiry should be to learn the steps or evolutionary processes through which the inge-
A nious savage woman's mind has =^ passed in this series of inven- tions to discover, if possible, a little truth about the relation- ship and communication among tribes in olden times, and to learn some new manipulations in an art now becoming popular. It is like the breaking out of an old hereditary complaint in the tips Fig. 60. of the fingers. The borders will
be studied in the following order: The finishing off in checker work, in wicker work, in twilled work, in twined work, and in coiled work. The first and simplest method of making borders is illustrated in examples collected among the Abenaki Indians of Canada belonging to the Algonquian family. The baskets are made of splints from the ash, fonnerly worked out with aboriginal tools (see fig. 60), but nowadays made ])y machinery. The foundation of the borders con- sists of three narrow hoops. Ever}^ alternate warp splint is cut off flush, the others arc bent down over the middle hoop and pushed under the upper row of weaving, having first been pointed. Outside and inside of this middle hoop and clasping the bends in the warp splints are the other two hoops, the whole being bound securely together by a coiled sewing in splint. The specimen here figured is Cat. No. 206390, U.S.N.M., made by Caroline Masta. Diameter, 5i inches; height, 3 inches.
The border of twilled work, when the weaving is finished, resembles closely the interlacing of a series of crossed warps. In matting made
COILKD BORDER ON CHfXKER WEAVING. Cat. No. 20«3gO, U.8.N.M.
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
261
in this way the ends of the warp and of the weft are bent backward on one another and forced under the texture. In one example a twilled mat is finished out with wicker weaving, both sets of ele- ments being straightened out for warp. (See fig. 12.) The margin is then finished off as if the whole mass had been in wicker weaving. The example here shown was made recently by an Indian woman in the Zuni pueblo, western New Mexico. (See fig. 61.) The material is stripped leaves of yucca, from which coarse mats, basket bowls, and trays are made. The mat is woven square and a hoop of wood is pro-
b
Fio. 61.
WEPT AND WARP FASTENED DOWN WITH TWINE.
(a, front; b, back.)
Cat No. S1M88, U.S.N.M.
vided for the border. The mat is forced down into it, the ends of the warp and weft cut off about an inch above the hoop. They are then bent down on the outside in groups of fours and held in place with one row of twined weaving, as shown in the accompanying drawing, giving both front and back view. The basket is the gift of Mr. G. B. Haggett. Diameter, 11 inches. Cat. No. 215488, U.S.N.M.
In the simplest forms of wicker work the ends of the warp are all cut off in uniform lengths and each bent down by the side of the next warp, or behind one warp and down beside the second warp, or is woven behind and in front of the other warp stems with greater or
262
BEPOBT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
less intricacy, forming a rope pattern on the outside. So much of wicker basketry as originated with the Indians is very simple in the matter of finishing. Cat. No. 215487 shows how this sort of work is done. The basket is the work of the Zufii Indians, New Mexico, and is the gift of Mr. G. B. Haggett. Diameter, 9^ inches. (See fig. 62.) The variation of this type may be seen in the next figure. The
Fio. 62.
THREE-STRAND WARP BORDER IN WICKER WORK.
warp stems are in pairs and are bent in this case to the left at right angles and woven out and in among the next three or four sets, returning to the starting point. It is not altogether certain that this style of finishing the border was invented by the Indians, but they have adopted it. This drawing is made from specimens in the collection of G. Wharton James. (See fig. 63.)
Fig. 63. border made by weaving warp rods in pairs.
Collected by G. Wliarton James.
In the next example the handle is a stiff splint of hickory, circular in shape. The wide hoop border shown in the drawing and the circu- lar hoop are the framework from which the weave begins. All the smaller warp elements focus at the junction of these two. The widen- ing is effected by the introduction of fresh warp elements as the work proceeds; the weft makes only a short excursion at the beginning
ABORIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRYo
263
Fio. 64.
SINQLE-STRAND COILED BORDER.
Moravian Settlement, North Carolina.
Cat. No. S14668, U.S.N.M. Collected by Carolyn G.
Benjamin.
around one or two warp stems, the hoop increasing in length as the work widens and additional warp elements are inserted. This specimen is Cat. JNo. 214558, U.S.N.M., and was collected by Mrs. C. G. Ben- jamin from the Moravian settle- ment, North Carolina. Diam- eter, 5i inches. (See fig. 64.)
The term twined basketry is applied to every variety whose wai'p elements are held together by twined weaving. The warp is either soft filament, or hard- wood splints, or roots. The weft likewise may Ije yarn of flax, wool, or other very pliable ma- terial, or it may be rigid splints from roots or tough young wood, such as osier, red bud, sumac, or the like. Such a variety of material will demand in the finishing off various kinds of borders. Lieutenant Emmons speaks of the border of the basket as its life and says that while a rent in the side or bottom of a wallet may be sewed
with fresh root, the breaking of the edge suggests at once to the woman the gathering of materials for a new basket. The great va- riety of borders in this type of weaving can be best understood by studying specimens. It will be interesting to begin this by comparing examples from two widely separated areas, namely, the caves of Kentucky and the distant islands of the Aleutian chain, both in soft warp. (See Plate 143.)
Holmes ^ describes bags of fiber found in a cave 8 miles from Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. The largest is 34 inches across and 15 inches deep. The warp is of 2-strand twine; an ornamental va- riety is given by introducing two larger cords of a different 6olor at stated intervals. These warps are held in place by regular twined weaving at distances varying from a
Fia.66.
BRAIDED BORDER FROM WARP. After W. H. Holmes.
o Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1896, p. 34, fig. 8.
264
REPORT OF NATIONAL MXTSEirif, 1902.
quarter of an inch to an inch apart. At the top, where the twined work finishes, the warp cords are brought together in groups of five
and twisted into a rope for a short distance. They are then gathered into a continuous braid; the ends of those plaited in are cut off when the ends of a new set are taken up. This very elaborate foim of border will also be found later on in Washington. (See fig. 65.)
The methods of finishing borders on twined work among the Salishan tribes are shown in the accompanying figure. The Quinaielt wallet (Cat No. 127843, U.S.N.M., collected by Charles Willoughby), has several noteworthy character- istics. The twined weft is ver- tical, woven over a frail warp. At the upper margin are out- side strengthening rows of close-twined work. Finally, the two ends of each vertical weft element are brought to- gether as one, bent backward behind the two preceding ones, then forward under a row of twined weaving, serving to hold them in place, the loose end showing on the inside. (See tig. 66.)
Turning now to twined weav- ing on hard foundation, it will be a matter of surprise that the Pomo Indians, who make some of the finest twined basketry in the world, take no pains in fin- ishing off the upper margin of many pieces. Cat. No. 165659, U.S.N.M., is a basket of the Pomo Indians, collected for the Bureau of Ethnology by H. W. Henshaw. Diameter, 11 inches. (See fig. 67 and Plate 19.)
The weaving is done when the material is wet and soft, and in dry- ing the weft shrinks and binds itself to the warp, so .that the basket
•Lii^M
no. 66.
TWINED WALLKT.
Qainaielt Indians, Washington. Cat. No. U7MS. Collected by CharleM WlUoufrhby.
Pig. 67.
SING LE-errR AND TWINED BORDER.
Pomo Indians. Cat. No. 166(IM, U.S.N.M. Collected by H. W. Henshaw.
V
\
ABOBIGINAL AMERICAN BASKETRY.
265
actually wears out before it unravels. Granary baskets, mill hoppers, mush bowls, and other varieties in common use have this sort of mar- gin. In the drawing here shown the weft is supposed to be untwisted, and the whole is enlarged in order to exhibit the texture. When com- plete the warp is driven close together and the little sticks of alder or wiUow forming the warp are left protruding.
In Ihe following illustration the same principle obtains of making little or no change in the finishing, but the technic is three-strand instead of two-strand. The figure represents a section of a meal bowl of the Ceyal Pomo, Cat. No. 203287, U.S.N.M., which was collected b}' J. W. Hud- (See fig. 68.)
son.
Fig. 68. three-strand twined border.
Cat. No. SttOH?, U.S.N.M. ColI«H!ted by J. W.
Hud8on.
Plate M makes evident the differ- ence between the plain twined bor- der and the three-strand border. In the up[)er figure the inside of the basket is exhibited and the effect is that of common two-strand twine, but in the lower figure the three-strand twine appears in a single row of weaving on the upper border. The cutting off of the margin is also shown. It is to be understood that the trimming of the ends
of the wai*p stems is not done until all the weaving is entirely finished.
The Hupa Indians in some cases finish the borders of twined work by bending down the ends of the warp and wrapping or seizing them with splints of wil- low or other tough material. An inch of the border in a basket of the Ray collection in the U. S. National Museum is shown. (See fig. 69 and Plate 170.)
Another example of this wov- en and coiled work is shown. The basket (Cat. No. 68491, U.S.N.M.) is the work of the Zuni Indians of New Mexico. It will be seen that the last row of weaving at the top is three-strand. The warp rods or stems extend a little ways upward, then bend sharply to the left. They are then cut so that there will be always three of them included. The coil or seiz- ing of splints holds them all firmly in place. The top of the basket measures 4^^ inches in diameter. (See fig. 70.)
Fio. 69.
BORDER OP HUPA TWINED BA8KET.
266
REPOBT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1902.
The McCloud River Indians in Shasta County, California, cut off the warp flush and finish the border with what looks like plain twined weaving on the edge, but a regular half knot is tied between each pair of warp stems.
Fig. 71 shows a border of Paiute Indian twined basket, in which the wai'p rods or stems are bent to the left at right angles and cut off
after passing two or more stems, the object being to have at least three ends in a bunch forming the foundation of the border. The uniting material is a long splint of willow or rhus, pass- ing to the left, up and around the foundation in front of the standing part, and under the up- per foundation stem backward, forward to begin another series. It is in fact an application of the half hitch or button-hole stitch. When these are di-awn tight they form an effective border which on the upper margin has all the appearance of a four-ply braid. The basket itself is an example of twined weaving in twilled style, and shaped something like an immense sti*awberry.
This same process of imitating bmid on the border of a basket by the ingenious wrapping of a single splint becomes much more com- plex in coiled basketry, as will be seen later in many figures.
Fig. 70.
wrapped warp border.
Zufii, New Mexico.
Cat. No. S8491, U.S.N.M. Collected by Prank H. Cushlnff.
Fio. 71.
BORDER OF PAIl'TE TWINKD BASKET.
The figure (Cat. No. 203253, U.S.N.M.) shows a combination of the work just described and the twined-work border formed by bending down the warp. The specimen is from the Pomo Indians. Collected