ENCYCLOREWA
BRI1ANNICA

EIJEVENTH
EDITION

• • i m • .

•

I

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771.

SECOND ten „ 1777—1784.

THIRD eighteen „ 1788—1797.

FOURTH twenty „ 1801 — 1810.

FIFTH twenty „ 1815—1817.

SIXTH twenty „ 1823—1824.

SEVENTH twenty-one „ 1830—1842.

EIGHTH twenty-two „ 1853—1860.

NINTH twenty-five „ 1875—1889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.

ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

All rights reserved

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VI

CH^TELET to CONSTANTINE

Cambridge, England:

at the University Press

New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1910

E. 5

E.3

Copyright, in the United States of America,

by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME VI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. Bo.*
A. B. G.*
A. B. R.

A. C. Be.
A. C. C.

A. C. McG.

A. C. S.
A. D.
A. E. B.

A. F. L.

A. G.

A. Go.*
A. H.*

A. He.*
A. H. J. G.

A. J. G.

4 Church, Dean.

AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L. [Conclave;

Professor of Canon Law in the Catholic University of Paris. Editor of the Canoniste ~\ Concordat;
contemporain. Author of Biens d'eglise et peines canoniques; &c. I Consistorv

ALICE B. GOMME. f

Hon. Member of the Folk-lore Society. Author of Dictionary of Traditional Games •( Children's Games.
of Great Britain and Ireland; Children's Singing Games. (,

ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. f fwn.- R

Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Classifi- •( „ L, aolany>
cation of Flowering Plants; &c. I Coflee: Botany.

ARTHUR CHRISTOPHER BENSON, C.V.O., M.A., F.R.HisT.S.
See the biographical article: BENSON, EDWARD WHITE.

ALBERT CURTIS CLARK, M.A. I"

Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and University Reader in Latin. "! Cicero.
Editor of Cicero's Speeches (Clarendon Press). I

ARTHUR CUSHMAN MCGIFFERT, D.D., PH.D., M.A. I"

Professor of Church History in Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of i Church History (in part).
A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c.

ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE.

See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C.

AUSTIN DOBSON.

See the biographical article : DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN.

REV. ANDREW EWBANK BURN, M.A., D.D.

Vicar of Halifax and Prebendary of Lichfield. Author of An Introduction to the
Creeds and the Te Deum; Niceta of Remesiana; &c.

ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A.

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. .
Formerly Assistant Secretary of the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Stanhope Prizeman, 1872.

MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908).

H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;
Secrets of the Prison House; &c.

; Congreve, William.

I Chesterfield, 4th Earl of.

Church.

Chicheley.

Children's Courts.

REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.

Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

f Chemnitz;
\ Cochlaeus.

ALBERT HAUCK, D.TH., PH.D., D.JURIS. ("

Professor of Church History in the University of Leipzig. Director of the Collection

of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Member of the Royal Saxon Society of Arts and J rv,«,»i, »;*+«,.•„ I • * A
Sc|ences. Formerly Professor in the University of Erlangen. Editor of the 3rd Cnl ««tory (m part).
edition of Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche.
Author of Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands; Tertullians Leben und Schriften; &c.

AUGUSTINE HENRY, M.A., F.L.S.

Reader in Forestry, Cambridge University. Formerly Official in Chinese Imperial J |M,ina.
Maritime Customs. Explorer of the Flora of the interior of China, Formosa and 1 wun*-
Hainan.

ABEL HENDY JONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.) (d. 1905). f

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Constitutional! Comitia.
History; Roman Public Life; History of Rome. Joint-author of Sources of Roman
History, 133-70 B.C.

REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. (Lond.).

Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J _, . . , . ,

College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of] Clement I. (in part).
Mysore Educational Service.

'A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.

V

1975

vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

{Chile: Geography and
Statistics;
Colombia: Geography and
Statistics.

A. LO. AUGUSTE LONGNON. . -

Professor at the College de France. Director of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. J chatillon.

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute. Author of Geographic |
de la Gatde au VI' siecle.

BUR WILLIAM CLAYDEN, M.A. f

Christ's College, Cambridge. Principal of the Royal Albeit Memorial College, i Cloud.
Exeter. Author of Cloud Studies; The Clouds of Venus; &c.

de la Gaule au VI' siecle.

A. W. C. ARTHUR WILLIAM CLAYDEN, M.A.

Christ's College, Cambridge. P
Exeter. Author of Cloud Studies; The Clouds of Venus; &c.

A. W. Po. ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A.

Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King B College, J Chaucer;
London. Hon. Secretary, Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books •{ coloohon
and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of the Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe "
Chaucer. I

A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.

Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws i Compensation.
of England. I

C. EARL OF CREWE. J Cherbuliez.

See the biographical article: CREWE, EARL OF. I

C. A. MacM. CHARLES ALEXANDER MACMUNN, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. f colours of Animals-

Formerly Physician and Pathologist to Wolverhampton General Hospital. Author -
of Outlines of Clinical Chemistry; The Spectroscope in Medicine; &c.

C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D.Lnr. (Oxon.). / Chronicle;

See the biographical article: BEMONT, C. I Commlnes.

C. BL REV. CHARLES BIGG, M.A., D.D. (1840-1908). r

Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Oxford, 1901-1908. Examining] Clement Of Alexandria
Chaplain to Bishop of London. Author of Neoplatonism; The Christian Platonists] /•
of Alexandria; &c. Editor of St Augustine's Confessions; De Imitatione; &c. [_ v

C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. f Chemistry;

Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \Circle (in part).

C. E. A. C. E. AKERS. f

Formerly Times Correspondent in Buenos Aires. Author of A History of Southi Chile: History (in part).
America, 1854-1904. I

C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, D.D. f

Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member J Clement VI.;

of the American Historical Association. Author of An Introduction to the Sources 1 Clement VIII.: antipope

relating to the Barbarian Invasions. [

0. J. H. CHARLES JOHN HOLMES, M.A. f

Director, Keeper and Secretary of the National Portrait Gallery. Slade Professor I China: Chinese Art (Sculpture);
of Fine Art, Oxford, 1904-1910. Author of Constable; Constable and his Influence 1 Constable, John.
on Landscape Painting ; Notes on the Science of Picture Making ; &c. I

C. M. K. SIR CHARLES MALCOLM KENNEDY, K.C.M.G., C.B. (1831-1908).

Head of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1872-1893. Lecturer on Inter-
national Law, University College, Bristol. Commissioner in the Levant, 1870-1871 ; -\ Commercial Treaties.
at Paris, 1872-1886. Plenipotentiary, Treaty of the Hague, 1882. Author of
Diplomacy and International Law.

C. PI. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES L. r Childebert; Chilperic;

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of -I Clotaire; Clotilda, Saint;
Etudes sue le regne de Robert le Pieux; &c. [ Clovis

C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HisT.S. r

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow

of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, i Columbus, Christopher.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. L

C. S. HON. CARL SCHURZ, LL.D. f

See the biographical article: SCHURZ, CARL. "^ Clay, Henry.

C. W. R. C. CHARLES WALLWYN RADCLIFFE COOKE. r

President, National Association of English Cider-makers. M.P. for Walworth, -{ Cider.
1885-1892, and for Hereford, 1893-1900. Author of A Book about Cider and Perry. (.

C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). f

Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary

Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- J «... . /•• .\

mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General ] CUlCla (in part).

of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of

Lord Clive; &c.

D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. rMi«™Mni.

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising the J *£
Classical Concerto; The Goldberg Variations; and analyses of many other classical") Chorale;
works. t Concerto.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

vii

0.0. H.

D. H.

D. Mn.

E. B. P.

E.C.B.
E.C. Q

E.E.H.
E.G.

E. G. J. H.

E. Gr.
E. H. H.

E. K. C.

E.Ma.
Ed. M.

E. 0.*

E.V.

E. W. C.

F. C. G.

P. E. W.-S.
F. 0. H. B.
F. G. P.

F.H.*

F. H. B.
F. J. J.-S.

DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. f

Keeper of the Ashmdean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. CillCla (in part);
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 18991 Colophon;
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906^1907. Director, British School at Comana.
Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

DAVID HANNAY. f ciS£%ir Pi,

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, J „ f ' s enaru,
1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. Coastguard;

I Codrington, Sir Edward.

REV. PUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. C

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London -| Concordance.
Missionary Society. Author of Constructive Congregational Ideals.

EDWARD BAGNALL POULTON, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D.. F.R.S. f

Hope Professor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Jesus College, I Colours of Animate.
Oxford. Author of The Colours of Animals; Essays on Evolution; Darwin and the\ Bionomics
Original Species; &c. I

RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Lnr. (Dublin).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.

EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in Celtic, Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge.

EDWARD EVERETT HALE

See the biographical article: HALE, E. E.

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.

See the biographical article: GOSSE, E.

E. G. J. MOYNA, F.R.G.S.
New College, Oxford.

ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY.

ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A.

Lecturer in Palaeography in the University of Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant
Librarian, and formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge.

EDMUND KERCHEVER CHAMBERS.

j Cistercians; Clara, Saint;
\Clares, Poor; Cluny.

Columba, Saint.

* Clarke, James Freeman.

[Choi-iambic Verse; Clanvowe;
I Collins, William;
j Conscience, Hendrik;
I Constable, Henry.

| Chile: History (in part).

/Chios (in part);
I Cithaeron; Clazomenae.

Chersonese;

Cimmerii.

EDWARD MANSON. r

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Joint-editor of Journal of Comparative Legislation; •< Company.
Law of Trading Companies; Practical Guide to Company Law; &c.

f

Chosroes.

EDUARD MEYER, D.Lrrr. (Oxon.), PH.D., LL.D.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Member of the Royal
Prussian Academy. Author of Geschichle des Alterlhums; Forschungen zur alien
Geschichte ; &c.

EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, -j Cleft Palate and Hare Lip.
Great Ormond Street. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.

REV. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A., D.D. (1819-1895).

Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England.

- Cloister.

ETTRICK WILLIAM CREAK, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. r

Captain, R.N. Formerly Superintendent of Compasses, Hydrographic Department, •{ Compass (in part).
Admiralty. Author of many papers on magnetic subjects.

FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen). f Christmav

Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. 4 ««.
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals- &c [ tonsecratlon'

FRANCIS EDWARD WENTWORTH-SHEILDS, M.lNST.C.E.
Docks Engineer, London & South-Western Railway.

FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

- Concrete

fCimbri;
I Crenwulf.

FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. f

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer onj rnnlnm and «tarnu« MAmhrariA*

Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 C°* Dranes.

Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I

FREDERICK HIRTH, PH.D. r

Professor of Chinese in Columbia University, New York. Author of China and the \ China' History (in part)

Roman Orient; The Ancient History of China to the End of the Ghon Dynasty; &c.

FRANCIS H. BUTLER, M.A. J „ .»

Associate of the Royal School of Mines. \ Compass (in part).

REV. FREDERICK JOHN jERvis-Smra, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f

Millard Lecturer in Experimental Mechanics and Engineering, Trinity College, •{ Chronograph.
Oxford. Formerly University Lecturer in Mechanics.

viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

p. K. FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD KEUTGEN, PH.D.

Professor of History in the University of Hamburg. Formerly Professor of Medieval

and Modern History in the University of Jena. Author of Die Hanse und England -^ Commune: Medieval.

im 14. Jahrhundert ; Untersuchungen iiber den Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung ;

Urkunden zur stddtischen Verfassungsgeschichte; Amter und Zunfte; &c.

F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A. f

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, I
Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the j Oneops.
Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. I

F. H. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B.

Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the! Conscription.
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. I

F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. J Congo;

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Congo Free State (in part).

F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Chrysoberyl; Chrysoprase;

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -1. _. * . *
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

G. LORD GRIMTHORPE. f C]ock iin

See the biographical article: GRIMTHORPE, IST BARON. |_

G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S. f cichlid-

In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British J. _ .
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. [ Loa-

G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Lrrr.D. f _. . _

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard I Clouet, Francois,
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition | Clouet, Jean,
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers.

G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f/,v.i IT- . /•

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. I Cnile: History (in part),
Employed by British Government jn preparation of the British case in the British | Colombia: History.
Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations. I

G. Fa. G. FAUR. \ Conjuring (in part).

G. G. Co. GEORGE GORDON COULTON, M.A. f

Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author J Concubinage,
of Medieval Studies; Chaucer and his England; &c.

G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, M.R.I.A. f

Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: J, Coleoptera.
their Structure and Life. {.

G. H. Fo. GEORGE HERBERT FOWLER, PH.D., F.Z.S., F.L.S. r

Formerly Berkeley Fellow of Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant Professor of J Coelentera.
Zoology at University College, London. Member of Council of Linnean Society. [

G. J. GEORGE JAMIESON, C.M.G., M.A. r

Formerly Consul-General at Shanghai, and Consul and Judge of the Supreme Court, J China (in part).
Shanghai.

G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. r

Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J Clarendon, Constitutions of.
Society ;&c.

G. L. GEORG LUNGE, PH.D., F.C.S. f r , T

See the biographical article: LUNGE, GEORG. ^ v

G. S. C. SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., F.R.S.

Governor of Bombay. Author of Imperial Defence; Russia's Great Sea Power; The J Coaling-Stations.
Last Great Naval War; &c.

G. W. Kn. REV. GEORGE WILLIAM KNOX, D.D., LL.D. r

Professor of Philosophy and History of Religion, Union Theological Seminary, New ]_,... ..
York. Author of The Reli£ion of Jesus; The Direct and Fundamental Proofs of thel Christianity.
Christian Religion; &c.

H. A. Gl. HERBERT ALLEN GILES, M.A., LL.D.

Professor of Chinese in the University of Cambridge. Member of the China Consular
Service, 1867-1893. Author of a Chinese-English Dictionary; A Chinese Biographical '

Dictionary; History of Chinese Literature.
H. B. HILARY BAUERMANN, F.G.S. (d. 1909).

China: Language, Literature,
Religion.

IRY UAUERMANN, J-.li.b. (a. 1909;. ("maif A rt-

Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of J ~°™ u* *"*"' '
4 Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron. [^ Coke.

H. C. H. REV. HORACE CARTER HOVEY, A.M., D.D. r

Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Geological J fi-i---.
Society of America, NationalGeographicSociety and Societe de Speleologie (France). ] l/olos5'
Author of Celebrated American Caverns; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky; &c. (_

H. E. W. HENRY EDWARD WATTS. [

Editor of the Melbourne Argus. Author of Life of Cervantes. Translator of Don -| Cid, The.
Quixote. [_

H. H. C. SIR HENRY HARDINGE CUNYNGHAME, K.C.B.; M.A. f

Assistant Under-Secretary, Home Office; Vice- President, Institute of Electrical-! Clock.
Engineers. Author of various works on Enamelling, Electric Lighting, &c. (.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, LL.I )., F.R.S. r

Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of J rni,Hii»»i/,i «f n..»
Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. \ COT He*t>

H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross. r

Formerly ^Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of " The Times " -I Coal ( in •hnrt)
Engineering Supplement. Author of British Railways.

H. M. W. HARRY MARSHALL WARD, F.R.S., D.Sc. (d. 1905). r

Formerly Professor of Botany, Cambridge University. President of the British J

Mycological Society. Author of Timber and some of its Diseases; The Oak; Diseases } Cohn, Ferdinand Julius.
in Plants; &c.

H. M. Wo. HAROLD MELLOR WOODCOCK, D.Sc. r

Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow of Uni- J _
versity College, London. Author of " Haemoflagellates " in Professor Ray Lan- 1 Cocc""a.
kester's Treatise of Zoology, and of various scientific papers.

H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A.

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. Director of the British School at -I Constantino I
Rome, 1903-1905. Author of The Roman Empire; &c.

H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. !

Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism; &c. | Condillac.

H. S. Wl. HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS; M.D., B.Sc. r

Formerly Lecturer in the Hartford School of Sociology, U.S.A. Editor of The I Chronology (in Part) •
Historians' History of the World. Author of The Story of Nineteenth Century Science ; 1 Civilization
The History of the Art of Writing; The Lesson of Heredity; &c. I

H. Wh. HORACE WHITE, LL.D. f

Formerly Editor of the New York Evening Post. Sometime Editor of Chicago I Clnvnland Rrnvar
Tribune. Author of Money and Banking Illustrated by American History; The\
Tariff Question; The Cold Question; The Silver Question; &c. L

H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. J

Correspondent of The Times at Rome, 1897-1902, and at Vienna. \ Cialdini.

H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. f

See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. \ China: History (in part).

I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge.
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A -
Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c.
Edited Jewish Quarterly Review, 1888-1908.

J. A. Cl. JOHN ALGERNON CLARKE. f

Author of Fen Sketches; &c. | Conjuring (in part).

J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.I.E.E. f

Fender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of
University College, London.^ Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, -I Conduction Electric

and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University. Author of Magnets and
Electric Currents.

(

J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. 1 Clay-with-Flints.

J. A. R. VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, D.D. f

Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's
College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and NorrisianJ rinmnnf f a-
Professor of Divinity in the University. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation ; ' ^

&c. [

J. C. Sc. JOHN CHRISTOPHER SCHWAB, A.M., PH.D. r

Librarian, Yale University. Editor of Yale Review. Author of The Confederate J Confederate States of America
States of America; History of New York Property Tax; &c.

J. D. SIR JAMES DONALDSON. f _.

See the biographical article: DONALDSON, SIR J. \ Clement of Alexandria (in part).

J. D. v. d. W. JOHANNES DIDERIK VAN DER WAALS, PH.D.

Professor of Physics at the University of Amsterdam.' Author of The Continuity of 4 Condensation of
the Liquid and Caseous States.

J. E. F. REV. JAMES EVERETT FRAME, A.M. (Harvard). r

Edward Robinson Professor of Biblical Theology in Union Theological Seminary, •< Colossians, Epistle to the
New York. Author of Purpose of New Testament Theology.

J. E. S.* JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D. f

Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, J Classics
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classical]
Scholarship; &c. I

J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, LL.D. (Edin.).

Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ Clare: Family.
Pedigree; &c. L

J. J. T. SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., LL.D., PH.D. f

Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics, Cambridge. Professor of Physics, Conduction Electric- Tkrnuih
Royal Institution, London. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. President \ '

of the British Association, 1909-1910. Awarded Nobel Prize for Physics, 1906.
Author of Conduction of Electricity through Gases; Recent Researches in Electricity
and Magnetism; Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry; &c.

X
J. Le.

J. L. M.

J. MO.
J. M. H.

J. H. Ro.

J. N. H.
J. P.-B.

J. P. E.

J. R. C.
J. S. F.

J. S. K.

J. T. C.

J. T. S.*
J. V. B.

K. S.

L. B.
L.D.*

L. Gi.

L. J. S.
L.V.*

H. E. S.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Confucius.

(jitium

Comic.

| Conjuring (in part).

/Chippendale;
I Clock (in part).

REV. JAMES LEGGE.

See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES.

JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A.

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford.

VISCOUNT MORLEY OF BLACKBURN.

See the biographical article: MORLEY, VISCOUNT.

JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f r.h

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer on Classics at East London "J Cleistnenes:
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. I Colchis.

JOHN MACKINNON ROBERTSON, M.P.

Author of Montaigne and Shakespeare; Modern Humanists; Buckle and his Critics; 1 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor.
&c. M.P., Tyneside Division of Northumberland.

JOHN NEVIL MASKELYNE.

Author of Modern Spiritualism ; Sharps and Flats ; &c.

JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST.
Editor of the Guardian, London.

JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. f"

Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. I Chatelet;
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit | code Napoleon.
franfais; &c. L

JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A.

Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin.

edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. (.

JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. fClay;

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in j Concretion*
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby | r ' t

Medallist of the Geological Society of London.

JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). I

Secretary, Koyal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star. _ »_««</• _A

Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member, Geographical \ ConS° *ree State (in part).
Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of Statesman's Year Book. Editor of
the Geographical Journal. I

JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. f

Lecturer on Zoology at South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow of I Chiton;
University College, Oxford, and Assistant Professor of Natural History in the Uni- 1 Cockle.
versity of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I

JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.

JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews).

Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic
Age; &c.

Editor of 2nd -I Colour.

j Colbert, Jean Baptiste.

Clementine Literature;
Congregationalism.

fChelys; Cheng; Chorus;
j Cithara; Cittern; Clarina;
1 Clarinet; Clavichord;
[ Clavicytherium; Concertina.

/China: Chinese Art.
/Clement II.

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra.

LAURENCE BINYON.

See the biographical article: BINYON, L.

LOUIS DUCHESNE.

See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.

LIONEL GILES, M.A. f

Assistant, Oriental Department, British Museum. Author of Sun Tzu on the Art -I China: Language (in part),
of War. {_

LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Childrenite; Chlorite;

Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney J Chromite; Chrysocolla;
Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical'] Clintonite; Cobaltite;
Magazine. [colemanite; Columbite.

LUIGI VILLARI. f cibrario; CoUeoni;

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- rniutta- Pnlnnna-
spondent in East of Europe Italian Vice-Consul in New OrieaB»Tw6; Phil- J 9,°, "*' , °DI!a-
adelphia, 1907; and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town Colonna, Vlttoria;
and Country; &c. [ Confalonieri.

MICHAEL ERNEST SADLER, M.A., LL.D.

Professor of the History and Administration of Education in the University of
Manchester. Formerly Director of Special Enquiries and Reports to the Board of •
Education. Student and Steward of Christ Church, Oxford. Editor of Continua-
tion Schools in England and elsewhere; Moral Instruction and Training in Schools; &c.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

XI

M. G. D.

M. N. T.
M. 0. B. C.
N. V.

N. W. T.

0. Ba.
0. J. R. H.

0. M.*
P. A. H.

P. C. Y.

P. La.

R. de C. W.

R. H.*

R. J. M.
R. K. D.

R.L.*

R. N. B.
R. P. S.

Coleridge, J. D. C., 1st Baron.

RT. HON. SIR MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE GRANT-DUFF, G.C.S.I., F.R.S. (1829-

1906).

M.P. for the Elgin Burghs. 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India, 1868-
1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1881. Governor of Madras,
1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. President
of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European Politics;
Notes from a Diary ; &c.

MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. J

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. | Ueomenes.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.

MAX OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- 1 Chios (in part).
ham University, 1905-1908.

JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS.

Member of Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist I Clement VII.: antipope.
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Societe de 1'Histoire del Constance Council of
France and the Societe de 1'Ecole de Charles. Author of La France et le grand
schisme d' Occident ; &c.

NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. f"

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the I
Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and | vial ice.

Marriage in A ustralia ; &c. I

OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A.

Editor of the Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the '
Honourable Society of the Baronetage.

OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f

Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the < Coal (in part).
British Association. . I

OCTAVE MAUS, LL.D. (Brussels).

Advocate of the Court of Appeal at Brussels. Director of L'Art Moderne and of

La Libre Esthetique. President of the Association of Belgian writers. Officer oH Clays, Paul Jean.

the Legion of Honour. Author of Le Theatre de Bayreuth; Aux Ambassadeurs;

Malta, Constantinople et la Crimee; &c.

PERCY ALEXANDER MACMAHON, D.Sc., F.R.S. f

Late Major, R.A. Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade. Joint I combinatorial Analysis
General Secretary of the British Association. Formerly Professor of Physics, 1 *'OB inatorlal Analysis.
Ordnance College. President of London Mathematical Society, 1894-1896. I

Clanricarde, 1st Earl of;
Clanricarde, Marquess of;
Clarendon, 1st Earl of;
Clifford of Chudleigh;
Colepeper.

Collar.

PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.

PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. f

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly I

of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 vmna. tjeology.
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. [

ROBERT DE COURCY WARD, A.M. (Harvard). f

Assistant Professor of Climatology in the University of Harvard. Fellow of Royal I n:—-*., an(i
Meteorological Society, London. Sometime Editor of American Meteorological 1 *-umale
Journal. Author of Climate considered especially in Relation to Man ; &c.

SIR ROBERT HUNTER, C.B., M.A.

Solicitor to the Post Office. Author of The Preservation of Open Spaces and of J. Commons.
Footpaths and other Rights of Way; &c.

RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
Gazette, London.

Formerly Editor of the St James's

Chichester of Belfast;
Clare, 1st Earl of.

SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.

Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental .

Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese -{ China: History (in part}.

Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China;

China; Europe and the Far East; &c.

Che vro tain; Chimpanzee;
China: Fauna;
Chiroptera; Chiru;
Clouded Leopard.

f Chmielnicki;

RICHARD LYDEKK.ER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum ; The Deer of
all Lands; &c.

ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).

Formerly Assistant Librarian, British Museum. Author of Scandinavia: the Political J '

History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725; | Christian II., III., IV.;

Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796; &c. [ Christina Of Sweden.

R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I. B. A. r Chimney (in part);

Formerly Master of Architectural School and Surveyor, Royal Academy, London. Chimnevpiece'
Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, J rhn-r.
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Ferguson's vHOir,
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. I Column.

Xll
S. A. C.

S. J. L.

S. N.
S. P. T.

T. A. I.
T.As.
T. Ba.

T. F. C.
T. G. Br.

T. H. H.*

T. K. C.
T. Mu.

T. Se.

V. C.

W. A. B. C.

W. A. P.

W. B. B.
W. C. D. W.

W. F. C.
W. G. F.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.

Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew,
and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic
Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.

SIDNEY JAMES Low, M.A.

Fellow of King's College, London.

Chronicles, Books of

(in part).

__ ___- „-, Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Formerly

Editor of the St James's Gazette. Joint-editor of the Dictionary of English History. 1 Churchill, Lord Randolph.
Author of The Governance of England. Joint-author of vol. xii. of Longman's

Political History of England, 1837-1901.

SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.

SILVANUS PHILLIPS THOMPSON, M.D., D.Sc^ F.R.S.

Principal and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds Technical College, Fins- .
bury. Formerly President of Physical Society, of Institution of Electrical Engineers,
and of Rontgen Society. Author of Lectures on Light; Michael Faraday; &c.

THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.

Comet.

Compass (in part).

f Child, Sir Josiah; Children,
I Law Relating to (in part) ;
I Chiltern Hundreds; Clearing
I House; Confession: Law.

THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.), F.S.A. f Chioggia (in part) ;

Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Director of British School of Archaeo- J CirceiUS Mons; Clodia, Via;
logy at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Craven 1 Clusium; Collatia; Como;
Fellow, Oxford, 1897. [ Concordia.

SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. f

Member of the. Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council,
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems
of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.

Conquest.

DR THEODORE FRELINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D.

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A.

Clement VIII.-XIV.

Chitral.

Cherubim.

THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S.

Professor of Physiology in the University of Toronto. Author of Essentials CM Connective Tissues.
Experimental Physiology. t

COL. SIR THOMAS HUNGERPORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc. f

Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S.,
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's
Award; India; Tibet; &c.

REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.D., D.LITT.
See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.

THOMAS MUIR, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). ,

Superintendent-General of Education in Cape Colony. Formerly Assistant Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow. Vice-Chancellor of the J Circle (in part).
University of the Cape of Good Hope till 1901. Author of Theory of Determinants |
in the Historical Order of Development; History of Determinants; Text-Book of De- [
terminants; &c.

THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. (

Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J (Jhenier Andre de
University of London. Assistant Editor, Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-
1900. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c.

VALENTINE CHIROL.

Director of the Foreign Department of The Times. Author of The Middle Eastern •{ China: History (in part).
Question ; The Far Eastern Question ; &c. I

REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., D.Pn. (Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of-
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c. ^ Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889, &c.

WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, "1
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; The War of Greek Independence; &c.

Chaux de Fonds, La;
Coire; Como, Lake of;
Constance;
Constance, Lake of.
Chimere; Choir;
Church History (in part) ;
Clement VII.;
Confessional; Congress;
Constable.

' Coast Defence.

W. BAKER BROWN.

Lieut.-Col., Commanding Royal Engineers at Malta.

WILLIAM CECIL DAMPIER WHETHAM, M.A., F.R.S. f ronHnrtiAn

Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Theory of Solution; \ w»nnucMon,
Recent Development of Physical Science; &c. L *» Liquids.

WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. ("

New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, J Children, Law relating to
King's College, London. Author of Craies on Statute Law. Editor of Archbold's | (in part).
Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). L

WILLIAM GEORGE FREEMAN, B.Sc. (London), A.R.C.S.

Joint-author of Nature Teaching; The World's Commercial Products. Joint-editor
of Science Progress in the Twentieth Century.

Cocoa;
Coffee.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Xlll

W. K. S. WILLIAM KIRBY SULLIVAN, PH.D., D.Sc.

President of Queen's College, Cork, 1873-1890.

Author of Celtic Studies; Sue.

W. L. R. C. WILLIAM LIEST READWIN GATES (1821-1895).

Editor of Dictionary of General Biography. Author of A History of England from
the Death of Edward the Confessor to the Death of King John ; &c. Part author of
Encyclopaedia of Chronology.

W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

See the biographical article : ROSSETTI, D. G.

W. N. WALTER NERNST, PH.D.

Professor of Physical Chemistry in the University of Berlin. Director of the
Physico-Chemical Institute in the University. Member of the Royal Prussian
Academy of Science. Author of Theoretische Chemie ; &c.

W. 0. B. VEN. WINFRID OLDFIELD BURROWS, M.A.

Archdeacon of Birmingham. Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford, 1884-1891, and
Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891-1900.

W. R. S.* WILLIAM ROY SMITH, M.A., PH.D.

Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania.
Sectionalism in Pennsylvania during the Revolution ; &c.

W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.

See the biographical article : SMITH, W. R.

W. W. F.* WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans;
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period; &c.

W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
Author of Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen.

Clan.

-j Chronology (in part).

/ Cimabue;

I Claude of Lorraine.

1 Chemical Action.

J Confession: Religion;
\ Confirmation.

Author of -I Compromise Measures of 1850.
| Chronicles, Books of (in part).

Club: Greek and Roman.
Clement III., IV, V.

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Chatham, Earl of.

Chatterji.

Chatterton.

Cheering.

Chess.

Chicago.

Child.

Chilean Civil War.

Chile-Peruvian War.

Chillingworth.

Chino-Japanese War.

Chlorine.

Cholera.

Chopin.

Christian Science.

Chrysanthemum.

Chrysostom.

Churchill, Charles.

Cibber.

Cinque Ports.

Civil List.

Civil Service.

Clausewitz.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.

Clemenceau.

Clive, Lord.

Club-foot.

Cnossus.

Cobbett.

Cobden.

Cock-fighting.

Coco-nut Palm.

Code.

Coke, Sir Edward.

Collier, Jeremy.

Colony.

Colorado.

Colours, Military.

Commerce.

Common Order, Book of.

Communism.

Compositae.

Condorcet.

Condottiere.

Confirmation of Bishops.

Congreve, Sir William.

Conic Section.

Connecticut.

Conservative Party.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VI

CHATELET (from Med. Lat. castella), the word, sometimes
also written castillet, used in France for a building designed for the
defence of an outwork or gate, sometimes of great strength or
size, but distinguished from the ch&teau, or castle proper, in
being purely defensive and not residential. In Paris, before the
Revolution, this word was applied both to a particular building
and to the jurisdiction of which it was the seat. This build"ing,
the original Chatelet, had been first a castle defending the ap-
proach to the Cite. Tradition traced its existence back to Roman
times, and in the i8th century one of the rooms in the great
tower was still called the chambre de Cesar. The jurisdiction was
that of the provostship (pr&vdte) and viscountship of Paris, which
was certainly of feudal origin, probably going back to the counts
of Paris.

It was not till the time of Saint Louis that, with the appoint-
ment of Etienne Boileau, the provostship of Paris became a
prevote en garde, i.e. a public office no longer put up to sale.
When the baillis (see BAILIFF AND BAILIE) were created, the
provost of Paris naturally discharged the duties and functions
of a bailli, in which capacity he heard appeals from the seigniorial
and inferior judges of the city and its neighbourhood, keeping,
however, his title of provost. When under Henry II. certain
bailliages became presidial jurisdictions(presidiaux) , i.e. received
to a certain extent the right of judging without appeal, the
Chatelet, the court of the provost of Paris, was made a presidial
court, but without losing its former name. Finally, various
tribunals peculiar to the city of Paris, i.e. courts exercising
jurisdictions outside the common law or corresponding to certain
fours d'exceplion which existed in the provinces, were united with
the Chatelet, of which they became divisions (chambres). Thus
the lieutenant-general of police made it the seat of his juris-
diction, and the provost of the lie de France, who had the same
criminal jurisdiction as the provosts of the marshals of France
in other provinces, sat there also. As to the personnel of the
Chatelet, it was originally the same as in the bailliages, except
that after the i4th century it had some special officials, the
auditors and the examiners of inquests. Like the baillis, the
provost had lieutenants who were deputies for him, and in
addition gradually acquired a considerable body of ex officio
councillors. This last staff, however, was not yet in existence at
the end of the uth century, for it is not mentioned in the Registre
criminel du Chdlelet (1389-1392), published by the Societe des
Bibliophiles Francab. In 1674 the whole personnel was doubled,
at the time when the new Chatelet was established side by side
with the old, the two being soon after amalgamated. On the eve
of the Revolution it comprised, beside the provost whose office
had become practically honorary, the lieutenant civil, who
presided over the chambre de pr&vdte au pare civil or court of first
instance; the lieutenant criminel, who presided over the criminal

VI. I

court; two lieutenants particuliers, who presided in turn over
the chambre du presidial or court of appeal from the inferior
jurisdictions; a juge auditeur; sixty-four councillors (con-
seillers); the procureur du roi, four avocals du roi, and eight
substituts, i.e. deputies of the procureur (see PROCURATOR), beside
a host of minor officials. The history of the Chatelet under the
Revolution may be briefly told: the Constituent Assembly em-
powered it to try cases of lese-nation, and it was also before this
court that was opened the inquiry following on the events of
the sth and 6th of August 1789. It was suppressed by the law
of the i6th of August 1790, together with the other tribunals of
the ancien regime. (J. P. E.)

CHATELLERAULT, a town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Vienne, 19 m. N.N.E.
of Poitiers on the Orleans railway between that town and
Tours. Pop. (1906) 15,214. Chatellerault is situated on the
right and eastern bank of the Vienne; it is connected with the
suburb of Chateauneuf on the opposite side of the river by a
stone bridge of the i6th and I7th centuries, guarded at the
western extremity by massive towers. The manufacture of
cutlery is carried on on a large scale in villages on the banks of
the Clain, south of the town. Of the other industrial establish-
ments the most important is the national small-arms factory,
which was established in 1815 in Chateauneuf, and employs
from 1500 to 5500 men. Chatellerault (or Chatelherault :
Castellum Airaldi) derives its name from a fortress built in
the loth century by Airaud, viscount of its territory. In 1515
it was made a duchy in favour of Francois de Bourbon, but it
was not long after this date that it became reunited to the
crown. In 1548 it was bestowed on James Hamilton, 2nd earl
of Arran (see HAMILTON).

CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, ist EARL OF (1708-1778), English
statesman, was born at Westminster on the isth of November
1708. He was the younger son of Robert Pitt of Boconnoc,
Cornwall, and grandson of Thomas Pitt (1653-1726), governor
of Madras, who was known as " Diamond " Pitt, from the fact
of his having sold a diamond of extraordinary size to the regent
Orleans for something like £135,000. It was mainly by this
fortunate transaction that the governor was enabled to raise
his family, which was one of old standing, to a position of wealth
and political influence. The latter he acquired by purchasing
the burgage tenures of Old Sarum.

William Pitt was educated at Eton, and in January 1727 was
entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford.
There is evidence that he was an extensively read, if not a
minutely accurate classical scholar; and it is interesting to
know that Demosthenes was his favourite author, and that he
diligently cultivated the faculty of expression by the practice of
translation and re-translation. An hereditary gout, from which

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VI

CHATELET (from Med. Lat. caslella), the word, sometimes
also written castillet, used in France for a building designed for the
defence of an outwork or gate, sometimes of great strength or
size, but distinguished from the chateau, or castle proper, in
being purely defensive and not residential. In Paris, before the
Revolution, this word was applied both to a particular building
and to the jurisdicticn of which it was the seat. This building,
the original Chatelet, had been first a castle defending the ap-
proach to the Cite. Tradition traced its existence back to Roman
times, and in the i8th century one of the rooms in the great
tower was still called the chambre de Cesar. The jurisdiction was
that of the provostship (prevote) and viscountship of Paris, which
was certainly of feudal origin, probably going back to the counts
of Paris.

It was not till the time of Saint Louis that, with the appoint-
ment of Etienne Boileau, the provostship of Paris became a
prevote en garde, i.e. a public office no longer put up to sale.
When the baillis (see BAILIFF AND BAILIE) were created, the
provost of Paris naturally discharged the duties and functions
of a bailli, in which capacity he heard appeals from the seigniorial
and inferior judges of the city and its neighbourhood, keeping,
however, his title of provost. When under Henry II. certain
bailliages became presidial ]urisdictions(pr^sidiaux) , i.e. received
to a certain extent the right of judging without appeal, the
Chatelet, the court of the provost of Paris, was made a presidial
court, but without losing its former name. Finally, various
tribunals peculiar to the city of Paris, i.e. courts exercising
jurisdictions outside the common law or corresponding to certain
tours d'exception which existed in the provinces, were united with
the Chatelet, of which they became divisions (chambres). Thus
the lieutenant-general of police made it the seat of his juris-
diction, and the provost of the lie de France, who had the same
criminal jurisdiction as the provosts of the marshals of France
in other provinces, sat there also. As to the personnel of the
Chatelet, it was originally the same as in the bailliages, except
that after the i4th century it had some special officials, the
auditors and the examiners of inquests. Like the baillis, the
provost had lieutenants who were deputies for him, and in
addition gradually acquired a considerable body of ex officio
councillors. This last staff, however, was not yet in existence at
the end of the i4th century, for it is not mentioned in the Registre
criminel du Chdtelet (1389-1392), published by the Societe des
Bibliophiles Francab. In 1674 the whole personnel was doubled,
at the time when the new Chatelet was established side by side
with the old, the two being soon after amalgamated. On the eve
of the Revolution it comprised, beside the provost whose office
had become practically honorary, the lieutenant civil, who
presided over the chambre de prevote au pare civil or court of first
instance; the lieutenant criminel, who presided over the criminal

VI. I

court; two lieutenants particuliers, who presided in turn over
the chambre du presidial or court of appeal from the inferior
jurisdictions; a juge auditeur; sixty-four councillors (con-
seillers); the procureur du roi, four avocals du roi, and eight
substituts, i.e. deputies of the procureur (see PROCURATOR), beside
a host of minor officials. The history of the Chatelet under the
Revolution may be briefly told: the Constituent Assembly em-
powered it to try cases of lese-nation, and it was also before this
court that was opened the inquiry following on the events of
the 5th and 6th of August 1789. It was suppressed by the law
of the 1 6th of August 1790, together with the other tribunals of
the ancien regime. (J. P. E.)

CHATELLERAULT, a town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Vienne, 19 m. N.N.E.
of Poitiers on the Orleans railway between that town and
Tours. Pop. (1906) 15,214. Chatellerault is situated on the
right and eastern bank of the Vienne; it is connected with the
suburb of Chateauneuf on the opposite side of the river by a
stone bridge of the i6th and I7th centuries, guarded at the
western extremity by massive towers. The manufacture of
cutlery is carried on on a large scale in villages on the banks of
the Clain, south of the town. Of the other industrial establish-
ments the most important is the national small-arms factory,
which was established in 1815 in Chateauneuf, and employs
from 1500 to 5500 men. Chatellerault (or Chatelherault :
Castellum Airaldi) derives its name from a fortress built in
the loth century by Airaud, viscount of its territory. In 1515
it was made a duchy in favour of Francois de Bourbon, but it
was not long after this date that it became reunited to the
crown. In 1548 it was bestowed on James Hamilton, 2nd earl
of Arran (see HAMILTON).

CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, ist EARL OF (1708-1778), English
statesman, was born at Westminster on the isth of November
1708. He was the younger son of Robert Pitt of Boconnoc,
Cornwall, and grandson of Thomas Pitt (1653-1726), governor
of Madras, who was known as " Diamond " Pitt, from the fact
of his having sold a diamond of extraordinary size to the regent
Orleans for something like £135,000. It was mainly by this
fortunate transaction that the governor was enabled to raise
his family, which was one of old standing, to a position of wealth
and political influence. The latter he acquired by purchasing
the burgage tenures of Old Sarum.

William Pitt was educated at Eton, and in January 1727 was
entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford.
There is evidence that he was an extensively read, if not a
minutely accurate classical scholar; and it is interesting to
know that Demosthenes was his favourite author, and that he
diligently cultivated the faculty of expression by the practice of
translation and re-translation. An hereditary gout, from which

CHATHAM, EARL OF

he had suffered even during his school-days, compelled him to
leave the university without taking his degree, in order to travel
abroad. He spent some time in France and Italy; but the
disease proved intractable, and he continued subject to attacks
of growing intensity at frequent intervals till the close of his life.
In 1727 his father had died, and on his return home it was
necessary for him, as the younger son, to choose a profession.
Having chosen the army, he obtained through the interest of his
friends a cornet's commission in the dragoons. But his military
career was destined to be short. His elder brother Thomas
having been returned at the general election of 1734 both for
Oakhampton and for Old Sarum, and having preferred to sit for
the former, the family borough fell to the younger brother by the
sort of natural right usually recognized in such cases. Accord-
ingly, in February 1735, William Pitt entered parliament as
member for Old Sarum. Attaching himself at once to the formid-
able band of discontented Whigs known as the Patriots, whom
Walpole's love of exclusive power had forced into opposition
under Pulteney, he became in a very short time one of its most
prominent members. His maiden speech was delivered in April
1736, in the debate on the congratulatory address to the king on
the marriage of the prince of Wales. The occasion was one of
compliment, and there is nothing striking in the speech as re-
ported; but it served to gain for him the attention of the house
when he presented himself, as he soon afterwards did, in debates
of a party character. So obnoxious did he become as a critic of
the government, that Walpole thought fit to punish him by
procuring his dismissal from the army. Some years later he had
occasion vigorously to denounce the system of cashiering officers
for political differences, but with characteristic loftiness of spirit
he disdained to make any reference to his own case. The loss
of his commission was soon made up to him. The heir to the
throne, as was usually the case in the house of Hanover, if not
in reigning families generally, was the patron of the opposition,
and the ex-cornet became groom of the bed-chamber to the
prince of Wales. In this new position his hostility to the govern-
ment did not, as may be supposed, in any degree relax. He had
all the natural gifts an orator could desire — a commanding pres-
ence, a graceful though somewhat theatrical bearing, an eye of
piercing brightness, and a voice of the utmost flexibility. His
style, if occasionally somewhat turgid, was elevated and passion-
ate, and it always bore the impress of that intensity of conviction
which is the most powerful instrument a speaker can have to sway
the convictions of an audience. It was natural, therefore, that
in the series of stormy debates, protracted through several years,
that ended in the downfall of Walpole, his eloquence should have
been one of the strongest of the forces that combined to bring
about the final result. Specially effective, according to contem-
porary testimony, were his speeches against the Hanoverian
subsidies, against the Spanish convention in 1739, and in favour
of the motion in 1 742 for an investigation into the last ten years
of Walpole's administration. It must be borne in mind that the
reports of these speeches which have come down to us were made
from hearsay, or at best from recollection, and are necessarily
therefore most imperfect. The best-known specimen of Pitt's
eloquence, his reply to the sneers of Horatio Walpole at his youth
anddeclamatory manner,which has found a place in somanyhand-
books of elocution, is evidently, in form at least, the work, not of
Pitt, but of Dr Johnson, who furnished the report to the Gentle-
man's Magazine. Probably Pitt did say something of the kind
attributed to him, though even this is by no means certain in view
of Johnson's repentant admission that he had often invented not
merely the form, but the substance of entire debates.

In 1742 Walpole was at last forced to succumb to the long-
continued attacks of opposition, and was succeeded as prime
minister by the earl of Wilmington, though the real power in
the new government was divided between Carteret and the
Pelhams. Pitt's conduct on the change of administration was
open to grave censure. The relentless vindictiveness with
which he insisted on the prosecution of Walpole, and supported
the bill of indemnity to witnesses against the fallen minister,
was in itself not magnanimous; but it appears positively un-

worthy when it is known that a short time before Pitt had offered,
on certain conditions, to use all his influence in the other direction.
Possibly he was embittered at the time by the fact that, owing
to the strong personal dislike of the king, caused chiefly by the
contemptuous tone in which he had spoken of Hanover, he did
not by obtaining a place in the new ministry reap the fruits of
the victory to which he had so largely contributed. The so-called
" broad-bottom " administration formed by the Pelhams in
1744, after the dismissal of Carteret, though it included several
of those with whom he had been accustomed to act, did not at
first include Pitt himself even in a subordinate office. Before
the obstacle to his admission was overcome, he had received a
remarkable accession to his private fortune. The eccentric
duchess of Marlborough, dying in 1744, at the age of ninety,
left him a legacy of £10,000 as an " acknowledgment of the
noble defence he had made for the support of the laws of England
and to prevent the rum of his country." As her hatred was
known to be at least as strong as her love, the legacy was probably
as much a mark of her detestation of Walpole as of her admiration
of Pitt. It may be mentioned here, though it does not come in
chronological order, that Pitt was a second time the object of a
form of acknowledgment of public virtue which few statesmen
have had the fortune to receive even once. About twenty years
after the Marlborough legacy, Sir William Pynsent, a Somerset-
shire baronet to whom he was personally quite unknown, left
him his entire estate, worth about three thousand a year, in
testimony of approval of his political career.

It was with no very good grace that the king at length consented
to give Pitt a place in the government, although the latter did
all he could to ingratiate himself at court, by changing his tone
on the questions on which he had made himself offensive. To
force the matter, the Pelhams had to resign expressly on the
question whether he should be admitted or not, and it was only
after all other arrangements had proved impracticable, that they
were reinstated with the obnoxious politician as vice- treasurer
of Ireland. This was in February 1746. In May of the same
year he was promoted to the more important and lucrative office
of paymaster-general, which gave him a place in the privy council,
though not in the cabinet. Here he had an opportunity of display-
ing his public spirit and integrity in a way that deeply impressed
both the king and the country. It had been the usual practice
of previous paymasters to appropriate to themselves the interest
of all money lying in their hands by way of advance, and also to
accept a commission of \ % on all foreign subsidies. Although
there was no strong public sentiment against the practice, Pitt
altogether refused to profit by it. All advances were lodged by
him in the Bank of England until required, and all subsidies
were paid over without deduction, even though it was pressed
upon him, so that he did not draw a shilling from his office
beyond the salary legally attaching to it. Conduct like this,
though obviously disinterested, did not go without immediate
and ample reward, in the public confidence which it created,
and which formed the mainspring of Pitt's power as a statesman.

The administration formed in 1746 lasted without material
change till 1754. It would appear from his published corre-
spondence that Pitt had a greater influence in shaping its policy
than his comparatively subordinate position would in itself have
entitled him to. His conduct in supporting measures, such as
the Spanish treaty and the continental subsidies, which he
had violently denounced when in opposition, had been much
criticized; but within certain limits, not indeed very well
defined, inconsistency has never been counted a vice in an English
statesman. The times change, and he is not blamed for changing
with the times. Pitt in office, looking back on the commencement
of his public life, might have used the plea " A good deal has
happened since then," at least as justly as some others have
done. Allowance must always be made for the restraints and
responsibilities of office. In Pitt's case, too, it is to be borne in
mind that the opposition with which he had acted gradually
dwindled away, and that it ceased to have any organized existence
after the death of the prince of Wales in 1731. Then in regard
to the important question with Spain as to the right of search,

CHATHAM, EARL OF

Pitt has disarmed criticism by acknowledging that the course
he followed during Wapole's administration was indefensible.
All due weight being given to these various considerations, it
must be admitted, nevertheless, that Pitt did overstep the
limits within which inconsistency is usually regarded as venial.
His one great object was first to gain office, and then to make
his tenure of office secure by conciliating the favour of the king.
The entire revolution which much of his policy underwent in
order to effect this object bears too close a resemblance to the
sudden and inexplicable changes of front habitual to placemen
of the Tadpole Stamp to be altogether pleasant to -con template
in a politician of pure aims and lofty ambition. Humiliating
is not too strong a term to apply to a letter in which he expresses
his desire to " efface the past by every action of his life," in order
that he may stand well with the king.

In 1754 Henry Pelham died, and was succeeded at the head of
affairs by his brother, the duke of Newcastle. To Pitt the change
brought no advancement, and he had thus an opportunity of
testing tfce truth of the description of his chief given by Sir
Robert Walpole, " His name is treason." But there was for a
time no open breach. Pitt continued at his post; and at the
general election which took place during the year he even
accepted a nomination for the duke's pocket borough of Aid-
borough. He had sat for Seaford since 1747. When parliament
met, however, he was not long in showing the state of his feelings.
Ignoring Sir Thomas Robinson, the political nobody to whom
Newcastle had entrusted the management of the Commons,
he made frequent and vehement attacks on Newcastle himself,
though still continuing to serve under him. In this strange
state matters continued for about a year. At length, just after
the meeting of parliament in November 1751, Pitt was dismissed
from office, having on the debate on the address spoken at great
length against a new system of continental subsidies, proposed by
the government of which he was a member. Fox, who had
just before been appointed secretary of state, retained his place,
and though the two men continued to be of the same party, and
afterwards served again in the same government, there was
henceforward a rivalry between them, which makes the celebrated
opposition of their illustrious sons seem like an inherited quarrel.
. Another year had scarcely passed when Pitt was again in
power. The inherent weakness of the government, the vigour
and eloquence of his opposition, and a series of military disasters
abroad combined to rouse a public feeling of indignation which
could not be withstood, and in December 1756 Pitt, who now
sat for Okehampton, became secretary of state, and leader of
the Commons under the premiership of the duke of Devonshire.
He had made it a condition of his joining any administration
that Newcastle should be excluded from it, thus showing a
resentment which, though natural enough, proved fatal to the
lengthened existence of his government. With the king un-
friendly, and Newcastle, whose corrupt influence was still
dominant in the Commons, estranged, it was impossible to
carry on a government by the aid of public opinion alone, how-
ever emphatically that might have declared itself on his side.
In April 1757, accordingly, he found himself again dismissed
from office on account of his opposition to the king's favourite
continental policy. But the power that was insufficient to keep
him in office was strong enough to make any arrangement that
excluded him impracticable. The public voice spoke in a way
that was not to be mistaken. Probably no English minister
ever received in so short a time so many proofs of the confidence
and admiration of the public, the capital and all the chief towns

I voting him addresses and the freedom of their corporations.
From the political deadlock that ensued relief could only be had
by an arrangement between Newcastle and Pitt. After some
weeks' negotiation, in the course of which the firmness and
moderation of " the Great Commoner," as he had come to be
called, contrasted favourably with the characteristic tortuosities
sf the crafty peer, matters were settled on such a basis that,
while Newcastle was the nominal, Pitt was the virtual head of
the government. On his acceptance of office he was chosen
member for Bath.

This celebrated administration was formed in June 1757, and
continued in power till 1761. During the four years of its
existence it has been usual to say that the biography of Pitt is
the history of England, so thoroughly was he identified with the
great events which make this period, in so far as the external
relations of the country are concerned, one of the most glorious
in her annals. A detailed account of these events belongs to
history; all that is needed in a biography is to point out the
extent to which Pitt's personal influence may really be traced
in them. It is scarcely too much to say that, in the general
opinion of his contemporaries, the whole glory of these years
was due to his single genius; his alone was the mind that planned,
and his the spirit that animated the brilliant achievements of
the British arms in all the four quarters of the globe. Posterity,
indeed, has been able to recognize more fully the independent
genius of those who carried out his purposes. The heroism of
Wolfe would have been irrepressible, Clive would have proved
himself " a heaven-born general," and Frederick the Great
would have written his name in history as one of the most skilful
strategists the world has known, whoever had held the seals of
office in England. But Pitt's relation to all three was such as to
entitle him to a large share in the credit of their deeds. It was
his discernment that selected Wolfe to lead the attack on Quebec,
and gave him the opportunity of dying a victor on the heights of
Abraham. He had personally less to do with the successes in
India than with the other great enterprises that shed an undying
lustre on his administration; but his generous praise in parlia-
ment stimulated the genius of Clive, and the forces that acted
at the close of the struggle were animated by his. indomitable
spirit. Pitt, the first real Imperialist in modern English history,
was the directing mind in the expansion of his country, and
with him the beginning of empire is rightly associated. The
Seven Years' War might well, moreover, have been another
Thirty Years' War if Pitt had not furnished Frederick with
an annual subsidy of £700,000, and in addition relieved him of
the task of defending western Germany against France.

Contemporary opinion was, of course, incompetent to estimate
the permanent results gained, for the country by the brilliant
foreign policy of Pitt. It has long been generally agreed that
by several of his most costly expeditions nothing was really won
but glory. It has even been said that the only permanent
acquisition that England owed directly to him was her Canadian
dominion; and, strictly speaking, this is true, it being admitted
that the campaign by which the Indian empire was virtually won
was not planned by him, though brought to a successful issue
during his ministry. But material aggrandizement, though
the only tangible, is not the only real or lasting effect of a war
policy. More may be gained by crushing a formidable rival than
by conquering a province. The loss of her Canadian possessions
was only one of a series of disasters suffered by France, which
radically affected the future of Europe and the world. Deprived
of her most valuable colonies both in the East and in the West,
and thoroughly defeated on the continent, her humiliation was
the beginning of a new epoch in history. The victorious policy
of Pitt destroyed the military prestige which repeated experience
has shown to be in France as in no other country the very life
of monarchy, and thus was not the least considerable of the many
influences that slowly brought about the French Revolution.
It effectually deprived her of the lead in the councils of Europe
which she had hitherto arrogated to herself, and so affected the
whole course of continental politics. It is such far-reaching
results as these, and not the mere acquisition of a single colony,
however valuable, that constitute Pitt's claim to be considered
as on the whole the most powerful minister that ever guided the
foreign policy of England.

The first and most important of a series of changes which
ultimately led to the dissolution of the ministry was the death
of George II. on the 2Sth of October 1760, and the accession of
his grandson, George III. The new king had, as was natural, new
counsellors of his own, the chief of whom, Lord Bute, was at once
admitted to the cabinet as a secretary of state. Between Bute
and Pitt there speedily arose an occasion of serious difference.

CHATHAM, EARL OF

The existence of the so-called family compact by which the
Bourbons of France and Spain bound themselves in an offensive
alliance against England having been brought to light, Pitt urged
that it should be met by an immediate declaration of war with
Spain. To this course Bute would not consent, and as his refusal
was endorsed by all his colleagues save Temple, Pitt had no
choice but to leave a cabinet in which his advice on a vital
question had been rejected. On his resignation, which took
place in October 1761, the king urged him to accept some signal
mark of royal favour in the form most agreeable to himself.
Accordingly he obtained a pension of £3000 a year for three lives,
and his wife, Lady Hester Grenville, whom he had married in
1754, was created Baroness Chatham in her own right. In con-
nexion with the latter gracefully bestowed honour it may be
mentioned that Pitt's domestic life was a singularly happy one.

Pitt's spirit was too lofty to admit of his entering on any
merely factious opposition to the government he had quitted.
On the contrary, his conduct after his retirement was dis-
tinguished by a moderation and disinterestedness which, as
Burke has remarked, " set a seal upon his character." The war
with Spain, in which he had urged the cabinet to take the initia-
tive, proved inevitable; but he scorned to use the occasion
for " altercation and recrimination," and spoke in support of
the government measures for carrying on the war. To the
preliminaries of the peace concluded in February 1763 he offered
an indignant resistance, considering the terms quite inadequate
to the successes that had been gained by the country. When the
treaty was discussed in parliament in December of the preceding
year, though suffering from a severe attack of gout, he was carried
down to the House, and in a speech of three hours' duration,
interrupted more than once by paroxysms of pain, he strongly
protested against its various conditions. The physical cause
which rendered this effort so painful probably accounts for the
infrequency of his appearances in parliament, as well as for much
that is otherwise inexplicable in his subsequent conduct. In
1763 he spoke against the obnoxious tax on cider, imposed by
his brother-in-law, George Grenville, and his opposition, though
unsuccessful in the House, helped to keep alive his popularity
with the country, which cordially hated the excise and all con-
nected with it. When next year the question of general warrants
was raised in connexion with the case of Wilkes, Pitt vigorously
maintained their illegality, thus defending at once the privileges
of Parliament and the freedom of the press. During 1765 he
seems to have been totally incapacitated for public business.
In the following year he supported with great power the pro-
posal of the Rockingham administration for the repeal of the
American Stamp Act, arguing that it was unconstitutional to
impose taxes upon the colonies. He thus endorsed the contention
of the colonists on the ground of principle, while the majority of
those who acted with him contented themselves with resisting the
disastrous taxation scheme on the ground of expediency. The
Repeal Act, indeed, was only passed pari passu with another
censuring the American assemblies, and declaring the authority
of the British parliament over the colonies " in all cases what-
soever "; so that the House of Commons repudiated in the most
formal manner the principle Pitt laid down. His language in
approval of the resistance of the colonists was unusually bold,
and perhaps no one but himself could have employed it with
impunity at a time when the freedom of debate was only im-
perfectly conceded.

Pitt had not been long out of office when he was solicited to
return to it, and the solicitations were more than once renewed.
Unsuccessful overtures were made to him in 1763, and twice
in 1765, in May and June — the negotiator in May being the
king's uncle, the duke of Cumberland, who went down in person
to Hayes, Pitt's seat in Kent. It is known that he had the
opportunity of joining the marquis of Rockingham's short-lived
administration at any time on his own terms, and his conduct
in declining an arrangement with that minister has been more
generally condemned than any other step in his public life. In
July 1766 Rockingham was dismissed, and Pitt was entrusted by
the king with the task of forming a government entirely on his

own conditions. The result was a cabinet, strong much beyond
the average in its individual members, but weak to powerlessness
in the diversity of its composition. Burke, in a memorable
passage of a memorable speech, has described this " chequered
and speckled " administration with great humour, speaking of
it as " indeed a very curious show, but utterly unsafe to touch
and unsure to stand on." Pitt chose for himself the office of
lord privy seal, which necessitated his removal to the House of
Lords; and in August he became earl of Chatham and Viscount
Pitt.

By the acceptance of a peerage the great commoner lost at
least as much and as suddenly in popularity as he gained in
dignity. One significant indication of this may be mentioned.
In view of his probable accession to power, preparations were
made in the city of London for a banquet and a general illumina-
tion to celebrate the event. But the celebration was at once
countermanded when it was known that he had become earl of
Chatham. The instantaneous revulsion of public feeling was
somewhat unreasonable, for Pitt's health seems now to have
been beyond doubt so shattered by his hereditary malady, that
he was already in old age though only fifty-eight. It was natural,
therefore, that he should choose a sinecure office, and the ease of
the Lords. But a popular idol nearly always suffers by removal
from immediate contact with the popular sympathy, be the
motives for removal what they may.

One of the earliest acts of the new ministry was to lay an
embargo upon corn, which was thought necessary in order to
prevent a dearth resulting from the unprecedentedly bad
harvest of 1 766. The measure was strongly opposed, and Lord
Chatham delivered his first speech in the House of Lords in
support of it. It proved to be almost the only measure intro-
duced by hisgovernment in which hepersonally interes ted himself .
His attention had been directed to the growing importance of
the affairs of India, and there is evidence in his correspondence
that he was meditating a comprehensive scheme for transferring
much of the power of the company to the crown, when he was
withdrawn from public business in a manner that has always
been regarded as somewhat mysterious. It may be questioned,
indeed, whether even had his powers been unimpaired he could
have carried out any decided policy on any question with a
cabinet representing interests so various and conflicting; but,
as it happened, he was incapacitated physically and mentally
during nearly the whole period of his tenure of office. He
scarcely ever saw any of his colleagues though they repeatedly
and urgently pressed for interviews with him, and even an offer
from the king to visit him in person was declined, though in the
language of profound and almost abject respect which always
marked his communications with the court. It has been in-
sinuated both by contemporary and by later critics that being
disappointed at his loss of popularity, and convinced of the
impossibility of co-operating with his colleagues, he exaggerated
his malady as a pretext for the inaction that was forced upon
him by circumstances. But there is no sufficient reason to doubt
that he was really, as his friends represented, in a state that
utterly unfitted him for business. He seems to have been freed
for a time from the pangs of gout only to be afflicted with a
species of mental alienation bordering on insanity. This is the
most satisfactory, as it is the most obvious, explanation of
his utter indifference in presence of one of the most momentous
problems that ever pressed for solution on an English statesman.
Those who are able to read the history in the light of what
occurred later may perhaps be convinced that no policy whatever
initiated after 1766 could have prevented or even materially
delayed the declaration of American independence; but to the
politicians of that time the coming event had not yet cast so
dark a shadow before as to paralyse all action, and if any man
could have allayed the growing discontent of the colonists and
prevented the ultimate dismemberment of the empire, it would
have been Lord Chatham. The fact that he not only did nothing
to remove existing difficulties, but remained passive while his
colleagues took the fatal step which led directly to separation,
is in itself clear proof of his entire incapacity. The imposition

CHATHAM

S

of the import duty on tea and other commodities was the project
of Charles Townshend, and was carried into effect in 1 767 without
consultation with Lord Chatham, if not in opposition to his
wishes. It is probably the most singular thing in connexion
with this singular administration, that its most pregnant measure
should thus have been one directly opposed to the well-known
principles of its head.

For many months things remained in the curious position that
he who was understood to be the head of the cabinet had as little
share in the government of the country as an unenfranchised
peasant. As the chief could not or would not lead, the sub-
ordinates naturally chose their own paths and not his. The
lines of Chatham's policy were abandoned in other cases besides
the imposition of the import duty; his opponents were taken
into confidence; and friends, such as Amherst and Shelburne,
were dismissed from their posts. When at length in October
1768 he tendered his resignation on the ground of shattered
health, he did not fail to mention the dismissal of Amherst and
Shelburne as a personal grievance.

Soon after his resignation a renewed attack of gout freed
Chatham from the mental disease under which he had so long
suffered. He had been nearly two years and a half in seclusion
when, in July 1769, he again appeared in public at a royal levee.
It was not, however, until 1770 that he resumed his seat in the
House of Lords. He had now almost no personal following,
mainly owing to the grave mistake he had made in not forming
an alliance with the Rockingham party. But his eloquence was
as powerful as ever, and all its power was directed against the
government policy in the contest with America, which had
become the question of all-absorbing interest. His last appear-
ance in the House of Lords was on the 7th of April 1778, on the
occasion of the duke of Richmond's motion for an address
praying the king to conclude peace with America on any terms.
In view of the hostile demonstrations of France the various
parties had come generally to see the necessity of such a measure.
But Chatham could not brook the thought of a step which
implied submission to the " natural enemy " whom it had been
the main object of his life to humble, and he declaimed for a
considerable time, though with sadly diminished vigour, against
the motion. After the duke of Richmond had replied, he rose
again excitedly as if to speak, pressed his hand upon his breast,
and fell down in a fit. He was removed to his seat at Hayes,
where he died on the nth of May. With graceful unanimity
all parties combined to show their sense of the national loss.
The Commons presented an address to the king praying that the
deceased statesman might be buried with the honours of a public
funeral, and voted a sum for a public monument which was
erected over his grave in Westminster Abbey. Soon after the
funeral a bill was passed bestowing a pension of £4000 a year
on his successors in the earldom, He had a family of three
sons and two daughters, of whom the second son, William,
was destined to add fresh lustre to a name which is one of the
greatest in the history of England.

Dr Johnson is reported to have said that " Walpole was a
minister given by the king to the people, but Pitt was a minister
given by the people to the king," and the remark correctly
indicates Chatham's distinctive place among English statesmen.
He was the first minister whose main strength lay in the support
of the nation at large as distinct from its representatives in the
Commons, where his personal following was always small. He
was the first to discern that public opinion, though generally
slow to form and slow to act, is in the end the paramount power
in the state; and he was the first to use it not in an emergency
merely, but throughout a whole political career. He marks the
commencement of that vast change in th.e movement of English
politics by which it has come about that the sentiment of the
great mass of the people now tells effectively on the action of
the government from day to day, — almost from hour to hour.
He was well fitted to secure the sympathy and admiration of his
countrymen, for his virtues and his failings were alike English.
He was often inconsistent, he was generally intractable and
overbearing, and he was always pompous and affected to a

degree which, Macaulay has remarked, seems scarcely compatible
with true greatness. Of the last quality evidence is furnished
in the stilted style of his letters, and in the fact recorded by
Seward that he never permitted his under-secretaries to sit in
his presence. Burke speaks of " some significant, pompous,
creeping, explanatory, ambiguous matter, in the true Chathamic
style." But these defects were known only to the inner circle
of his associates. To the outside public he was endeared as a
statesman who could do or suffer " nothing base," and who had
the rare power of transfusing his own indomitable energy and
courage into all who served under him. " A spirited foreign
policy " has always been popular in England, and Pitt was the
most popular of English ministers, because he was the most
successful exponent of such a policy. In domestic affairs his
influence was small and almost entirely indirect. He himself
confessed his unfitness for dealing with questions of finance. The
commercial prosperity that was produced by his war policy was
in a great part delusive, as prosperity so produced must always
be, though it had permanent effects of the highest moment in the
rise of such centres of industry as Glasgow. This, however, was
a remote result which he could have neither intended nor foreseen.
The correspondence of Lord Chatham, in four volumes, was
published in 1838-1840; and a volume of his letters to Lord Camel-
ford in 1804. The Rev. Francis Thackeray's History of the Rt. Hon.
William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (2 vols., 1827), is a ponderous and
shapeless work. Frederic Harrison's Chatham, in the " Twelve
English Statesmen " series (1905), though skilfully executed, takes a
rather academic and modern Liberal view. A German work, William
Pitt, Graf von Chatham, by Albert von Ruville (3 vols., 1905; English
trans. 1907), is the best and most thorough account of Chatham,
his period, and his policy, which has appeared. See also the separate
article on William Pitt, and the authorities referred tc, especially
the Rev. William Hunt's appendix i. to his vol. x. of The Political
History of England (1905).

CHATHAM, also called MIRAMICHI, an incorporated town and
portof entryin Northumberland county, New Brunswick, Canada,
on the Miramichi river, 24 m. from its mouth and 10 m. by rail
from Chatham junction on the Intercolonial railway. Pop. (1901)
5000. The town contains the Roman Catholic pro-cathedral,
many large saw-mills, pulp-mills, and several establishments
for curing and exporting fish. The lumber trade, the fisheries,
and the manufacture of pulp are the chief industries.

CHATHAM, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and
the capital of Kent county, situated 64 m. S.W. of London,
and 1 1 m. N. of Lake Erie, on the Thames river and the Grand
Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Lake Erie & Detroit River railways.
Pop. (1901) 9068. It has steamboat connexion with Detroit and
the cities on Lakes Huron and Erie. It is situated in a rich agri-
cultural and fruit-growing district, and carries on a large export
trade. It contains a large wagon factory, planing and flour mills,
manufactories of fanning mills, binder-twine, woven wire goods,
engines, windmills, &c.

CHATHAM, a port and municipal and parliamentary borough
of Kent, England, on the right bank of the Medway, 34 m.
E.S.E. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1891) 31,657; (1901) 37,057. Though a distinct borough
it is united on the west with Rochester and on the east with
Gillingham, so that the three boroughs form, in appearance, a
single town with a population which in 1901 exceeded 110,000.
With the exception of the dockyards and fortifications there are
few objects of interest. St Mary's church was opened in 1903, but
occupies a site which bore a church in Saxon times, though the
previous building dated only from 1786. A brass commemorates
Stephen Borough (d. 1584), discoverer of the northern passage
to Archangel in Russia (1553). St Bartholomew's chapel,
originally attached to the hospital for lepers (one of the first in
England), founded by Gundulph, bishop of Rochester, in 1070,
is in part Norman. The funds for the maintenance of the hospital
were appropriated by decision of the court of chancery to the
hospital of St Bartholomew erected in 1863 within the boundaries
of Rochester. The almshouse established in 1592 by Sir John
Hawkins for decayed seamen and shipwrights is still extant, the
building having been re-erected in the 1 9th century; but the fund
called the Chatham Chest, originated by Hawkins and Drake in

6

CHATHAM ISLANDS

1588, was incorporated with Greenwich Hospital in 1802. In
front of the Royal Engineers' Institute is a statue (1890) of
General Gordon, and near the railway station another (1888) to
Thomas Waghorn, promoter of the overland route to India. In
1905 King Edward VII. unveiled a fine memorial arch com-
memorating Royal Engineers who fell in the South African War.
It stands in the parade ground of the Brompton barracks, facing
the Crimean arch. There are numerous brickyards, lime-kilns
and flour-mills in the district neighbouring to Chatham; and the
town carries on a large retail trade, in great measure owing to
the presence of the garrison. The fortifications are among the
most elaborate in the kingdom. The so-called Chatham Lines
enclose New Brompton, a part of the borough of Gillingham.
They were begun in 1758 and completed in 1807, but have been
completely modernized. They are strengthened by several
detached forts and redoubts. Fort Pitt, which rises above the
town to the west, was built in 1779, and is used as a general
military hospital. It was regarded as the principal establishment
of the kind in the country till the foundation of Netley in Hamp-
shire. The lines include the Chatham, the Royal Marine, the
Brompton, the Hut, St Mary's and naval barracks; the garrison
hospital, Melville hospital for sailors and marines, the arsenal,
gymnasium, various military schools, convict prison, and finally
the extensive dockyard system for which the town is famous.
This dockyard covers an area of 516 acres, and has a river
frontage of over 3 m. It was brought into its present state by
the extensive works begun about 1867. Before that time there
was no basin or wet-dock, though the river Medway to some
extent answered the same purpose, but a portion of the adjoin-
ing salt-marshes was then taken in, and three basins have been
constructed, communicating with each other by means of large
locks, so that ships can pass from the bend of the Medway at
Gillingham to that at Upnor. Four graving docks were also
formed, opening out of the first (Upnor) basin. Subsequent
improvements included dredging operations in the Medway to
improve the approach, and the provision of extra dry-dock
accommodation under the Naval Works Acts.

The parliamentary borough returns one member. The town
was incorporated in 1890, and is governed by a mayor, six alder-
men and eighteen councillors. Area, 4355 acres. The borough
includes the suburb (an ecclesiastical parish) of Luton, in which
are the waterworks of Chatham and the adjoining towns.

Chatham (Ceteham, Chetham) belonged at the time of the
Domesday Survey to Odo, bishop of Bayeux. During the
middle ages it formed a suburb of Rochester, but Henry VIII.
in founding a regular navy began to establish dockyards, and the
harbour formed by the deep channel of the Medway was utilized
by Elizabeth, who built a dockyard and established an arsenal
here. The dockyard was altered and improved by Charles I.
and Charles II., and became the chief naval station of England.
In 1708 an act was passed for extending the fortifications of
Chatham. During the excavations on Chatham Hill after 1 758 a
number of tumuli containing human remains, pottery, coins, &c.,
suggestive of an ancient settlement, were found. Chatham was
constituted a parliamentary borough by the Reform Bill of 1832.
In the time of Edward III. the lord of the manor had two fairs,
one on the 24th of August and the other on the 8th of September.
A market to be held on Tuesday, and a fair on the 4th, 5th and
6th of May, were granted by Charles II. in 1679, and another
provision market on Saturday by James II. in 1688. In 1738
fairs were held on the 4th of May and the 8th of September, and
a market every Saturday.

CHATHAM ISLANDS, a small group in the Pacific Ocean,
forming part of New Zealand, 536 m. due E. of Lyttelton in the
South Island, about 44° S., 177° W. It consists of three
islands, a large one called Whairikauri, or Chatham Island, a
smaller one, Rangihaute, or Pitt Island, and a third, Rangatira,
or South-east Island. There are also several small rocky islets.
Whairikauri, whose highest point reaches about 1000 ft., is
remarkable for the number of lakes and tarns it contains, and for
the extensive bogs which cover the surface of nearly the whole
of the uplands. It is of very irregular form, about 38 m. in

length and 25 m. in extreme breadth, with an area of 321 sq. m.
— a little larger than Middlesex. The geological formation is
principally of volcanic rocks, with schists and tertiary limestone;
and an early physical connexion of the islands with New Zealand
is indicated by their geology and biology. The climate is colder
than that of New Zealand. In the centre of Whairikauri is a
large brackish lake called Tewanga, which at the southern end
is separated from the sea by a sandbank only 1 50 yds. wide, which
it occasionally bursts through. The southern part of the island
has an undulating surface, and is covered either with an open
forest or with high ferns. In general the soil is extremely fertile,
and where it is naturaDy drained a rich vegetation of fern and
flax occurs. On the north-west are several conical hills of basalt,
which are surrounded by oases of fertile soil. On the south-
western side is Petre Bay, on which, at the mouth of the river
Mantagu, is Waitangi, the principal settlement.

The islands were discovered in 1791 by Lieutenant W. R.
Broughton (1762-1821), who gave them the name of Chatham
from the brig which he commanded. He described the natives
as a bright, pleasure-loving people, dressed in sealskins or mats,
and calling themselves Morioris or Maiorioris. In 1831 they
were conquered by 800 Maoris who were landed from a European
vessel. They were almost exterminated, and an epidemic of
influenza in 1839 killed half of those left; ten years later there
were only 90 survivors out of a total population of 1 200. They
subsequently decreased still further. Their language was allied
to that of the Maoris of New Zealand, but they differed somewhat
from them in physique, and they were probably a cross between
an immigrating Polynesian group and a lower indigenous Melan-
esian stock. The population of the islands includes about 200
whites of various races and the same number of natives (chiefly
Maoris). Cattle and sheep are bred, and a trade is carried on in
them with the whalers which visit these seas. The chief export
from the group is wool, grown upon runs farmed both by Euro-
peans and Morioris. There is also a small export by the natives
of the flesh of young albatrosses and other sea-birds, boiled down
and cured, for the Maoris of New Zealand, by whom it is reckoned
a delicacy. The imports consist of the usual commodities '
required by a population where little of the land is actually
cultivated.

There are no indigenous mammals; the reptiles belong to
New Zealand species. The birds — the largest factor hi the fauna
— have become very greatly reduced through the introduction
of cats, dogs and pigs, as well as by the constant persecution of
every sort of animal by the natives. The larger bell-bird (Anlh-
ornis melanocephala) has become quite scarce ; the magnificent
fruit-pigeon (Carpophaga chathamensis), and the two endemic
rails (Nesolimnas dieffenbachii and Cabalus modes tits), the one of
which was confined to Whairikauri and the other to Mangare
Island, are extinct. Several fossil or subfossil avian forms, very
interesting from the point of view of geographical distribution,
have been discovered by Dr H. O. Forbes, namely, a true species
of raven (Palaeocorax moriorum), a remarkable rail (Diaphora-
pteryx), closely related to the extinct Aphanapteryx of Mauritius,
and a large coot (Palaeolimnas chathamensis). There have also
been discovered the remains of a species of swan belonging to
the South American genus Chenopis, and of the tuatara (Halteria)
lizard, the unique species of an ancient family now surviving only
in New Zealand. The swan is identical with an extinct species
found in caves and kitchen-middens hi New Zealand, which was
contemporaneous with the prehistoric Maoris and was largely
used by them for food. One of the finest of the endemic flower-
ing plants of the group is the boraginaceous " Chatham Island
lily " (Myositidium nobile), a gigantic forget-me-not, which grows
on the shingly shore in a few places only, and always just on
the high-water mark, where it is daily deluged by the waves;
while dracophyllums, leucopogons and arborescent ragworts are
characteristic forms in the vegetation.

See Bruno Weiss, Funpig Jahre auf Chatham Island (Berlin,
1900) ; H. O. Forbes, " The Chatham Islands and their Story,"
Fortnightly Review (1893), vol. liii. p. 665, "The Chatham Islands,
their relation to a former Southern Continent," Supplementary

CHATILLON— CHATTANOOGA

Paper}, R.G.S., vol. iii. (1893); J. H. Scott, "The Osteology of
the Maori and the Moriori," Trans. New Zealand Institute, vol. xxvi.
(1893); C. W. Andrews, "The Extinct Birds of the Chatham
Islands," Novitates Zoologicae, vol. ii. p. 73 (1896).

CHATILLON, the name of a French family whose history has
furnished material for a large volume in folio by A. du Chesne,
a learned Frenchman, published in 1621. But in spite of its
merits this book presents a certain number of inaccurate state-
ments, some of which it is important to notice. If, for instance,
it be true that the Chatillons came from Chatillon-sur-Marne
(Marne, arrondissement of Reims), it is now certain that, since
the nth century, this castle belonged to the count of Cham-
pagne, and that the head of the house of Chatillon was merely
tenant in that place. One of them, however, Gaucher of Chatillon,
lord of Cr6cy and afterwards constable of France, became in
1290 lord of Chatillon-sur-Marne by exchange, but since 1303 a
new agreement allotted to him the countship of Porcien, while
Chatillon reverted to the domain of the counts of Champagne.
It may be well to mention also that, in consequence of a resem-
blance of their armorial bearings, du Chesne considered wrongly
that the lords of Bazoches and those of Chateau-Porcien of the
j 2th and i3th centuries drew their descent from the house of
Chatillon.

The most important branches of the house of Chatillon were
those of (i) St Pol, beginning with Gaucher III. of Chatillon,
who became count of St Pol in right of his wife Isabelle in 1205,
the last male of the line being Guy V. (d. 1360); (2) Blois,
founded by the marriage of Hugh of Chatillon-St Pol (d. 1 248)
with Mary, daughter of Margaret of Blois (d. 1230), — this branch
became extinct with the death of Guy II. in 1397; (3) Porcien,
from 1303 to 1400, when Count John sold the countship to Louis,
duke of Orleans; (4) Penthievre, by the marriage of Charles of
Blois (d. 1364) with Jeanne (d. 1384), heiress of Guy, count of
Penthievre (d. 1331), the male line becoming extinct in 1457.

See A. du Chesne, Histoire genealogique de la maison de Chastillon-
sur-Marne (1621); Anselme, Histoire genealogique de la maison
royale de France, vi. 91-124 (1730). (A. Lo.)

CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE, a town of eastern France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of C6te-d'Or, on the
Eastern and Paris-Lyon railways, 67 m. N.N.W. of Dijon,
between that city and Troyes. Pop. (1906) 4430. It is situated
on both banks of the upper Seine, which is swelled at its
entrance to the town by the Douix, one of the most abundant
springs in France. Chatillon is constructed on ample lines and
rendered attractive by beautiful promenades. Some ruins on
an eminence above it mark the jite of a chateau of the dukes of
Burgundy. Near by stands the church of St Vorle of the loth
century, but with many additions of later date; it contains a
sculptured Holy Sepulchre of the i6th century and a number of
frescoes. In a fine park stands a modern chateau built by
Marshal Marmont, duke of Ragusa, born at Chatillon in 1774.
It was burnt in 1871, and subsequently rebuilt. The town
preserves several interesting old houses. Chatillon has a sub-
prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a school
of agriculture and a communal college. Among its industries
are brewing, iron-founding and the manufacture of mineral and
other blacks. It has trade in wood, charcoal, lithographic and
other stone. Chatillon anciently consisted of two parts, Chau-
mont, belonging to the duchy of Burgundy, and Bourg, ruled by
the bishop of Langres; it did not coalesce into one town till the
end of the i6th century. It was taken by the English in 1360 and
by Louis XI. in 1475, during his struggle with Charles the Bold.
Chatillon was one of the first cities to adhere to the League, but
suffered severely from the oppression of its garrisons and gover-
nors, and in 1 595 made voluntary submission to Henry IV. In
modern times it is associated with the abortive conference of
1814 between the representatives of Napoleon and the Allies.

CHATSWORTH, a village of Derbyshire, England, containing
a seat belonging to the duke of Devonshire, one of the most
splendid private residences in England. Chatsworth House is
situated close to the left bank of the river Derwent, 2$ m. from
Bakewell. It is Ionic in style, built foursquare, and enclosing a
large open courtyard, with a fountain in the centre. In front,

a beautiful stretch of lawn slopes gradually down to the riverside,
and a bridge, from which may best be seen the grand facade of
the building, as it stands out in relief against the wooded ridge
of Bunker's Hill. The celebrated gardens are adorned with
sculptures by Gabriel Gibber; Sir Joseph Paxton designed the
great conservatory, unrivalled in Europe, which covers an acre;
and the fountains, which include one with a jet 260 ft. high, are
said to be surpassed only by those at Versailles. Within the
house there is a very fine collection of pictures, including the
well-known portraits by Reynolds of Georgiana, duchess of
Devonshire. Other paintings are asccribed to Holbein, Dtirer,
Murillo, Jan van Eyck, Dolci, Veronese and Titian. Hung in the
gallery of sketches there are some priceless drawings attributed
to Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Raffaelle, Correggio, Titian
and other old masters. Statues by Canova, Thorwaldsen,
Chantrey and R. J. Wyatt are included among the sculptures.
In the state apartments the walls and window-panes are in some
cases inlaid with marble or porphyry; the woodcarving, mar-
vellous for its intricacy, grace and lightness of effect, is largely
the work of Samuel Watson of Heanor (d. 1715). Chatsworth
Park is upwards of n m. in circuit, and contains many noble
forest-trees, the whole being watered by the Derwent, and
surrounded by high moors and uplands. Beyond the river, and
immediately opposite the house, stands the model village of
Edensor, where most of the cottages were built in villa style, with
gardens, by order of the 6th duke. The parish church, restored
by the same benefactor, contains an old brass in memory of
John Beaton, confidential servant to Mary, queen of Scots, who
died in 1570; and in the churchyard are the. graves of Lord
Frederick Cavendish, murdered in 1882 in Phoenix Park,
Dublin, and of Sir Joseph Paxton.

Chatsworth (Chetsvorde, Chetdsvorde, " the court of Chetel ")
took its name from Chetel, one of its Saxon owners, who held it
of Edward the Confessor. It belonged to the crown and was
entrusted by the Conqueror to the custody of William Peverell.
Chatsworth afterwards belonged for many generations to the
family of Leech, and was purchased in the reign of Elizabeth
by Sir William Cavendish, husband of the famous Bess of
Hardwick. In 1557 he began to build Chatsworth House, and
it was completed after his death by his widow, then countess of
Shrewsbury. Here Mary, queen of Scots, spent several years of
her imprisonment under the care of the earl of Shrewsbury.
During the Civil War, Chatsworth was occasionally occupied
as a fortress by both parties. It was pulled down, and the
present house begun by William, ist duke of Devonshire in 1688.
The little village consists almost exclusively of families employed
upon the estate.

CHATTANOOGA, a city and the county-seat of Hamilton
county, Tennessee, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, about
300 m. S. of Cincinnati, Ohio, and 150 m. S.E. of Nashville,
Tennessee, on the Tennessee river, and near the boundary line
between Tennessee and Georgia. Pop. (1860) 2545; (1870)
•6093; (1880) 12,892; (1890) 29,100; (1900)30,154, of whom 994
were foreign-born and 13,122 were negroes; (U. S. census, 1910)
44,604. The city is served by the Alabama Great Southern (Queen
and Crescent), the Cincinnati Southern (leased by the Cincinnati,
New Orleans & Texas Pacific railway company), the Nashville,
Chattanooga & St Louis (controlled by the Louisville & Nash-
ville), and its leased line, the Western & Atlantic (connecting
with Atlanta, Ga.), the Central of Georgia, and the Chattanooga
Southern railways, and by freight and passenger steamboat
lines on the Tennessee river, which is navigable to and beyond
this point during eight months of the year. That branch of
the Southern railway extending from Chattanooga to Memphis
was formerly the Memphis & Charleston, under which name it
became famous in the American Civil War. Chattanooga
occupies a picturesque site at a sharp bend of the river. To the
south lies Lookout Mountain, whose summit (2126 ft. above the
sea; 1495 ft. above the river) commands a magnificent view.
To the east rises Missionary Ridge. Fine driveways and electric
lines connect with both Lookout Mountain (the summit of which
is reached by an inclined plane on which cars are operated by

8

CHATTANOOGA

cable) and Missionary Ridge, where there are Federal reserva-
tions, as well as with the National Military Park (15 sq. m.;
dedicated 1895) on the battlefield of Chickamauga (q.v.); this
park was one of the principal mobilization camps of the United
States army during the Spanish-American War of 1898. Among
the principal buildings are the city hall, the Federal building,
the county court house, the public library, the high school and
the St Vincent's and the Baroness Erlanger hospitals. Among
Chattanooga's educational institutions are two commercial
colleges, the Chattanooga College for Young Ladies (non-
sectarian), the Chattanooga Normal University, and the Uni-
versity of Chattanooga, until June 1907, United States Grant
University (whose preparatory department, " The Athens
School," is at Athens, Tenn.), a co-educational institution under
Methodist Episcopal control, established in 1867; it has a school
of law (1899), a medical school (1889), and a school of theology
(1888). East of the city is a large national cemetery containing
more than 13,000 graves of Federal soldiers. Chattanooga is
an important produce, lumber, coal and iron market, and is the
principal trade and jobbing centre for a large district in Eastern
Tennessee and Northern Georgia and Alabama. The proximity
of coalfields and iron mines has made Chattanooga an iron
manufacturing place of importance, its plants including car
shops, blast furnaces, foundries, agricultural implement and
machinery works, and stove factories; the city has had an
important part in the development of the iron and steel industries
in this part of the South. There are also flour mills, tanneries
(United States Leather Co.), patent medicine, furniture, coffin,
woodenware and wagon factories, knitting and spinning mills,,
planing mills, and sash, door and blind factories — the lumber
being obtained from logs floated down the river and by rail. The
value of the city's factory products increased from $10,517,886
in 1900 to $15,193,909 in 1905 or 44-5%.

Chattanooga was first settled about 1835, and was long known
as Ross's Landing. It was incorporated in 1851 as Chattanooga,
and received a city charter in 1866. Its growth for the three
decades after the Civil War was very rapid. During the American
Civil War it was one of the most important strategic points in
the Confederacy, and in its immediate vicinity were fought two
great battles. During June 1862 it was threatened by a Federal
force under General O. M. Mitchel, but the Confederate army
of General Braxton Bragg was transferred thither by rail from
Corinth, Miss., before Mitchel was able to advance. In
September 1863, however, General W. S. Rosecrans, with the
Union Army of the Cumberland out-manceuvred Bragg, con-
centrated his numerous columns in the Chickamauga Valley, and
occupied the town, to which, after the defeat of Chickamauga
(q.v.), he retired.

From the end of September to the 24th of November the Army
of the Cumberland was then invested in Chattanooga by the
Confederates, whose position lay along Missionary Ridge from
its north end near the river towards Rossville, whence their
entrenchments extended westwards to Lookout Mountain, which
dominates the whole ground, the Tennessee running directly
beneath it. Thus Rosecrans was confined to a semicircle of
low ground around Chattanooga itself, and his supplies had to
make a long and difficult detour from Bridgeport, the main road
being under fire from the Confederate position on Lookout and
in the Wauhatchie valley adjacent. Bragg indeed expected that
Rosecrans would be starved into retreat. But the Federals once
more, and this time on a far larger scale, concentrated in the face
of the enemy. The XI. and XII. corps from Virginia under
Hooker were transferred by rail to reinforce Rosecrans; other
troops were called up from the Mississippi, and on the i6th of
October the Federal government reconstituted the western
armies under the supreme command of General Grant. The
XV. corps of the Army of the Tennessee, under Sherman, was
on the march from the Mississippi. Hooker's troops had already
arrived when Grant reached Chattanooga on the 23rd of October.
The Army of the Cumberland was now under Thomas, Rosecrans
having been recalled. The first action was fought at Brown's
Ferry in the Wauhatchie valley, where Hooker executed with

complete precision a plan for the revictualling of Chattanooga,
established himself near Wauhatchie on the 28th, and repulsed
a determined attack on the same night. But Sherman was still
far distant, and the Federal forces at Knoxville, against which
a large detachment of Bragg's army under Longstreet was now
sent, were in grave danger. Grant waited for Sherman's four
divisions, but prepared everything for battle in the meantime.
His plan was that Thomas in the Chattanooga lines should
contain the Confederate centre on Missionary Ridge, while
Hooker on the right at Wauhatchie was to attack Lookout
Mountain, and Sherman farther up the river was to carry out
the decisive attack against Bragg's extreme right wing at the
end of Missionary Ridge. The last marches of the XV. corps
were delayed by stormy weather, Bragg reinforced Longstreet,
and telegraphic communication between Grant and the Federals
at Knoxville had already ceased. But Grant would not move
forward without Sherman, and the battle of Chattanooga was
fought more than two months after Chickamauga. On the 23rd
of November a forward move of Thomas's army, intended as a

Confederate line of defence. X X X X Union troops, ..^m

demonstration, developed into a serious and successful action,
whereby the first line of the Confederate centre was driven in
for some distance. Bragg was now much weakened by successive
detachments having been sent to Knoxville, and on the 24th the
real battle began. Sherman's corps was graudally brought over
the river near the mouth of Chickamauga Creek, and formed up
on the east side.

The attack began at i P.M. and was locally a complete success.
The heights attacked were in Sherman's hands, and fortified
against counter-attack, before nightfall. Hooker in the mean-
while had fought the " Battle above the Clouds " on the steep
face of Lookout Mountain, and though opposed by an equal
force of Confederates, had completely driven the enemy from
the mountain. The 24th then had been a day of success for the
Federals, and the decisive attack of the three armies in concert
was to take place on the 25th. But the maps deceived Grant
and Sherman as they had previously deceived Rosecrans.
Sherman had captured, not the north point of Missionary Ridge,
but a detached hill, and a new and more serious action had to be
fought for the possession of Tunnel Hill, where Bragg's right now
lay strongly entrenched. The Confederates used every effort to
hold the position and all Sherman's efforts were made in vain.
Hooker, who was moving on Rossville, had not progressed far,
and Bragg was still free to reinforce his right. Grant therefore
directed Thomas to move forward on the centre to relieve the

CHATTEL— CHATTERJI

pressure on Sherman. The Army of the Cumberland was, after
all, to strike the decisive blow. About 3.30 P.M. the centre
advanced on the Confederate's trenches at the foot of Missionary
Ridge. These were carried at the first rush, and the troops were
ordered to lie down and await orders. Then occurred one of
the most dramatic episodes of the war. Suddenly, and without
orders either from Grant or the officers at the front, the whole
line of the Army of the Cumberland rose and rushed up the ridge.
Two successive lines of entrenchments were carried at once.
In a short time the crest was stormed, and after a last attempt
at resistance the enemy's centre fled in the wildest confusion.
The pursuit was pressed home by the divisional generals, notably
by Sheridan. Hooker now advanced in earnest on Rossville,
and by nightfall the whole Confederate army, except the troops
on Tunnel Hill, was retreating in disorder. These too were
withdrawn in the night, and the victory of the Federals was
complete. Bragg lost 8684 men killed, wounded and prisoners
out of perhaps 34,000 men engaged; Grant, with 60,000 men,
lost about 6000.

CHATTEL (for derivation see CATTLE), a term used in English
law as equivalent to " personal property," that is, property
which, on the death of the owner, devolves on his executor or
administrator to be distributed (unless disposed of by will)
among the next of kin according to the Statutes of Distributions.
Chattels are divided into chattels real and chattels personal.
Chattels real are those interests in land for which no " real
action " (see ACTION) lies; estates which are less than freehold
(estates for years, at will, or by sufferance) are chattels real.
Chattels personal are such things as belong immediately to the
person of the owner, and for which, if they are injuriously
withheld from him, he has no remedy other than by a personal
action. Chattels personal are divided into chases in possession
and chases in action (see CHOSE).

A chattel mortgage, in United States law, is a transfer of
personal property as security for a debt or obligation in such
form that the title to the property will pass to the mortgagee
upon the failure of the mortgagor to comply with the terms of
the contract. At common law a chattel mortgage might be
made without writing, and was valid as between the parties,
and even as against third parties if accompanied by possession
in the mortgagee, but in most states of the Union legislation
now requires a chattel mortgage to be in writing and duly
recorded in order to be valid against third parties. At common
law a mortgage ran be given only of chattels actually in existence
and belonging to the mortgagor, though if he acquired title
afterwards the mortgage would be good as between the parties,
but not as against subsequent purchasers or creditors. In
equity, on the other hand, a chattel mortgage, though not good
as a conveyance, is valid as an executory agreement.

Goods and chattels is a phrase which, in its widest signification,
includes any property other than freehold. The two words,
however, have come to be synonymous, and the expression,
now practically confined to wills, means merely things movable
in possession.

CHATTERIS, a market town in the Wisbech parliamentary
division of Cambridgeshire, England, 25^ m. N. by W. of Cam-
bridge by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 4711. It lies in the midst of the flat Fen country. The
church of St Peter is principally Decorated; and there are
fragments of a Benedictine convent founded in the loth century
and rebuilt after fire in the first half of the i4th. The town has
breweries, and engineering and rope-making works. To the
north runs the great Forty-foot Drain, also called Vermuyden's,
after the Dutch engineer whose name is associated with the fen
drainage works of the middle of the i7th century.

CHATTERJI, BANKIM CHANDRA [BANKIMACHANDRA
CHATTARADH-VAYA] (1838-1894), Indian novelist, was born in
the district of the Twenty-four Parganas in Bengal en the 27th
of June 1838, and was by caste a Brahman. He was educated
at the Hugli College, at the Presidency College in Calcutta, and
at Calcutta University, where he was the first to take the degree
of B.A. (1858). He entered the Indian civil service, and served

as deputy magistrate in various districts of Bengal, his official
services being recognized, on his retirement in 1891, by the
title of rai bahadur and the C.I.E. He died on the 8th of April
1894.

Bankim Chandra was beyond question the greatest novelist
of India during the igth century, whether judged by the amount
and quality of his writings, or by the influence which they have
continued to exercise. His education had brought him into
touch with the works of the great European romance writers,
notably Sir Walter Scott, and he created in India a school of
fiction on the European model. His first historical novel, the
Durges-Nandini or Chiefs Daughter, modelled on Scott, made
a great sensation in Bengal; and the Kapala-Kundala and
Mrinalini, which followed it, established his fame as a writer
whose creative imagination and power of delineation had never
been surpassed in India. In 1872 he brought out his first social
novel, the Bisha-Brikkha or Poison Tree, which was followed by
others in rapid succession. It is impossible to exaggerate the
effect they produced; for over twenty years Bankim Chandra's
novels were eagerly read by the educated public of Bengal,
including the Hindu ladies in the zenanas; and though numerous
works of fiction are now produced year by year in every province
of India, his influence has increased rather than diminished.
Of all his works, however, by far the most important from its
astonishing political consequences was the Ananda Math, which
was published in 1882, about the time of the agitation arising
out of the Ilbert Bill. The story deals with the Sannyasi (i.e.
fakir or hermit) rebellion of 1772 near Purmea, Tirhut and
Dinapur, and its culminating episode is a crushing victory won
by the rebels over the united British and Mussulman forces,
a success which was not, however, followed up, owing to the
advice of a mysterious " physician " who, speaking as a divinely-
inspired prophet, advises Satyananda, the leader of " the
children of the Mother," to abandon further resistance, since a
temporary submission to British rule is a necessity; for Hinduism
has become too speculative and unpractical, and the mission of
the English in India is to teach Hindus how to reconcile theory
and speculation with the facts of science. The general moral
of the Ananda Math, then, is that British rule and British
education are to be accepted as the only alternative to Mussulman
oppression, a moral which Bankim Chandra developed also in
his Dharmatattwa, an elaborate religious treatise in which he
explained his views as to the changes necessary in the moral and
religious condition of his fellow-countrymen before they could
hope to compete on equal terms with the British and Mahom-
medans. But though the Ananda Math is in form an apology
for the loyal acceptance of British rule, it is none the less inspired
by the ideal of the restoration, sooner or later, of a Hindu
kingdom in India. This is especially evident in the occasional
verse? in the book, of which the Bande Mataram is the most
famous.

As to the exact significance of this poem a considerable
controversy has raged. Bande Mataram is the Sanskrit for
" Hail to thee, Mother!" or more literally " I reverence thee,
Mother!", and according to Dr G. A. Grierson (The Times,
Sept. 12, 1906) it can have no other possible meaning than an
invocation of one of the " mother " goddesses of Hinduism, in
his opinion Kali " the goddess of death and destruction." Sir
Henry Cotton, on the other hand (ib. Sept. 13, 1906), sees in
it merely an invocation of the " mother-land " Bengal, and
quotes in support of this view the free translation of the poem
by the late W. H. Lee, a proof which, it may be at once said,
is far from convincing. But though, as Dr Grierson points out,
the idea of a " mother-land " is wholly alien to Hindu ideas, it is
quite possible that Bankim Chandra may have assimilated it
with his European culture, and the true explanation is probably
that given by Mr J. D. Anderson in The Times of September 24,
1906. He points out that in the nth chapter of the ist book of
the Ananda Math the Sannyasi rebels are represented as having
erected, in addition to the image of Kali, " the Mother who Has
Been," a white marble statue of " the Mother that Shall Be,"
which " is apparently a representation of the mother-land.

IO

CHATTERTON

The Bande Mataram hymn is apparently addressed to both
idols."

The poem, then, is the work of a Hindu idealist who personified
Bengal under the form of a purified and spiritualized Kali.
Of its thirty-six lines, partly written in Sanskrit, partly in
Bengali, the greater number are harmless enough. But if the
poet sings the praise of the " Mother "

" As Lachmi, bowered in the flower
That in the water grows,"

he also praises her as " Durga, bearing ten weapons," and lines
10, ii and 12 are capable of very dangerous meanings in the
mouths of unscrupulous agitators. Literally translated these
run, " She has seventy millions of throats to sing her praise,
twice seventy millions of hands to fight for her, how then
is Bengal powerless?" As S. M. Mitra points out (Indian
Problems, London, 1908), this language is the more significant
as the Bande Mataram in the novel was the hymn by singing
which the Sannyasis gained strength when attacking the British
forces.

During Bankim Chandra Chatterji's lifetime the Bande
Mataram, though its dangerous tendency was recognized, was
not used as a party war-cry; it was not raised, for instance,
during the Ilbert Bill agitation, nor by the students who flocked
round the court during the trial of Surendra Nath Banerji in
1883. It has, however, obtained an evil notoriety in the agita-
tions that followed the partition of Bengal. That Bankim
Chandra himself foresaw or desired any such use of it is impossible
to believe. According to S. M. Mitra, he composed it " in a fit
of patriotic excitement after a good hearty dinner, which he
always enjoyed. It was set to Hindu music, known as the
Mallar-Kawali-Tal. The extraordinarily stirring character of
the air, and its ingenious assimilation of Bengali passages with
Sanskrit, served to make it popular."

Circumstances have made the Bande Mataram the most
famous and the most widespread in its effects of Bankim
Chandra's literary works. More permanent, it may be hoped,
was the wholesome influence he exercised on the number of
literary men he gathered round him, who have left their im-
press on the literature of Bengal. In his earlier years he served
his apprenticeship in literature under Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar,
the chief poet and satirist of Bengal during the earlier half of the
1 9th century. Bankim Chandra's friend and colleague, Dina
Bandhu Mitra, was virtually the founder of the modern Bengali
drama. Another friend of his, Hem Chandra Banerji, was a poet
of recognized merit and talent. And among the younger men
who venerated Bankim Chandra, and benefited by his example
and advice, may be mentioned two distinguished poets, Nalein
Chandra Sen and Rabindra Nath Tagore.

Of Bankim Chandra's novels some have been translated into
English by H. A. D. Phillips and by Mrs M. S. Knight.

CHATTERTON, THOMAS (1752-1770), English poet, was born
at Bristol on the 2oth of November 1752. His pedigree has a
curious significance. The office of sexton of St Mary Redcliffe,
at Bristol, one of the most beautiful parish churches in England,
had been transmitted for nearly two centuries in the Chatter-
ton family; and throughout the brief life of the poet it was
held by his uncle, Richard Phillips. The poet's father, Thomas
Chatterton, was a musical genius, somewhat of a poet, a numis-
matist, and a dabbler in occult arts. He was one of the sub-
chanters of Bristol cathedral, and master of the Pyle Street free
school, near Redcliffe church. But whatever hereditary ten-
dencies may have been transmitted from the father, the sole
training of the boy necessarily devolved on his mother, who was
in the fourth month of her widowhood at the time of his birth.
She established a girls' school, took in sewing and ornamental
needlework, and so brought up her two children, a girl and a
boy, till the latter attained his eighth year, when he was admitted
to Colston's Charity. But the Bristol blue-coat school, in which
the curriculum was limited to reading, writing, arithmetic and
the Church Catechism, had little share in the education of its
marvellous pupil. The hereditary race of sextons had come to
regard the church of St Mary Redcliffe as their own peculiar

domain; and, under the guidance of his uncle, the child found
there his favourite haunt. The knights, ecclesiastics and civic
dignitaries, recumbent on its altar tombs, became his familiar
associates ; and by and by, when he was able to spell his way
through the inscriptions graven on their monuments, he found
a fresh interest in certain quaint oaken chests in the muniment
room over the porch on the north side of the nave, where parch-
ment deeds, old as the Wars of the Roses, long lay unheeded
and forgotten. They formed the child's playthings almost from
his cradle. He learned his first letters from the illuminated
capitals of an old musical folio, and learned to read out of a
black-letter Bible. He did not like, his sister said, reading out
of small books. Wayward, as it seems, almost from his earliest
years, and manifesting no sympathy with the ordinary pastimes
of children, he was regarded for a time as deficient in intellect.
But he was even then ambitious of distinction. His sbter relates
that on being asked what device he would like painted on a bowl
that was to be his, he replied, " Paint me an angel, with wings,
and a trumpet, to trumpet my name over the world."

From his earliest years he was liable to fits of abstraction,
sitting for hours in seeming stupor, or yielding after a time to
tears, for which he would assign no reason. He had no one near
him to sympathize in the strange world of fancy which his
imagination had already called into being; and circumstances
helped to foster his natural reserve, and to beget that love of
mystery which exercised so great an influence on the develop-
ment of his genius. When the strange child had attained his
sixth year his mother began to recognize his capacity; at eight
he was so eager for books that he would read and write all day
long if undisturbed; and in his eleventh year he had become a
contributor to Felix Farley's Bristol Journal. The occasion of
his confirmation inspired some religious poems published in this
paper. In 1763 a beautiful cross of curious workmanship, which
had adorned the churchyard of St Mary Redcliffe for upwards of
three centuries, was destroyed by a churchwarden. The spirit
of veneration was strong in the boy, and he sent to the local
journal on the 7th of January 1764 a clever satire on the parish
Vandal. But his delight was to lock himself in a little attic
which he had appropriated as his study; and there, with books,
cherished parchments, saved from the loot of the muniment room
of St Mary Redcliffe, and drawing materials, the child lived in
thought with his 15th-century heroes and heroines. The first of
his literary mystifications, the duologue of " Elinoure and Juga,"
was written before he was twelve years old, and he showed his
poem to the usher at Colston's hospital, Thomas Phillips, as the
work of a 15th-century poet.

Chatterton remained an inmate of Colston's hospital for
upwards of six years, and the slight advantages gained from
this scanty education are traceable to the friendly sympathy of
Phillips, himself a writer of verse, who encouraged his pupils to
write. Three of Chatterton's companions are named as youths
whom Phillips's taste for poetry stimulated to rivalry; but
Chatterton held aloof from these contests, and made at that
time no confidant of his own more daring literary adventures.
His little pocket-money was spent in borrowing books from a
circulating library; and he early ingratiated himself with book
collectors, by whose aid he found access to Weever, Dugdale
and Collins, as well as to Speght's edition of Chaucer, Spenser
and other books.

His "Rowleian" jargon appears to have been chiefly the
result of the study of John Kersey's Dictionarium Anglo-Bri-
tannicum, and Prof. W. W. Skeat seems to think his knowledge
of even Chaucer was very slight. His holidays were mostly
spent at his mother's house; and much of them in the favourite
retreat of his attic study there. He had already conceived the
romance of Thomas Rowley, an imaginary monk of the isth
century, and lived for the most part in an ideal world of his own,
in that elder time when Edward IV. was England's king, and
Master William Canynge — familiar to him among the recum-
bent effigies in Redcliffe church — still ruled in Bristol's civic
chair. Canynge is represented as an enlightened patron of
literature, and Rowley's dramatic interludes were written for

CHATTERTON

1 1

performance at his house. In order to escape a marriage urged
by the king, Canynge retired to the college of Westbury in
Gloucestershire, where he enjoyed the society of Rowley, and
eventually became dean of the institution. In " The Storie of
William Canynge," one of the shorter pieces of his ingenious
romance, his early history is recorded.

" Straight was I carried back to times of yore,
Whilst Canynge swathed yet in fleshly bed,
And saw all actions which had been beiore,

And all the scroll of Fate unravelled ;
And when the fate-marked babe acome to sight,
I saw him eager gasping after light.
In all his sheepen gambols and child's play,

In every merrymaking, fair, or wake,
I kenn'd a perpled light of wisdom's ray ;

He ate down learning with the wastel-cake ;
As wise as any of the aldermen,
He'd wit enow to make a mayor at ten."

This beautiful picture of the childhood of the ideal patron of
Rowley is in reality that of the poet himself — " the fate-marked
babe," with his wondrous child-genius, and all his romantic
dreams realized. The literary masquerade which thus consti-
tuted the life-dream of the boy was wrought out by him in
fragments of prose and verse into a coherent romance, until the
credulous scholars and antiquaries of his day were persuaded
into the belief that there had lain in the parish chest of Redcliffe
church for upwards of three centuries, a collection of MSS. of
rare merit, the work of Thomas Rowley, an unknown priest of
Bristol in the days of Henry VI. and his poet laureate, John
Lydgate.

Among the Bristol patrons of Chatterton were two pewterers,
George Catcott and his partner Henry Burgum. Catcott was one
of the most zealous believers in Rowley, and continued to collect
his reputed writings long after the death of their real author.
On Burgum, who had risen in life by his own exertions, the blue-
coat boy palmed off the de Bergham pedigree, and other equally
apocryphal evidences of the pewterer's descent from an ancestry
old as the Norman Conquest. The de Bergham quartering,
blazoned on a piece of parchment doubtless recovered from the
Redcliffe muniment chest, was itself supposed to have lain for
centuries in that ancient depository. The pedigree was pro-
fessedly collected by Chatterton from original records, including
" The Rowley MSS." The pedigree still exists in Chatterton's
own handwriting, copied into a book in which he had previously
transcribed portions of antique verse, under the title of " Poems
by Thomas Rowley, priest of St. John's, in the city of Bristol ";
and in one of these, " The Tournament," Syrr Johan de Berg-
hamme plays a conspicuous part. The ennobled pewterer
rewarded Chatterton with five shillings, and was satirized for
this valuation of a noble pedigree in some of Chatterton's
latest verse.

On the ist of July 1767, Chatterton was transferred to the office
of John Lambert, attorney, to whom he was bound apprentice
as a clerk. There he was left much alone; and after fulfilling
the routine duties devolving on him, he found leisure for his own
favourite pursuits. An ancient stone bridge on the Avon, built
in the reign of Henry II., and altered by many later additions
into a singularly picturesque but inconvenient thoroughfare,
had been displaced by a structure better adapted to modern
requirements. In September 1768, when Chatterton was in the
second year of his apprenticeship, the new bridge was partially
opened for traffic. Shortly afterwards the editor of Felix Farley's
Journal received from a correspondent, signing himself Dunelmus
Bristoliensis, a " description of the mayor's first passing over the
old bridge," professedly derived from an ancient MS. William
Barrett, F.S.A., surgeon and antiquary, who was then accumu-
lating materials for a history of Bristol, secured the original
manuscript, which is now preserved in the British Museum, along
with other Chatterton MSS., most of which were ultimately
incorporated by the credulous antiquary into a learned quarto
volume, entitled the History and Antiquities of the City of Bristol,
published nearly twenty years after the poet's death. It was
at this time that the definite story made its appearance — over

which critics and antiquaries wrangled for nearly a century—
of numerous ancient poems and other MSS. taken by the elder
Chatterton from a coffer in the muniment room of Redcliffe
church, and transcribed, and so rescued from oblivion, by his
son. The pieces include the " Bristowe Tragedie, or the Dethe
of Syr Charles Bawdin," a ballad celebrating the death of the
Lancastrian knight, Charles Baldwin; " JEMa.," a "Tragycal
Enterlude," as Chattertpn styles it, but in reality a dramatic
aoem of sustained power and curious originality of structure;
" Goddwyn," a dramatic fragment; " Tournament," " Battle
of Hastings," " The Parliament of Sprites," " Balade of Charitie,"
with numerous shorter pieces, forming altogether a volume of
poetry, the rare merit of which is indisputable, wholly apart from
the fact that it was the production of a mere boy. Unfortunately
for him, his ingenious romance had either to be acknowledged as
his own creation, and so in all probability be treated with con-
tenipt, or it had to be sustained by the manufacture of spurious
antiques. To this accordingly Chatterton resorted, and found
no difficulty in gulling the most learned of his credulous dupes
with his parchments.

The literary labours of the boy, though diligently pursued at
bis desk, were not allowed to interfere with the duties of Mr
Lambert's office. Nevertheless the Bristol attorney used to
search his apprentice's drawer, and tear up any poems or other
manuscripts that he could lay his hands upon; so that it was
only during the absences of Mr Lambert from Bristol that he
was able to expend his unemployed time in his favourite pursuits.
But repeated allusions, both by Chatterton and others, seem to
indicate that such intervals of freedom were of frequent occur-
rence. Some of his modern poems, such as the piece entitled
" Resignation," are of great beauty; and these, with the satires, in
which he took his revenge on all the local celebrities whose
vanity or meanness had excited his ire, are alone sufficient to fill
a volume. The Catcotts, Burgum, Barrett and others of his
patrons, figure in these satires, in imprudent yet discriminating
caricature, along with mayor, aldermen, bishop, dean and other
notabilities of Bristol. Towards Lambert his feelings were of too
keen a nature to find relief in such sarcasm.

In December 1768, in his seventeenth year, he wrote to
Dodsley, the London publisher, offering to procure for him
" copies of several ancient poems, and an interlude, perhaps
the oldest dramatic piece extant, wrote by one Rowley, a priest
in Bristol, who lived in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV."
To this letter he appended the initials of his favourite pseudonym,
Dunelmus Bristoliensis, but directed the answer to be sent to
the care of Thomas Chatterton, Redcliffe Hill, Bristol. To this,
as well as to another letter enclosing an extract from the tragedy
of "jElla," no answer appears to have been returned. Chatter-
ton, conceiving the idea of finding sympathy and aid at the hand
of some modern Canynge, bethought him of Horace Walpole,
who not only indulged in a medieval renaissance of his own, but
was the reputed author of a spurious antique in the Castle of
Otranto. He wrote to him offering him a document entitled
" The Ryse of Peyncteyne yn Englande, wroten by T. Rowleie,
1469, for Mastre Canynge," accompanied by notes which included
specimens of Rowley's poetry. To this Walpole replied with
courteous acknowledgments. He characterized the verses as
" wonderful for their harmony and spirit," and added, " Give me
leave to ask you where Rowley's poems are to be had ? I should
not be sorry to print them; or at least a specimen of them, if
they have never been printed." Chatterton replied, enclosing
additional specimens of antique verse, and telling Walpole that
he was the son of a poor widow, and clerk to an attorney, but
had a taste for more refined studies; and he hinted a wish that
he might help him to some more congenial occupation. Walpole's
manner underwent an abrupt change. The specimens of verse
had been submitted to his friends Gray and Mason, the poets,
and pronounced modern. They did not thereby forfeit the
wonderful harmony and spirit which Walpole had already
professed to recognize in them. But he now coldly advised the
boy to stick to the attorney's office; and " when he should
have made a fortune," he might betake himself to more favourite

12

CHATTERTON

studies. Chatterton had to write three times before he recovered
his MSS. Walpole has been loaded with more than his just
share pf responsibility for the fate of the unhappy poet, of
whom he admitted when too late, " I do not believe there ever
existed so masterly a genius."

Chatterton now turned his attention to periodical literature
and politics, and exchanged Felix Farley's Bristol Journal for
the Town and County Magazine and other London periodicals.
Assuming the vein of Junius — then in the full blaze of his
triumph — he turned his pen against the duke of Grafton, the
earl of Bute, and the princess of Wales. He had'just despatched
one of his political diatribes to the Middlesex Journal, when he
sat down on Easter Eve, lyth April 1770, and penned his " Last
Will and Testament," a strange satirical compound of jest and
earnest, in which he intimated his intention of putting an end
to his life the following evening. Among his satirical bequests,
such as his " humility " to the Rev. Mr Camplin, his " religion "
to Dean Barton, and his " modesty " along with his " prosody
and grammar " to Mr Burgum, he leaves " to Bristol all his
spirit and disinterestedness, parcels of goods unknown on its
quay since the days of Canynge and Rowley." In more genuine
earnestness he recalls the name of Michael Clayfield, a friend to
whom he owed intelligent sympathy. The will was probably
purposely prepared in order to frighten his master into letting
him go. If so, it had the desired effect. Lambert cancelled his
indentures; his friends and acquaintance made him up a purse;
and on the 25th or 26th of the month he arrived in London.

Chatterton was already known to the readers of the Middlesex
Journal as a rival of Junius, under the nom de plume of Decimus.
He had also been a contributor to Hamilton's Town and County
Magazine, and speedily found access to the Freeholder's Magazine,
another political miscellany strong for Wilkes and liberty. His
contributions were freely accepted; but the editors paid little
or nothing for them. He wrote in the most hopeful terms to his
mother and sister, and spent his first earnings in buying gifts
for them. His pride and ambition were amply gratified by the
promises and interested flattery of editors and political adven-
turers; Wilkes himself had noted his trenchant style, " and
expressed a desire to know the author "; and Lord Mayor
Beckford graciously acknowledged a political address of his,
and greeted him " as politely as a citizen could." But of actual
money he received but litUe. He was extremely abstemious,
his diligence was great, and his versatility wonderful. He could
assume the style of Junius or Smollett, reproduce the satiric
bitterness of Churchill, parody Macpherson's Ossian, or write in
the manner of Pope, or with the polished grace of Gray and
Collins. He wrote political letters, eclogues, lyrics, operas and
satires, both in prose and verse. In June 1 7 70 — after Chatterton
had been some nine weeks in London — he removed from Shore-
ditch, where he had hitherto lodged with a relative, to an attic
in Brook Street, Holborn. But for most of his productions the
payment was delayed; and now state prosecutions of the press
rendered letters in the Junius vein no longer admissible, and
threw him back on the lighter resources of his pen. In Shoreditch,
as in his lodging at the Bristol attorney's, he had only shared a
room; but now, for the first time, he enjoyed uninterrupted
solitude. His bed-fellow at Mr Walmsley's, Shoreditch, noted
that much of the night was spent by him in writing; and now
he could write all night. The romance of his earlier years
revived, and he transcribed from an imaginary parchment of
the old priest Rowley his " Excelente Balade of Charitie." This
fine poem, perversely disguised in archaic language, he sent to
the editor of the Town and County Magazine, and had it rejected.

The high hopes of the sanguine boy had begun to fade. He
had not yet completed his second month in London, and already
failure and starvation stared him in the face. Mr Cross, a neigh-
bouring apothecary, repeatedly invited him to join him at dinner
or supper; but he refused. His landlady also, suspecting his
necessity, pressed him to share her dinner, but in vain. " She
knew," as she afterwards said, " that he had not eaten anything
for two or three days." But he was offended at her urgency,
and assured her that he was not hungry. The note of his actual

receipts, found in his pocket-book after his death, shows that
Hamilton, Fell and other editors who had been so liberal in
flattery, had paid him at the rate of a shilling for an article, and
somewhat less than eightpence each for his songs; while much
which had been accepted was held in reserve, and still unpaid
for. The beginning of a new month revealed to him the indefinite
postponement of the publication and payment of his work. He
had wished, according to his foster-mother, to study medicine
with Barrett; in his desperation he now reverted to this, and
wrote to Barrett for a letter to help him to an opening as a
surgeon's assistant on board an African trader. He appealed
also to Mr Catcott to forward his plan, but in vain. On the
24th of August 1770, he retired for the last time to his attic in
Brook Street, carrying with him the arsenic which he there
drank, after tearing into fragments whatever literary remains
were at hand.

He was only seventeen years and nine months old; but the
best of his numerous productions, both in prose and verse,
require no allowance to be made for the immature years of their
author, when comparing him with the ablest of his contem-
poraries. He pictures Lydgate, the monk of Bury St Edmunds,
challenging Rowley to a trial at versemaking, and under cover
of this fiction, produces his " Songe of ^Ella," a piece of rare
lyrical beauty, worthy of comparison with any antique or modern
production of its class. Again, in his " Tragedy of Goddwyn,"
of which only a fragment has been preserved, the " Ode to
Liberty," with which it abruptly closes, may claim a place among
the finest martial lyrics in the language. The collection of poems
in which such specimens occur furnishes by far the most remark-
able example of intellectual precocity in the whole history of
letters. Collins, Burns, Keats, Shelley and Byron all awaken
sorrow over the premature arrestment of their genius; but the
youngest of them survived to his twenty-fifth year, while
Chatterton was not eighteen when he perished in his miserable
garret. The death of Chatterton attracted little notice at the
time; for the few who then entertained any appreciative
estimate of the Rowley poems regarded him as their mere
transcriber. He was interred in a burying-ground attached to
Shoe Lane Workhouse, in the parish of St Andrew's, Holborn,
which has since been converted into a site for Farringdon Market.
There is a discredited story that the body of the poet was re-
covered, and secretly buried by his uncle, Richard Phillips, in
Redcliffe Churchyard. There a monument has since been erected
to his memory, with the appropriate inscription, borrowed
from his " Will," and so supplied by the poet's own pen — " To
the memory of Thomas Chatterton. Reader! judge not. If
thou art a Christian, believe that he shall be judged by a Superior
Power. To that Power only is he now answerable."

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Poems supposed to have been written at Bristol
by Thomas Rowley and others, in the Fifteenth Century (1777) was edited
by Thomas Tyrwhitt; Thomas Warton, in his History of English
Poetry (1778), vol. ii. section viii., gives Rowley a place among the
1 5th century poets; but neither of these critics believed in the
antiquity of the poems. In 1782 a new edition of Rowley's poems
appeared, with a " Commentary, in which the antiquity of them is
considered and defended," by Jeremiah Milles, dean of Exeter.
The controversy which raged round the Rowley poems is discussed
in A. Kippis, Biographia Britannica (vol. iv., 1789), where there is a
detailed account by G. Gregory of Chatterton's life (pp. 573-619).
This was reprinted in the edition (1803) of Chatterton s Works by
R. Southey and J. Cottle, published for the benefit of the poet s
sister. The neglected condition of the study of earlier English in
the 1 8th century alone accounts for the temporary success of
Chatterton's mystification. It has long been agreed that Chatterton
was solely responsible for the Rowley -Poems, but the language and
style are analysed in confirmation of this view by Prof. W. W.
Skeat in an introductory essay prefaced to vol. ii. of The Poetical
Works of Thomas Chatterton (1871) in the " Aldine Edition of the
British Poets." This, which is the most convenient edition, also
contains a memoir of the poet by Edward Bell. The spelling of the
Rowley poems is there modernized, and many of the archaic words
are replaced by modern equivalents provided in many cases from
Chatterton's own notes, the theory being that Chatterton usually
composed in modern English, and inserted his peculiar words and
his complicated orthography afterwards. For some criticism of
Prof. Skeat's success in the very difficult task of reconstituting the
text, see H. B. Forman, Thomas Chatterton and his latest Editor (1874).

CHATTI— CHAUCER

The Chatterton MSS., originally in the possession of William Barrett
of Bristol, were left by his heir to the British Museum in 1800.
Others are preserved in the Bristol library.

Chatterton's genius and his tragic death arc commemorated by
Shelley in Adonais, by Wordsworth in " Resolution and Independ-
ence," by Coleridge in " A Monody on the Death of Chattertpn,"
by D. G. Rossetti in " Five English Poets," and John Keats inscribed
Endymion " to the memory of Thomas Chattertpn." Alfred de
Vigny's drama of Chatterton gives an altogether fictitious account of
the poet. Herbert Croft (q.v.), in his Love and Madness, interpolated
a long and valuable account of Chatterton, giving many of the
poet's letters, and much information obtained from his family and
friends (pp. 125-244, letter li.). There is a valuable collection of
" Chattertoniana " in the British Museum, consisting of separate
works by Chatterton, newspaper cuttings, articles, dealing with the
Rowley controversy and other subjects, with MS. notes by Joseph
Haslewood, and several autograph letters.

Among biographies of Chatterton may be mentioned Chatterton:
A Biographical Study (1869), by Daniel Wilson; Chatterton: A
Biography (1899; first printed 1856 in a volume of essays), by
D. Masson; "Thomas Chatterton " (1900), by Helene Richter, in
Wiener Beitrdge zur engl. Philologie; Chatterton, by C. E. Russell
(1909).

CHATTI, an ancient German tribe inhabiting the upper
reaches of the rivers Weser, Eder, Fulda and Werra, a district
approximately corresponding to Hesse-Cassel, though probably
somewhat more extensive. They frequently came into conflict
with the Romans during the early years of the ist century.
Eventually they formed a portion of the Franks and were
incorporated in the kingdom of Clovis probably with the Ripuarii,
at the beginning of the 6th century. ;„ ; ;

Tacitus, Annals, i. 2, n, 12, 13; Germania, 30-31; Strabo p.
291 f.

CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (? 1340-1400), English poet. The
name Chaucer, a French form of the Latin cakearius, a shoe-
maker, is found in London and the eastern counties as early as
the second half of the I3th century. Some of the London
Chaucers lived in Cordwainer Street, in the shoemakers' quarter;
several of them, however, were vintners, and among others the
poet's father John, and probably also his grandfather Robert.
Legal pleadings inform us that in December 1324 John Chaucer
was not much over twelve years old, and that he was still un-
married in 1328, the year which used to be considered
that of Geoffrey's birth. The poet was probably born
from eight to twelve years later, since in 1386, when giving
evidence in Sir Richard le Scrope's suit against Sir Robert
Grosvenor as to the right to bear certain arms, he was set down
as " del age de xl ans et plus, armeez par xxvij ans." At a later
date, and probably at the time of the poet's birth, his father
lived in Thames Street, and had to wife a certain Agnes, niece
of Hamo de Compton, whom we may regard as Geoffrey Chaucer's
mother. In 1357 Geoffrey is found, apparently as a lad, in the
service of Elizabeth, countess of Ulster, wife of Lionel, duke of
Clarence, entries in two leaves of her household accounts,
accidentally preserved, showing that she paid in April, May and
December various small sums for his clothing and expenses.
In 1359, as we learn from his deposition in the Scrope suit, Chaucer
went to the war in France. At some period of the campaign he
was at " Retters," i.e. Rethel, near Reims, and subsequently
had the ill luck to be taken prisoner. On the ist of March 1360
the king contributed £16 to his ransom, and by a year or two
later Chaucer must have entered the royal service, since on the
2oth of June 1367 Edward granted him a pension of twenty
marks for his past and future services. A pension of ten marks
had been granted by the king the previous September to a
Philippa Chaucer for services to .the queen as one of her " domi-
cellae " or " damoiselles," and it seems probable that at this date
Chaucer was already married and this Philippa his wife, a con-
clusion which used to be resisted on the ground of allusions in
his early poems to a hopeless love-affair, now reckoned part of
his poetical outfit. Philippa is usually said to have been one of
two daughters of a Sir Payne Roet, the other being Katherine,
who after the death of her first husband, Sir Hugh de Swynford,
in 1372, became governess to John of Gaunt's children, and
subsequently his mistress and (in 1396) his wife. It is possible
that Philippa was sister to Sir Hugh and sister-in-law to

Katherine. In either case the marriage helps to account
for the favour subsequently shown to Chaucer by John of
Gaunt.

In the grant of his pension Chaucer is called " dilectus vallectus
noster," our beloved yeoman; before the end of 1368 he had
risen to be one of the king's esquires. In September of the
following year John of Gaunt's wife, the duchess Blanche, died at
the age of twenty-nine, and Chaucer wrote in her honour The
Book of the Duchesse, a poem of 1334 lines in octosyllabic couplets,
the first of his undoubtedly genuine works which can be connected
with a definite date. In June 1370 he went abroad on the king's
service, though on what errand, or whither it took him, is not
known. He was back probably some time before Michaelmas,
and seems to have remained in England till the ist of December
1372, when he started, with an advance of 100 marks in his
pocket, for Italy, as one of the three commissioners to treat with
the Genoese as to an English port where they might have special
facilities for trade. The accounts which he delivered on his
return on the 23rd of May 1373 show that he had also visited
Florence on the king's business, and he probably went also to
Padua and there made the acquaintance of Petrarch.

In the second quarter of 1374 Chaucer lived in a whirl of
prosperity. On the 23rd of April the king granted him a pitcher
of wine daily, subsequently commuted for an annuity of 20
marks. From John of Gaunt, who in August 1372 had granted
Philippa Chaucer £10 a year, he himself now received (June 13)
a like annuity in reward for his own and his wife's services.
On the 8th of June he was appointed Comptroller of the Custom
and Subsidy of Wools, Hides and Woodfells and also of the
Petty Customs of Wine in the Port of London. A month before
this appointment, and probably in anticipation of it, he took
(May 10, 1374) a lease for life from the city of London of the
dwelling-house above the gate of Aldgate, and here he lived for
the next twelve years. His own and his wife's income now
amounted to over £60, the equivalent of upwards of £1000 in
modern money. In the next two years large windfalls came to
him in the form of two wardships of Kentish heirs, one of whom
paid him £104, and a grant of £71: 4: 6; the value of some
confiscated wool. In December 1376 he was sent abroad on the
king's service in the retinue of Sir John Burley; in February
1377 he was sent to Paris and Montreuil in connexion probably
with the peace negotiations between England and France, and
at the end of April (after a reward of £20 for his good services)
he was again despatched to France.

On the accession of Richard II. Chaucer was confirmed in his
offices and pensions. In January 1378 he seems to have been
in France in connexion with a proposed marriage between
Richard and the daughter of the French king; and on the 28th
of May of the same year he was sent with Sir Edward de Berkeley
to the lord of Milan and Sir John Hawkwood to treat for help in
the king's wars, returning on the igth of September. This was
his last diplomatic journey, and the close of a period of his life
generally considered to have been so unprolific of poetry that
little beyond the Clerk's " Tale of Grisilde," one or two other of
the stories afterwards included in the Canterbury Tales, and a
few short poems, are attributed to it, though the poet's actual
absences from England during the eight years amount to little
more than eighteen months. During the next twelve or fifteen
years there is no question that Chaucer was constantly engaged
in literary work, though for the first half of them he had no lack
of official employment. Abundant favour was shown him by the
new king. He was paid £22 as a reward for his later missions in
Edward III.'s reign, and was allowed an annual gratuity of 10
marks in addition to his pay of £10 as comptroller of the customs
of wool. In April 1382 a new comptrollership, that of the petty
customs in the Port of London, was given him, and shortly after
he was allowed to exercise it by deputy, a similar licence being
given him in February 13^5, at the instance of the earl of Oxford,
as regards the comptrollership of wool. In October 1385 Chaucer
was made a justice of the peace for Kent. In February 1386 we
catch a glimpse of his wife Philippa being admitted to the
fraternity of Lincoln cathedral in the company of Henry, earl of

CHAUCER

Derby (afterwards Henry IV.), Sir Thomas de Swynford and
other distinguished persons. In August 1386 he was elected one
of the two knights of the shire for Kent, and with this dignity,
though it was one not much appreciated in those days, his good
fortune reached its climax. In December of the same year he
was superseded in both his comptrollerships, almost certainly
as a result of the absence of his patron, John of Gaunt, 'in Spain,
and the supremacy of the duke of Gloucester. In the following
year the cessation of Philippa's pension suggests that she died
between Midsummer and Michaelmas. In May 1388 Chaucer
surrendered to the king his two pensions of 20 marks each, and
they were re-granted at his request to one John Scalby. The
transaction was unusual and probably points to a pressing need
for ready money, nor for the next fourteen months do we know
of any source of income possessed by Chaucer beyond his annuity
of £10 from John of Gaunt.

In July 1389, after John of Gaunt had returned to England,
and the king had taken the government into his own hands,
(jjhaucer was appointed clerk of the works at various royal
palaces at a salary of two shillings a day, or over £31 a year,
worth upwards of £500 present value. To this post was sub-
sequently added the charge of some repairs at St George's Chapel,
Windsor. He was also made a commissioner to maintain the
banks of the Thames between Woolwich and Greenwich, afid was
given by the earl of March (grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence,
his old patron) a sub-forestership at North Petherton, Devon,
obviously a sinecure. While on the king's business, in September
1390, Chaucer was twice robbed by highwaymen, losing £20 of
the king's money. In June 1391 he was superseded in his office
of clerk of the works, and seems to have suffered another spell of
misfortune, of which the first alleviation came in January 1393
when the king made him a present of £10. In February 1394
he was granted a new pension of £20. It is possible, also, that
about this time, or a little later, he was in the service of the earl
of Derby. In 1397 he received from King Richard a grant of a
butt of wine yearly. For this he appears to have asked in terms
that suggest poverty, and in May 1398 he obtained letters of pro-
tection against his creditors, a step perhaps rendered necessary
by an action for debt taken against him earlier in the year.
On the accession of Henry IV. a new pension of 40 marks was
conferred on Chaucer (i3th of October 1399) and Richard II. 's
grants were formally confirmed. Henry himself, however, was
probably straitened for ready money, and no instalment of the
new pension was paid during the few months of his reign that the
poet lived. Nevertheless, on the strength of his expectations,
on the 24th of December 1399 he leased a tenement in the garden
of St Mary's Chapel, Westminster, and it was probably here that
he died, on the 2$th of the following October. He was buried in
Westminster Abbey, and his tomb became the nucleus of what
is now known as Poets' Corner.

The portrait of Chaucer, which the affection of his disciple,
Thomas Hoccleve, caused to be painted in a copy of the latter's
Regement of Princes (now Harleian MS. 4866 in the British
Museum), shows him an old man with white hair; he has a
fresh complexion, grey eyes, a straight nose, a grey moustache
and a small double-pointed beard. His dress and hood are black,
and he carries in his hands a string of beads. We may imagine
that it was thus that during the last months of his life he used
to walk about the precincts of the Abbey.

Henry IV.'s promise of an additional pension was doubtless
elicited by the Compleynt to his Purs, in the envoy to which
Worts Chaucer addresses him as the " conquerour of Brutes
Albioun." Thus within the last year of his life the
poet was still writing. Nevertheless, as early as 1393-1394, in
lines to his friend Scogan, he had written as if his day for poetry
were past, and it seems probable that his longer poems were
all composed before this date. In the preceding fifteen — or, if
another view be taken, twenty — years, his literary activity was
very great, and with the aid of the lists of his works which he gives
in the Legende of Good Women (Iines4i4-43i),and the talk on the
road which precedes the " Man of Law's Tale " (Canterbury
Tales, B. 46-76), the order in which his main works were written

can be traced with approximate certainty,1 while a few both of
these and of the minor poems can be connected with definite
dates.

The development of his genius has been attractively summed
up as comprised in three stages, French, Italian and English,
and there is a rough approximation to the truth in this formula,
since his earliest poems are translated from the French or based
on French models, and the two great works of his middle period
are borrowed from the Italian, while his latest stories have no
such obvious and direct originals and in their humour and free-
dom anticipate the typically English temper of Henry Fielding.
But Chaucer's indebtedness to French poetry was no passing
phase. For various reasons — a not very remote French origin
of his own family may be one of them — he was in no way inter-
ested in older English literature or in the work of his English
contemporaries, save possibly that of " the moral Gower." On
the other hand he knew the Roman de la rose as modern English
poets know Shakespeare, and the full extent of his debt to his
French contemporaries, not merely in 1369, but in 1385 and in
1393 (the dates are approximate), is only gradually being dis-
covered. To be in touch throughout his life with the best French
poets of the day was much for Chaucer. Even with their stimulus
alone he might have developed no small part of his genius. But
it was his great good fortune to add to this continuing French
influence, lessons in plot and construction derived from Boc-
caccio's Filostrato and Teseide, as well as some glimpses of the
higher art of the Divina Commedia. He shows acquaintance also
with one of Petrarch's sonnets, and though, when all is said, the
Italian books with which he can be proved to have been intimate
are but few, they sufficed. His study of them was but an
episode in his literary life, but it was an episode of unique im-
portance. Before it began he had already been making his own
artistic experiments, and it is noteworthy that while he learnt
so much from Boccaccio he improved on his originals as he
translated them. Doubtless his busy life in the service of the
crown had taught him self-confidence, and he uses his Italian
models in his own way and with the most triumphant and assured
success. When he had no more Italian poems to adapt he had
learnt his lesson. The art of weaving a plot out of his own
imagination was never his, but he could take what might be little
more than an anecdote and lend it body and life and colour with
a skill which has never been surpassed.

The most direct example of Chaucer's French studies is his
translation of Lc Roman de la rose, a poem written in some
4000 lines by Guillaume Lorris about 1237 and extended to over
22,000 by Jean Clopinel, better known as Jean de Meun, forty
years later. We know from Chaucer himself that he translated
this poem, and the extant English fragment of 7698 lines was
generally assigned to him from 1532, when it was first printed,
till its authorship was challenged in the early years of the Chaucer
Society. The ground of this challenge was its wide divergence
from Chaucer's practice in his undoubtedly genuine works as to
certain niceties of rhyme, notable as to not rhyming words ending
in -y with others ending -ye. It was subsequently discovered,
however, that the whole fragment was divisible linguistically
into three portions, of which the first and second end respectively
at lines 1705 and 5810, and that in the first of these three sections
the variations from Chaucer's accepted practice are insignificant.
Lines 1-1705 have therefore been provisionally accepted as
Chaucer's, and the other two fragments as the work of unknown
translators (James I. of Scotland has been suggested as one of
them), which somehow came to be pieced together. If, however,
the difficulties in the way of this theory are less than those which
confront any other, they are still considerable, and the question
can hardly be treated as closed.

While our knowledge of Chaucer's Romaunt of the Rose is
in this unsatisfactory state, another translation of his from
the French, the Book of the Lyon (alluded to in the " Retrac-
tion " found, in some manuscripts, at the end of the Canterbury
Tales), which must certainly have been taken from Guillaume

1 The positions of the House of Fame and Palamon and Arcyte are
still matters of controversy.

CHAUCER

Machault's Le Dit du lion, has perished altogether. The strength
of French influence on Chaucer's early work may, however, be
amply illustrated from the first of his poems with which we are
on sure ground, the Book of the Duchesse, or, as it is alternatively
called, the Deth of Blaunche. Here not only are individual
passages closely imitated from Machault and Froissart, but the
dream, the May morning, and the whole machinery of the poem
are taken over from contemporary French conventions. But
even at this stage Chaucer could prove his right to borrow by
the skill with which he makes his materials serve his own purpose,
and some of the lines in the Deth of Blaunche are among the most
tender and charming he ever wrote.

Chaucer's A. B.C., a poem in honour of the Blessed Virgin, of
which the stanzas begin with the successive letters of the alpha-
bet, is another early example of French influence. It is taken
from the Pelerinage de la vie humaine, written by Guillaume de
Deguilleville about 1330. The occurrence of some magnificent
lines in Chaucer's version, combined with evidence that he did
not yet possess the skill to translate at all literally as soon as
rhymes had to be considered, accounts for this poem having been
dated sometimes earlier than the Book of the Duchesse, and
sometimes several years later. With it is usually moved up and
down, though it should surely be placed in the 'seventies, the
Compleynt to Pity, a fine poem which yet, from its slight obscurity
and absence of Chaucer's usual ease, may very well some day
prove to be a translation from the French.

While Chaucer thus sought to reproduce both the matter
and the style of French poetry in England, he found other
materials in popular Latin books. Among his lost works are
renderings of " Origenes upon the Maudeleyne," and of Pope
Innocent III. on " The Wreced Engendring of Mankinde "
(De miser ia conditionis humanae). He must have begun his
attempts at straightforward narrative with the Lyf of Seynt
Cecyle (the weakest of all his works, the second Nun's Tale in
the Canterbury series) from the Legenda Aurea of Jacobus de
Voragine, and the story of the patience of Grisilde, taken from
Petrarch's Latin version of a tale by Boccaccio. In both of these
he condenses a little, but ventures on very few changes, though
he lets his readers see his impatience with his originals. In his
story of Constance (afterwards ascribed to the Man of Law),
taken from the Anglo-Norman chronicle of Nicholas Trivet,
written about 1334, we find him struggling to put some substance
into another weak tale, but still without the courage to remedy
its radical faults, though here, as with Grisilde, he does as much
for his heroine as the conventional exaltation of one virtue at
a time permitted. It is possible that other tales which now stand
in the Canterbury series were written originally at this period.
What is certain is that at some time in the 'seventies three or four
Italian poems passed into Chaucer's possession, and that he set
to work busily to make use of them. One of the most interesting
of the poems reclaimed for him by Professor Skeat is a fragment-
ary " Compleynt," part of which is written in terza rima. While
he thus experimented with the metre of the Divina Corn-media,
he made his first attempt to use the material provided by
Boccaccio's Teseide in another fragment of great interest, that of
Quene Anelida and Pals Arcyte. More than a third of this is
taken up with another, and quite successful, metrical experiment
in Anelida's " compleynt," but in the introduction of Anelida
herself Chaucer made the first of his three unsuccessful efforts
to construct a plot for an important poem out of his own head,
and the fragment which begins so well breaks off abruptly at
line 357.

For a time the Teseide seems to have been laid aside, and it
was perhaps at this moment, in despondency at his failure, that
Chaucer wrote his most important prose work, the translation of
the De Consolatione Philosophiae of Boethius. Reminiscences
of this helped to enrich many of his subsequent poems, and
inspired five of his shorter pieces (The Former Age, Fortune,
Truth, Gentilesse and Lak of Stedfaslnesse) , but the translation
itself was only a partial success. To borrow his own phrase, his
" Englysh was insufficient " to reproduce such difficult Latin.
The translation is often barely intelligible without the original,

and it is only here and there that it flows with any ease or
rhythm.

If Chaucer felt this himself he must have been speedily con-
sold by achieving in Troilus and Criseyde his greatest artistic
triumph. Warned by his failure in Anelida and Arcyte, he was
content this time to take his plot unaltered from the FUostrato,
and to follow Boccaccio step by step through the poem. But
he did not follow him as a mere translator. He had done his
duty manfully for the saints " of other holinesse " in Cecyle,
Grisilde and Constance, whom he was forbidden by the rules of
the game to clothe with complete flesh and blood. In this great
love-story there were no such restrictions, and the characters
which Boccaccio's treatment left thin and conventional became
in Chaucer's hands convincingly human. No other English poem
is so instinct with the glory and tragedy of youth, and in the
details of the story Chaucer's gifts of vivid colouring, of humour
and pity, are all at their highest.

An unfortunate theory that the reference in the Legende of
Good Women to " al the love of Palamon and Arcyte " is to a
hypothetical poem in seven-line stanzas en this theme, which
Chaucer is imagined, when he came to plan the Canterbury Tales,
to have suppressed in favour of a new version in heroic couplets,
has obscured the close connexion in temper and power between
whaf>we know as the " Knight's Tale " and the Troilus. The
poem may have been more or less extensively revised before, with
admirable fitness, it was assigned to the Knight, but that its
main composition can be separated by several years from that of
Troilus is aesthetically incredible. Chaucer's art here again is at
its highest. He takes the plot of Boccaccio's Teseide, but only
as much of it as he wants, and what he takes he heightens and
humanizes with the same skill which he had shown in trans-
forming the FUostrato. Of the individual characters Theseus
himself, the arbiter of the plot, is most notably developed;
Emilie and her two lovers receive just as much individuality as
they will bear without disturbing the atmosphere of romance.
The whole story is pulled together and made more rapid and
effective. A comparison of almost any scene as told by the two
poets suffices to show Chaucer's immense superiority. At some
subsequent period the " Squire's Tale " of Cambuscan, the fair
Canacee and the Horse of Brass, was gallantly begun in some-
thing of the same key, but Chaucer took for it more materials
than he could use, and for lack of the help of a leader like Boc-
caccio he was obliged to leave the story, in Milton's phrase,
" half-told," though the fragment written certainly takes us
very much less than half-way.

Meanwhile, in connexion (as is reasonably believed) with the
betrothal or marriage of Anne of Bohemia to Richard II. (i.e.
about 1381-1382), Chaucer had brought to a successful com-
pletion the Parlement of Foules, a charming sketch of 699 lines,
in which the other birds, on Saint Valentine's day, counsel the
" Formel Egle " on her choice of a mate. His success here, as in
the case of the Deth of Blaunche the Duchesse, was due to the
absence of any need for a climax; and though the materials
which he borrowed were mainly Latin (with some help from
passages of the Teseide not fully needed for Palamon and Arcyte)
his method of handling them would have been quite approved
by his friends among the French poets. A more ambitious
venture, the Hous of Fame, in which Chaucer imagines himself
borne aloft by an eagle to Fame's temple, describes what he
sees and hears there, and then breaks off in apparent inability
to get home, shows a curious mixture of the poetic ideals of the
Roman de la rose and reminiscences of the Divina Commedia.

As the Hous of Fame is most often remembered and quoted
for the personal touches and humour of Chaucer's conversation
with the eagle, so the most-quoted passages in the Prologue to
the Legende of Good Women are those in which Chaucer professes
his affection for the daisy, and the attack on his loyalty by
Cupid and its defence by Alceste. Recent discoveries have
shown, however, that (besides obligations to Machault) some of
the touches about the daisy and the controversy between the
partisans of the Flower and of the Leaf are snatches from poems
by his friends Froissart and Deschamps, which Chaucer takes up

i6

CHAUCER

and returns to them with pretty compliments, and that he was
indebted to Froissart for some of the framework of his poem.1
Both of the two versions of the Prologue to the Legende are
charming, and some of the tales, notably that of Cleopatra,
rank with Chaucer's best work. When, however, he had written
eight and part of the ninth he tired of his scheme, which was
planned to celebrate nineteen of Cupid s faithful " saints," with
Alcestis as their queen. With his usual hopefulness he had
overlooked the risk of monotony, which obviously weighed
heavily on him ere he broke off, and the loss of the other ten
stories is less to be regretted than that of the celebration of
Alceste, and a possible epilogue which might have exceeded in
charm the Prologue itself.

Chaucer's failure to complete the scheme of the Legende of
Good Women may have been partly due to the attractions of the
Canterbury Tales, which were probably taken up in
Canter- immediate succession to it. His guardianship of two
Tales. Kentish wards, his justiceship of the peace, his repre-
senting the county in the parliament of 1386, his
commissionership of the river-bank between Greenwich and
Woolwich, all make it easy to understand his dramatic use of the
merry crowds he saw on the Canterbury road, without supposing
him to have had recourse to Boccaccio's Decamerone, a book
which there is no proof of his having seen. The pilgrims whom
he imagines to have assembled at the Tabard Inn in Southwark,
where Harry Bailey was host, are said to have numbered " wel
nyne and twenty in a company," and the Prologue gives full-
length sketches of a Knight, a Squire (his son), and their
Yeoman; of a Prioress, Monk, Friar, Oxford Clerk, and Parson,
with two disreputable hangers-on of the church, a Summoner
and Pardoner; of a Serjeant-at-Law and a Doctor of Physic,
and of a Franklin, or country gentleman, Merchant, Shipman,
Miller, Cook, Manciple, Reeve, Ploughman (the Parson's brother)
and the ever-famous Wife of Bath. Five London burgesses are
described in a group, and a Nun and Priest2 are mentioned as
in attendance on the Prioress. Each of these, with Chaucer
himself making the twenty-ninth, was pledged to tell two tales,
but including one second attempt and a tale told by the Yeoman
of a Canon, who overtakes the pilgrims on the road, we have
only twenty finished stories, two unfinished and two interrupted
ones. As in the case of the Legende of Good Women, our loss is
not so much that of the additional stories as of the completed
framework. The wonderful character sketches of the Prologue
are carried yet farther by the Talks on the Road which link the
different tales, and two of these Talks, in which the Wife of
Bath and the Pardoner respectively edify the company, have the
importance of separate Tales, but between the Tales that have
come down to us there are seven links missing,3 and it was left
to a later and weaker hand to narrate, in the " Tale of Beryn,"
the adventures of the pilgrims at Canterbury.

The reference to the Lyf of Seynt Cecyle in the Prologue to
the Legende of Good Women gives external proof that Chaucer
included earlier work in the scheme of the Canterbury Tales,
and mention has been made of other stories which are indisput-
ably early. In the absence of any such metrical tests as have

1 The French influences on this Prologue, its connexion with the
Flower and the Leaf controversy, and the priority of what had pre-
viously been reckoned as the second or " B " form of the Prologue
over the " A," were demonstrated in papers by Prof. Kittredge on
" Chaucer and some of his Friends " in Modern Philology, vol. i.
(Chicago, 1903), and by Mr J. L. Lowes on " The Prologue to the
Legend of Good Women " in Publications of the Modern Language
Association of America, vol. xix., December 1904.

2 The Talks on the Road show clearly that only one Priest in
attendance on the Prioress, and two tales to each narrator, were
originally contemplated, but the " Prestes thre " in line 164 of the
Prologue, and the bald couplet (line 793 sq.) explaining that each
pilgrim was to tell two tales each way, were probably both alterations
made by Chaucer in moments of amazing hopefulness. The journey
was reckoned a 3} davs' ride, and eight or nine tales a day would
surely have been a sufficient allowance.

* The absence of these links necessitates the division cf the
Canterbury Tales into nine groups, to which, for purposes of quota-
tipn, the letters A to I have been assigned, the line numeration of the
Tales in each group being continuous.

proved useful in the case of Shakespeare, the dates at which
several of the Tales were composed remain doubtful, while in
the case of at least two, the Clerk's tale of Grisilde and the
Monk's tragedies, there is evidence of early work being revised
and supplemented. It is fortunately impossible to separate the
prologue to the charmingly told story of " yonge Hugh of
Lincoln " from the tale itself, and with the " quod sche " in the
second line as proof that Chaucer was here writing specially for
his Prioress we are forbidden to limit the new stories to any one
metre or tone. There can be no doubt, however, that what may
be called the Tales of the Churls (Miller, Reeve, Summoner,
Friar, &c.), and the conversational outpourings of the Pardoner
and Wife of Bath, form, with the immortal Prologue, the most
important and distinctive additions to the older work. In these,
and in the Pardoner's story of Death and the Three Revellers,
and the Nun's Priest's masterly handling of the fable of the
Cock and Fox, both of them free from the grossness which marks
the others, Chaucer takes stories which could have been told
in a short page of prose and elaborates them with all the skill
in narration which he had sedulously cultivated. The conjugal
reminiscences of the Wife of Bath and the Reeve's Tale with its
abominable climax (lightened a little by Aleyn's farewell, lines
316-319) are among the great things in Chaucer, as surely as
Troilus, and Palamon and Arcyte and the Prologue. They help
notably to give him the width of range which may certainly be
claimed for him.

In or soon after 1391 Chaucer wrote in prose for an eleven-
year-old reader, whom he addresses as " Litel Lowis my son,"
a treatise on the use of the Astrolabe, its short prologue being
the prettiest specimen of his prose. The wearisome tale of
" Melibee and his wyf Prudence," which was perhaps as much
admired in English as it had been in Latin and French, may have
been translated at any time. The sermon on Penitence, used as
the Parson's Tale, was probably the work of his old age. " En-
voys " to his friends Scogan and Bukton, a translation of some
balades by Sir Otes de Granson, and the Compleynt to his Purs
complete the record of his minor poetry. We have his own
statement that in his youth he had written many Balades,
Roundels and Virelayes in honour of Love, and the two songs
embedded respectively in the Parlement of Foules and the Pro-
logue to the Legende of Good Women are charming and musical.
His extant shorter poems, however, whether early or late,
offer no excuse for claiming high rank for him as a lyrist. He
had very little sheer singing power, and though there are fine
lines in his short poems, witness the famous " Flee fro the prees
and dwell with soothfastnesse," they lack the sustained concen-
tration of great work. From the drama, again, Chaucer was cut
off, and it is idle to argue from the innumerable dramatic touches
in his poems and his gift of characterization as to what he
might have done had he lived two centuries later. His own age
delighted in stories, and he gave it the stories it demanded
invested with a humanity, a grace and strength which place him
among the world's greatest narrative poets, and which bring the
England of his own day, with all the colour and warmth of life,
wonderfully near to all his readers.

The part played by Chaucer in the development of the English
language has often been overrated. He neither corrupted it, as
used to be said, by introducing French words which
it would otherwise have avoided, nor bore any such lan"ence-
part in fixing it as was afterwards played by the translators
of the Bible. When he was growing up educated society
in England was still bilingual, and the changes in vocabulary
and pronunciation which took place during his life were the
natural results of a society, which had been bilingual with a
bias towards French, giving an exclusive preference to English.
The practical identity of Chaucer's language with that of Gower
shows that both merely used the best English of their day with
the care and slightly conservative tendency which befitted poets.
Chaucer's service to the English language lies in his decisive
success having made it impossible for any later English poet to
attain fame, as Gower had done, by writing alternatively in
Latin and French. The claim which should be made for him is

CHAUDESAIGUES— CHAUMETTE

that, at least as regards poetry, he proved that English was
" sufficient."

Chaucer borrowed both his stanza forms and his " deca-
syllabic " couplets (mostly with an extra syllable at the end
of the line) from Guillaume Machault, and his music, like that
of his French master and his successors, depends very largely
on assigning to every syllable its full value, and more especially
on the due pronunciation of the final -e. The slower movement
of change in Scotland allowed time for Chaucer to exercise a
potent influence on Scottish poetry, but in England this final
-e, to which most of the earlier grammatical forms by Chaucer's
time had been reduced, itself fell rapidly into disuse during the
1 5th century, and a serious barrier was thus raised to the apprecia-
tion of the artistic value of his verse. His disciples, Hoccleve
and Lydgate, who at first had caught some echoes of his rhythms,
gradually yielded to the change in pronunciation, so that there
was no living tradition to hand down his secret, while successive
copyists reduced his text to a state in which it was only by
accident that lines could be scanned correctly. For fully three
centuries his reputation was sustained solely by his narrative
power, his warmest panegyrists betraying no consciousness
that they were praising one of the greatest technical masters
of poetry. Even when thus maimed, however, his works found
readers and lovers in every generation, and every improvement
in his text has set his fame on a surer basis.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The Canterbury Tales have always beenChaucer's
most popular work, and, including fragments, upwards of sixty
15th-century manuscripts of it still survive. Two thin volumes of
his minor poems were among the little quartos which Caxton printed
by way of advertisement immediately on his return to England;
the Canterbury Tales and Boethius followed in 1478, Troilus and a
second edition of the Tales in 1483, the Hous of Fame in 1484. The
Canterbury Tales were subsequently printed in 1492 (Pynson), 1498
(de Worde) and 1526 (Pynson); Troilus in 1517 (de Worde) and
1526 (Pynson); the Hous of Fame in 1526 (Pynson); the Parlement
of Faults in 1526 (Pynson) and 1530 (de Worde). and the Mars,

Venus " and Envoy to Bukton by Julyan Notary about 1500.
Pynson's three issues in 1526 almost amounted to a collected edition,
but the first to which the title The Workes of Geffray Chaucer was
given was that edited by William Thynne in 1532 for Thomas
Godfray. Of this there was a new edition in 1542 for John Reynes
and William Bonham, and an undated reprint a few years later for
Bonham, Kele, Petit and Toye, each of whom put his name on part
of the edition. In 1561 a reprint, with numerous additions, edited
by John Stowe, was printed by J. Kyngston for J. Wight, and this
was re-edited, with fresh additions by Thomas Speght, in 1598 for
G. Bishop and again in 1602 for Adam Islip. In 1687 there was an
anonymous reprint, and in 1721 John Urry produced the last and
worst of the folios. By this time the paraphrasers were already at
work, Dryden rewriting the tales of the Knight, the Nun's Priest
and the VVife of Bath, and Pope the Merchant's. In 1737 (reprinted
in 1740) the Prologue and Knight's Tale were edited (anonymously)
by Thomas MoreTl " from the most authentic manuscripts," and
here, though by dint of much violence and with many mistakes,
Chaucer's lines were for the first rime in print given in a form in
which they could be scanned. This promise of better things (Morell
still thought it necessary to accompany his text with the paraphrases
by Betterton and Dryden) was fulfilled by a fine edition of the
Canterbury Tales (1775-1778), in which Thomas Tyrwhitt's scholarly
instincts produced a comparatively good text from second-rate
manuscripts and accompanied it with valuable illustrative notes.
The next edition of any importance was that edited by Thomas
Wright for the Percy Society in 1848-1851, based on the erratic
but valuable British Museum manuscript Harley 7334, containing
readings which must be either Chaucer's second thoughts or the
emendations of a brilliantly clever scribe. In 1866 Richard Morris
re-edited this text in a more scholarly manner for the Aldine edition
of the British Poets, and in the following year produced for the
Clarendon Press Series a school edition of the Prologue and Tales
of the Knight and Nun's Priest, edited with the fulness and care
previously bestowed only on Greek and Latin classics.

In 1868 the foundation of the Chaucer Society, with Dr Furnivall
as its director and chief worker, and Henry Bradshaw as a leading
spirit, led to the publication of a six-text edition of the Canterbury
Tales, and the consequent discovery that a manuscript belonging
to the Earl of Ellesmere, though undoubtedly " edited," contained
the best available text. The Chaucer Society also printed the best
manuscripts of Troilus and Criseyde and of all the minor poems,
and thus cleared the way for the " Oxford " Chaucer, edited by
Professor Skeat, with a wealth of annotation, for the Clarendon Press
in 1894, the text of which was used for the splendid folio printed
two years later by William Morris at the Kelmscott Press, with
illustrations by Sir Edward Burne-Jones. A supplementary volume

of the Oxford edition, entitled Chaucerian and other Pieces, issued
by Professor Skeat in 1897, contains the prose and verse which his
early publishers and editors, from Pynson and Thynne onwards,
included among his Works by way of illustration, but which had
gradually come to be regarded as forming part of his text. The
reasons for their rejection are fully stated by Professor Skeat in the
work named and also in The Chaucer Canon (1900). Many of these
pieces have now been traced to other authors, and their exclusion
lias helped to clear not only Chaucer's text but also his biography,
which used (as in the " Life " published by William Godwin in two
quarto volumes in 1803) to be encumbered with inferences from
works now known not to be Chaucer's, notably the Testament of
Love written by Thomas Usk. All information about Chaucer's
life available in 1900 will be found summarized by Mr R. E. G.
Kirk in Life-Records of Chaucer, part iv., published by the Chaucer
Society in that year. See also Chaucer; a Bibliographical Manual,
by Eleanor P. Hammond (1909). (A. W. Po.)

CHAUDESAIGUES, a village of central France, in the depart-
ment of Cantal, at the foot of the mountains of Aubrac, 19 m.
S.S.W. of St Flour by road. Pop. (1906) town, 937; commune,
1558. It is celebrated for its hot mineral springs, which vary
in temperature from 135° to 177° Fahr., and at their maximum
rank as the hottest in France. The water, which contains
bicarbonate of soda, is employed not only medicinally (for
rheumatism, &c.), but also for the washing of fleeces, the incuba-
tion of eggs, and various other economic purposes; and it
furnishes a ready means of heating the houses of the town during
winter. In the immediate neighbourhood is the cold chalybeate
spring of Condamine. The warm springs were known to the
Romans, and are mentioned by Sidonius Apollinaris.

CHAUFFEUR (from Fr. chau/er, to heat, a term primarily
used in French of a man in charge of a forge OF furnace, and so
of a stoker on a locomotive or in a steamship, but in its anglicized
sense more particularly confined to a professional driver of a
motor vehicle. (See also BRIGANDAGE.)

CHAULIEU, GUILLAUME AMFRYE DE (1630-1720), French
poet and wit, jvas born at Fontenay, Normandy, in 1639. His
father, maltre des comptts of Rouen, sent him to study at the
College de Navarre. Guillaume early showed the wit that was
to distinguish him, and gained the favour of the duke of Vend6me,
who procured for him the abbey of Aumale and other benefices.
Louis Joseph, duke of Vendome, and his brother Philippe, grand
prior of the Knights of Malta in France, at that time had a joint
establishment at the Temple, where they gathered round them
a very gay and reckless circle. Chaulieu became the constant
companion and adviser of the two princes. He made an expedi-
tion to Poland in the suite of the marquis de Bethune, hoping to
make a career for himself in the court of John Sobieski; he saw
one of the Polish king's campaigns in Ukraine, but returned to
Paris without securing any advancement. Saint-Simon says that
the abbe helped his patron the grand prior to rob the duke of
Vendome, and that the king sent orders that the princes should
take the management of their affairs from him. This account
has been questioned by Sainte-Beuve, who regards Saint-Simon
as a prejudiced witness. In his later years Chaulieu spent much
time at the little court of the duchesse du Maine at Sceaux.
There he became the trusted and devoted friend of Mdlle
Delaunay, with whom he carried on an interesting correspond-
ence. Among his poems the best known are " Fontenay " and
" La Retraite." Chaulieu died on the 27th of June 1720.

His works were edited with those of his friend the marquis de la
Fare in 1714, 1750 and 1774. See also C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Causeries
du lundi, vol. i. ; and Lettres inedites (1850), with a notice by
Raymond, marquis de Berenger.

CHAUMETTE, PIERRE GASPARD (1763-1794), French
revolutionist, was born at Nevers. Until the Revolution he
lived a somewhat wandering life, interesting himself particularly
in botany. He was a student of medicine at Paris in 1790,
became one of the orators of the club of the Cordeliers, and
contributed anonymously to the Revolutions de Paris. As
member of the insurrectionary Commune of the loth of August
1792, he was delegated to visit the prisons, with full power to
arrest suspects. He was accused later of having taken part in
the massacres of September, but was able to prove that at that
time he had been sent by the provisional executive council to
Normandy to oversee a requisition of 60,000 men. Returning

i8

CHAUMONT-EN-BASSIGNY— CHAUNCY

from this mission, he pronounced an eloquent discourse in favour
of the republic. His simple manners, easy speech, ardent
temperament and irreproachable private life gave him great
influence in Paris, and he was elected president of the Commune,
defending the municipality in that capacity at the bar of the
Convention on the 3ist of October 1792. Re-elected in the
municipal elections of the 2nd of December 1792, he was soon
charged with the functions of procurator of the Commune, and
contributed with success to the enrolments of volunteers by his
appeals to the populace. Chaumette was one of the ringleaders
in the attacks of the 3ist of May and of the 2nd of June 1793
on the Girondists, toward whom he showed himself relentless.
He demanded the formation of a revolutionary army, and
preached the extermination of all traitors. He was one of the
promoters of the worship of Reason, and on the loth of November
1793 he presented the goddess to the Convention in the guise of
an actress. On the 23rd of the same month he obtained a decree
closing all the churches of Paris, and placing the priests under
strict surveillance; but on the 2Sth he retraced his steps and
obtained from the Commune the free exercise of worship. He
wished to save the Hfibertists by a new insurrection and struggled
against Robespierre; but a revolutionary decree promulgated
by the Commune on his demand was overthrown by the Con-
vention. Robespierre had him accused with the Hebertists; he
was arrested, imprisoned in the Luxembourg, condemned by the
Revolutionary tribunal and executed on the I3th of April 1794.
Chaumette's career had its brighter side. He was an ardent
social reformer; he secured the abolition of corporal punishment
in the schools, the suppression of lotteries, of houses of ill-fame
and of obscene literature; he instituted reforms in the hospitals,
and insisted on the honours of public burial for the poor.

Chaumette left some printed speeches and fragments, and memoirs
published in the Amateur d'autographes. His memoirs on the loth
of August were published by F. A. Aulard, preceded by a biographical
study.

CHAUMONT-EN-BASSIGNY, a town of eastern France,
capital of the department of Haute-Marne, a railway junction
163 m. E.S.E. of Paris on the main line of the Eastern railway
to Belfort. Pop. (1906) 12,089. Chaumont is picturesquely
situated on an eminence between the rivers Marne and Suize
in the angle formed by their confluence. To the west a lofty
viaduct over the Suize carries the railway. The church of
St-Jean-Baptiste dates from the I3th century, the choir and
lateral chapels belonging to the isth and i6th. In the interior
the sculptured triforium (isth century), the spiral staircase in
the transept and a Holy Sepulchre are of interest. The lycee
and the hospital have chapels of the I7th and i6th centuries
respectively. The Tour Hautef euille (a keep of the 1 1 th century)
is the principal relic of a chateau of the counts of Champagne;
the rest of the site is occupied by the law courts. In the Place
de 1'Escargot stands a statue of the chemist Philippe Lebon
(1767-1804), born in Haute-Marne. Chaumont is the seat of
a prefect and of a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a Iyc6e, training colleges, and a
branch of the Bank of France. The main industries are glove-
making and leather-dressing. The town has trade in grain, iron,
mined in the vicinity, and leather. In 1 190 it received a charter
from the counts of Champagne. It was here that in 1814 Great
Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia concluded the treaty (dated
March i, signed March 9) by which they severally bound them-
selves not to conclude a separate peace with Napoleon, and to
continue the war until France should have been reduced within
the boundaries of 1792.

CHAUNCEY, ISAAC (1772-1840), American naval com-
mander, was born at Black Rock, Connecticut, on the 2oth of
Februaryi772. He was brought up in the merchant service,and
entered the United States navy as a lieutenant in 1 798. His first
services were rendered against the Barbary pirates. During these
operations, more especially at Tripoli, he greatly distinguished
himself, and was voted by Congress a sword of honour, which,
however, does not appear to have been given him. The most
active period of his life is that of his command on the Lakes during

the War of 1812. He took the command at Sackett's Harbor on
Lake Ontario in October 1812. There was at that time only one
American vessel, the brig " Oneida " (16), and one armed prize,
a schooner, on the lake. But Commodore Chauncey brought
from 400 to 500 officers and men with him, and local resources
for building being abundant, he had by November formed a
squadron of ten vessels, with which he attacked the Canadian
port, York, taking it in April 1813, capturing one vessel and
causing the destruction of another then building. He returned
to Sackett's Harbor. In May Sir James Lucas Yeo (1732-1818)
came out from England with some 500 officers and men, to
organize a squadron for service on the Lakes. By the end of
the month he was ready for service with a squadron of eight
ships and brigs, and some small craft. The governor, Sir G.
Prevost, gave him no serious support. On the 29th of May, dur-
ing Chauncey 's absence at Niagara, the Americans were attacked
at Sackett's Harbor and would have been defeated if Prevost had
not insisted on a retreat at the very moment when the American
shipbuilding yard was in danger of being burnt, with a ship of more
than eight hundred tons on the stocks. The retreat of the British
force gave Chauncey time to complete this vessel, the " General
Pike," which was so far superior to anything under Yeo's com-
mand that she was said to be equal in effective strength to
the whole of the British flotilla. The American commodore was
considered by many of his subordinates to have displayed
excessive caution. In August he skirmished with Sir James Yeo's
small squadron of six vessels, but made little effective use of
his own fourteen. Two of his schooners were upset in a squall,
with the loss of all hands, and he allowed two to be cut off by
Yeo. Commodore Chauncey showed a preference for relying on
his long guns, and a disinclination to come to close quarters.
He was described as chasing the British squadron all round the
lake, but his encounters did not go beyond artillery duels at
long range, and he allowed his enemy to continue in existence
long after he might have been destroyed. The winter suspended
operations, and both sides made exertions to increase their forces.
The Americans had the advantage of commanding greater
resources for shipbuilding. Sir James Yeo began by blockading
Sackett's Harborin the early part of 1814, but when the American
squadron was ready he was compelled to retire by the disparity
of the forces. The American commodore was now able to
blockade the British flotilla at Kingston. When the cruising
season of the lake was nearly over he in his turn retired to
Sackett's Harbor, and did not leave it for the rest of the war.
During his later years he served as commissioner of the navy,
and was president of the board of naval commissioners from
1833 till his death at Washington on the 27th of February 1840.
See Roosevelt's War of 1812 (1882) ; and A. T. Mahan, Sea-Power
in its Relations to the War of 1812 (1905).

CHAUNCY, CHARLES (1592-1672), president of Harvard
College, was born at Yardley-Bury, Hertfordshire, England, in
November 1592, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
of which he became a fellow. He was in turn vicar at Ware,
Hertfordshire (1627-1633), and at Marston St Lawrence, North-
amptonshire (1633-1637). Refusing to observe the ecclesiastical
regulations of Archbishop Laud, he was brought before the court
of high commission in 1629, and again in 1634, when, for opposing
the placing of a rail around the communion table, he was sus-
pended and imprisoned. His formal recantation in February
1637 caused him lasting self-reproach and humiliation. In 1637
he emigrated to America, and from 1638 until 1641 was an
associate pastor at Plymouth, where, however, his advocacy of
the baptism of infants by immersion caused dissatisfaction.
He was the pastor at Scituate, Massachusetts, from 1641 until
r6s4, and from 1654 until his death was president of Harvard
College, as the successor of the first president Henry Dunster
(c. 1612-1659). He died on the I9th of February 1672. By
his sermons and his writings he exerted a great influence in
colonial Massachusetts, and according to Mather was " a most
incomparable scholar." His writings include: The Plain
Doctrine of the Justification of a Sinner in the Sight of God (1659)
and Antisynodalia Scripts. Americana (1662). His son, Isaac

CHAUNY— CHAUVIN

Chauncy (1632-1712), who removed to England, was a volu-
minous writer on theological subjects.

There are biographical sketches of President Chauncy in Cotton
Mather's Magnolia Christi Americana (London, 1702), and in W. C.
Fowler's Memorials of the Chauncys, including President Chauncy
(Boston, 1858).

President Chauncy's great-grandson, CHARLES CHAUNCY
(1705-1787), a prominent American theologian, was born in
Boston, Massachusetts, on the ist of January 1705, and gradu-
ated at Harva rd in 1721. Ini727hewas chosen as the colleague
of Thomas Foxcroft (1697-1769) in the pastorate of the First
Church of Boston, continuing as pastor of this church until his
death. At the time of the " Great Awakening " of 1 740-1 743 and
afterwards, Chauncy was the leader of the so-called " Old Light "
party in New England, which strongly condemned the White-
fieldian revival as an outbreak of emotional extravagance. His
views were ably presented in his sermon Enthusiasm and in his
Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Religion in New England
(1743), written in answer to Jonathan Edwards's Some Thoughts
Concerning the Present Revival of Religion in New England (1742).
He also took a leading part in opposition to the projected estab-
lishment of an Anglican Episcopate in America, and before and
during the American War of Independence he ardently sup-
ported the whig or patriot party. Theologically he has been
classed as a precursor of the New England Unitarians. He died
in Boston on the loth of February 1787. His publications in-
clude : Compleat View of Episcopacy, as Exhibited in the Fathers
of the Christian Church, until the close of the Second Century (1771);
Salvation of All Men, Illustrated and Vindicated as a Scripture
Doctrine (1782); The Mystery Hid from Ages and Generations
made manifest by the Gospel- Revelation (1783); and Five Dis-
sertations on the Fall and its Consequences (1785).

See P. L. Ford's privately printed Bibliotheca Chaunciana (Brook-
lyn, N. Y., 1884) ; and Williston Walker's Ten New England Leaders
(New York, 1901).

CHAUNY, a town of northern France in the department of
Aisne, 19 m. S. by W. of St Quentin by rail. Pop. (1906)
10,127. The town is situated on the Oise (which here becomes
navigable) and at the junction of the canal of St Quentin with the
lateral canal of the Oise, and carries on an active trade. It
contains mirror-polishing works, subsidiary to the mirror-works
of St Gobain, chemical works, sugar manufactories, metal
foundries and breweries. Chauny was the scene of much fighting
in the Hundred Years' War.

CHAUTAUQUA, a village on the west shore of Chautauqua
Lake in the town of Chautauqua, Chautauqua county, New York,
U.S.A. Pop. of the town (1900), 359°; (1905) 3505; (1910)
351 5; of the village (1908) about 750. The lake is a beautiful
body of water over 1300 ft. above sea-level, 20 m. long, and
from a few hundred yards to 3 m. in width. The town of Chau-
tauqua is situated near the north end and is within easy reach
by steamboat and electric car connexions with the main railways
between the east and the west. The town is known almost solely
as being the permanent home of the Chautauqua Institution, a
system of popular education founded in 1874 by Lewis Mijler
(1820-1899) of Akron, Ohio, and Bishop John H. Vincent
(b. 1832). The village, covering about three hundred acres of
land, is carefully laid out to provide for the work of the
Institution.

The Chautauqua Institution began as a Sunday-School
Normal Institute, and for nearly a quarter of a century the
administration was in the hands of Mr Miller, who was responsible
for the business management, and Bishop Vincent, who was
head of the instruction department. Though founded by
Methodists, in its earliest years it became non-sectarian and has
furnished a meeting-ground for members of all sects and de-
nominations. At the very outset the activities of the assembly
were twofold: (i) the conducting of a summer school for
Sunday-school teachers, and (2) the presentation of a series of
correlated lectures and entertainments. Although the move-
ment was and still is primarily religious, it has always been
assumed that the best religious education must necessarily take

advantage of the best that the educational world can afford in
the literatures, arts and sciences. The scope of the plan rapidly
broadened, and in 1879 a regular group of schools with graded
courses of study was established. At about the same time, also,
the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, providing a
continuous home-reading system, was founded. The season
lasts during June, July and August. In 1907 some 325 lectures,
concerts, readings and entertainments were presented by a
group of over 190 lecturers, readers and musicians, while at the
same time 200 courses in the summer schools were offered by a
faculty of instructors drawn from the leading colleges and
normal schools of the country.

The Chautauqua movement has had an immense influence on
education in the United States, an influence which is especially
marked in three directions: (i) in the establishment of about
300 local assemblies or " Chautauquas " in the United States
patterned after the mother Chautauqua; (2) in the promotion
of the idea of summer education, which has been followed by
the founding of summer schools or sessions at a large number
of American universities, and of various special summer schools,
such as the Catholic Summer School of America, with head-
quarters at Cliff Haven, Clinton county, New York, and the
Jewish Chautauqua Society, with headquarters at Buffalo, N. Y. ;
and (3) in the establishment of numerous correspondence schools
patterned in a general way after the system provided by the
Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.

See John Heyl Vincent, The Chautauqua Movement (Boston, 1886),
and Frank C. Bray, A Reading Journey through Chautauqua (Chicago,
1905)-

CHAUVELIN, BERNARD FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1766-
183 2) , French diplomatist and administrator. Though master of
the king's wardrobe in 1789, he joined in the Revolution. He
served in the army of Flanders, and then was sent to London
in February 1792, to induce England to remain neutral in the
war which was about to break out between France and "the
king of Bohemia and Hungary." He was well received at first,
but after the loth of August 1792 he was no longer officially
recognized at court, and on the execution of Louis XVI. (2istof
January 1793) he was given eight days to leave England. After
an unsuccessful embassy in Tuscany, he was imprisoned as a
suspect during the Terror, but freed after the 9th Thermidor.
Under Napoleon he became a member of the council of state, and
from 1812 to 1814 he governed Catalonia under the title of
intendant-general, being charged to win over the Catalonians
to King Joseph Bonaparte. He remained in private life during
the Restoration and the Hundred Days. In 1816 he was elected
deputy, and spoke in favour of liberty of the press and extension
of the franchise. Though he was again deputy in 1827 he played
no part in public affairs, and resigned in 1829.

See G. Pallain, La Mission de Talleyrand a Londres en 1792
(Paris, 1889).

CHAUVIGNY, a town of western France, in the department
of Vienne, 20 m. E. of Poitiers by rail. Pop. (1906) 2326. The
town is finely situated overlooking the Vienne and a small
torrent, and has two interesting Romanesque churches, both
restored in modern times. There are also ruins of a chateau of
the bishops of Poitiers, and of other strongholds. Near Chau-
vigny is the curious bone-cavern of Jioux, the entrance to which
is fortified by large blocks of stone. The town carries on lime-
burning and plaster-manufacture, and there are stone quarries
in the vicinity. Trade is in wool and feathers.

CHAUVIN, ETIENNE (1640-1725), French Protestant divine,
was born at Nimes on the i8th of April 1640. At the revocation
of the Edict of Nantes he retired to Rotterdam, where he was for
some years preacher at the Walloon church; in 1695 the elector
of Brandenburg appointed him pastor and professor of philo-
sophy, and later inspector of the French college at Berlin, where
he enjoyed considerable reputation as a representative of
Cartesianism and as a student of physics. His principal work
is a laborious Lexicon Rationale, sive Thesaurus Philosophicus
(Rotterdam, 1692; new and enlarged edition, Leuwarden, 1713).

20

CHAUVINISM— CHEBOYGAN

He also wrote Theses de Cognitione Dei (1662), and started the
Nouveau Journal des Savans (1694-1698).

See E. and E. Haag, La France Protestante, vol. iv. (1884).

CHAUVINISM, a term for unreasonable and exaggerated
patriotism, the French equivalent of " Jingoism." The word
originally signified idolatry of Napoleon, being taken from a
much-wounded veteran, Nicholas Chauvin, who, by his adoration
of the emperor, became the type of blind enthusiasm for national
military glory.

CHAUX DE FONDS, LA, a large industrial town in the Swiss
canton of Neuchatel. It is about 19 m. by rail N. W. of Neuchatel,
and stands at a height of about 3255 ft. in a valley (5 m. long)
of the same name in the Jura. Pop. (1900) 35,968 (only 13,659
in 1850); (1905) 38,700, mainly French-speaking and Pro-
testants; of the 6114 "Catholics" the majority are "Old
Catholics." It is a centre of the watch-making industry, especi-
ally of gold watch cases; about 70% of those manufactured
in Switzerland are turned out here. In 1900 it exported watches
to the value of nearly £3,000,000 sterling. There is a school of
industrial art (engraving and enamelling watch cases) and a
school of watch-making (including instruction in the manufacture
of chronometers and other scientific instruments of precision).
It boasts of being le plus gros milage de I' Europe, and certainly
has preserved some of the features of a big village. Leopold
Robert (1794-1835), the painter, was born here. (W. A. B. C.).

CHAVES, a town of northern Portugal, in the district of Villa
Real, formerly included in the province of Traz os Monies;
8 m. S. of the Spanish frontier, on the right bank of the river
Tamega. Pop. (1900) 6388. Chaves is the ancient Aquae
Flaviae, famous for its hot saline springs, which are still in use.
A fine Roman bridge of 18 arches spans the Tamega. In the i6th
century Chaves contained 20,000 inhabitants; it was long one of
the principal frontier fortresses, and in fact derives its present
name from the position which makes it the " keys," or chaves, of
the north. One of its churches contains the tomb of Alphonso I.
of Portugal (1139-1185). In 1830 the town gave the title of
marquess to Pinto da Fonseca, a leader of the Miguelite party.

CHAZELLES, JEAN MATHIEU DE (1657-1710), French
hydrographer, was born at Lyons on the 24th of July 1657.
He was nominated professor of hydrography at Marseilles in
1685, and in that capacity carried out various coast surveys. In
1693 he was engaged to publish a second volume of the Neptune
fran^ais, which was to include the hydrography of the Mediter-
ranean. For this purpose he visited the Levant and Egypt.
When in Egypt he measured the pyramids, and, finding that
the angles formed by the sides of the largest were in the direction
' of the four cardinal points, he concluded that this position must
have been intended, and also that the poles of the earth and
meridians had not deviated since the erection of those structures.
He was made a member of the Academy in 1695, and died in
Paris on the i6th of January 1710.

CHEADLE, a town in the Altrincham parliamentary division
of Cheshire, England, 6 m. S. of Manchester, included in the
urban district of Cheadle and Gatley. Pop. (1901) 7916. This
is one of the numerous townships of modern growth which fringe
the southern boundaries of Manchester, and practically form
suburbs of that city. Stockport lies immediately to the east.
The name occurs in the formerly separate villages of Cheadle
Hulme, Cheadle Bulkeley and Cheadle Moseley. There are
cotton printing and bleaching works in the locality. The parish
church of St Giles, Cheadle, is Perpendicular, containing an altar-
tomb of the 1 5th century for two knights.

CHEADLE, a market town in the Leek parliamentary divi-
sion of Staffordshire, England, 13 m. N.E. of Stafford, and
the terminus of a branch line from Cresswell on the North
Staffordshire railway. Pop. (1901) 5186. The Roman Catholic
church of St Giles, with a lofty spire, was designed by Pugin
and erected in 1846. The interior is lavishly decorated. There
are considerable collieries in the neighbourhood, and silk and
tape works in the town. In the neighbouring Froghall district
limestone is quarried, and there are manufactures of copper.
In Cheadle two fairs of ancient origin are held annually.

CHEATING, " the fraudulently obtaining the property of
another by any deceitful practice not amounting to felony, which
practice is of such a nature that it directly affects, or may
directly affect, the public at large" (Stephen, Digest of Criminal
Law, chap. xl. § 367). Cheating is either a common law or
statutory offence, and is punishable as a misdemeanour. An
indictment for cheating at common law is of comparatively rare
occurrence, and the statutory crime usually presents itself in the
form of obtaining money by false pretences (q.v.). The word
" cheat " is a variant of " escheat," i.e. the reversion of land to
a lord of the fee through the failure of blood of the tenant.
The shortened form " cheater " for " escheator " is found early
in the legal sense, and chetynge appears in the Promptorium
Parvulorum, c. 1440, as the equivalent of confiscalio. In the
i6th century " cheat " occurs in vocabularies of thieves and other
slang, and in such works as the Use of Dice-Play (1532). It is
frequent in Thomas Herman's Caveat or Warening for. . . Vaga-
bones (1567), in the sense of " thing," with a descriptive word
attached, e.g. smeling chete = nose. In the tract M ihil Mumchance,
his Discoverie of the Art of Cheating, doubtfully attributed to
Robert Greene (1560-1592), we find that gamesters call them-
selves cheaters, " borrowing the term from the lawyers." The
sense development is obscure, but it would seem to be due to the
extortionate or fraudulent demands made by legal " escheators."

CHEBICHEV, PAFNUTIY LVOVICH (1821-1894), Russian
mathematician, was born at Borovsk on the 26th of May 1821.
He was educated at the university of Moscow, and in 1859
became professor of mathematics in the university of St Peters-
burg, a position from which he retired in 1880. He was chosen
a correspondent of the Institute of France in 1860, and succeeded
to the high honour of associe elranger in 1874. He was also a
foreign member of the Royal Society of London. After N. I.
Lobachevskiy he probably ranks as the most distinguished
mathematician Russia has produced. In 1841 he published a
valuable paper, " Sur la convergence de la serie de Taylor," in
Crelle's Journal. His best-known papers, however, deal with
prime numbers; in one of these ("Sur les nombres premiers,"
1850) he established the existence of limits within which must
be comprised the sum of the logarithms of the primes inferior
to a given number. Another question to which he devoted much
.attention was that of obtaining rectilinear motion by linkage.
The parallel motion known by his name is a three-bar linkage,
which gives a very close approximation to exact rectilinear
motion, but in spite of all his efforts he failed to devise one that
produced absolutely true rectilinear motion. At last, indeed, he
came to the conclusion that to do so was impossible, and in that
conviction set to work to find a rigorous proof of the impossibility.
While he was engaged on this task the desired linkage, which
moved the highest admiration of J. J. Sylvester, was discovered
and exhibited to him by one of his pupils, named Lipkin, who,
however, it was afterwards found, had been anticipated by
A. PeauceUier. Chebichev further constructed an instrument
for drawing large circles, and an arithmetical machine with
continuous motion. His mathematical writings, which account
for some forty entries in the Royal Society's catalogue of scien-
tific papers, cover a wide range of subjects, such as the theory of
probabilities, quadratic forms, theory of integrals, gearings, the
construction of geographical maps, &c. He also published a
Traite de la theorie des nombres. He died at St Petersburg on
the 8th of December 1894.

CHEBOYGAN, a city and the county-seat of Cheboygan
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on South Channel (between Lakes
Michigan and Huron), at the mouth of Cheboygan river, in the
N. part of the lower peninsula. Pop. (1890) 6235; (1900)
6489, of whom 2101 were foreign-born; (1904) 6730; (1910)
6859. It is served by the Michigan Central and the Detroit &
Mackinac railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Mil-
waukee, Detroit, Sault Ste Marie, Green Bay and other lake
ports; and is connected by ferry with Mackinac and Pointe aux
Pins. During a great part of the year small boats ply between
Cheboygan and the head of Crooked Lake, over the " Inland
Route." Cheboygan is situated in a fertile farming region, for

CHECHENZES— CHEERING

21

which it is a trade centre, and it has lumber mills, tanneries,
paper mills, boiler works, and other manufacturing establish-
ments. The water-works are owned and operated by the munici-
pality. The city, at first called Duncan, then Inverness, and
finally Cheboygan, was settled in 1846, incorporated as a village
in 1871, reincorporated in 1877, and chartered as a city in
1889.

CHECHENZES, TCHETCHEN, or KHISTS (Kisii), the last being
the name by which they are known to the Georgians, a people
of the eastern Caucasus occupying the whole of west Daghestan.
They call themselves Nakhtche, " people." A wild, fierce people,
they fought desperately against Russian aggression in the i8th
century under Daud Beg and Oman Khan and Shamyl, and in
the 1 9th under Khazi-Mollah, and even now some are inde-
pendent in the mountain districts. On the surrender of the
chieftain Shamyl to Russia in 1859 numbers of them migrated
into Armenia. In physique the Chechenzes resemble the Cir-
cassians, and have the same haughtiness of carriage. They are
of a generous temperament, very hospitable, but quick to re-
venge. They are fond of fine clothes, the women wearing rich
robes with wide, pink silk trousers, silver bracelets and yellow
sandals. Their houses, however, are mere hovels, some dug
out of the ground, others formed of boughs and stones. Before
their subjection to Russia they were remarkable for their inde-
pendence of spirit and love of freedom. Everybody was equal,
and they had no slaves except prisoners of war. Government
in each commune was by popular assembly, and the adminis-
tration of justice was in the hands of the wronged. Murder and
robbery with violence could be expiated only by death, unless
the criminal allowed his hair to grow and the injured man
consented to shave it himself and take an oath of brotherhood
on the Koran. Otherwise the law of vendetta was fully carried
out with curious details. The wronged man, wrapped in a white
woollen shroud, and carrying a coin to serve as payment to a
priest for saying the prayers for the dead, started out in search
of his enemy. When the offender was found he must fight to a
finish. A remarkable custom among one tribe is that if a
betrothed man or woman dies on the eve of her wedding, the
marriage ceremony is still performed, the dead being formally
united to the living before witnesses, the father, in case it is the
girl who dies, never failing to pay her dowry. The religion of
the Chechenzes is Mahommedanism, mixed, however, with
Christian doctrines and observances. Three churches near Kistin
in honour of St George and the Virgin are visited as places of
pilgrimage, and rams are there offered as sacrifices. The
Chechenzes number upwards of 200,000. They speak a distinct
language, of which there are said to be twenty separate dialects.

See Ernest Chanter, Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase
(Lypn, 1885-1887) ; D. G. Brinton, Races of Man (1890) ; Hutchinson,
Living Races of Mankind (London, 1901).

CHECKERS, the name by which the game of draughts (q.v.)
is known in America. The origin of the name is the same as that
of " chess " (q.v.).

CHEDDAR, a small town in the Wells parliamentary division
of Somersetshire, England, 22 m. S.W. of Bristol by a branch
of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1975. The town,
with its Perpendicular church and its picturesque market-cross,
lies below the south-western face of the Mendip Hills, which rise
sharply from 600 to 800 ft. To the west stretches the valley of
the river Axe, broad, low and flat. A fine gorge opening from
the hills immediately upon the site of the town is known as
Cheddar cliffs from the sheer walls which flank it; the contrast
of its rocks and rich vegetation, and the falls of a small stream
traversing it, make up a beautiful scene admired by many
visitors. Several stalactitical caverns are also seen, and pre-
historic British and Roman relics discovered in and near them
are preserved in a small museum. The two caverns most fre-
quently visited are called respectively Cox's and Cough's; in
each, but especially in the first, there is a remarkable collection
of fantastic and beautiful stalactitical forms. There are other
caverns of greater extent but less beauty, but their extent is not
completely explored. The remains discovered in the caves give

evidence of British and Roman settlements at Cheddar (Cedre,
Chedare), which was a convenient trade centre. The manor of
Cheddar was a royal demesne in Saxon times, and the witenage-
mot was held there in 966 and 968. It was granted by John in
1204 to Hugh, archdeacon of Wells, who sold it to the bishop of
Bath and Wells in 1229, whose successors were overlords until
1553, when the bishop granted it to the king. It is now owned
by the marquis of Bath. By a charter of 1 23 1 extensive liberties
in the manor of Cheddar were granted to Bishop Joceline, who
by a charter of 1235 obtained the right to hold a weekly market
and fair. By a charter of Edward III. (1337) Cheddar was
removed from the king's forest of Mendip. The market was
discontinued about 1690. Fairs are now held on the 4th of May
and the 2gth of October under the original grants. The name
of Cheddar is given to a well-known species of cheese (see DAIRY) ,
the manufacture of which began in the I7th century in the
town and neighbourhood.

CHEDUBA, or MAN-AUNG, an island in the Bay of Bengal,
situated 10 m. from the coast of Arakan, between 18° 40' and
18° 56' N. lat., and between 93° 31' and 93° 50' E. long. It
forms part of the Kyaukpyu district of Arakan. It extends
about 20 m. in length from N. to S., and 17 m. from E. to W.,
and its area of 220 sq. m. supports a population of 26,899 (in
1901). The channel between the island and the mainland is
navigable for boats, but not for large vessels. The surface of the
interior is richly diversified by hill and dale, and in the southern
portion some of the heights exceed a thousand feet in elevation.
There are various indications of former volcanic activity, and
along the coast are earthy cones covered with green-sward, from
which issue springs of muddy water emitting bubbles of gas.
Copper, iron and silver ore have been discovered; but the
island is chiefly noted for its petroleum wells, the oil derived
from which is of excellent quality, and is extensively used in the
composition of paint, as it preserves wood from the ravages of
insects. Timber is not abundant, but the gamboge tree and
the wood-oil tree are found of a good size. Tobacco, cotton,
sugar-cane, hemp and mdigo are grown, and the staple article
is rice, which is of superior quality, and the chief article of export.
The inhabitants of the island are mainly Maghs. Cheduba fell
to the Burmese in the latter part of the i8th century. From
them it was captured in 1824 by the British, whose possession
of it was confirmed in 1826 by the treaty concluded with the
Burmese at Yandaboo.

CHEERING, the uttering or making of sounds encouraging,
stimulating or exciting to action, indicating approval or acclaim-
ing or welcoming persons, announcements of events and the
like. The word " cheer " meant originally face, countenance,
expression, and came through the O. Fr. into Mid. Eng. in the
1 3th century from the Low Lat. cara, head; this is generally
referred to the Gr. Kapa. Cara is used by the 6th-century poet
Flavius Cresconius Corippus, " Postquam venere verendam
Caesaris ante caram " (In Laudem Justini Minoris). " Cheer "
was at first qualified with epithets, both of joy and gladness and
of sorrow; compare " She thanked Dyomede for alle ... his
gode chere " (Chaucer, Troylus) with " If they sing . . . 'tis
with so dull a cheere " (Shakespeare, Sonnets, xcvii.). An early
transference in meaning was to hospitality or entertainment,
and hence to food and drink, " good cheer." The sense of a
shout of encouragement or applause is a late use. Defoe (Captain
Singleton) speaks of it as a sailor's word, and the meaning does
not appear in Johnson. Of the different words or rather sounds
that are used in cheering, " hurrah," though now generally
looked on as the typical British form of cheer, is found in various
forms in German, Scandinavian, Russian (urd), French (houra).
It is probably onomatopoeic in origin; some connect it with
such words as " hurry," " whirl "; the meaning would then be
" haste," to encourage speed or onset in battle. The English
" hurrah " was preceded by " huzza," stated to be a sailor's
word, and generally connected with " heeze," to hoist, probably
being one of the cries that sailors use when hauling or hoisting.
The German hoch, seen in full in hoch lebe der Kaiser, &c., the
French vine, Italian and Spanish viva, ewiva, are cries rather

22

CHEESE— CHEFFONIER

of acclamation than encouragement. The Japanese shout
banzai became familiar during the Russo-Japanese War. In
reports of parliamentary and other debates the insertion of
" cheers " at any point in a speech indicates that approval was
shown by members of the House by emphatic utterances of
" hear hear." Cheering may be tumultuous, or it may be
conducted rhythmically by prearrangement, as in the case of
the " Hip-hip-hip " by way of introduction to a simultaneous
" hurrah."

Rhythmical cheering has been developed to its greatest
extent in America in the college yells, which may be regarded as
a development of the primitive war-cry; this custom has no
real analogue at English schools and universities, but the New
• Zealand football team in 1907 familiarized English crowds at
their matches with a similar sort of war-cry adopted from the
Maoris. In American schools and colleges there is usually one
cheer for the institution as a whole and others for the different
classes. The oldest and simplest are those of the New England
colleges. The original yells of Harvard and Yale are identical
in form, being composed of rah (abbreviation of hurrah) nine
times repeated, shouted in unison with the name of the university
at the end. The Yale cheer is given faster than that of Harvard.
Many institutions have several different yells, a favourite
variation being the name of the college shouted nine times in a
slow and prolonged manner. The best known of these variants
is the Yale cheer, partly taken from the Frogs of Aristophanes,
which runs thus:

" Brekekekex, ko-ax, ko-ax,
Brekekekex, ko-ax, ko-ax,
O-6p, O-6p, parabalou,
Yale, Yale, Yale,

Rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah,
Yale! Yale! Yale!"

The regular cheer of Princeton is:

" H'ray, h'ray, h'ray, tiger,
Siss, boom, ah; Princeton!"

This is expanded into the " triple cheer ":
" H'ray, h'ray, h'ray,
Tiger, tiger, tiger,
Siss, siss, siss,
Boom, boom, boom,
Ah, ah, ah,
Princet6n, Princeton, Princeton!"

The " railroad cheer " is like the foregoing, but begun very
slowly and broadly, and gradually accelerated to the end, which
is enunciated as fast as possible. Many cheers are formed
like that of Toronto University:

" Varsity, varsity,
V-a-r-s-i-t-y (spelled)
VARSIT-Y (spelled staccato)
Var-si-ty,
Rah, rah, rah ! "

Another variety of yell is illustrated by that of the School
of Practical Science of Toronto University:

"Who are we? Can't you guess?
We are from the S.P.S. ! "

The cheer of the United States Naval Academy is an imita-
tion of a nautical syren. The Amherst cheer is:

" Amherst ! Amherst ! Amherst ! Rah ! Rah !
Amherst ! Rah ! Rah !
Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Amherst !"

Besides the cheers of individual institutions there are some
common to all, generally used to compliment some successful
athlete or popular professor. One of the oldest examples of
these personal cheers is:

" Who was George Washington ?
First in war,
First in peace,
Ffrst in the hearts of his countryman,"

followed by a stamping on the floor in the same rhythm.

College yells are used particularly at athletic contests. In
any large college there are several leaders, chosen by the students,
who stand in front and call for the different songs and cheers,

directing with their arms in the fashion of an orchestral con-
ductor. This cheering and singing form one of the distinctive
features of inter-collegiate and scholastic athletic contests in
America.

CHEESE (Lat. caseus), a solidified preparation from milk, the
essential constituent of which is the proteinous or nitrogenous
substance casein. All cheese contains in addition some proportion
of fatty matter or butter, and in the more valuable varieties the
butter present is often greater in amount than the casein. Cheese
being thus a compound substance of no definite composition is
found in commerce of many different varieties and qualities;
and such qualities are generally recognized by the names of the
localities in which they are manufactured. The principal dis-
tinctions arise from differences in the composition and condition
of the milk operated upon, from variations in the method of
preparation and curing, and from the use of the milk of other
animals besides the cow, as, for example, the goat and the ewe,
from the milk of both of which cheese is manufactured on a
commercial scale. For details about different cheeses and cheese-
making, see DAIRY. From the Urdu chiz (" thing ") comes the
slang expression " the cheese," meaning " the perfect thing,"
apparently from Anglo-Indian usage.

A useful summary of the history and manufacture of all sorts of
cheeses, under their different names, is given in Bulletin 105 of the
Bureau of Animal Industry (United States Dep. of Agriculture),
Varieties of Cheese, by C. F. Doane and H. W. Lawson (Washington,
1908).

CHEESE CLOTH, the name given to cloth, usually made from
flax or tow yarns, of an open character, resembling a fine riddle
or sieve, used for wrapping cheese. A finer quality and texture
is made for women's gowns. A similar cloth is used for inside
linings in the upholstery trade, and for the ground of embroidery.

CHEETA (CHITA), or HUNTING-LEOPARD (Cynaelurus jubalus,
formerly known as Gueparda jubala), a member of the family
Felidae, distinguished by its claws being only partially retractile
(see CARNIVORA). The cheeta attains a length of 3 to 4 ft.;
it is of a pale fulvous colour, marked with numerous spots of
black on the upper surface and sides, and is nearly white beneath.
The fur is somewhat crisp, altogether lacking the sleekness which
characterizes the fur of the typical cats, and the tail is long and
somewhat bushy at the extremity. In confinement the cheeta
soon becomes fond of those who are kind to it, and gives evidence
of its attachment in an open, dog-like manner. The cheeta is
found throughout Africa and southern Asia, and has been em-
ployed-for centuries in India and Persia in hunting antelopes
and other game. According to Sir W. Jones, this mode of
hunting originated with Hushing, king of Persia, 865 B.C., and
afterwards became so popular that certain of the Mongol
emperors were in the habit of being accompanied in their sport-
ing expeditions by a thousand hunting leopards. In prosecuting
this sport at the present day the cheeta is conveyed to the field
in a low car without sides, hooded and chained like hunting-
birds in Europe in the days of falconry. When a herd of deer
or antelopes is seen, the car, which bears a close resemblance to
the ordinary vehicles used by the peasants, is usually brought
within 200 yds. of the game before the latter takes alarm; the
cheeta is then let loose and the hood removed from its eyes. No
sooner does it see the herd, than dropping from the car on the side
remote from it sprey, it approaches stealthily, making use of
whatever means of concealment the nature of the ground permits,
until observed, when making a few gigantic bounds, it generally
arrives in the midst .of the herd and brings down its victim with
a stroke of its paw. The sportsman then approaches, draws off
a bowl of the victim's blood, and puts it before the cheeta, which
is again hooded and led back to the car. Should it not succeed
in reaching the herd in the first few bounds, it makes no further
effort to pursue, but retires seemingly dispirited to the car. In
Africa the cheeta is only valued for its skin, which is worn by
chiefs and other people of rank. It should be added that in
India the name cheeta (chita) is applied also to the leopard.

CHEFFONIER, properly CHIFFONIER, a piece of furniture
differentiated from the sideboard by its smaller size and by the

CHEH-KIANG— CHELMSFORD, LORD

enclosure of the whole of the front by doors. Its name (which
comes from the French for a rag-gatherer) suggests that it was
originally intended as a receptacle for odds and ends which had
no place elsewhere, but it now usually serves the purpose of a
sideboard. It is a remote and illegitimate descendant of the
cabinet; it has rarely been elegant and never beautiful. It was
"one of the many curious developments of the mixed taste, at
once cumbrous and bizarre, which prevailed in furniture during
the Empire period in England. The earliest cheffoniers date
from that time; they are usually of rosewood — the favourite
timber of that moment; their " furniture " (the technical name
for knobs, handles and escutcheons) was most commonly of
brass, and there was very often a raised shelf with a pierced brass
gallery at the back. The doors were well panelled and often
edged with brass-beading, while the feet were pads or claws, or,
in the choicer examples, sphinxes in gilded bronze. Cheffoniers
are-still made in England in cheap forms and in great number.

CHEH-KIANG, an eastern province of China, bounded N. by
the province of Kiang-su, E. by the sea, S. by the province of
Fu-kien, and W. by the provinces of Kiang-si and Ngan-hui.
It occupies an area of about 36,000 sq. m., and contains a popu-
lation of 11,800,000. With the exception of a small portion of
the great delta plain, which extends across the frontier from the
province of Kiang-su, and in which are situated the famous
cities of Hu Chow, Ka-hing, Hang-chow, Shao-Sing and Ning-po,
the province forms a portion of the Nan-shan of south-eastern
China, and is hilly throughout. The Nan-shan ranges run
through the centre of the province from south-west to north-
east, and divide 'it into a northern portion, the greater part of
which is drained by the Tsien-t'ang-kiang, and a southern
portion which is chiefly occupied by the Ta-chi basin. The
valleys enclosed between the mountain ranges are numerous,
fertile, and for the most part of exquisite beauty. The hilly
portion of the province furnishes large supplies of tea, and in the
plain which extends along the coast, north of Ning-po, a great
quantity of silk is produced. In minerals the province is poor.
Coal and iron are occasionally met with, and traces of copper
ore are to be found in places, but none of these minerals exists
in sufficiently Jarge deposits to make mining remunerative. The
province, however, produces cotton, rice, ground-nuts, wheat,
indigo, tallow and beans in abundance. The principal cities
are Hang-chow, which is famed for the beauty of its surroundings,
Ning-po, which has been frequented by foreign ships ever since
the Portuguese visited it in the i6th century, and W£nchow.
Opposite Ning-po, at a distance of about 50 m., lies the island of
Chusan, the largest of a group bearing that general name. This
island is 21 m. long, and about 50 m. in circumference. It is
very mountainous, and is surrounded by numerous islands and
islets. On its south side stands the walled town of Ting-hai,
in front of which is the principal harbour. The population is
returned as 50,000.

CHEKE, SIR JOHN (1514-1557), English classical scholar,
was the son of Peter Cheke, esquire-bedell of Cambridge Univer-
sity. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where
he became a fellow in 1529. While there he adopted the prin-
ciples of the Reformation. His learning gained him an exhibition
from the king, and in 1540, on Henry VIII. 's foundation of the
regius professorships, he was elected to the chair of Greek.
Amongst his pupils at St John's were Lord Burghley, who married
Cheke's sister Mary, and Roger Ascham, who in The School-
master gives Cheke the highest praise for scholarship and
character. Together with Sir Thomas Smith, he introduced
a new method of Greek pronunciation very similar to that com-
monly used in England in the igth century. It was strenuously
opposed in the University, where the continental method
prevailed, and Bishop Gardiner, as chancellor, issued a decree
against it (June 1542); but Cheke ultimately triumphed. On
the loth of July 1554, he was chosen as tutor to Prince Edward,
and after his pupil's accession to the throne he continued his in-
structions. Cheke took a fairly active share in public life; he
aat, as member for Bletchingley, for the parliaments of 1 547 and
; he was made provost of King's College, Cambridge

23

(April i, 1548), was one of the commissioners for visiting that
university as well as Oxford and Eton, and was appointed with
seven divines to draw up a body of laws for the governance
of the church. On the nth of October 1551 he was knighted;
in 1553 he was made one of the secretaries of state, and sworn
of the privy council. His zeal for Protestantism induced him
to follow the duke of Northumberland, and he filled the office
of secretary of state for Lady Jane Grey during her nine days'
reign. In consequence Mary threw him into the Tower (July 27,
i553)> and confiscated his wealth. He was, however, released
on the I3th of September 1554, and granted permission to travel
abroad. He went first to Basel, then visited Italy, giving
lectures in Greek at Padua, and finally settled at Strassburg,
teaching Greek for his living. In the spring of 1556 he visited
Brussels to see his wife; on his way back, between Brussels and
Antwerp, he and Sir Peter Carew were treacherously seized
(May 1 5) by order of Philip of Spain, hurried over to England,
and imprisoned in the Tower. Cheke was visited by two priests
and by Dr John Feckenham, dean of St Paul's, whom he had
formerly tried to convert to Protestantism, and, terrified by a
threat of the stake, he gave way and was received into the Church
of Rome by Cardinal Pole, being cruelly forced to make two
public recantations. Overcome with shame, he did not long sur-
vive, but died in London on the i3th of September 1557, carry-
ing, as T. Fuller says {Church History), " God's pardon and all
good men's pity along with him." About 1547 Cheke married
Mary, daughter of Richard Hill, sergeant of the wine-cellar to
Henry VIII., and by her he had three sons. The descendants
of one of these, Henry, known only for his translation of an
Italian morality play Freewyl (Tragedio del Libero Arbilrio) by
Nigri de Bassano, settled at Pyrgo in Essex.

Thomas Wilson, in the epistle prefixed to his translation of the
Olynthiacs of Demosthenes (1570), has a long and most interesting
eulogy of Cheke; and Thomas Nash, in To the Gentlemen Students,
prefixed to Robert Greene's Menaphon (1589), calls him " the
Exchequer of eloquence, Sir Ihon Cheke, a man of men, super-
naturally traded in all tongues." Many of Cheke's works are still
in MS., some have been altogether lost. One of the most interesting
from a historical point of view is the Hurt of Sedition how greueous
it is to a Communewelth (1549), written on the occasion of Ket's
rebellion, republished in 1569, 1576 and 1641, on the last occasion
with a life of the author by Gerard Langbaine. Others are D.
Joannis Chrysostomi homiliae duae (1543), D. Joannis Chrysostomi de
providentia Dei (1545), The Gospel according to St Matthew . . .
translated
Buceri
dedicated

in Antonium Deneium (1551!, De pronuntiatione Graecae . '. . linguae
(Basel, 1555). He also translated several Greek works, and lectured
admirably upon Demosthenes.

His Lrfe was written by John Strype (1821); additions by J.
Gough Nichols in Archaeologia (1860), xxxviii. 98, 127.

CHELLIAN, the name given by the French anthropologist
G. de Mortillet to the first epoch of the Quaternary period when
the earliest human remains are discoverable. The word is
derived from the French town Chelles in the department of
Seine-et-Marne. The climate of the Chellian epoch was warm
and humid as evidenced by the wild growth of fig-trees and
laurels. The animals characteristic of the epoch are the Elephas
antiquus, the rhinoceros, the cave-bear, the hippopotamus and
the striped hyaena. Man existed and belonged to the Neander-
thal type. The implements characteristic of the period are flints
chipped into leaf-shaped forms and held in the hand when used.
The drift-beds of St Acheul (Amiens) , of Menchecourt (Abbeville) ,
of Hoxne (Suffolk), and the detrital laterite of Madras are con-
sidered by de Mortillet to be synchronous with the Chellian beds.

See Gabriel de Mortillet, Le Prfhistorique (1900) ; Lord Avebury,
Prehistoric Times (1900).

CHELHSFORD, FREDERIC THESIGER, IST BARON (1794-
1878), lord chancellor of England, was the third son of Charles
Thesiger, and was born in London on the isth of April 1794.
His father, collector of customs at St Vincent's, was the son of
a Saxon gentleman who had migrated to England and become
secretary to Lord Rockingham, and was the brother of Sir
Frederic Thesiger, naval A.D.C. to Nelson at Copenhagen.
Young Frederic Thesiger was originally destined for a naval

CHELMSFORD— CHELSEA

career, and he served as a midshipman on board the " Cambrian "
frigate in 1807 at the second bombardment of Copenhagen. His
only surviving brother, however, died about this time, and he
became entitled to succeed to a valuable estate in the West
Indies, so it was decided that he should leave the navy and
study law, with a view to practising in the West Indies and
eventually managing his property in person. Another change
of fortune, however, awaited him, for a volcano destroyed the
family estate, and he was thrown back upon his prospect of a
legal practice in the West Indies. He proceeded to enter at
Gray's Inn in 1813, and was called on the i8th of November
1818, another change in his prospects being brought about by
the strong advice of Godfrey Sykes, a special pleader in whose
chambers he had been a pupil, that he should remain to try his
fortune in England. He accordingly joined the home circuit,
and soon got into good practice at the Surrey sessions, while he
also made a fortunate purchase in buying the right to appear
in the old palace court (see LORD STEWARD). In 1824 he dis-
tinguished himself by his defence of Joseph Hunt when on his
trial at Hertford with John Thurtell for the murder of Wm.
Weare; and eight years later at Chelmsford assizes he won a
hard-fought action in an ejectment case after three trials, to
which he attributed so much of his subsequent success that when
he was raised to the peerage he assumed the title Lord Chelms-
ford. In 1834 he was made king's counsel, and in 1833 was
briefed in the Dublin election inquiry which unseated Daniel
O'Connell. In 1840 he was elected M.P. for Woodstock. In
1844 he became solicitor-general, but having ceased to enjoy
the favour of the duke of Marlborough, lost his seat for Wood-
stock and had to find another at Abingdon. In 1845 he became
attorney-general, holding the post until the fall of the Peel
administration on the 3rd of July 1846. Thus by three days
Thesiger missed being chief justice of the common pleas, for on
the 6th of July Sir Nicholas Tindal died, and the seat on the
bench, which would have been Thesiger's as of right, fell to
the Liberal attorney-general, Sir Thomas Wilde. Sir Frederic
Thesiger remained in parliament, changing his seat, however,
again in 1852, and becoming member for Stamford. During
this period he enjoyed a very large practice at the bar, being
employed in many causes celsbres. On Lord Derby coming into
office for the second time in 1858, Sir Frederic Thesiger was
raised straight from the bar to the lord chancellorship (as were
Lord Brougham, Lord Selborne and Lord Halsbury). In the
following year Lord Derby resigned and his cabinet was broken
up. Again in 1866, on Lord Derby coming into office for the third
time, Lord Chelmsford became lord chancellor for a short period.
In 1868 Lord Derby retired, and Disraeli, who took his place as
prime minister, wished for Lord Cairns as lord chancellor. Lord
Chelmsford was very sore at his supersession and the manner
of it, but, according to Lord Malmesbury he retired under a
compact made before he took office. Ten years later Lord
Chelmsford died in London on the 5th of October 1878. Lord
Chelmsford had married in 1822 Anna Maria Tinling. He left
four sons and three daughters, of whom the eldest, Frederick
Augustus, 2nd Baron Chelmsford (1827-1905), earned distinction
as a soldier, while the third, Alfred Henry Thesiger (1838-1880)
was made a lord justice of appeal and a privy councillor in 1877,
at the early age of thirty-nine, but died only three years later.

See Lives of the Chancellors (1908), by J. B. Atlay, who has had the
advantage of access to an unpublished autobiography of Lord
Chelmsford's.

CHELMSFORD, a market town and municipal borough, and
the county town of Essex, England, in the Chelmsford parlia-
mentary division, 30 m. E.N.E. from London by the Great
Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 12,580. It is situated in the
valley of the Chelmer, at the confluence of the Cann, and has
communication by the river with Maldon and the Blackwater
estuary n m. east. Besides the parish church of St Mary, a
graceful Perpendicular edifice, largely rebuilt, the town has
a grammar school founded by Edward VI., an endowed charity
school and a museum. It is the seat of the county assizes and
quarter sessions, and has a handsome shire hall ; the county gaol

is near the town. Its corn and cattle markets are among the
largest in the county; for the first a fine exchange is provided.
In the centre of the square in which the corn exchange is situated
stands a bronze statue of Lord Chief-Justice Tindal (1776-1846),
a native of the parish. There are agricultural implement and
iron foundries, large electric light and engineering works,
breweries, tanneries, mailings and extensive corn mills. There '
is a race-course 2 m. south of the town. The borough is under
a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area 2308 acres.

A place of settlement since Palaeolithic times, Chelmsford
(Chilmersford, Chelmeresford, Chelmesford) owed its importance
to its position on the road from London to Colchester. It con-
sisted of two manors: that of Moulsham, which remained in the
possession of Westminster Abbey from Saxon times till the reign
of Henry VIII., when it was granted to Thomas Mildmay; and
that of Bishop's Hall, which was held by the bishops of London
from the reign of Edward the Confessor to 1545, when it passed
to the crown and was granted to Thomas Mildmay in 1563. The
medieval history of Chelmsford centred round the manor of
Bishop's Hall. Early in the I2th century Bishop Maurice built
the bridge over the Chelmer which brought the road from London
directly through the town, thus making it an important stopping-
place. The town was not incorporated until 1888. In 1225
Chelmsford was made the centre for the collection of fifteenths
from the county of Essex, and in 1227 it became the regular seat
of assizes and quarter-sessions. Edward I. confirmed Bishop
Richard de Gravesend in his rights of frank pledge in Chelmsford
in 1290, and in 1395 Richard II. granted the return of writs to
Bishop Robert de Braybroke. In 1377 writs were issued for the
return of representatives from Chelmsford to parliament, but
no return of members has been found. In 1199 the bishop
obtained the grant of a weekly market at the yearly rent of one
palfrey, and in 1201 that of an annual fair, now discontinued,
for four days from the feast of St Philip and St James.

CHELSEA, a western metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded E. by the city of Westminster, N.W. by
Kensington, S.W. by Fulham, and S. by the river Thames.
Pop. (1901) 73,842. Its chief thoroughfare is Sloane Street,
containing handsome houses and good shops, running south from
Knightsbridge to Sloane Square. Hence King's Road leads
west, a wholly commercial highway, named in honour of Charles
II., and recalling the king's private road from St James's Palace
to Fulham, which was maintained until the reign of George IV.
The main roads south communicate with the Victoria or Chelsea,
Albert and Battersea bridges over the Thames. The beautiful
Chelsea embankment, planted with trees and lined with fine
houses and, in part, with public gardens, stretches between
Victoria and Battersea bridges. The better residential portion
of Chelsea is the eastern, near Sloane Street and along the river;
the western, extending north to Fulham Road, is mainly a poor
quarter.

Chelsea, especially the riverside district, abounds in historical
associations. At Cealchythe a synod was held in 785. A
similar name occurs in a Saxon charter of the nth century and
in Domesday; in the i6th century it is Chelcith. The later
termination ey or ea was associated with the insular character of
the land, and the prefix with a gravel bank (ceosol; cf. Chesil
Bank, Dorsetshire) thrown up by the river; but the early
suffix hythe is common in the meaning of a haven. The manor
was originally in the possession of Westminster Abbey, but its
history is fragmentary until Tudor times. It then came into
the hands of Henry VIII., passed from him to his wife Catharine
Parr, and thereafter had a succession of owners, among whom
were the Howards, to whom it was granted by Queen Elizabeth,
and the Cheynes, from whom it was purchased in 1712 by Sir
Hans Sloane, after which it passed to the Cadogans. The
memorials which crowd the picturesque church and churchyard
of St Luke near the river, commonly known as the OJd Church,
to a great extent epitomize the history of Chelsea. Such are
those of Sir Thomas More (d. 1535); Lord. Bray, lord of the
manor (1539), his father and son; Lady Jane Guyldeford,
duchess of Northumberland, who died " at her maner of Chelse "

CHELSEA— CHELTENHAM

in 1555; Lord and Lady Dacre (1594-1595); Sir John Lawrence
(1638); Lady Jane Cheyne (1698); Francis Thomas, "director
of the china porcelain manufactory, Lawrence Street, Chelsea "
(1770); Sir Hans Sloane (1753); Thomas Shad well, poet
laureate (1602); Woodfall the printer of Junius (1844), and
many others. More's tomb is dated 1 532, as he set it up himself,
though it is doubtful whether he lies beneath it. His house was
near the present Beaufort Street. In the i8th and igth centuries
Chelsea, especially the parts about the embankment and Cheyne
Walk, was the home of many eminent men, particularly of
writers and artists, with whom this pleasant quarter has long
been in favour. Thus in the earlier part of the period named,
Atterbury and Swift lived in Church Lane, Steele and Smollett
in Monmouth House. Later, the names of Turner, Rossetti,
Whistler, Leigh Hunt, Carlyle (whose house in Cheyne Row
is preserved as a public memorial), Count D'Orsay, and Isambard
Brunei, are intimately connected with Chelsea. At Lindsey
House Count Zinzendorf established a Moravian Society (c. 1 7 50) .
Sir Robert Walpole's residence was extant till 1810; and till 1824
the bishops of Winchester had a palace in Cheyne Walk. Queen's
House, the home of D. G. Rossetti (when it was called Tudor
House), is believed to take name from Catharine of Braganza.

Chelsea was noted at different periods for two famous places
of entertainment, Ranelagh (q.v.) in the second half of the i8th
century, and Cremorne Gardens (q.v.) in the middle of the igth.
Don Saltero's museum, which formed the attraction of a popular
coffee-house, was formed of curiosities from Sir Hans Sloane's
famous collections. It was Sloane who gave to the Apothecaries'
Company the ground which they had leased in 1673 for the
Physick Garden, which is still extant, but ceased in 1902 to be
maintained by the Company. At Chelsea Sir John Danvers
(d. 1655) introduced the Italian style of gardening which was
so greatly admired by Bacon and soon after became prevalent
in England. Chelsea was formerly famous for a manufacture
of buns; the original Chelsea bun-house, claiming royal patron-
age, stood until 1839, and one of its successors until 1888. The
porcelain works existed for some 25 years before 1769, when
they were sold and removed to Derby. Examples of the original
Chelsea ware (see CERAMICS) are of great value.

Of buildings and institutions the most notable is Chelsea
Royal Hospital for invalid soldiers, initiated by Charles II.
(according to tradition on the suggestion of Nell Gwynne), and
opened in 1694. The hospital itself accommodates upwards of
500 men, but a system of out-pensioning was found necessary
from the outset, and now relieves large numbers throughout
the empire. The picturesque building by Wren stands in exten-
sive grounds, which include the former Ranelagh Gardens. A
theological college (King James's) formerly occupied the site;
it was founded in 1610 and was intended to be of great size, but
the scheme was unsuccessful, and only a small part of the build-
ings was erected. In the vicinity are the Chelsea Barracks
(not actually in the borough). The Royal Military Asylum for
boys, commonly called the Duke of York's school, founded in
1801 by Frederick, duke of York, for the education of children
connected with the army, was removed in 1909 to new quarters
at Dover. Other institutions are the Whitelands training
college for school-mistresses, in which Ruskin took deep interest;
the St Mark's college for school-masters; the Victoria and the
Cheyne hospitals for children, a cancer hospital, the South-
western polytechnic, and a public library containing an excellent
collection relative to local history.

The parliamentary borough of Chelsea returns one member,
and includes, as a detached portion, Kensal Town, north of
Kensington. The borough council consists of a mayor, 6 alder-
men and 36 councillors. Area, 659-6 acres.

CHELSEA, a city of Suffolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
a suburb of Boston. Pop. (1890) 27,909; (1900) 34,072, of
whom 11,203 were foreign-born; (1910) 32,452. It is situ-
ated on a peninsula between the Mystic and' Chelsea rivers,
and Charlestown and East Boston, and is connected with
East Boston and Charlestown by bridges. It is served by the
Boston & Maine and (for freight) by the Boston & Albany

railways. The United States maintains here naval and marine
hospitals, and the state a soldiers' home. Chelsea's interests
are primarily industrial. The value of the city's factory products
in 1905 was $13,879,159, the principal items being rubber and
elastic goods ($3,635,211) and boots and shoes ($2,044,250.)
The manufacture of stoves, and of mucilage and paste are
important industries. Flexible tubing for electric wires (first
made at Chelsea 1889) and art tiles are important products.
The first settlement was established in 1624 by Samuel Maverick
(c. i6oz-c. 1670), the first settler (about 1629) of Noddle's
Island (or East Boston), and one of the first slave-holders in
Massachusetts; a loyalist and Churchman, in 1664 he was
appointed with three others by Charles II. on an important
commission sent to Massachusetts and the other New England
colonies (see NICOLLS, RICHARD), and spent the last years of
his life in New York. Until.i739, under the name of Winnisim-
met, Chelsea formed a part of Boston, but in that year it was
made a township; it became a city in 1857. In May 1775 a
British schooner in the Mystic defended by a force of marines
was taken by colonial militia under General John Stark and
Israel Putnam, — one of the first conflicts of the War of Inde-
pendence. A terrible fire swept the central part of the city on
the 1 2th of April 1908.

See Mellen Chamberlain (and others), History of Chelsea(2 vols.,
Boston, 1908), published by the Massachusetts Historical Society.

CHELTENHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Gloucestershire, England, 109 m. W. by N. of London by the
Great Western railway; served also by the west and north
line of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 49,439. The town is
well situated in the valley of the Chelt, a small tributary of the
Severn, under the high line of the Cotteswold Hills to the east,
and is in high repute as a health resort. Mineral springs were
accidentally discovered in 1716. The Montpellier and Pittville
Springs supply handsome pump rooms standing in public
gardens, and are the property of the corporation. The Mont-
pellier waters are sulphated, and are valuable for their diuretic
effect, and as a stimulant to the liver and alimentary canal. The
alkaline-saline waters of Pittville are efficacious against diseases
resulting from excess of uric acid. The parish church of St Mary
dates from the i4th century, but is almost completely modern-
ized. The town, moreover, is wholly modern in appearance.
Assembly rooms opened in 1815 by the duke of Wellington were
removed in 1901. A new town hall, including a central spa and
assembly rooms, was opened in 1903. There are numerous other
handsome buildings, especially in High Street, and the Promen-
ade forms a beautiful broad thoroughfare, lined with trees.
The town is famous as an educational centre. Cheltenham
College (1842) provides education for boys in three departments,
classical, military and commercial; and includes a preparatory
school. The Ladies' College (1854), long conducted by Miss
Beale (?.».), is one of the most successful in England. The
Normal Training College was founded in 1846 for the training
of teachers, male and female, in national and parochial schools.
A free grammar school was founded in 1568 by Richard Pate,
recorder of Gloucester. The art gallery and museum may be
mentioned also. The parliamentary borough returns one
member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 18 councillors. Area, 4726 acres. The urban district of
Charlton Kings (pop. 3806) forms a south-eastern suburb of
Cheltenham.

The site of a British village and burying-ground, Chelter ham
(Celtanhomme, Chiltham, Chelteham) was a village with a church
in 803. The manor belonged to the crown; it was granted to
Henry de Bohun, earl of Hereford, late in the i2th century, but
in 1199 was exchanged for other lands with the king. It was
granted to William de Longespee, earl of Salisbury, in 1219, but
resumed on his death and granted in dower to Eleanor of Pro-
vence in 1243. In 1252 the abbey of Fecamp purchased the
manor, and it afterwards belonged to the priory of Cormeille,
but was confiscated in 1415 as the possession of an alien priory,
and was granted in 1461 to the abbey of Lyon, by which it was
held until, once more returning to the crown at the Dissolution,

26

CHELYABINSK— CHEMICAL ACTION

it was granted to the family of Button. The town is first men-
tioned in 1223, when William de Longespe'e leased the benefit
of the markets, fairs and hundred of Cheltenham to the men of
the town for three years; the lease was renewed by Henry III.
in 1226, and again in 1230 for ten years. A market town in the
time of Camden, it was governed by commissioners from the
i8th century in 1876, when it was incorporated; it became a
parliamentary borough in 1832. Henry III. in 1230 had granted
to the men of Cheltenham a market on each Thursday, and a fair
on the vigil, feast and morrow of St James. Although Camden
mentions a considerable trade in malt, the spinning of woollen
yarn was the only industry in 1779. After the discovery of
springs in 1 7 1 6, and the erection of a pump-room in 1 738, Chelten-
ham rapidly became fashionable, the visit of George III. and the
royal princesses in 1788 ensuring its popularity.

See S. Moreau, A Tow to Cheltenham Spa (Bath, 1738).

CHELYABINSK, a town of Russia, in the Orenburg govern-
ment, at the east foot of the Urals, is the head of the Siberian
railway, 624 m. by rail E.N.E. of Samara and 154 m. by rail
S.S.E. of Ekaterinburg. Pop. (1900) 25,505. It has tanneries
and distilleries, and is the centre of the trade in corn and pro-
duce of cattle for the Ural iron-works. The town was founded
in 1658.

CHELYS (Gr. \k\\K, tortoise; Lat. testudo), the common lyre
of the ancient Greeks, which had a convex back of tortoise-
shell or of wood shaped like the shell. The word chelys was used
in allusion to the oldest lyre of the Greeks which was said to
have been invented by Hermes. According to tradition he was
attracted by sounds of music while walking on the banks of the
Nile, and found they proceeded from the shell of a tortoise across
which were stretched tendons which the wind had set in vibration
(Homeric Hymn to Hermes, 47-51). The word has been applied
arbitrarily since classic times to various stringed instruments,
some bowed and some twanged, probably owing to the back
being much vaulted. Kircher (Musurgia, i. 486) applied the
name of chelys to a kind of viol with eight strings. Numerous
representations of the chelys lyre or testudo occur on the Greek
vases, in which the actual tortoiseshell is depicted; a good illus-
tration is given in Le AntichitA di Ercolano (vol. i. pi. 43). Pro-
pertius (iv. 6) calls the instrument the lyra testudinea. Scaliger
(on Manilius, Astronomicon, Proleg. 420) was probably the first
writer to draw attention to the difference between chelys and
cithara (q.v.). (K. S.)

CHEMICAL ACTION, the term given to any process in which
change in chemical composition occurs. Such processes may be
set up by the application of some form of energy (heat, light,
electricity, &c.) to a substance, or by the mixing of two or more
substances together. If two or more substances be mixed one of
three things may occur. First, the particles may be mechani-
cally intermingled, the degree of association being dependent
upon the fineness of the particles, &c. Secondly, the substances
may intermolecularly penetrate, as in the case of gas-mixtures
and solutions. Or thirdly they may react chemically. The
question whether, in any given case, we have to deal with a
physical mixture or a chemical compound is often decided by
the occurrence of very striking phenomena. To take a simple
example: — oxygen and hydrogen are two gases which may be
mixed in all proportions at ordinary temperatures, and it is easy
to show that the properties of the products are simply those of
mixtures of the two free gases. If, however, an electric spark
be passed through the mixtures, powerful chemical union ensues,
with its concomitants, great evolution of heat and consequent
rise of temperature, and a compound, water, is formed which
presents physical and chemical properties entirely different from
those of its constituents.

In general, powerful chemical forces give rise to the evolution
of large quantities of heat, and the properties of the resulting sub-
stance differ vastly more from those of its components than is the
case with simple mixtures. This constitutes a valuable criterion
as to whether mere mixture is involved on the one hand, or strong
chemical union on the other. When, however, the chemical
forces are weak and the reaction, being incomplete, leads to a

state of chemical equilibrium, in which all the reacting substances
are present side by side, this criterion vanishes. For example, the
question whether a salt combines with water molecules when
dissolved in water cannot be said even yet to be fully settled,
and, although there can be no doubt that solution is, in many
cases, attended by chemical processes, still we possess as yet no
means of deciding, with certainty, how many molecules of
water have bound themselves to a single molecule of the dissolved
substance (solute) . On the other hand, we possess exact methods
of testing whether gases or solutes in dilute solution react one
with another and of determining the equilibrium state which is
attained. For if one solute react with another on adding the
latter to its solution, then corresponding to the decrease of its
concentration there must also be a decrease of vapour pressure,
and of solubility in other solvents; further, in the case of a
mixture of gases, the concentration of each single constituent
follows from its solubility in some suitable solvent. We thus
obtain the answer to the question: whether the concentration
of a certain constituent has decreased during mixing, i.e. whether
it has reacted chemically.

When a compound can be obtained in a pure state, analysis
affords us an important criterion of its chemical nature, for
unlike mixtures, the compositions of which are always variable
within wider or narrower limits, chemical compounds present
definite and characteristic mass-relations, which find full expres-
sion in the atomic theory propounded by Dal ton (see ATOM).
According to this theory a mixture is the result of the mutual
interpenetration of the molecules of substances, which remain
unchanged as such, whilst chemical union involves changes more
deeply seated, inasmuch as new molecular species appear.
These new substances, if well-defined chemical compounds, have
a perfectly definite composition and contain a definite, generally
small, number of elementary atoms, and therefore the law of
constant proportions follows at once, and the fact that only ah
integral number of atoms of any element may enter into the
composition of any molecule determines the law of multiple
proportions.

These considerations bring us face to face with the task of
more closely investigating the nature of chemical
forces, in other words, of answering the question: Nature of
what forces guide the atoms in the formation of a new cfg^^"'
molecular species? This problem is still far from
being completely answered, so that a few general remarks must
suffice here.

It is remarkable that among the most stable chemical com-
pounds, we find combinations of atoms of one and the same
element. Thus, the stability of the di-atomic molecule N2 is
so great, that no trace of dissociation has yet been proved even
at the highest temperatures, and as the constituent atoms of the
molecule N2 must be regarded as absolutely identical, it is clear
that " polar " forces cannot be the cause of all chemical action.
On the other hand, especially powerful affinities are also
at work when so-called electro-positive and electro-negative
elements react. The forces which here come into play appear to
be considerably greater than those just mentioned; for instance,
potassium fluoride is perhaps the most stable of all known
compounds.

It is also to be noticed that the combinations of the electro-
negative elements (metalloids) with one another exhibit a
metalloid character, and also we find, in the mutual combinations
of metals, all the characteristics of the metallic state; but in
the formation of a salt from a metal and a metalloid we have an
entirely new substance, quite different from its components;
and at the same time, the product is seen to be an electrolyte,
i.e. to have the power of splitting up into a positively and a
negatively charged constituent when dissolved hi some solvent.
These considerations lead to the conviction that forces of a
" polar " origin play an important part here, and indeed we may
make the general surmise that in the act of chemical combination
forces of both a non-polar and polar nature play a part, and that
the latter are in all probability identical with the electric forces.

It now remains to be asked — what are the laws which govern

CHEMICAL ACTION

the action of these forces? This question is of fundamental
importance, since it leads directly to those laws which regulate
the chemical process. Besides the already mentioned funda-
mental law of chemical combination, that of constant and
multiple proportions, there is the law of chemical mass-action,
discovered by Guldberg and Waage in 1867, which we will now
develop from a kinetic standpoint.

Kinetic Basis of the Law of Chemical Mass-action. — We will
assume that the molecular species AI, A2, . . . A'i, A'2) . . .
are present in a homogeneous system, where they can react on
each other only according to the scheme

A,+A2+ ...^A'.+A'z-r- ...;
this is a special case of the general equation

BiAj+njAj-r- . . . £> n'iA'i+n',A'2+ ....

in which only one molecule of each substance takes part in the
reaction. The reacting substances may be either gaseous or
form a liquid mixture, or be dissolved in some selected solvent;
but in each case we may state the following considerations
regarding the course of the reaction. For a transformation to
take place from left to right in the sense of the reaction equation,
all the molecules AI, A2, . . . must clearly collide at one point;
otherwise no reaction is possible, since we shall not consider
side-reactions. Such a collision need not of course bring about
that transposition of the atoms of the single molecules which
constitutes the above reaction. Much rather must it be of such
a kind as is favourable to that loosening of the bonds that bind
the atoms in the separate molecules, which must precede this
transposition. Of a large number of such collisions, therefore,
only a certain smaller number will involve a transposition from
left to right in the sense of the equation. But this number will
be the same under the same external conditions, and the greater
the more numerous the collisions; in fact a direct ratio must
exist between the two. Bearing in mind now, that the number
of collisions must be proportional to each of the concentrations
of the bodies AI, A2, . . ., and therefore, on the whole, to the
product of all these concentrations, we arrive at the conclusion
that the velocity » of the transposition from left to right in the
sense of the reaction equation is v = kciCi . . ., in which Ci, c2,
. . . represent the spatial concentrations, i.e. the number of
gram-molecules of the substances Aj, A2, . . . present in one
litre, and k is, at a given temperature, a constant which may be
called the velocity-coefficient.

Exactly the same consideration applies to the molecules
A'i, A'z . . . Here the velocity of the change from right to
left in the sense of the reaction-equation increases with the
number of collisions of all these molecules at one point, and this
is proportional to the product of all the concentrations. If
k' denotes the corresponding proportionality-factor, then the
velocity if of the change from right to left in the sense of the
reaction-equation is n' = £'cV2 . . . These spatial concentra-
tions are often called the " active masses " of the reacting com-
ponents. Hence the reaction- velocity in the sense of the reaction-
equation from left to right, or the reverse, is proportional to the
product of the " active-masses " of the left-hand or right-hand
components respectively.

Neither v nor jf can be separately investigated, and the
measurements of the course of a reaction always furnish only
the difference of these two quantities. The reaction-
c"^n°ical velocity actually observed represents the difference
statics. of these two partial reaction-velocities, whilst the
amount of change observed during any period of time
is equal to the change in the one direction, minus the change in
the opposite direction. It must not be assumed, however, that
on the attainment of equilibrium all action has ceased, but
rather that the velocity of change in one direction has become
equal to that in the opposite direction, with the result that no
further total change can be observed, i.e. the system has reached
equilibrium, for which the relation »— »' = o must therefore hold,
or what is the same thing

kcid. . . = k'c\c'i. .. ;
this is the fundamental law of chemical statics.

The conception that the equilibrium is not to be attributed
to absolute indifference between the reacting bodies, but that
these continue to exert their mutual actions undiminished and
the opposing changes now balance, is of fundamental significance
in the interpretation of changes of matter in general. This is
generally expressed in the form: the equilibrium in this and
other analogous cases is not static but dynamic. This conception
was a direct result of the kinetic-molecular considerations, and
was applied with special success to the development of the kinetic
theory of gases. Thus with Clausius, we conceive the equilibrium
of water-vapour with water, not as if neither water vaporized
nor vapour condensed, but rather as though the two processes
went on unhindered in the equilibrium state, i.e. during contact
of saturated vapour with water, in a given time, as many water
molecules passed through the water surface in one direction as
in the opposite direction. This view, as applied to chemical
changes, was first advanced by A. W. Williamson (1851), and
further developed by C. M. Guldberg and P. Waage and
others.

From the previous considerations it follows that the reaction-
velocity at every moment, i.e. the velocity with
which the chemical process advances towards the
equilibrium state, is given by the equation kinetics.

V=v-v' = kclc2...-k'c',c'i...;

this states the fundamental law of chemical kinetics.

The equilibrium equation is simply a special case of this more
general one, and results when the total velocity is written
zero, just as in analytical mechanics the equilibrium conditions
follow at once by specialization of the general equations of
motion.

. No difficulty presents itself in the generalization of the previous
equations for the reaction which proceeds after the scheme

njA,+«jA,+ . . . =n'iA'i+n'sA',+ . . . ,

where MtjWz, . . .,«'i, w'2, . . . denote the numbers of molecules
of the separate substances which take part in the reaction, and
are therefore whole, mostly small, numbers (generally one or
two, seldom three or more). Here as before, » and if are to be
regarded as proportional to the number of collisions at one point
of all molecules necessary to the respective reaction, but now ni
molecules of AI, «2 molecules of A2, &c., must collide for the
reaction to advance from left to right in the sense of the equation ;
and similarly n\ molecules of A'i, «'2 molecules of A'2, &c.,
must collide for the reaction to proceed in the opposite direction.
If we consider the path of a single, arbitrarily chosen molecule
over a certain time, then the number of its collisions with other
similar molecules will be proportional to the concentration C
of that kind of molecule to which it belongs. The number of
encounters between two molecules of the kind in question, during
the same time, will be in general C times as many, i.e. the number
of encounters of two of the same molecules is proportional to
the square of the concentration C; and generally, the number
of encounters of n molecules of one kind must be regarded as
proportional to the wth power of C, i.e. O.

The number of collisions of n\ molecules of AI, ni molecules
of A2 . . . is accordingly proportional to Cr'CJ2 . . . , and the
reaction-velocity corresponding to it is therefore

v = kC"lC^...,

and similarly the opposed reaction-velocity is
»' = £'C;"'C;n''...;

the resultant reaction-velocity, being the difference of these
two partial velocities, is therefore

V=v-v'=kC?C?. . . -k'C'^C'S'1. . .

This is the most general expression of the law of chemical mass-
action, for the case of homogeneous systems.

Equating V to zero, we obtain the equation for the equilibrium
state, viz.

K is called the " equilibrium-constant."

CHEMICAL ACTION

These formulae hold for gases and for dilute solutions, but
assume the system to be homogeneous, i.e. to be either a homo-
LimHa- geneous gas-mixture or a homogeneous dilute solution.
tions ana The case in which other states of matter share in the
applies- equilibrium permits of simple treatment when the
substances in question may be regarded as pure, and
consequently as possessing definite vapour-pressures
or solubilities at a given temperature. In this case the molecular
species in question, which is, at the same time, present in excess
and is hence usually, called a Bodenkorper, must possess a constant
concentration in the gas-space or solution. But since the left-
hand side of the last equation contains only variable quantities,
it is simplest and most convenient to absorb these constant
concentrations into the equilibrium-constant; whence we have
the rule: leave the molecular species present as Bodenkorper
out of account, when determining the concentration-product.
Guldberg and Waage expressed this in the form " the active
mass of a solid substance is constant." The same is true of
liquids when these participate in the pure state in the equilibrium,
and possess therefore a definite vapour-pressure or solubility.
When, finally, we are not dealing with a dilute solution but with
any kind of mixture whatever, it is simplest to apply the law
of mass-action to the gaseous mixture in equilibrium with this.
The composition of the liquid mixture is then determinable
when the vapour-pressures of the separate components are
known. This, however, is not often the case; but in principle
this consideration is important, since it involves the possibility
of extending the law of chemical mass-action from ideal gas-
mixtures and dilute solutions, for which it primarily holds, to
any other system whatever.

The more recent development of theoretical chemistry, as
well as the detailed study of many chemical processes which
have found technical application, leads more and more con-
vincingly to the recognition that in the law of chemical mass-
action we have a law of as fundamental significance as the law
of constant and multiple proportions. It is therefore not without
interest to briefly touch upon the development of the doctrine
of chemical affinity.

Historical Development of the Law of Mass-action. — The theory
developed by Torbern Olof Bergman in 1775 must be regarded
as the first attempt of importance to account for the mode of
action of chemical forces. The essential principle of this may
be stated as follows: — The magnitude of chemical affinity may
be expressed by a definite number; if the affinity of the sub-
stance A is greater for the substance B than for the substance
C, then the latter (C) will be completely expelled by B from its
compound with A, in the sense of the equation A- C+B = A-B-j- C.
This theory fails, however, to take account of the influence of
the relative masses of the reacting substances, and had to be
abandoned as soon as such an influence was noticed. An
attempt to consider this factor was made by Claude Louis
Berthollet (1801), who introduced the conception of chemical
equilibrium. The views of this French chemist may be summed
up in the following sentence: — Different substances have differ-
ent affinities for each other, which only come into play on im-
mediate contact. The condition of equilibrium depends not only
upon the chemical affinity, but also essentially upon the relative
masses of the reacting substances.

Essentially, Berthollet's idea is to-day the guiding principle
of the doctrine of affinity. This is especially true of our con-
ceptions of many reactions which, in the sense of Bergman's idea,
proceed to completion, i.e. until the reacting substances are all
used up; but only for this reason, viz. that one or more of the
products of the reaction is removed from the reaction mixture
(either by crystallization, evaporation or some other process),
and hence the reverse reaction becomes impossible. Following
Berthollet's idea, two Norwegian investigators, C. M. Guldberg
and Peter Waage, succeeded in formulating the influence of the
reacting masses in a simple law — the law of chemical mass-action
already defined. The results of their theoretical and experi-
mental studies were published at Christiania in 1867 (£tudes sur
les affinitis chimiques); this work marks a new epoch in the

history of chemistry. Even before this, formulae to describe the
progress of certain chemical reactions, which must be regarded
as applications of the law of mass-action, had been put forward
by Ludwig Wilhelmy (1850), and by A. G. Vernon-Harcourt
and William Esson (1856), but the service of Guldberg and
Waage in having grasped the law in its full significance and
logically applied it in all directions, remains of course un-
•diminished. Their treatise remained quite unknown; and so
it happened that John Hewitt Jellett (1873), J. H. van't Hoff
(1877), and others independently developed the same law.
The thermodynamic basis of the law of mass-action is primarily
due to Horstmann, J. Willard Gibbs and van't Hoff.

Applications. — Let us consider, as an example of the appli-
cation of the law of mass-action, the case of the dissociation of
water-vapour, which takes place at high temperatures in the
sense of the equation 2H2O = 2H2-)-O2. Representing the con-
centrations of the corresponding molecular species by [Hj, &c.,
the expression [Hj2 [Oj/tH^]2 must be constant at any given
temperature. This shows that the dissociation is set back by
increasing the pressure; for if the concentrations of all three
kinds of molecules be increased by strong compression, say to
ten times the former amounts, then the numerator is increased
one thousand, the denominator only one hundred times. Hence
if the original equilibrium-constant is to hold, the dissociation
must go back, and, what is more, by an exactly determinable
amount. At 2000° C. water-vapour is only dissociated to the
extent of a few per cent; therefore, even when only a small
excess of oxygen or hydrogen be present, the numerator in the
foregoing expression is much increased, and it is obvious that in
order to restore the equilibrium state, the concentration of the
other component, hydrogen or oxygen as the case may be, must
diminish. In the case of slightly dissociated substances, there-
fore, even a relatively small excess of one component is sufficient
to set back the dissociation substantially.

Chemical Kinetics. — It has been already mentioned that the
law of chemical mass-action not only defines the conditions for
chemical equilibrium, but contains at the same time the prin-
ciples of chemical kinetics. The previous considerations show
indeed that the actual progress of the reaction is determined by
the difference of the reaction-velocities in the one and the other
(opposed) direction, in the sense of the corresponding reaction -
equation. Since the reaction-velocity is given by the amount of
chemical change in a small interval of time, the law of chemical
mass-action supplies a differential equation, which, when in-
tegrated, provides formulae which, as numerous experiments
have shown, very happily summarize the course of the reaction.
For the simplest case, in which a single species of molecule under-
goes almost complete decomposition, so that the reaction-
velocity in the reverse direction may be neglected, we have the
simple equation

dxldt = k(a-x),

and if x = o when t = o we have by integration
k=l-nog{a/(a-x)}.

We will now apply these conclusions to the theory of the
ignition of an explosive gas-mixture, and in particular to the
combustion of " knallgas " (a mixture of hydrogen Theory of
and oxygen) to water-vapour. At ordinary tempera- expio-
tures knallgas undergoes practically no change, and slve f0™-
it might be supposed that the two gases, oxygen and
hydrogen, have no affinity for each other. This conclusion,
however, is shown to be incorrect by the observation that it is
only necessary to add some suitable catalyst such as platinum-
black in order to immediately start the reaction. We must
therefore conclude that even at ordinary temperatures strong
chemical affinity is exerted between oxygen and hydrogen, but
that at low temperatures this encounters great frictional resist-
ances, or in other words that the reaction-velocity is very small.
It is a matter of general experience that the resistances which
the chemical forces have to overcome diminish with rising
temperature, i.e. the reaction-velocity increases with temperature.
Therefore, when we warm the knallgas, the number of collisions
of oxygen and hydrogen molecules favourable to the formation

CHEMICAL ACTION

of water becomes greater and greater, until at about 500° the
gradual formation of water is observed, while at still higher
temperatures the reaction-velocity becomes enormous. We
are now in a position to understand what is the result of a strong
local heating of the knallgas, as, for example, by an electric spark.
The strongly heated parts of the knallgas combine to form
water-vapour with great velocity and the evolution of large
amounts of heat, whereby the adjacent parts are brought to a
high temperature and into a state of rapid reaction, i.e. we
observe an ignition of the whole mixture. If we suppose the
knallgas to be at a very high temperature, then its combustion
will be no longer complete owing to the dissociation of water-
vapour, whilst at extremely high temperatures it would practi-
cally disappear. Hence it is clear that knallgas appears to be
stable at low temperatures only because the reaction-velocity
is very small, but that at very high temperatures it is really
stable, since no chemical forces are then active, or, in other
words, the chemical affinity is very small.

The determination of the question whether the failure of
some reaction is due to an inappreciable reaction-velocity or to
absence of chemical affinity, is of fundamental importance, and
only in the first case can the reaction be hastened by catalysts.

Many chemical compounds behave like knallgas. Acetylene
is stable at ordinary temperatures, inasmuch as it only decom-
poses slowly; but at the same time it is explosive, for the
decomposition when once started is rapidly propagated, on
account of the heat evolved by the splitting up of the gas into
carbon and hydrogen. At very high temperatures, however,
acetylene acquires real stability, since carbon and hydrogen
then react to form acetylene.

Many researches have shown that the combustion of an
inflammable gas-mixture which is started at a point, e.g. by an
electric spark, may be propagated in two essentially
waves.""' different ways. The characteristic of the slower
combustion consists in this, viz. that the high tempera-
ture of the previously ignited layer spreads by conduction,
thereby bringing the adjacent layers to the ignition-temperature;
the velocity of the propagation is therefore conditioned in the
first place by the magnitude of the conductivity f<5r heat, and
more particularly, in the second place, by the velocity with
which a moderately heated layer begins to react chemically,
and so to rise gradually in temperature, i.e. essentially by the
change of reaction-velocity with temperature. A second
entirely independent mode of propagation of the combustion
lies at the basis of the phenomenon that an explosive gas-mixture
can be ignited by strong compression or — more correctly — by
the rise of temperature thereby produced. The increase of the
concentrations of the reacting substances consequent upon this
increase of pressure raises the reaction-velocity in accordance
with the law of chemical mass-action, and so enormously favours
the rapid evolution of the heat of combustion.

It is therefore clear that such a powerful compresskm-wave
can not only initiate the combustion, but also propagate it with
extremely high velocity. Indeed a compression-wave of this
kind passes through the gas-mixture, heated by the combustion
to a very high temperature. It must, however, be propagated
considerably faster than an ordinary compression-wave, for
the result of ignition in the compressed (still unburnt) layer is
the production of a very high pressure, which must in accordance
with the principles of wave-motion increase the velocity of
propagation. The absolute velocity of the explosion-wave
would seem, in the light of these considerations, to be susceptible
of accurate calculation. It is at least clear that it must be
considerably higher than the velocity of sound in the mass of
gas strongly heated by the explosion, and this is confirmed by
actual measurements (see below) which show that the velocity
of the explosion-wave is from one and a half times to double
that of sound-waves at the combustion temperature.

We are now in a position to form the following picture of the
processes which follow upon the ignition of a combustible gas-
mixture contained in a long tube. First we have the condition
of slow combustion; the heat is conveyed by conduction to the

Velocity of Wave in

Reacting Mixture

Metres per second.

Berthelot.

Dixon.

Hydrogen

and oxygen,

H2+0 . .

2810

2821

Hydrogen and nitrous oxide,
Methane and oxygen,

H2+N20 .
CH4+4O .

2284 '
2287

2305
2322

Ethylene

M ,i

C2H4+6O.

22IO

2364

Acetylene

j, ii

C2H2+5O .

2482

2391

Cyanogen

M »t

C2N2+4O .

2195

2321

Hydrogen

and chlorine,

H2+CI2 .

1730

••

„

2H2+C12 .

1849

adjacent layers, and there follows a velocity of propagation of
a few metres per second. But since the combustion is accom-
panied by a high increase of pressure, the adjacent, still unburnt
layers are simultaneously compressed, whereby the reaction-
velocity increases, and the ignition proceeds faster. This
involves still greater compression of the next layers, and so if
the mixture be capable of sufficiently rapid combustion, the
velocity of propagation of the ignition must continually increase.
As soon as the compression in the still unburnt layers becomes
so great that spontaneous ignition results, the now much
more pronounced compression-waves excited with simultaneous
combustion must be propagated with very great velocity, i.e.
we have spontaneous development of an " explosion-wave."
M.P.E. Berthelot, who discovered the presence of such explosion-
waves, proved their velocity of propagation to be independent
of the pressure, the cross-section of the tubes in which the
explosive gas-mixture is contained, as well as of the material
of which these are made, and concluded that this velocity is a
constant, characteristic of the particular mixture. The deter-
mination of this velocity is naturally of the highest interest.

In the following table Berthelot's results are given along with
the later (1891) concordant ones of H. B. Dixon, the velocities
of propagation of explosions being given in metres per second.

The maximum pressure of the explosion-wave possesses very
high values; it appears that a compression of from i to 30-40
atmospheres is necessary to produce spontaneous ignition of
mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen. But since the heat evolved
in the path of the explosion causes a rise of temperature of
20oo°-300o°, i.e. a rise of absolute temperature about four
times that directly following upon the initial compression, we are
here concerned with pressures amounting to considerably more
than 100 atmospheres. Both the magnitude of this pressure
and the circumstance that it so suddenly arises are peculiar to
the very powerful forces which distinguish the explosion-wave
from the slow combustion-wave.

Nascent State. — The great reactive power of freshly formed
or nascent substances (status nascens) may be very simply
referred to the principles of mass-action. As is well known,
this phenomenon is specially striking in the case of hydrogen,
which may therefore be taken as a typical example. The law
of mass-action affirms the action of a substance to be the greater
the higher its concentration, or, for a gas, the higher its partial-
pressure. Now experience teaches that those metals which
liberate hydrogen from acids are able to supply the latter under
extremely high pressure, and we may therefore assume that the
hydrogen which results, for example, from the action of zinc
upon sulphuric acid is initially under very high pressures which
are then afterwards relieved. Hence the hydrogen during
liberation exhibits much more active powers of reduction than
the ordinary gas.

A deeper insight into the relations prevailing here is offered
from the atomistic point of view. From this we are bound to
conclude that the hydrogen is in the first instance evolved in
the form of free atoms, and since the velocity of the reaction
H+H=H2 at ordinary temperatures, though doubtless very
great, is not practically instantaneous, the freshly generated
hydrogen will contain a remnant of free atoms, which are able to
react both more actively and more rapidly. Similar considera-
tions are of course applicable to other cases.

Ion-reactions. — The application of the law of chemical mass-

CHEMICAL ACTION

action is much simplified in the case in which the reaction-
velocity is enormously great, when practically an instantaneous
adjustment of the equilibrium results. Only in this case can the
state of the system, which pertains after mixing the different
components, be determined merely from knowledge of the
equilibrium-constant. This case is realized in the reactions
between gases at very high temperatures, which have, however,
been little investigated, and especially by the reactions between
electrolytes, the so-called ion-reactions. In this latter case,
which has been thoroughly studied on account of its fundamental
importance for inorganic qualitative and quantitative analysis,
the degrees of dissociation of the various electrolytes (acids,
bases and salts) are for the most part easily determined by the
aid of the freezing-point apparatus, or of measurements of the
electric conductivity; and from these data the equilibrium-
constant K may be calculated. Moreover, it can be shown
that the state of the system can be determined when the equi-
librium constants of all the electrolytes which are present in the
common solution are known. If this be coupled with the law
that the solubility of solid substances, as with vapour-pressures,
is independent of the presence of other electrolytes, it is sufficient
to know the solubilities of the electrolytes in question, in order
to be able to determine which substances must participate in the
equilibrium in the solid state, i.e. we arrive at the theory of the
formation and solution of precipitates.

As an illustration of the application of these principles, we
shall deal with a problem of the doctrine of affinity, namely,
that of the relative strengths of acids and bases. It
was 1u'te an early an(i often repeated observation
and bases, that the various acids and bases take part with very
varying intensity or avidity in those reactions in
which their acid or basic nature comes into play. No success
attended the early attempts at giving numerical expression to
the strengths of acids and bases, i.e. of finding a numerical
coefficient for each acid and base, which should be the quantita-
tive expression of the degree of its participation in those specific
reactions characteristic of acids and bases respectively. Julius
Thomsen and W. Ostwald attacked the problem in a far-seeing
and comprehensive manner, and arrived at indisputable proof
that the property of acids and bases of exerting their effects
according to definite numerical coefficients finds expression not
only in salt-formation but also in a large number of other, and
indeed very miscellaneous, reactions.

When Ostwald compared the order of the strengths of acids
deduced from their competition for the same base, as determined
by Thomsen's thermo-chemical or his own volumetric method,
with that order in which the acids arrange themselves according
to their capacity to bring calcium oxalate into solution, or to
convert acetamide into ammonium acetate, or to split up
methyl acetate into methyl alcohol and acetic acid catalytically,
or to invert cane-sugar, or to accelerate the mutual action of
hydriodic on bromic acid, he found that in all these well-investi-
gated and very miscellaneous cases the same succession of acids
in the order of their strengths is obtained, whichever one of the
above chemical processes be chosen as measure of these strengths.
It is to be noticed that all these chemical changes cited took
place in dilute aqueous solution, consequently the above order
of acids refers only to the power to react under these circum-
stances. The order of acids proved to be fairly independent
of temperature. While therefore the above investigations
afforded a definite qualitative solution of the order of acids
according to strengths, the determination of the quantitative
relations offered great difficulties, and the numerical coefficients,
determined from the separate reactions, often displayed great
variations, though occasionally also surprising agreement.
Especially great were the variations of the coefficients with the
concentration, and in those cases in which the concentration
of the acid changed considerably during the reaction, the calcu-
lation was naturally quite uncertain. Similar relations were
found in the investigation of bases, the scope of which, however,
was much more limited.

These apparently rather complicated relations were now

cleared up at one stroke, by the application of the law of chemical
mass-action on the lines indicated by S. Arrhenius in 1887, when
he put forward the theory of electrolytic dissociation to explain
that peculiar behaviour of substances in aqueous solution first
recognized by van't Hoff in 1885. The formulae which must
be made use of here in the calculation of the equilibrium-relations
follow naturally by simple application of the law of mass-action
to the corresponding ion-concentrations.

The peculiarities which the behaviour of acids and bases
presents, and, according to the theory of Arrhenius, must
present — peculiarities which found expression in the very early
distinction between neutral solutions on the one hand, and acid
or basic ones on the other, as well as in the belief in a polar
antithesis between the two last — must now, in the light of the
theory of electrolytic dissociation, be conceived as follows: —

The reactions characteristic of acids in aqueous solution,
which are common to and can only be brought about by acids,
find their explanation in the fact that this class of bodies gives
rise on dissociation to a common molecular species, namely, the

positively charged hydrogen-ion (jj). The specific chemical

actions peculiar to acids are therefore to be attributed to the
hydrogen-ion just as the actions common to all chlorides are to
be regarded as those of the free chlorine-ions. In like manner,
the reactions characteristic of bases in solution are to be attri-
buted to the negatively charged hydroxyl-ions (QH)> wrlich
result from the dissociation of this class of bodies.

A solution has an acid reaction when it contains an excess of
hydrogen-ions, and a basic reaction when it contains an excess
of hydroxyl-ions. If an acid and an alkaline solution be brought
together mutual neutralization must result, since the positive
H-ions and the negative OH-ions cannot exist together in view
of the extremely weak conductivity of pure water and its conse-
quent slight electrolytic dissociation, and therefore they must at
once combine to form electrically neutral molecules, in the sense
of the equation + _

H+OH = H2O.

In this lies the simple explanation of the " polar " difference
between acid and basic solutions. This rests essentially upon the
fact that the ion peculiar to acids and the ion peculiar to bases
form the two constituents of water, i.e. of that solvent in which
we usually study the course of the reaction. The idea of the
" strength " of an acid or base at once arises. If we compare
equivalent solutions of various acids, the intensity of those
actions characteristic of them will be the greater the more free
hydrogen-ions they contain; this is an immediate consequence
of the law of chemical mass-action. The degree of electrolytic
dissociation determines, therefore, the strength of acids, and a
similar consideration leads to the same result for bases.

Now the degree of electrolytic dissociation changes with
concentration in a regular manner, which is given by the law of
mass-action. For if C denote the concentration of the electrolyte
and a its degree of dissociation, the above law states that

CV/C(i -a) =Ca2/(i -a) =K.

At very great dilutions the dissociation is complete, and equiva-
lent solutions of the most various acids then contain the same
number of hydrogen-ions, or, in other words, are equally strong;
and the same is true of the hydroxyl-ions of bases. The dis-
sociation also decreases with increasing concentration, but at
different rates for different substances, and the relative
" strengths " of acids and bases must hence change with concen-
tration, as was indeed found experimentally. The dissociation-
constant K is the measure of the variation of the degree of
dissociation with concentration, and must therefore be regarded
as the measure of the strengths of acids and bases. So that in
this special case we are again brought to the result which was
stated in general terms above, viz. that the dissociation-coefficient
forms the measure of the reactivity of a dissolved electrolyte.
Ostwald's series of acids, based upon the investigation of the
most various reactions, should therefore correspond with the
order of their dissociation-constants, and further with the

CHEMICAL ACTION

order of their freezing-point depressions in equivalent solutions,
since the depression of the freezing-point increases with the
degree of electrolytic dissociation. Experience confirms this
conclusion completely. The degree of dissociation of an acid,
at a given concentration, for which its molecular conductivity
is A, is shown by the theory of electrolytic dissociation to be
a=A/A.; A», the molecular conductivity at very great dilu-
tion in accordance with the law of Kohlrausch, is «+», where
a and v are the ionic-mobilities (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC).
Since u, the ionic-mobility of the hydrogen ion, is generally
more than ten times as great as v, the ionic-mobility of the
negative acid-radical, A«, has approximately the same value
(generally within less than 10%) for the different acids, and the
molecular-conductivity of the acids in equivalent concentration
is at least approximately porportional to the degree of electrolytic
dissociation, i.e. to the strength.

In general, therefore, the order of conductivities is identical
with that in which the acids exert their specific powers. This
remarkable parallelism, first perceived by Arrhenius and Ostwald
in 1885, was the happy development which led to the discovery
of electrolytic dissociation (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC; and
SOLUTION).

Catalysis. — We have already mentioned the fact, early known
to chemists, that many reactions proceed with a marked increase
of velocity in presence of many foreign substances. With
Berzelius we call this phenomenon " catalysis," by which we
understand that general acceleration of reactions which also
progress when left to themselves, in the presence of certain
bodies which do not change in amount (or only slightly) during
the course of the reaction. Acids and bases appear to act
catalytically upon all reactions involving consumption or
liberation of water, and indeed that action is proportional to the
concentration of the hydrogen or hydroxyl-ions. Further, the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is " catalysed " by iodine-
ions, the condensation of two molecules of benzaldehyde to
benzoin by cyanogen-ions. One of the earliest known and
technically most important instances of catalysis is that of the
oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid by oxygen in the
presence of oxides of nitrogen. Other well-known and remark-
able examples are the catalysis of the combustion of hydrogen
and of sulphur dioxide in oxygen by finely-divided platinum.
We may also mention the interesting work of Dixon and Baker,
which led to the discovery that a large number of gas-reactions,
e.g. the combustion of carbon monoxide, the dissociation of
sal-ammoniac vapour, and the action of sulphuretted hydrogen
upon the salts of heavy metals, cease when water-vapour is
absent, or at least proceed with greatly diminished velocity.

"Negative catalysis," i.e. the retardation of a reaction by
addition of some substance, which is occasionally observed,
appears to depend upon the destruction of a " positive catalyte "
by the body added.

A catalyte can have no influence, however, upon the affinity
of a process, since that would be contrary to the second law of
thermodynamics, according to which affinity of an isothermal
process, which is measured by the maximum work, only depends
upon the initial and final states. The effect of a catalyte is
therefore limited to the resistances opposing the progress of a
reaction, and does not influence its driving-force or affinity.
Since the catalyte takes no part in the reaction its presence has
no effect on the equilibrium-constant. This, in accordance
with the law of mass-action, is the ratio of the separate reaction-
velocities in the two contrary directions. A catalyte must
therefore always accelerate the reverse-reaction. If the velocity
of formation of a body be increased by addition of some substance
then its velocity of decomposition must likewise increase. We
have an example of this in the well-known fact that the formation,
and no less the saponification, of esters, proceeds with increased
velocity in the presence of acids, while the observation that in
absence of water-vapour neither gaseous ammonium chloride
dissociates nor dry ammonia combines with hydrogen chloride
becomes clear on the same grounds.

A general theory of catalytic phenomena does not at present

exist. The formation of intermediate products by the action
of the reacting substance upon the catalyte has often been
thought to be the cause of these. These intervening products,
whose existence in many cases has been proved, then split up
into the catalyte and the reaction-product. Thus chemists
have sought to ascribe the influence of oxides of nitrogen on the
formation of sulphuric acid to the initial formation of nitrosyl-
sulphuric acid, SO2(OH)(NO2), from the mixture of sulphur
dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and air, which then reacted with water
to form sulphuric and nitrous acids. When the velocity of such
intermediate reactions is greater than that of the total change,
such an explanation may suffice, but a more certain proof of this
theory of catalysis has only been reached in a few cases, though
in many others it appears very plausible. Hence it is hardly
possible to interpret all catalytic processes on these lines.

In regard to catalysis in heterogeneous systems, especially
the hastening of gas-reactions by platinum, it is very probable
that it is closely connected with the solution or absorption of the
gases on the part of the metal. From the experiments of G.
Bredig it seems that colloidal solutions of a metal act like the
metal itself. The action of a colloidal-platinum solution on the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is still sensible even at a
dilution of 1/70,000,000 grm.-mol. per litre; indeed the activity
of this colloidal-platinum solution calls to mind in many ways
that of organic ferments, hence Bredig has called it an " inorganic
ferment." This analogy is especially striking in the change of
their activity with time and temperature, and in the possibility,
by means of bodies like sulphuretted hydrogen, hydrocyanic
acid, &c., which act as strong poisons upon the latter, of "poison-
ing " the former also, i.e. of rendering it inactive. In the case
of the catalytic action of water-vapour upon many processes
of combustion already mentioned, a part of the effect is prob-
ably due to the circumstance, disclosed by numerous experi-
ments, that the union of hydrogen and oxygen proceeds,
between certain temperature limits at least, after the equation
H2 + O2 = H2O2, that is, with the preliminary formation of
hydrogen peroxide, which then breaks down into water and
oxygen, and further, above all, to the fact that this substance
results from oxygen and water at high temperatures with great
velocity, though indeed only in small quantities.

The view now suggests itself, that, for example, in the com-
bustion of carbon monoxide at moderately high temperatures,
the reaction

(I.) 2CO+02=2C02

advances with imperceptible speed, but that on the contrary the
two stages

(II.) 2H2O+O*=2H202,

(III.) 2CO+2H202=2CO2+2H2O,

which together result in (I.), proceed rapidly even at moderate
temperatures.

Temperature and Reaction-Velocity. — There are few natural
constants which undergo so marked a change with temperature
as those of the velocities of chemical changes. As a rule a rise
of temperature of 10° causes a twofold or threefold rise of
reaction-velocity.

If the reaction-coefficient k, in the sense of the equation
derived above, viz. k = t~l Idg \a/(a-x)\, be determined for the
inversion of cane-sugar by an acid of given co'ncentration, the
following values are obtained: —

Temperature = 25° 40° 45° 50° 55°
k =9.7 73 139 268 491;

here a rise of temperature of only 30° suffices to raise the speed of
inversion fifty times.

We possess no adequate explanation of this remarkable
temperature influence; but some account of it is given by the
molecular theory, according to which the energy of that motion
of substances in homogeneous gaseous or liquid systems which
constitutes heat increases with the temperature, and hence also
the frequency of collision of the reacting substances. When we
reflect that the velocity of motion of the molecules of gases, and
in all probability those of liquids also, are proportional to the
square root of the absolute temperature, and therefore rise by

CHEMICAL ACTION

only J% per degree at room-temperature, and that we must
assume the number of collisions proportional to the velocity of
the molecules, we cannot regard the actually observed increase
of reaction-velocity, which often amounts to 10 or 12 % per degree,
as exclusively due to the quickening of the molecular motion by
heat. It is more probable that the increase of the kinetic energy
of the atomic motions within the molecule itself is of significance
here, as the rise of the specific heat of gases with temperature
seems to show. The change of the reaction-coefficient k with
temperature may be represented by the empirical equation
log k= -AT"1 + B + CT, where A, B, C are positive constants.
For low temperatures the influence of the last term is as a
rule negligible, whilst for high temperatures the first term on the
right side plays a vanishingly small part.

Definition of Chemical Affinity. — We have still to discuss the
question of what is to be regarded as the measure of chemical
affinity. Since we are not in a position to measure directly the
intensity of chemical forces, the idea suggests itself to determine
the strength of chemical affinity from the amount of the work
which the corresponding reaction is able to do. To a certain
extent the evolution of heat accompanying the reaction is a
measure of this work, and attempts have been made to measure
chemical affinities thermo-chemically, though it may be easily
shown that this definition was not well chosen. For when, as is
clearly most convenient, affinity is so defined that it determines
under all circumstances the direction of chemical change, the
above definition fails in so far as chemical processes often take
place with absorption of heat, that is, contrary to affinities so
defined. But even in those cases in which the course of the
reaction at first proceeds in the sense of the evolution of heat,
it is often observed that the reaction advances not to com-
pletion but to a certain equilibrium, or, in other words, stops
before the evolution of heat is complete.

A definition free from this objection is supplied by the second
law of thermodynamics, in accordance with which all processes
must take place in so far as they are able to do external work.
When therefore we identify chemical affinity with the maximum
work which can be gained from the process in question, we reach
such a definition that the direction of the process is under all
conditions determined by the affinity. Further, this definition
has proved serviceable in so far as the maximum work in many
cases may be experimentally measured, and moreover it stands
in a simple relation to the equilibrium constant K. Thermo-
dynamics teaches that the maximum work A may be expressed
as A = RT log K, when R denotes the gas-constant, T the absolute
temperature. In this it is further assumed that both the mole-
cular species produced as well as those that disappear are present
in unit concentration. The simplest experimental method of
directly determining chemical affinity consists in the measure-
ment of electromotive force. The latter at once gives us the work
which can be gained when the corresponding galvanic element
supplies the electricity, and, since the chemical exchange of one
gram-equivalent from Faraday's law requires 96,540 coulombs,
we obtain from the product of this number and the electromotive
force the work per gram-equivalent in watt-seconds, and this
quantity when multiplied by 0-23872 is obtained in terms of the
usual unit, the gram-calorie. Experience teaches that, especially
when we have to deal with strong affinities, the affinity so deter-
mined is"_for the most part almost the same as the heat-evolution,
whilst in the case in which only solid or liquid substances in the
pure state take part in the reaction at low temperatures, heat-
evolution and affinity appear to possess a practically identical
value.

Hence it seems possible to calculate equilibria for low tem-
peratures from heats of reaction, by the aid of the two equations

A = Q, A = RTlogK;

and since the change of A with temperature, as required by the
principles of thermodynamics, follows from the specific heats of
the reacting substances, it seems further possible to calculate
chemical equilibria from heats of reaction and specific heats.
The circumstance that chemical affinity and heat-evolution
so nearly coincide at low temperatures may be derived from the

hypothesis that chemical processes are the result of forces of
attraction between the atoms of the different elements. If we
may disregard the kinetic energy of the atoms, and this is
legitimate for low temperatures, it follows that both heat-evolu-
tion and chemical affinity are merely equal to the decrease of the
potential energy of the above-mentioned forces, and it is at once
clear that the evolution of heat during a reaction between only
pure solid or pure liquid substances possesses special importance.

More complicated is the case in which gases or dissolved sub-
stances take part. This is simplified if we first consider the
mixing of two mutually chemically indifferent gases. Thermo-
dynamics teaches that external work may be gained by the mere
mixing of two such gases (see DIFFUSION), and these amounts of
work, which assume very considerable proportions at high
temperatures, naturally afreet the value of the maximum work
and so also of the affinity, in that they always come into play
when gases or solutions react. While therefore we regard as
chemical affinity in the strictest sense the decrease of potential
energy of the forces acting between the atoms, it is clear that the
quantities here involved exhibit the simplest relations under the
experimental conditions just given, for when only substances
in a pure state take part in a reaction, all mixing of different
kinds of molecules is excluded; moreover, the circumstance
that the respective substances are considered at very low tempera-
tures reduces the quantities of energy absorbed as kinetic
energy by their molecules to the smallest possible amount.

Chemical Resistance. — When we know the chemical affinity of
a reaction, we are in a position to decide in which direction the
process must advance, but, unless we know the reaction- velocity
also, we can in many cases say nothing as to whether or not the
reaction in question will progress with a practically inappreciable
velocity so that apparent chemical indifference is the result.
This question may be stated in the light of the law of mass-
action briefly as follows: — From a knowledge of the chemical
affinity we can calculate the equilibrium, i.e. the numerical
value of the constant K = k/k'; but to be completely informed
of the process we must know not only the ratio of the two
velocity-constants k and k', but also the separate absolute values
of the same.

In many respects the following view is more comprehensive,
though naturally in harmony with the one just expressed.
Since the chemical equilibrium is periodically attained, it follows
that, as in the case of the motion of a body or of the diffusion of
a dissolved substance, it must be opposed by very great friction.
In all these cases the velocity of the process at every instant is
directly proportional to the driving-force and inversely pro-
portional to the frictional resistance. We hence arrive at the
result that an equation of the form

reaction-velocity = chemical force/chemical resistance
must also hold for chemical change; here we have an analogy
with Ohm's law. The " chemical force " at every instant may
be calculated from the maximum work (affinity); as yet little
is known about " chemical resistance," but it is not improbable
that it may be directly measured or theoretically deduced.
The problem of the calculation of chemical reaction-velocity in
absolute measure would then be solved; so far we possess indeed
only a few general facts concerning the magnitude of chemical
resistance. It is immeasurably small at ordinary temperatures
for ion-reactions, and, on the other hand, fairly large for nearly all
reactions in which carbon-bonds must be loosened (so-called
" inertia of the carbon-bond ") and possesses very high values
for most gas-reactions also. With rising temperature it always
strongly diminishes; on the other hand, at very low tempera-
tures its values are always enormous, and at the absolute zero
of temperature may be infinitely great. Therefore at that
temperature all reactions cease, since the denominator in the
above expression assumes enormous values.

It is a very remarkable phenomenon that the chemical resist-
ance is often small in the case of precisely those reactions in
which the affinity is also small; to this circumstance is to be
traced the fact that in many chemical changes the most stable
condition is not at once reached, but is preceded by the formation

CHEMISTRY

33

of more or less unstable intermediate products. Thus the un-
stable ozone is very often first formed on the evolution of oxygen,
whilst in the reaction between oxygen and hydrogen water is
often not at once formed, but first the unstable hydrogen
peroxide as an intermediate product.

Let us now consider the chemical process in the light of the
equation

reaction-velocity = chemical force/ chemical resistance.

Thermodynamics shows that at very low temperatures, i.e.
in the immediate vicinity of the absolute zero, there is no
equilibrium, but every chemical process advances to completion
in the one or the other direction. The chemical forces therefore
act in the one direction towards complete consumption of the
reacting substance. But since the chemical resistance is now
immensely great, they can produce practically no appreciable
result.

At higher temperatures the reaction always proceeds, at least
in homogeneous systems, to a certain equilibrium, and as the
chemical resistance now has finite values this equilibrium will
always finally be reached after a longer or shorter time. Finally,
at very high temperatures the chemical resistance is in every case
very small, and the equilibrium is almost instantaneously
reached ; at the same time, the affinity of the reaction, as in the
case of the mutual affinity between oxygen and hydrogen, may
very strongly diminish, and we have then chemical indifference
again, not because, as at low temperatures, the denominator
of the previous expression becomes very great, but because the
numerator now assumes vanishingly small values. (W. N.)

CHEMISTRY (formerly " chymistry " ; Gr. \vntLa; for deri-
vation see ALCHEMY), the natural science which has for its pro-
vince the study of the composition of substances. In common
with physics it includes the determination of properties or
characters which serve to distinguish one substance from another,
but while the physicist is concerned with properties possessed by
all substances and with processes in which the molecules remain
intact, the chemist is restricted to those processes in which the
molecules undergo some change. For example, the physicist
determines the density, elasticity, hardness, electrical and
thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, &c.; the chemist,
on the other hand, investigates changes in composition, such as
may be effected by an electric current, by heat, or when two or
more substances are mixed. A further differentiation of the
provinces of chemistry and physics is shown by the classifications
of matter. To the physicist matter is presented in three leading
forms — solids, liquids and gases; and although further sub-
divisions have been rendered necessary with the growth of
knowledge the same principle is retained, namely, a classification
based on properties having no relation to composition. The
fundamental chemical classification of matter, on the other
hand, recognizes two groups of substances, namely, elements,
which are substances not admitting of analysis into other
substances, and compounds, which do admit of analysis into
simpler substances and also of synthesis from simpler substances.
Chemistry and physics, however, meet on common ground in
a well-defined branch of science, named physical chemistry,
which is primarily concerned with the correlation of physical
properties and chemical composition, and, more generally,
with the elucidation of natural phenomena on the molecular
theory.

It may be convenient here to state how the whole subject of
chemistry is treated in this edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The present article includes the following sections : —

I. History. — This section is confined to tracing the general trend
of the science from its infancy to the foundations of the modern
theory. The history of the alchemical period is treated in more
detail in the article ALCHEMY, and of the latrochemical in the article
MEDICINE. The evolution of the notion of elements is treated under
ELEMENT; the molecular hypothesis of matter under MOLECULE;
and the genesis of, and deductions from, the atomic theory of
Dalton receive detailed analysis in the article ATOM.

II. Principles. — This section treats of such subjects as nomen-
clature, formulae, chemical equations, chemical change and similar
subjects. It is intended to provide an introduction, necessarily
brief, to the terminology and machinery of the chemist.

VI. 2

III. Inorganic Chemistry.— Here is treated'the history of descrip-
tive inorganic chemistry; reference should be made to the articles
on the separate elements for an account of their preparation,
properties, &c.

IV. Organic Chemistry. — This section includes a brief history of
the subject, and proceeds to treat of the principles underlying the
structure and interrelations of organic compounds.

V. Analytical Chemistry. — This section treats of the qualitative
detection and separation of the metals, and the commoner methods
employed in quantitative analysis. The analysis of organic com-
pounds is also noticed.

VI. Physical Chemistry. — This section is restricted to an account
of the relations existing between physical properties and chemical
composition. Other branches of this subject are treated in the
articles CHEMICAL ACTION; ENERGETICS; SOLUTION; ALLOYS;
THERMOCHEMISTRY.

I. HISTORY

Although chemical actions must have been observed by man
in the most remote times, and also utilized in such processes
as the extraction of metals from their ores and in the arts of
tanning and dyeing, there is no evidence to show that, beyond
an unordered accumulation of facts, the early developments of
these industries were attended by any real knowledge of the
nature of the processes involved. All observations were the
result of accident or chance, or possibly in some cases of experi-
mental trial, but there is no record of a theory or even a general
classification of the phenomena involved, although there is no
doubt that the ancients had a fair knowledge of the properties
and uses of the commoner substances. The origin of chemistry
is intimately bound up with the arts which we have, indicated;
in this respect it is essentially an experimental science. A
unifying principle of chemical and physical changes wa? provided
by metaphysical conceptions of the structure of matter. We
find the notion of " elements," or primary qualities, which
confer upon all species of matter their distinctive qualities by
appropriate combination, and also the doctrine that
matter is composed of minute discrete particles,
prevailing in the Greek schools. These " elements," sophy.
however, had not the significance of the elements of
to-day; the connoted physical appearances or qualities rather
than chemical relations; and the atomic theory of the ancients
is a speculation based upon metaphysical considerations, having,
in its origin, nothing in common with the modern molecular
theory, which was based upon experimentally observed properties
of gases (see ELEMENT; MOLECULE).

Although such hypotheses could contribute nothing directly
to the development of a science which laid especial claim to
experimental investigations, yet indirectly they stimulated
inquiry into the nature of the " essence " with which the four
elements " were associated. This quinta essenlia had been
speculated upon by the Greeks, some regarding it as immaterial
or aethereal, and others as material; and a school of philosophers
termed alchemists arose who attempted the isolation of this
essence. The existence of a fundamental principle, unalterable
and indestructible, prevailing alike through physical and chemical
changes, was generally accepted. Any change which a substance
may chance to undergo was simply due to the discarding or
taking up of some proportion of the primary " elements " or
qualities: of these coverings " water," " air," " earth " and
" fire " were regarded as clinging most tenaciously to the essence,
while " cold," " heat," " moistness " and " dryness " were
more easily cast aside or assumed. Several origins have been
suggested for the word alchemy, and there seems to Alchemy
have been some doubt as to the exact nature and
import of the alchemical doctrines. According to M. P. E.
Berthelot, " alchemy rested partly on the industrial processes
of the ancient Egyptians, partly on the speculative theories
of the Greek philosophers, and partly on the mystical reveries
of the Gnostics and Alexandrians." The search for this essence
subsequently resolved itself into the desire to effect the trans-
mutation of metals, more especially the base metals, into silver
and gold. It seems that this secondary principle became the
dominant idea in alchemy, and in this sense the word is used
in Byzantine literature of the 4th century; Suidas, writing in

34

CHEMISTRY

[HISTORY

the nth century, defines chemistry as the " preparation of
silver and gold " (see ALCHEMY).

From the Alexandrians the science passed to the Arabs,
who made discoveries and improved various methods of separat-
ing substances, and afterwards, from the nth century, became
seated in Europe, where the alchemical doctrines were assidu-
ously studied until the I5th and i6th centuries. It is readily
understood why men imbued with the authority of tradition
should prosecute the search for a substance which would
confer unlimited wealth upon the fortunate discoverer. Some
alchemists honestly laboured to effect the transmutation and to
discover the " philosopher's stone," and in many cases believed
that they had achieved success, if we may rely upon writings
assigned to them. The period, however, is one of literary
forgeries; most of the MSS. are of uncertain date and authorship,
and moreover are often so vague and mystical that they are of
doubtful scientific value, beyond reflecting the tendencies of
the age. The retaining of alchemists at various courts shows
the high opinion which the doctrines had gained. It is really
not extraordinary that Isaac Hollandus was able to indicate
the method of the preparation of the " philosopher's stone "
from " adamic " or " virgin " earth, and its action when medicin-
ally employed; that in the writings assigned to Roger Bacon,
Raimon Lull, Basil Valentine and others are to be found the
exact quantities of it to be used in transmutation; and that
George Ripley, in the isth century, had grounds for regarding
its action as similar to that of a ferment.

In the view of some alchemists, the ultimate principles of
matter were Aristotle's four elements; the proximate constituents
were a " sulphur " and a " mercury," the father and mother
of the metals; gold was supposed to have attained to the
perfection of its nature by passing in succession through the
forms of lead, brass and silver; gold and silver were held to
contain very pure red sulphur and white quicksilver, whereas
in the other metals these materials were coarser and of a different
colour. From an analogy instituted between the healthy human
being and gold, the most perfect of the metals, silver, mercury,
copper, iron, lead and tin, were regarded in the light of lepers
that required to be healed.

Notwithstanding the false idea which prompted the researches
of the alchemists, many advances were made in descriptive
latro- chemistry, the metals and their salts receiving much
chemistry, attention, and several of our important acids being
discovered. Towards the i6th century the failure
of the alchemists to achieve their cherished purpose, and the
general increase of medical knowledge, caused attention to be
given to the utilization of chemical preparations as medicines.
As early as the isth century the alchemist Basil Valentine had
suggested this application, but the great exponent of this
doctrine was Paracelsus, who set up a new definition: "The
true use of chemistry is not to make gold but to prepare medi-
cines." This relation of chemistry to medicine prevailed until
the 1 7th century, and what in the history of chemistry is termed
the iatrochemical period (see MEDICINE) was mainly fruitful
in increasing the knowledge of compounds; the contributions
to chemical theory are of little value, the most important con-
troversies ranging over the nature of the " elements," which were
generally akin to those of Aristotle, modified so as to be more
in accord with current observations. At the same time,
however, there were many who, opposed to the Paracelsian
definition of chemistry, still laboured at the problem of the
alchemists, while others gave much attention to the chemical
industries. Metallurgical operations, such as smelting, roasting
and refining, were scientifically investigated, and in some degree
explained, by Georg Agricola and Carlo Biringuiccio; ceramics
was studied by Bernard Palissy, who is also to be remembered as
an early worker in agricultural chemistry, having made experi-
ments on the effect of manures on soils and crops; while general
technical chemistry was enriched by Johann Rudolf Glauber.1

1 The more notable chemists of this period were Turquet de
Mayerne(i573-i665), a physician of Paris.who rejected the Galenian
doctrines and accepted the exaggerations of Paracelsus ; Andreas

The second half of the I7th century witnessed remarkable
transitions and developments in all branches of natural science,
and the facts accumulated by preceding generations
during their generally unordered researches were re-
placed by a co-ordination of- experiment and deduction. From
the mazy and incoherent alchemical and iatrochemical doctrines,
the former based on false conceptions of matter, the latter on
erroneous views of life processes and physiology, a new science
arose — the study of the composition of substances. The formula-
tion of this definition of chemistry was due to Robert Boyle.
In his Sceptical Chemist (1662) he freely criticized the prevailing
scientific views and methods, with the object of showing that
true knowledge could only be gained by the logical application
of the principles of experiment and deduction. Boyle's masterly
exposition of this method is his most important contribution to
scientific progress. At the same time he clarified the conception
of elements and compounds, rejecting the older notions, the
four elements of the " vulgar Peripateticks " and the three
principles of the " vulgar Stagyrists," and defining an element
as a substance incapable of decomposition, and a compound
as composed of two or more elements. He explained chemical
combination on the hypotheses that matter consisted of minute
corpuscles, that by the coalescence of corpuscles of different sub-
stances distinctly new corpuscles of a compound were formed, and
that each corpuscle had a certain affinity for other corpuscles.

Although Boyle practised the methods which he expounded,
he was unable to gain general acceptance of his doctrine of
elements; and, strangely enough, the theory which
next dominated chemical thought was an alchemical
invention, and lacked the lucidity and perspicuity
of Boyle's views. This theory, named the phlogistic theory,
was primarily based upon certain experiments on combustion
and calcination, and in effect reduced the number of -the
alchemical principles, while setting up a new one, a principle
of combustibility, named phlogiston (from ^Xoyurros, burnt).
Much discussion had centred about fire or the "igneous principle."
On the one hand, it had been held that when a substance was
burned or calcined, it combined with an '.'air"; on the other
hand, the operation was supposed to be attended by the destruc-
tion or loss of the igneous principle. Georg Ernst Stahl, following
in some measure the views held by Johann Joachim Becher, as,
for instance, that all combustibles contain a " sulphur " (which
notion is itself of older date than Becher's terra pinguis), regarded
all substances as capable of resolution into two components,
the inflammable principle phlogiston, and another element —
" water," " acid " or " earth." The violence or completeness
of combustion was proportional to the amount of phlogiston
present. Combustion meant the liberation of phlogiston.
Metals on calcination gave calces from which the metals could
be recovered by adding phlogiston, and experiment showed that
this could generally be effected by the action of coal or carbon,
which was therefore regarded as practically pure phlogiston;
the other constituent being regarded as an acid. At the hands
of Stahl and his school, the phlogistic theory, by exhibiting a
fundamental similarity between all processes of combustion
and by its remarkable flexibility, came to be a general theory
of chemical action. The objections of the antiphlogistonists,
such as the fact that calces weigh more than the original metals
instead of less as the theory suggests, were answered by postulat-
ing that phlogiston was a principle of levity, or even completely
ignored as an accident, the change of qualities being regarded
as the only matter of importance. It is remarkable that this
theory should have gained the esteem of the notable chemists
who flourished in the i8th century. Henry Cavendish, a care-
ful and accurate experimenter, was a phlogistonist, as were
J. Black, K. W. Scheele, A. S. Marggraf, J. Priestley and many
others who might be mentioned.

Libayius (d. 1616), chiefly famous for his Opera Omnia Medico-
chymica (1595) ; Jean Baptiste van Helmont (1577-1644), celebrated
for his researches on gases ; F. de la Boe Sylvius (1614-1672), who
regarded medicine as applied chemistry; and Otto Tachenius, who
elucidated the nature of salts.

HISTORY]

CHEMISTRY

35

Descriptive chemistry was now assuming considerable pro-
portions; the experimental inquiries suggested by Boyle were
being assiduously developed; and a wealth of observa-
tions was being accumulated, for the explanation of
which the resources of the dominant theory were sorely taxed.
To quote Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, "... chemists have
turned phlogiston into a vague principle, . . . which conse-
quently adapts itself to all the explanations for which it may be
required. Sometimes this principle has weight, and sometimes
it has not; sometimes it is free fire and sometimes it is fire
combined with the earthy element; sometimes it passes through
the pores of vessels, sometimes these are impervious to it; it
explains both causticity and non-causticity, transparency and
opacity, colours and their absence; it is a veritable Proteus
changing in form at each instant." Lavoisier may be justly
regarded as the founder of modern or quantitative chemistry.
First and foremost, he demanded that the balance must be used
in all investigations into chemical changes. He established as
fundamental that combustion and calcination were attended
by an increase of weight, and concluded, as did Jean Rey and
John Mayow in the lyth century, that the increase was due to
the combination of the metal with the air. The problem could
obviously be completely solved only when the composition of the
air, and the parts played by its components, had been determined.
At all times the air had received attention, especially since van
Helmont made his far-reaching investigations on gases. Mayow
had suggested the existence of two components, a spiritus nitro-
aerus which supported combustion, and a spirilus nitri acidi
which extinguished fire; J. Priestley and K. W. Scheele,
although they isolated oxygen, were fogged by the phlogistic
tenets; . and H. Cavendish, who had isolated the nitrogen
of the atmosphere, had failed to decide conclusively what
had really happened to the air which disappeared during
combustion.

Lavoisier adequately recognized and acknowledged how
much he owed to the researches of others; to himself is due
the co-ordination of these researches, and the welding of his
results into a doctrine to which the phlogistic theory ultimately
succumbed. He burned phosphorus in air standing over
mercury, and showed that (i) there was a limit to the amount
of phosphorus which could be burned in the confined air, (2)
that when no more phosphorus could be burned, one-fifth of the
air had disappeared, (3) that the weight of the air lost was nearly
equal to the difference in the weights of the white solid produced
and the phosphorus burned, (4) that the density of the residual
air was less than that of ordinary air. The same results were
obtained with lead and tin; and a more elaborate repetition
indubitably established their correctness. He also showed that
on heating mercury calx alone an " air " was liberated which
differed from other " airs," and was slightly heavier than ordinary
air; moreover, the weight of the " air " set free from a given
weight of the calx was equal to the weight taken up in forming
the calx from mercury, and if the calx be heated with charcoal,
the metal was recovered and a gas named " fixed air," the modern
carbon dioxide, was formed. The former experiment had been
performed by Scheele and Priestley, who had named the gas
" phlogisticated air "; Lavoisier subsequently named it oxygen,
regarding it as the " acid producer " (6£{js, sour). The theory
advocated by Lavoisier came to displace the phlogistic concep-
tion; but at first its acceptance was slow. Chemical literature
was full of the phlogistic modes of expression — oxygen was
" dephlogisticated air," nitrogen " phlogisticated air," &c. —
and this tended to retard its promotion. Yet really the transition
from the one theory to the other was simple, it being only
necessary to change the " addition or loss of phlogiston " into
the " loss or addition of oxygen." By his insistence upon the
use of the balance as a quantitative check upon the masses
involved in all chemical reactions, Lavoisier was enabled to
establish by his own investigations and the results achieved
by others the principle now known as the " conservation of
mass." Matter can neither be created nor destroyed; however
a chemical system be changed, the weights before and after are

equal.1 To him is also due a rigorous examination of the nature
of elements and compounds; he held the same views that were
laid down by Boyle, and with the same prophetic foresight
predicted that some of the elements which he himself accepted
might be eventually found to be compounds.

It is unnecessary in this place to recapitulate the many
results which had accumulated by the end of the i8th century,
or to discuss the labours and theories of individual workers
since these receive attention under biographical headings;
in this article only the salient features in the history of our
science can be treated. The beginning of the igth century
was attended by far-reaching discoveries in the nature of the
composition of compounds. Investigations proceeded in two
directions: — (i) the nature of chemical affinity, (2) the laws
of chemical combination. The first question has not
yet been solved, although it has been speculated upon
from the earliest times. The alchemists explained
chemical action by means of such phrases as " like attracts
like," substances being said to combine when one " loved "
the other, and the reverse when it " hated " it. Boyle rejected
this terminology, which was only strictly applicable to intelligent
beings; and he used the word " affinity " as had been previously
done by Stahl and others. The modern sense of the word, viz.
the force which holds chemically dissimilar substances together
(and also similar substances as is seen in di-, tri-, and poly-atomic
molecules), was introduced by Hermann Boerhaave, and made
more precise by Sir Isaac Newton. The laws of chemical com-
bination were solved, in a measure, by John Dalton, and the
solution expressed as Dalton's " atomic theory." Lavoisier
appears to have assumed that the composition of every chemical
compound was constant, and the same opinion was the basis
of much experimental inquiry at the hands of Joseph Louis
Proust during 1801 to i8ot), who vigorously combated the
doctrine of Claude Louis Berthollet (Essai de statique chimique,
1803), viz. that fixed proportions of elements and compounds
combine only under exceptional conditions, the general rule
being that the composition of a compound may vary continuously
between certain limits.2

This controversy was unfinished when Dalton published the
first part of his New System of Chemical Philosophy in 1808,
although the per saltum theory was the most popular. Dalton
Led thereto by speculations on gases, Dalton assumed
that matter was composed of atoms, that in the elements the
atoms were simple, and in compounds complex, being composed
of elementary atoms. Dalton furthermore perceived that the
same two elements or substances may combine in different
proportions, and showed that these proportions had always a
simple ratio to one another. This is the " law of multiple
proportions." He laid down the following arbitrary rules for
determining the number of atoms in a compound: — if only one
compound of two elements exists, it is a binary compound and
its atom is composed of one atom of each element; if two
compounds exist one is binary (say A + B) and the other ternary
(say A + 2B) ; if three, then one is binary and the others may be
ternary (A + 2B,and2A + B),andsoon. More important is his
deduction of equivalent weights, i.e. the relative weights of
atoms. He took hydrogen, the lightest substance known, to
be the standard. From analyses of water, which he regarded'
as composed of one atom of hydrogen and one of oxygen, he

1 This dictum was questioned by the researches of H. Land oh ,
A. Heydweiller and others. In a series of 75 reactions it was found
that in 61 there was apparently a diminution in weight, but in 1908,
after a most careful repetition and making allowance for all experi-
mental errors, Landolt concluded that no change occurred (see
ELEMENT).

2 The theory of Berthollet was essentially mechanical, and he
attempted to prove that the course of a reaction depended not on
affinities alone but also on the masses of the reacting components.
In this respect his hypothesis has much in common with the " law
of mass-action " developed at a much later date by the Swedish
chemists Guldberg and Waage, and the American, Willard Gibbs
(see CHEMICAL ACTION). In his classical thesis Berthollet vigorously
attacked the results deduced by Bergman, who had followed in his
table of elective attractions the path traversed by Stahl and S. F.
Geoff roy.

CHEMISTRY

[HISTORY

deduced the relative weight of the oxygen atom to be 6-5;
from marsh gas and olefiant gas he deduced carbon = 5, there
being one atom of carbon and two of hydrogen in the former
and one atom of hydrogen to one of carbon in the latter;
nitrogen had an equivalent of 5, and so on.1

The value of Dalton's generalizations can hardly be over-
estimated, notwithstanding the fact that in several cases they
needed correction. The first step in this direction was effected
by the co-ordination of Gay Lussac's observations on the
combining volumes of gases. He discovered that gases always
combined in volumes having simple ratios, and that the volume
of the product had a simple ratio to the volumes of the reacting
gases. For example, one volume of oxygen combined with two
of hydrogen to form two volumes of steam, three volumes of
hydrogen combined with one of nitrogen to give two volumes
of ammonia, one volume of hydrogen combined with one of
chlorine to give two volumes of hydrochloric acid. An immediate
inference was that the Daltonian " atom " must have parts
which enter into combination with parts of other atoms; in
other words, there must exist two orders of particles, viz. (i)
particles derived by limiting mechanical subdivision, the modern
molecule, and (2) particles derived from the first class by chemical
subdivision, i.e. particles which are incapable of existing alone,
but may exist in combination. Additional evidence as to the
structure of the molecule was discussed by Avogadro in 1811,
and by Ampere in 1814. From the gas-laws of Boyle and J. A. C.
Charles — viz. equal changes in temperature and pressure
occasion equal changes in equal volumes of all gases and vapours
— Avogadro deduced the law: — Under the same conditions
of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain
equal numbers of molecules; and he showed that the relative
weights of the molecules are determined as the ratios of the
weights of equal volumes, or densities. He established the
existence of molecules and atoms as we have defined above,
and stated that the number of atoms in the molecule is generally
2, but may be 4, 8, &c. We cannot tell whether his choice of the
powers of 2 is accident or design.

Notwithstanding Avogadro's perspicuous investigation, and
a similar exposition of the atom and molecule by A. M. Ampere,
Beneiius. tne yiews therein expressed were ignored both by
their own and the succeeding generation. In place
of the relative molecular weights, attention was concentrated
on relative atomic or equivalent weights. This may be due
in some measure to the small number of gaseous and easily
volatile substances then known, to the attention which the
study of the organic compounds received, and especially to the
energetic investigations of J. J. Berzelius, who, fired with
enthusiasm by the original theory of Dalton and the law of
multiple proportions, determined the equivalents of combining
ratios of many elements in an enormous number of compounds.2
He prosecuted his labours in this field for thirty years; as
proof of his industry it may be mentioned that as early as 1818
he had determined the combining ratios of about two thousand
simple and compound substances.

We may here notice the important chemical symbolism or notation
introduced by Berzelius, which greatly contributed to the definite
and convenient representation of chemical composition
Chemtcai an(j ^e tracing of chemical reactions. The denotation of
elements by symbols had been practised by the alchemists,
and it is interesting to note that the symbols allotted to the well-known
elements are identical with the astrological symbols of the sun and
the other members of the solar system. Gold, the most perfect metal,
had the symbol of the Sun, O ; silver, the semiperfect metal, had
the symbol of the Moon, 5>; copper, iron and antimony, the
imperfect metals of the gold class, had the symbols of Venus 9,
Mars rj1, and the Earth £ ; tin and lead, the imperfect metals of
the silver class, had the symbols of Jupiter Q(., and Saturn T? ;
while mercury, the imperfect metal of both the gold and silver
class, had the symbol of the planet, § . Torbern Olof Bergman used
an elaborate system in his Opuscula physica et chemica (1783); the

1 Dalton'satomic theory is treated in more detail in the article ATOM.

1 Berzelius, however, appreciated the necessity of differentiating
the atom and the molecule, and even urged Dalton to amend his
doctrine, but without success.

elements received symbols composed of circles, arcs of circles, and
lines, while certain class symbols, such as ^^7 for metals, -j-foracids,
@ for alkalies, Q forsalts,1^ for calces, &c., were used. Compounds
were represented by copulating simpler symbols, e.g. mercury calx
was ^f Cp •* Bergman's symbolism was obviously cumbrous, and
the system used in 1782 by Lavoisier was equally abstruse, since the
forms gave no clue as to composition ; for instance water, oxygen,
and nitric acid were\/ i^t, and

A partial clarification was suggested in 1787 by J. H. Hassenfratz
and Adet, who assigned to each element a symbol, and to each com-
pound a sign which should record the elements present and their
relative quantities. Straight lines and semicircles were utilized for
the non-metallic elements, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur
(the " simple acidifiable bases " of Lavoisier), and circles enclosing
the initial letter^ of their names for the metals. The " compound
acidifiable bases," i.e. the hypothetical radicals of acids, were denoted
by squares enclosing the initial letter of the base; an alkali was
denoted by a triangle, and the particular alkali by inserting the
initial letter. Compounds were denoted by joining the symbols of
the components, and by varying the manner of joining compounds
of the same elements were distinguished. The symbol V was used
to denote a liquid, and a vertical line to denote a gas. As an
example of the complexity of this system we may note the five
oxides of nitrogen, which were symbolized as

T r, f. V and VI,

the first three representing the gaseous oxides, and the last two the
liquid oxides.

A great advance was made by Dalton, who, besides introducing
simpler symbols, regarded the symbol as representing not only the
element or compound but also one atom of that element or com-
pound; in other words, his symbol denoted equivalent weights.4
This system, which permitted the correct representation of molecular
composition, was adopted by Berzelius in 1814, who, having replaced
the geometric signs of Dalton by the initial letter (or letters) of the
Latin names of the elements, represented a compound by placing a
plus sign between the symbols of its components, and the number of
atoms of each component (except in the case of only one atom) by
placing Arabic numerals before the symbols; for example, copper
oxide was Cu+O, sulphur trioxide S-|-3O. If two compounds com-
bined, the + signs of the free compounds were discarded, and the
number of atoms denoted by an Arabic index placed after the
elements, and from these modified symbols the symbol of the new
compound was derived in the same manner as simple compounds
were built up from their elements. Thus copper sulphate was
CuO+SO3, potassium sulphate 2SO3 + PoO2 (the symbol Po for
potassium was subsequently discarded in favour of K from kalium).
At a later date Berzelius denoted an oxide by dots, equal in number to
the number of oxygen atoms present, placed over the element ; this
notation survived longest in mineralogy. He also introduced barred
symbols, i.e. letters traversed by a horizontal bar, todenote the double
atom (or molecule). Although the system of Berzelius has been
modified and extended, its principles survive in the modern notation.

In the development of the atomic theory and the deduction
of the atomic weights of elements and the formulae of compounds,
Dalton's arbitrary rules failed to find complete accept- Extension
ance. Berzelius objected to the hypothesis that if of the
two elements form only one compound, then the *tomtc
atoms combine one and one; and although he agreed
with the adoption of simple rules as a first attempt at representing
a compound, he availed himself of other data in order to gain
further information as to the structure of compounds. For
example, at first he represented ferrous and ferric oxides by the
formulae FeOz, FeOs, and by the analogy of zinc and other
basic oxides he regarded these substances as constituted similarly
to Fe02, and the acidic oxides alumina and chromium oxide as
similar to FeOv He found, however, that chromic acid, which
he had represented as CrO6, neutralized a base containing \ the

3 The following symbols were also used by Bergman : —

0. (D. Q, 0, I, ~ 30 V V, cA>.

which represented zinc, manganese, cobalt, bismuth, nickel, arsenic,
platinum, water, alcohol, phlogiston.

4 The following are the symbols employed by Dalton : —

0. 0.®. O,1® ,©,©,©, 0, <D, O, O, ©.

which represent in order, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen,
phosphorus, sulphur, magnesia, lime, soda, potash, strontia, baryta,
mercury; iron, zinc, copper, lead, silver, platinum, and gold were
represented by circles enclosing the initial letter of the element.

HISTORY]

CHEMISTRY

37

quantity of oxygen. He inferred that chromic acid must
contain only three atoms of oxygen, as did sulphuric acid SO3 ;
consequently chromic oxide, which contains half the amount
of oxygen, must be Cr2O3, and hence ferric oxide must be Fe2O3.
The basic oxides must have the general formula MO. To these
results he was aided by the law of isomorphism formulated by
E. Mitscherlich in 1820; and he confirmed his conclusions by
showing the agreement with the law of atomic heat formulated
by Dulong and Petit in 1819.

While successfully investigating the solid elements and their
compounds gravimetrically, Berzelius was guilty of several
inconsistencies in his views on gases. He denied that gaseous
atoms could havfi parts, although compound gases could. This
attitude was due to his adherence to the " dualistic theory "
of the structure of substances, which he deduced from electro-
chemical researches. From the behaviour of substances on
electrolysis (q.v.) he assumed that all substances had two com-
ponents, one bearing a negative charge, the other a positive
charge. Combination was associated with the coalescence of
these charges, and the nature of the resulting compound showed
the nature of the residual electricity. For example, positive
iron combined with negative oxygen to form positive ferrous
oxide; positive sulphur combined with negative oxygen to
form negative sulphuric acid; positive ferrous oxide combined
with negative sulphuric acid to form neutral ferrous sulphate.
Berzelius elevated this theory to an important position in the
history of our science. He recognized that if an elementary
atom had parts, his theory demanded that these parts should
carry different electric charges when they entered into reaction,
and the products of the reaction should vary according as a
positive or negative atom entered into combination. For
instance if the reaction 2H2-|-O2=H2O-|-H2O be true, the
molecules of water should be different, for a negative oxygen
atom would combine in one case, and a positive oxygen atom
in the other. Hence the gaseous atoms of hydrogen and oxygen
could not have parts. A second inconsistency was presented
when he was compelled by the researches of Dumas to admit
Avogadro's hypothesis; but here he would only accept it for
the elementary gases, and denied it for other substances. It is
to be noticed that J. B. Dumas did not adopt the best methods
for emphasizing his discoveries. His terminology was vague
and provoked caustic criticism from Berzelius; he assumed
that all molecules contained two atoms, and consequently the
atomic weights deduced from vapour density determinations of
sulphur, mercury, arsenic, and phosphorus were quite different
from those established by gravimetric and other methods.

Chemists gradually tired of the notion of atomic weights on
account of the uncertainty which surrounded them; and the
suggestion made by W. H. Wollaston as early as 1814 to deal
only with " equivalents," i.e. the amount of an element which
can combine with or replace unit weight of hydrogen, came
into favour, being adopted by L. Gmelin in his famous text-book.

Simultaneously with this discussion of the atom and molecule,
great controversy was ranging over the constitution of com-
Atomic pounds, more particularly over the carbon or organic
and mole- compounds. This subject is discussed in section IV.,
cuiar Organic Chemistry. The gradual accumulation of data

x *' referring to organic compounds brought in its train a
revival of the discussion of atoms and molecules. A. Laurent
and C. F. Gerhardt attempted a solution by investigating chemical
reactions. They assumed the atom to be the smallest part of
matter which can exist in combination, and the molecule to be
the smallest part which can enter into a chemical reaction.
Gerhardt found that reactions could be best followed if one
assumed the molecular weight of an element or compound to be
that weight which occupied the same volume as two unit weights
of hydrogen, and this assumption led him to double the equiva-
lents accepted by Gmelin, making H=l, O=16, and C=12,
thereby agreeing with Berzelius, and also to halve the values
given by Berzelius to many metals. Laurent generally agreed,
except when the theory compelled the adoption of formulae
containing fractions of atoms; in such cases he regarded the

molecular weight as the weight occupying a volume equal to
four unit weights of hydrogen. The bases upon which Gerhardt
and Laurent founded their views were not sufficiently well
grounded to lead to the acceptance of their results; Gerhardt
himself returned to Gmelin's equivalents in his Lehrbuch der
Chemie (1853) as they were in such general use.

In 1860 there prevailed such a confusion of hypotheses as to
the atom and molecule that a conference was held at Karlsruhe
to discuss the situation. At the conclusion of the sitting,
Lothar Meyer obtained a paper written by Stanislas Cannizzaro
in 1858 wherein was found the final link required for the deter-
mination of atomic weights. This link was the full extension
of Avogadro's theory to all substances, Cannizzaro showing that
chemical reactions in themselves would not suffice. He chose
as his unit of reference the weight of an atom of hydrogen, i.e.
the weight contained in a molecule of hydrochloric acid, thus
differing from Avogadro who chose the weight of a hydrogen
molecule. From a study of the free elements Cannizzaro showed
that an element may have more than one molecular weight; for
example, the molecular weight of sulphur varied with the tem-
perature. And from the study of compounds he showed that
each element occurred in a definite weight or in some multiple
of this weight. He called this proportion the " atom," since
it invariably enters compounds without division, and the weight
of this atom is the atomic weight. This generalization was of
great value inasmuch as it permitted the deduction of the
atomic weight of a non-gasifiable element from a study of the
densities of its gasifiable compounds.

From the results 'obtained by Laurent and Gerhardt and their
predecessors it immediately followed that, while an element could
have but one atomic weight, it could have several equivalent
weights. From a detailed study of organic compounds Ger-
hardt had promulgated a " theory of types " which represented
a fusion of the older radical and type theories. This theory
brought together, as it were, the most varied compounds, and
stimulated inquiry into many fields. According to this theory,
an element in a compound had a definite saturation capacity,
an idea very old in itself, being framed in the law of multiple
proportions. These saturation capacities were assidu- Vaiea
ously studied by Sir Edward Frankland, who from
the investigation, not of simple inorganic compounds, but of the
organo-metallic derivatives, determined the kernel of the theory
of valency. Frankland showed that any particular element
preferentially combined with a definite number (which might
vary between certain limits) of other atoms; for example, some
atoms always combined with one atom of oxygen, some with two,
while with others two atoms entered into combination with one
of oxygen. If an element or radical combined with one atom
of hydrogen, it was termed monovalent; if with two (or with
one atom of oxygen, which is equivalent to two atoms of hydrogen)
it was divalent, and so on. The same views were expressed by
Cannizzaro, and also by A. W. von Hofmann, who materially
helped the acceptance of the doctrine by the lucid exposition in
his Introduction to Modern Cliemislry, 1865.

The recognition of the quadrivalency of carbon by A. Kekule
was the forerunner of his celebrated benzene theory in particular,
and of the universal application of structural formulae to the
representation of the most complex organic compounds equally
lucidly as the representation of the simplest salts. Alexander
Butlerow named the " structure theory," and contributed much
to the development of the subject. He defined structure " as the
manner of the mutual linking of the atoms in the molecule,"
but denied that any such structure could give information as to
the orientation of the atoms in space. He regarded the chemical
properties of a substance as due to (i) the chemical atoms
composing it, and (2) the structure, and he asserted that while
different compounds might have the same components (isomer-
ism),yet only one compound could have a particular structure.
Identity in properties necessitated identity in structure.

While the principle of varying valency laid down by Frankland
is still retained, Butlerow's view that structure had no spatial
significance has been modified. The researches of L. Pasteur,

CHEMISTRY

[HISTORY

Periodic
law.

J. A. Le Bel, J. Wislicenus, van't Hoff and others showed thajt
substances having the same graphic formulae vary in properties
and reactions, and consequently the formulae need modification in
order to exhibit these differences. Such isomerism, named stereo-
isomerism(?.».),hasbeenassiduouslydeveloped during recentyears;
it prevails among many different classes of organic compounds
and many examples have been found in inorganic chemistry.

The theory of valency as a means of showing similarity of
properties and relative composition became a dominant feature
of chemical theory, the older hypotheses of types, radicals, &c.
being more or less discarded. We have seen how its
utilization in the " structure theory "permitted great
clarification, and attempts were not wanting for the
deduction of analogies or a periodicity between elements. Frank-
land had recognized the analogies existing between the chemical
properties of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony,
noting that they act as tri- or penta-valent. Carbon was joined
with silicon, zirconium and titanium, while boron, being tri-
valent, was relegated to another group. A general classification
of elements, however, was not realized by Frankland, nor even by
Odling, who had also investigated the question from the valency
standpoint. The solution came abo'ut by arranging the elements
in the order of their atomic weights, tempering the arrangement
with the results deduced from the theory of valencies and
experimental observations. Many chemists contributed to the
establishment of such a periodicity, the greatest advances being
made by John Newlands in England, Lothar Meyer in Germany,
and D. J. Mendeleeff in St Petersburg. For the development of
this classification see ELEMENT.

In the above sketch we have briefly treated the history of the
main tendencies of our science from the earliest times to the
Summary, establishment of the modern laws and principles. We
have seen that the science took its origin in the arts
practised by the Egyptians, and, having come under the influence
of philosophers, it chose for its purpose the isolation of the
quinta essentia, and subsequently the " art of making gold and
silver." This spirit gave way to the physicians, who regarded
" chemistry as the art of preparing medicines," a denotation
which in turn succumbed to the arguments of Boyle, who regarded
it as the " science of the composition of substances," a definition
which adequately fits the science to-day. We have seen how
his classification of substances into elements and compounds,
and the definitions which he assigned to these species, have
similarly been retained; and how Lavoisier established the law
of the " conservation of mass," overthrew the prevailing phlogistic
theory, and became the founder of modern chemistry by the
overwhelming importance which he gave to the use of the balance.
The development of the atomic theory and its concomitants —
the laws of chemical combination and the notion of atoms and
equivalents — at the hands of Dalton and Berzelius, the extension
to the modern theory of the atom and molecule, and to atomic
and molecular weights by Avogadro, Ampere, Dumas, Laurent,
Gerhardt, Cannizzaro and others, have been noted. The
structure of the molecule, which mainly followed investigations
in organic compounds, Frankland's conception of valency, and
finally the periodic law, have also been shown in their chrono-
logical order. The principles outlined above constitute the
foundations of our science; and although it may happen that
experiments may be made with which they appear to be not in
complete agreement, yet in general they constitute a body of
working hypotheses of inestimable value.

Chemical Education. — It is remarkable that systematic in-
struction in the theory and practice of chemistry only received
earnest attention in our academic institutions during the opening
decades of the ipth century. Although for a long time lecturers
and professors had been attached to universities, generally their
duties had also included the study of physics, mineralogy and
other subjects, with the result that chemistry received scanty
encouragement. Of practical instruction there was none other
than that to be gained in a few private laboratories and in the
shops of apothecaries. The necessity for experimental demon-
stration and practical instruction, in addition to academic

lectures, appears to have been urged by the French chemists
L. N. Vauquelin, Gay Lussac, Thenard, and more especially by
A. F. Fourcroy and G. F. Rouelle, while in England Humphry
Davy expounded the same idea in the experimental demonstra-
tions which gave bis lectures their brilliant charm. But the real
founder of systematic instruction in our science was Justus von
Liebig, who, having accepted the professorship at Giessen in
1824, made his chemical laboratory and course of instruction
the model of all others. He emphasized that the practical
training should include (i) the qualitative and quantitative
analysis of mixtures, (2) the preparation of substances according
to established methods, (3) original research — a course which has
been generally adopted. The pattern set by Liebig at Giessen
was adopted by F. Wohler at Gottingen in 1836, by R. W.
Bunsen at Marburg in 1840, and by O. L. Erdmann at Leipzig
in 1843; and during the 'fifties and 'sixties many other labora-
tories were founded. A new era followed the erection of the
laboratories at Bonn and Berlin according to the plans of A. W.
von Hofmann in 1867, and of that at Leipzig, designed by Kolbe
in 1868. We may also mention the famous laboratory at Munich
designed by A. von Baeyer in 1875.

In Great Britain the first public laboratory appears to have
been opened in 1817 by Thomas Thomson at Glasgow. But the
first important step in providing means whereby students could
systematically study chemistry was the foundation of the College
of Chemistry in 1845. This institution was taken over by the
Government in 1853, becoming the Royal College of Chemistry,
and incorporated with the Royal School of Mines; in 1881 the
names were changed to the Normal School of Science and Royal
School of Mines, and again in 1890 to the Royal College of
Science. In 1907 it was incorporated in the Imperial College of
Science and Technology. Under A. W. von Hofmann, who
designed the laboratories and accepted the professorship in 1845
at the instigation of Prince Albert, and under his successor (in
1864) Sir Edward Frankland, this institution became one of
the most important centres of chemical instruction. Oxford
and Cambridge sadly neglected the erection of convenient
laboratories for many years, and consequently we find technical
schools and other universities having a far better equipment and
offering greater facilities. In the provinces Victoria University
at Manchester exercised the greater impetus, numbering among
its professors Sir W. H. Perkin and Sir Henry Roscoe.

In America public laboratory instruction was first instituted at
Yale College during the professorship of Benjamin Silliman. To
the great progress made in recent years F. W. Clarke, W. Gibbs,
E. W. Morley, Ira Remsen, and T. W. Richards have especially
contributed.

In France the subject was almost entirely neglected until
late in the igth century. The few laboratories existing in the
opening decades were ill-fitted, and the exorbitant fees con-
stituted a serious bar to general instruction, for these institutions
received little government support. In 1869 A. Wurtz reported
the existence of only one efficient laboratory in France, namely
the Ecole Normale Sup6rieure, under the direction of H. Sainte
Claire Deville. During recent years chemistry has become
one of the most important subjects in the curriculum of technical
schools and universities, and at the present time no general
educational institution is complete until it has its full equip-
ment of laboratories and lecture theatres.

Chemical Literature. — The growth of chemical literature since the
publication of Lavoisier's famous Traite de chimie in 1789, and of
Berzelius1 Lehrbuch der Chemie in 1808-1818, has been enormous.
These two works, and especially the latter, were the models followed
by Thenard, Liebig, Strecker, Wohler and many others, including
Thomas Graham, upon whose Elements of Chemistry was founded
Otto's famous Lehrbuch der Chemie, to which H. Kopp contributed
the general theoretical part, Kolbe the organic, and Buff and
Zamminer the physico-chemical. Organic chemistry was especially
developed by the publication of Gerhardt's Traitf de chimie organique
in 1853-1856, and of Kekule's Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie in
1861-1882. General theoretical and physical chemistry was treated
with conspicuous acumen by Lothar Meyer in his Moderne Theorien,
by W. Ostwald in his Lehrbuch der allgem. Chemie (1884-1887), and
by Nernst in his Theoretische Chemie. In English, Roscoe and
Schorlemmer's Treatise on Chemistry is a standard work ; it records

PRINCIPLES]

CHEMISTRY

39

a successful attempt to state the theories and facts of chemistry,

The elements are usually divided into two classes, the metallic

not in condensed epitomes, but in an easily read form. The Traite
de chimie minerals, edited by H. Moissan, and the Handbuch der
anorganischen Chemie, edited by Abegg, are of the same type.

and the non-metallic slements; the following are classed as
non-metals, and the remainder as metals: —

O. Dammer's Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie and F. Beilstein's

Hydrogen Oxygen Boron Neon

Handbuch der organischen Chemie are invaluable works of reference.

Chlorine Sufpnur Carbon Krypton

Of the earlier encyclopaedias we may notice the famous Hand-

Bromine Selenium Silicon Xenon

worterbuch der reinen ttnd angcwandten Chemie, edited by Liebig;

Iodine Tellurium Phosphorus Helium

Fremy's Encyclopedic de chimie, Wurtz's Dictionnaire de chimie

Fluorine Nitrogen Argon

pure et appliquee, Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry, and Ladenburg's
Handworterbuch der Chemie.

Of these hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen, argon,

The number of periodicals devoted to chemistry has steadily

neon, krypton, -xenon and helium are gases, bromine is a liquid,

increased since the early part of the igth century. In England the

and the remainder are solids. All the metals are solids at ordinary

most important is the Journal of the Chemical Society of London,
first published in 1848. Since 1871 abstracts of papers appearing
in the other journals have been printed. In 1904 a new departure
was made in issuing Annual Reports, containing resumes of the most

temperatures with the exception of mercury, which is liquid.
The metals are mostly bodies of high specific gravity; they
exhibit, when polished, a peculiar brilliancy or metallic lustre,

important researches of the year. The Chemical News, founded by

and they are good conductors of heat and electricity; the non-

Sir W. Crookes in 1860, may also be noted. In America the chief
periodical is the American Chemical Journal, founded in 1879.
Germany is provided with a great number of magazines. The
Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, published by the

metals, on the other hand, are mostly bodies of low specific
gravity, and bad conductors of heat and electricity, and do not
exhibit metallic lustre. The non-metallic elements are also

Berlin Chemical Society, the Chemisches Centralblatt, which is con-
fined to abstracts of papers appearing in other journals, the Zeitschrift
fur Chemie, and Liebig s Annalen der Chemie are the most important
of the general magazines. Others devoted to special phases are the
Journal filr praktische Chemie, founded by Erdmann in 1834, the

sometimes termed metalloids, but this appellation, which signifies
metal-like substances (Gr. e?5os, like), strictly belongs to certain
elements which do not possess the properties of the true metals,
although they more closely resemble them than the non-metals

Zeitschrift fur anorganische Chemie and the Zeitschrift fur physi-

in many respects; thus, selenium and tellurium, which are

kalische Chemie. Mention may also be made of the invaluable
Jahresberichte and the Jahrbuch der Chemie. In France, the most
important journals are the Annales de chimie et de physique, founded
in 1789 with the title Annales de chimie, and the Comptes rendus,

closely allied to sulphur in their chemical properties, although
bad conductors of heat and electricity, exhibit metallic lustre
and have relatively high specific gravities. But when the

published weekly by the Academic francaise since 1835.

properties of the elements are carefully contrasted together it

II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES

is found that no strict line of demarcation can be drawn dividing

The substances with which the chemist has to deal admit of
classification into elements and compounds. Of the former
about eighty may be regarded as well characterized, although
many more have been described.
Elements. — The following table gives the names, symbols
and atomic weights of the perfectly characterized elements: —

them into two classes; and if they are arranged in a series,
those which are most closely allied in properties being placed
next to each other, it is observed that there is a more or less
regular alteration in properties from term to term in the series.
When binary compounds, or compounds of two elements, are
decomposed by an electric current, the two elements make their
appearance at opposite poles. TJjose elements which are dis-

International Atomic Weights, 1910.

engaged at the negative pole are termed electro-positive, or

Atomic
Name. Symbol. Weights.
0=16.

Atomic
Name. Symbol. Weights.
0 = 16.

positive, or basylous elements, whilst those disengaged at the
positive pole are termed electro-negative, or negative, or chlorous

Aluminium . . Al 27-1

Mercury . . . Hg 200-0

elements. But the difference between these two classes of

Antimony . . Sb 120-2

Molybdenum . Mo 96-0

elements is one of degree only, and they gradually merge into

Argon ... A 39-9

Neodymium . . Nd 144-3

each other; moreover the electric relations of elements are not

Arsenic ... As 74-96
Barium Ba I37'37

Neon . . . . Ne 20
Nickel . . . Ni 58-68

absolute, but vary according to the state of combination in

Beryllium or Be ) _ f

Nitrogen . . . N 14-01

which they exist, so that it is just as impossible to divide the

Glucinum Gl )

Osmium . . . Os 190-9

elements into two classes according to this property as it is to

Bismuth . Bi 208-0

Oxygen . . . O 16-00

separate them into two distinct classes of metals and non-metals.

Boron . . . B u-o
Bromine . . • Br 79'92

Palladium . . Pd 106-7
Phosphorus . . P 31-0

The following, however, are negative towards the remaining

Cadmium . . Cd 112-40

Platinum . . Pt 195-0

elements which are more or less positive: — Fluorine, chlorine,

Caesium . . . Cs 132-81

Potassium . . K 39-10

bromine, iodine, oxygen, sulphur, selenium, tellurium.

Calcium . . . Ca 40-09

Praseodymium . Pr 140-6

The metals may be arranged in a series according to their

Carbon . . . C 12-0
Cerium . . . Ce 140-25

Radium . . . Ra 226-4
Rhodium , . . Rh 102-9

power of displacing one another in salt solutions, thus Cs, Rb,

Chlorine . . . Cl 35-46

Rubidium . . Rb 85-45

K, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cd, Tl, Fe, Co, Ni, Sn, Pb, (H), Sb, Bi,

Chromium . . Cr 52-0

Ruthenium . . Ru 101-7

As, Cu, Hg, Ag, Pd, Pt, Au.

Cobalt ... Co 58-97

Samarium . . Sa 150-4

Elements which readily enter into reaction with each other,

Columbium . . Cb )
or Niobium . Nb \ 93'5

Scandium . . Sc 44-1
Selenium . . . Se 79*2

and which develop a large amount of heat on combination, are

Copper . . . Cu 63-57

Silicon ... Si 28-3

said to have a powerful affinity for each other. The tendency

Dysprosium , . Dy 162-5

Silver . Ag 107-88

of positive elements to unite with positive elements, or of negative

Erbium . . . Er 167-4

Sodium . . . Na 23-0

elements to unite with negative elements, is much less than that

Europium . . Eu 152-0
Fluorine . . . F 10-0

Strontium . . Sr 87-62
Sulphur . . . S 32-07

of positive elements to unite with negative elements, and the

Gadolinium . . Gd 157-3

Tantalum . . Ta 181-0

greater the difference in properties between two elements the

Gallium . . . Ga 69-9

Tellurium . . Te 127-5

more powerful is their affinity for each other. Thus, the affinity

Germanium . . Ge 72-5

Terbium . . . Tb 159-2

of hydrogen and oxygen for each other is extremely powerful.

Gold .... Au 197-2
Helium . . . He 4-0

Thallium . . . T 204-0
Thorium . . . Th 232-42

much heat being developed by the combination of these two

Hydrogen . . H 1-008

Thulium . . . Tm 168-5

elements; when binary compounds of oxygen are decomposed

Indium ... In 114-8

Tin . . . . Sn 119-0

by the electric current, the oxygen invariably appears at the

Iodine ... I 126-92
Iridium . . . Ir 193-1
Iron Fe ^-8 5

Titanium. . . Ti 48-1
Tungsten. . . W 184-0
Uranium . . U 238-5

positive pole, being negative to all other elements, but the
hydrogen of hydrogen compounds is always disengaged at the

** - - • • * *- oo uv>
Krypton . . . Kr 83-0

Vanadium . .V 51-2

negative pole. Hydrogen and oxygen are, therefore, of very

Lanthanum . . La 139-0

Xenon . . . Xe 130-7

opposite natures, and this is well illustrated by the circumstance

Lead . . . . Pb 207-10
Lithium ... Li 7-00
Lutecium . . Lu 174

Ytterbium (Nco-
ytterbium) . Yb 172
Yttrium . . . Y 89-0

that oxygen combines, with very few exceptions, with all the
remaining elements, whilst compounds of only a limited number

Magnesium . . Mg 24-32

Zinc . . . . Zn 65-37

with hydrogen have been obtained.

Manganese . . Mn 54-93

Zirconium . . Zr 90-6

Compounds. — A chemical compound contains two or more

CHEMISTRY

[PRINCIPLES

elements; consequently it should be possible to analyse it,
i.e. separate it into its components, or te synthesize it, i.e. build
it up from its components. In general, a compound has pro-
perties markedly different from those of the elements of which
it is composed.

Laws of Chemical Combination. — A molecule may be defined
as the smallest part of a substance which can exist alone; an
atom as the smallest part of a substance which can exist in com-
bination. The molecule of every compound must obviously
contain at least two atoms, and generally the molecules of the
elements are also polyatomic, the elements with monatomic
molecules (at moderate temperatures) being mercury and the
gases of the argon group. The laws of chemical combination are
as follows: —

1. Law of Definite Proportions. — The same compound always
contains the same elements combined together in the same mass
proportion. Silver chloride, for example, in whatever manner
it may be prepared, invariably consists of chlorine and silver
in the proportions by weight of 35-45 parts of the former and
107-93 of the latter.

2. Law of Multiple Proportions. — When the same two elements
combine together to form more than one compound, the different
masses of one of the elements which unite with a constant mass
of the other, bear a simple ratio to one another. Thus, i part
by weight of hydrogen unites with 8 parts by weight of oxygen,
forming water, and with 16 or 8 X 2 parts of oxygen, forming
hydrogen peroxide. Again, in nitrous oxide we have a compound
of 8 parts by weight of oxygen and 14 of nitrogen; in nitric oxide
a compound of 16 or 8 X 2 parts of oxygen and 14 of nitrogen;
in nitrous anhydride a compound of 24 or 8 X 3 parts of oxygen
and 14 of nitrogen; in nitric peroxide a compound of 32 or 8 X 4
parts of oxygen and 14 of nitrogen; and lastly, in nitric anhy-
dride a compound of 40 or 8X5 parts of oxygen and 14 of
nitrogen.

3. Law of Reciprocal Proportions. — The masses of different
elements which combine separately with one and the same mass
of another element, are either the same as, or simple multiples
of, the masses of these different elements which combine with
each other. For instance, 35-45 parts of chlorine and 79-96
parts of bromine combine with 107-93 parts of silver; and when
chlorine and bromine unite it is in the proportion of 35-45 parts
of the former to 79-96 parts of the latter. Iodine unites with
silver in the proportion of 126-97 parts to 107-93 parts of the
latter, but it combines with chlorine in two proportions, viz. in
the proportion of 126-97 parts either to 35-45 or to three times
35-45 parts of chlorine.

There is a fourth law of chemical combination which only
applies to gases. This law states that: — gases combine with one
another in simple proportions by volume, and the volume of the
product (if gaseous) has -a simple ratio to the volumes of the
original mixtures; in other words, the densities of gases are
simply related to their combining weights.

Nomenclature. — If a compound contains two atoms it is
termed a binary compound, if three a ternary, if four a quaternary,
and so on. Its systematic name is formed by replacing the last
syllable of the electro-negative element by ide and prefixing
the name of the other element. For example, compounds of
oxygen are oxides, of chlorine, chlorides, and so on. If more than
one compound be formed from the same two elements, .the
difference is shown by prefixing such words as mono-, di-, tri-,
sesqui-, per-, sub-, &c., to the last part of the name, or the
suffixes -ous and -ic may be appended to the name of the first
element. For example take the oxides of nitrogen, N2O, NO,
N2O3, NO2, N2O5; these are known respectively as nitrous oxide,
nitric oxide, nitrogen trioxide, nitrogen peroxide and nitrogen
pentoxide. The affixes -ous and sub- refer to the compounds
containing more of the positive element, -ic and per- to those
containing less.

An acid (q.v.) is a compound of hydrogen, which element can
be replaced by metals, the hydrogen being liberated, giving
substances named salts. An alkali or base is a substance which
neutralizes an acid with the production of salts but with no

evolution of hydrogen. A base may be regarded as water in
which part of the hydrogen is replaced by a metal, or by a
radical which behaves as a metal. (The term radical is given
to a group of atoms which persist in chemical changes, behaving
as if the group were an element; the commonest is the
ammonium group, NHi, which forms salts similar to the salts
of sodium and potassium.) If the acid contains no oxygen it is a
hydracid, and its systematic name is formed from the prefix
hydro- and the name of the other element or radical, the last
syllable of which has been replaced by the termination -ic. For
example, the acid formed by hydrogen and chlorine is termed
hydrochloric acid (and sometimes hydrogen chloride). If an
acid contains oxygen it is termed an oxyacid. The nomenclature
of acids follows the same general lines as that for binary com-
pounds. If one acid be known its name is formed by the ter-
mination -ic, e.g. carbonic acid; if two, the one containing the
less amount of oxygen takes the termination -ous and the other
the termination -ic, e.g. nitrous acid, HNO2, nitric acid, HNO3.
If more than two be known, the one inferior in oxygen content
has the prefix hypo- and the termination -ous, and the one
superior in oxygen content has the prefix per- and the termination
-ic. This is illustrated in the four oxyacids of chlorine, HC1O,
HC1O2, HClOa, HClOi, which have the names hypochlorous,
chlorous, chloric and perchloric acids. An acid is said to be
monobasic, dibasic, tribasic, &c., according to the number of
replaceable hydrogen atoms; thus HNOj is monobasic, sulphuric
acid H2SO4 dibasic, phosphoric acid H3PO4 tribasic.

An acid terminating in -ous forms a salt ending in -ite, and an
oxyacid ending in -ic forms a salt ending in -ate. Thus the
chlorine oxyacids enumerated above form salts named respec-
tively hypochlorites, chlorites, chlorates and perchlorates. Salts
formed from hydracids terminate in -ide, following the rule
for binary compounds. An acid salt is one in which the whole
amount of hydrogen has not been replaced by metal; a normal
salt is one in which all the hydrogen has been replaced; and a
basic salt is one in which part of the acid of the normal salt has
been replaced by oxygen.

^Chemical Formulae. — Opposite the name of each element in
the second column of the above table, the symbol is given which
is always employed to represent it. This symbol, however, not
only represents the particular element, but a certain definite
quantity of it. Thus, the letter H always stands for i atom or
i part by weight of hydrogen, the letter N for i atom or 14 parts
of nitrogen, and the symbol Cl for i atom or 35-5 parts of chlor-
ine.1 Compounds are in like manner represented by writing the
symbols of their constituent elements side by side, and if more
than one atom of each element be present, the number is indicated
by a numeral placed on the right of the symbol of the element
either below or above the line. Thus, hydrochloric acid is
represented by the formula HC1, that is to say, it is a compound
of an atom of hydrogen with an atom of chlorine, or of i part
by weight of hydrogen with 35-5 parts by weight of chlorine;
again, sulphuric acid is represented by the formula H2SO4, which
is a statement that it consists of 2 atoms of hydrogen, i of sulphur,
and 4 of oxygen, and consequently of certain relative weights of
these elements. A figure placed on the right of a symbol only
affects the symbol to which it is attached, but when figures are
placed in front of several symbols all are affected by it, thus
2H2SO4 means H2SO4 taken twice.

The distribution of weight in chemical change is readily
expressed in the form of equations by the aid of these symbols;
the equation

2HCl+Zn = ZnCl2+H2,

for example, is to be read as meaning that from 73 parts of
hydrochloric acid and 65 parts of zinc, 136 parts of zinc chloride
and 2 parts of hydrogen are produced. The + sign is invariably
employed in this way either to express combination or action
upon, the meaning usually attached to the use of the sign = being
that from such and such bodies such and such other bodies
are formed.

1 Approximate values of the atomic weights are employed here.

PRINCIPLES]

CHEMISTRY

Usually, when the symbols of the elements are written or
printed with a figure to the right, it is understood that this
indicates a molecule of the element, the symbol alone representing
an atom. Thus, the symbols H2 and P4 indicate that the mole-
cules of hydrogen and phosphorus respectively contain 2 and 4
atoms. Since, according to the molecular theory, in all cases
of chemical change the action is between molecules, such symbols
as these ought always to be employed. Thus, the formation of
hydrochloric acid from hydrogen and chlorine is correctly
represented by the equation

H2+Clj=2HCl;

that is to say, a molecule of hydrogen and a molecule of chlorine
give rise to two molecules of hydrochloric acid; whilst the
following equation merely represents the relative weights of the
elements which enter into reaction, and is not a complete ex-
pression of what is supposed to take place: —

H+C1 = HC1.

In all cases it is usual to represent substances by formulae
which to the best of our knowledge express their molecular
composition in the state of gas, and not merely the relative
number of atoms which they contain; thus, acetic acid consists
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of one atom
of carbon, two of hydrogen, and one of oxygen, but its molecular
weight corresponds to the formula CzHjOj, which therefore is
always employed to represent acetic acid. When chemical
change is expressed with the aid of molecular formulae not
only is the distribution of weight represented, but by the mere
inspection of the symbols it is possible to deduce from the law
of gaseous combination mentioned above, the relative volumes
which the agents and resultants occupy in the state of gas -if
measured at the same temperature and under the same pressure.
Thus, the equation

2H,+Oj=2HjO

not only represents that certain definite weights of hydrogen
and oxygen furnish a certain definite weight of the compound
which we term water, but that if the water in the state of gas,
the hydrogen and the oxygen are all measured at the same
temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by the oxygen
is only half that occupied by the hydrogen, whilst the resulting
water-gas will only occupy the same volume as the hydrogen.
In other words, 2 volumes of oxygen and 4 volumes of hydrogen
furnish 4 volumes of water-gas. A simple equation like this,
therefore, when properly interpreted, affords a large amount of
information. One other instance may be given; the equation

represents the decomposition of ammonia gas into nitrogen and
hydrogen gases by the electric spark, and it not only conveys
the information that a certain relative weight of ammonia,
consisting of certain relative weights of hydrogen and nitrogen,
is broken up into certain relative weights of hydrogen and
nitrogen, but also that the nitrogen will be contained in half
the space which contained the ammonia, and that the volume
of the hydrogen will be one and a half times as great as that of
the original ammonia, so that in the decomposition of ammonia
the volume becomes doubled.

Formulae which merely express the relative number of atoms
of the different elements present in a compound are termed
empirical formulae, and the formulae of all compounds whose
molecular weights are undetermined are necessarily empirical.
The molecular formula of a compound, however, is always a
simple multiple of the empirical formula, if not identical with it;
thus, the empirical formula of acetic acid is CH2O, and its
molecular formula is C-fi&i, or twice'CH2O. In addition to
empirical and molecular formulae, chemists are in the habit of
employing various kinds of rational formulae, called structural,
constitutional or graphic formulae, &c., which not only express
the molecular composition of the compounds to which they
apply, but also embody certain assumptions as to the manner
in which the constituent atoms are arranged, and convey more
or less information with regard to the nature of the compound
•itself, viz. the class to which it belongs, the manner in which

it is formed, and the behaviour it will exhibit under various
circumstances. Before explaining these formulae it will be
necessary, however, to consider the differences in combining
power exhibited by the various elements.

Valency. — It is found that the number of atoms of a given
element, of chlorine, for example, which unite with an atom of
each of the other elements is very variable. Thus, hydrogen
unites with but a single atom of chlorine, zinc with two, boron
with three, silicon with four, phosphorus with five and tungsten
with six. Those elements which are equivalent in combining
or displacing power to a single atom of hydrogen are said to be
univalent or monad elements; whilst those which are equivalent
to two atoms of hydrogen are termed bivalent or dyad elements;
and those equivalent to three, four, five or six atoms of hydrogen
triad, tetrad, pentad or hexad elements. But not only is the
combining power orvalency (atomicity) of the elements different,
it is also observed that one element may combine with another
in several proportions, or that its valency may vary; for example,
phosphorus forms two chlorides represented by the formulae
PC13 and PCU, nitrogen the series of oxides represented by the
formulae N2O, NO, (N2O3), N2O4, N2O5, molybdenum forms the
chlorides MoCl2, MoCl3, MoCl4, MoCU, MoCl6(?), and tungsten
the chlorides WC12, WO,, WC1S, WCU.

In explanation of these facts it is supposed that each element
has a certain number of " units of affinity," which may be
entirely, or only in part, engaged when it enters into combination
with other elements; and in those cases in which the entire
number of units of affinity are not engaged by other Clements,
it is supposed that those which are thus disengaged neutralize
each other, as it were. For example, in phosphorus penta-
chloride the five units of affinity possessed by the phosphorus
atom are satisfied by the five monad atoms of chlorine, but in
the trichloride two are disengaged, and, it may be supposed,
satisfy each other. Compounds in which all the units of affinity
of the contained elements are engaged are said to be saturated,
whilst those in which the affinities of the contained elements are
not all engaged by other elements are said to be unsaturaled.
According to this view, it is necessary to assume that, in all
unsaturated compounds, two, or some even number of affinities
are disengaged; and also that all elements which combine
with an even number of monad atoms cannot combine with an
odd number, and vice versa, — in other words, that the number
of units of affinity active in the case of any given element must
be always either an even or an odd number, and that it cannot
be at one time an even and at another an odd number. There
are, however, a few remarkable exceptions to this " law."
Thus, it must be supposed that in nitric oxide, NO, an odd
number of affinities are disengaged, since a single atom of dyad
oxygen is united with a single atom of nitrogen, which in all its
compounds with other elements acts either as a triad or pentad.
When nitric peroxide, N2O4, is converted into gas, it decomposes,
and at about 180° C. its vapour entirely consists of molecules
of the composition NO2; while at temperatures between this
and o° C. it consists of a mixture in different proportions of the
two kinds of molecules, N2O4 and NO2. The oxide NOz must
be regarded as another instance of a compound in which an odd
number of affinities of one of the contained elements are dis-
engaged, since.it contains two atoms of dyad oxygen united with
a single atom of triad or pentad nitrogen. Again, when tungsten
hexachloride is converted into vapour it is decomposed into
chlorine and a pentachloride, having a normal vapour density,
but as in the majority of its compounds tungsten acts as a hexad,
we apparently must regard its pentachloride as a compound
in which an odd number of free affinities are' disengaged. Hither-
to no explanation has been given of these exceptions to what
appears to be a law of almost universal application, viz. that the
sum of the units of affinity of all the atoms in a compound is
an even number.

The number of units of affinity active in the case of any
particular element is largely dependent, however, upon the
nature of the element or elements with which it is associated.
Thus, an atom of iodine only combines with one of hydrogen,

CHEMISTRY

[PRINCIPLES

but may unite with three of chlorine, which never combines
with more than a single atom of hydrogen; an atom of phos-
phorus unites with only three atoms of hydrogen, but with five
of chlorine, or with four of hydrogen and one of iodine; and the
chlorides corresponding to the higher oxides of lead, nickel,
manganese and arsenic, PbO2, Ni2O3, MnO2 and As2O5 do not
exist as stable compounds, but the lower chlorides, PbCl2, NiCl2,
MnCl2 and AsCls, are very stable.

The valency of an element is usually expressed by dashes
or Roman numerals placed on the right of its symbol, thus:
H', O", B'", CIV, Pv, MoVI; but in constructing graphic formulae
the symbols of the elements are written with as many lines
attached to each symbol as the element which it represents
has units of affinity.

The periodic law (see ELEMENT) permits a grouping of the
elements according to their valency as follows: — Group O:
helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon appear to be devoid of
valency. Group I.: the alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and
also Ag, monovalent; Cu, monovalent and divalent; Au,
monovalent and trivalent. Group II. : the alkaline earth metals
Ca, Sr, Ba, and also Be (Gl), Mg, Zn, Cd, divalent; Hg, monovalent
and divalent. Group III.: B, trivalent; Al, trivalent, but
possibly also tetra-or penta-valent; Ga, divalent and trivalent;
In, mono-, di- and tri-valent; Tl, monovalent and trivalent.
Group IV.: C, Si, Ge, Zr, Th, tetravalent; Ti, tetravalent and
hexavalent; Sn, Pb, divalent and tetravalent; Ce, trivalent
and tetravalent. Group V. : N, trivalent and pentavalent, but
divalent in nitric oxide; P, As, Sb, Bi, trivalent and pentavalent,
the last being possibly divalent in BiO and BiCl2. Group VI.:
O, usually divalent, but tetravalent and possibly hexavalent in
oxonium and other salts; S, Se, Te, di-, tetra- and hexa-valent;
Cr, di-, tri- and hexa-valent; Mo, W, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta- and
hexa-valent. Group VII.: H (?), monovalent; the halogens F,
Cl, Br, I, usually monovalent, but possibly also tri- and penta-
valent; Mn, divalent and trivalent, and possibly heptavalent
in permanganates. Group VIII. : Fe, Co, divalent and trivalent ;
Ni, divalent; Os, Ru, hexavalent and octavalent; Pd, Pt,
divalent and tetravalent; Ir, tri-, tetra- and hexa-valent.
(See also VALENCY.)

Constitutional Formulae. — Graphic or constitutional formulae
are employed to express the manner in which the constituent
atoms of compounds are associated together; for example, the
trioxide of sulphur is usually regarded as a compound of an
atom of hexad sulphur with three atoms of dyad oxygen, and
this hypothesis is illustrated by the graphic formula

When this oxide is brought into contact with water it combines
with it forming sulphuric acid, H2SO4.

In this compound only" two of .the oxygen atoms are wholly
associated with the sulphur atom, each of the remaining oxygen
atoms being united by one of its affinities to the sulphur atoms,
and by the remaining affinity to an atom of hydrogen;
thus —

H-O^c^O

H-0>S<0.

The graphic formula of a sulphate is readily deduced by re-
membering that the hydrogen atoms are partially or entirely
replaced. Thus acid sodium sulphate, normal sodium sulphate,
and zinc sulphate have the formulae

Again, the reactions of acetic acid, C2H4O2, show that the four
atoms of hydrogen which it contains have not all the same
function, and also that the two atoms of oxygen have different
functions; the graphic formula which we are led to assign to
acetic acid, viz.

serves in a measure to express this, three of the atoms of hydrogen
being represented as associated with one of the atoms of carbon,

whilst the fourth atom is associated with an atom of oxygen
which is united by a single affinity to the second atom of carbon
to which, however, the second atom of oxygen is united by both
of its affinities. It is not to be supposed that there are anj
actual bonds of union between the atoms; graphic formulae
such as these merely express the hypothesis that certain of the
atoms in a compound come directly within the sphere of attrac-
tion of certain other atoms, and only indirectly within the
sphere of attraction of others, — an hypothesis to which chemists
are led by observing that it is often possible to separate a group
of elements from a compound, and to displace it by other elements
or groups of elements.

Rational formulae of a much simpler description than these
graphic formulae are generally employed. For instance, sulphuric
acid is usually represented by the formula SO2(OH)2, which
indicates that it may be regarded as a compound of the group
SO2 with twice the group OH. Each of these OH groups is
equivalent in combining or displacing power to a monad element,
since it consists of an atom of dyad oxygen associated with a
single atom of monad hydrogen, so that in this case the SO5
group is equivalent to an atom of a dyad element. This formula
for sulphuric acid, however, merely represents such facts as that
it is possible to displace an atom of hydrogen and an atom of
oxygen in sulphuric acid by a single atom of chlorine, thus
forming the compound SO3HC1; and that by the action of
water on the compound SO2C12 twice the group OH, or water
minus an atom of hydrogen, is introduced in place of the two
monad atoms of chlorine —

SO2C12+2HOH = SO2(OH)2 +2HC1.
Water. Sulphuric acid.

Constitutional formulae like these, in fact, are nothing more
than symbolic expressions of the character of the compounds
which they represent, the arrangement of symbols in a certain
definite manner being understood to convey certain information
with regard to the compounds represented.

Groups of two or more atoms like SO2 and OH, which are
capable of playing the part of elementary atoms (that is to say,
which can be transferred from compound to compound), are
termed compound radicals, the elementary atoms being simple
radicals. Thus, the atom of hydrogen is a monad simple radical,
the atom of oxygen a dyad simple radical, whilst the group OH
is a monad compound radical.

It is often convenient to regard compounds as formed upon
certain types; alcohol, for example, may be said to be a com-
pound formed upon the water type, that is to say, a compound
formed from water by displacing one of the atoms of hydrogen
by the group of elements C2H5, thus —

(H QJC2HS

0

('»
Water

Alcohol.

Constitutional formulae become of preponderating importance
when we consider the more complicated inorganic and especially
organic compounds. Their full significance is treated in the
section of this article dealing with organic chemistry, and in the
articles ISOMERISM and STEREO-ISOMERISM.

Chemical Action. — Chemical change or chemical action may
be said to take place whenever changes occur which involve an
alteration in the composition of molecules, and may be the
result of the action of agents such as heat, electricity or
light, or of two or more elements or compounds upon each
other.

Three kinds of changes are to be distinguished, viz. changes
which involve combination, changes which involve decomposi-
tion or separation, and changes which involve at the same time
both decomposition and combination. Changes of the first and
second kind, according to our views of the constitution of mole-
cules, are probably of very rare occurrence; in fact, chemical
action appears almost always to involve the occurrence of both
these kinds of change, for, as already pointed out, we must
assume that the molecules of hydrogen, oxygen and several
other elements are diatomic, or that they consist of two atoms.
Indeed, it appears probable that with few exceptions the elements

PRINCIPLES]

CHEMISTRY

43

are all compounds of similar atoms united together by one or
more units of affinity, according to their valencies. If this be
the case, however, it is evident that there is no real distinction
between the reactions which take place when two elements
combine together and when an element in a compound is dis-
placed by another.- The combination, as it is ordinarily termed,
of chlorine with hydrogen, and the displacement of iodine in
potassium iodide by the action of chlorine, may be cited as
examples; if these reactions are represented, as such reactions
very commonly are, by equations which merely express the
relative weights of the bodies which enter into reaction, and of
the products, thus —

H + Cl HC1

Hydrogen. Chlorine. Hydrochloric acid.

KI + Cl KC1 + I

Potassium iodide. Chlorine. Potassium chloride. Iodine.

they appear to differ in character; but if they are correctly
represented by molecular equations, or equations which express
the relative number of molecules which enter into reaction and
which result from the reaction, it will be obvious that the
character of the reaction is substantially the same in both cases,
and that both are instances of the occurrence of what is ordinarily
termed double decomposition —

H2 + Cl? = 2HC1
Hydrogen. Chlorine. Hydrochloric acid.
2KI + Cl? = 2KC1 + I2.

Potassium iodide. Chlorine. Potassium chloride. Iodine.

In all cases of chemical change energy in the form of heat is
either developed or absorbed, and the amount of heat developed
or absorbed in a given reaction is as definite as are the weights
of the substance engaged in the reaction. Thus, in the production
of hydrochloric acid from hydrogen and chlorine 22,000 calories
are developed; in the production of hydrobromic acid from
hydrogen and bromine, however, only 844ocaloriesaredeveloped ;
and in the formation cf hydriodic acid from hydrogen and
iodine 6040 calories are absorbed.

This difference in behaviour of the three elements, chlorine,
bromine and iodine, which in many respects exhibit considerable
resemblance, may be explained in the following manner. We
may suppose that in the formation of gaseous hydrochloric acid
from gaseous chlorine and hydrogen, according to the equation

H2+C12 = HC1+HC1,

a certain amount of energy is expended in separating the atoms
of hydrogen in the hydrogen molecule, and the atoms of chlorine
in the chlorine molecule, from each other; but that heat is
developed by the combination of the hydrogen atoms with
the chlorine atoms, and that, as more energy is developed by the
union of the atoms of hydrogen and chlorine than is expended
in separating the hydrogen atoms from each other and the
chlorine atoms from one'another, the result of the action of the
two elements upon each other is the development of heat, — the
amount finally developed in the reaction being the difference
between that absorbed in decomposing the elementary mole-
cules and that developed by the combination of the atoms of
chlorine and hydrogen. In the formation of gaseous hydrobromic
acid from liquid bromine and gaseous hydrogen —

H,-r-Br2 = HBr+HBr,

in addition to the energy expended in decomposing the hydrogen
and bromine molecules, energy is also expended in converting
the liquid bromine into the gaseous condition, and probably
less heat is developed by the combination of bromine and
hydrogen than by the combination of chlorine and hydrogen, so
that the amount of heat finally developed is much less than is
developed in the formation of hydrochloric acid. Lastly, in
the production of gaseous hydriodic acid from hydrogen and
solid iodine —

'

so much energy is expended in the decomposition of the hydrogen
and iodine molecules and in the conversion of the iodine into the
gaseous condition, that the heat which it may be supposed is
developed by the combination of the hydrogen and iodine atoms
insufficient to balance the expenditure, and the final result is

therefore negative; hence it is necessary in forming hydriodic
acid from its elements to apply heat continuously.

These compounds also afford examples of the fact that,
generally speaking, those compounds are most readily formed,
and are most stable, in the formation of which the most heat is
developed. Thus, chlorine enters into reaction with hydrogen,
and removes hydrogen from hydrogenized bodies, far more
readily than bromine ; and hydrochloric acid is a far more
stable substance than hydrobromic acid, hydriodic acid being
greatly inferior even to hydrobromic acid in stability. Com-
pounds formed with the evolution of heat are termed exothermic,
while those formed with an absorption are termed endothermic.
Explosives are the commonest examples of endothermic com-
pounds.

When two substances which by their action upon each other
develop much heat enter into reaction, the reaction is usually
complete without the employment of an excess of either; for
example, when a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, in the pro-
portions to form water —

2H,+O«=20H,,

is exploded, it is entirely converted into water. This is also
the case if two substances are brought together in solution, by
the action of which upon each other a third body is formed
which is insoluble in the solvent employed, and which also does
not tend to react upon any of the substances present; for
instance, when a solution of a chloride is added to a solution of
a silver salt, insoluble silver chloride is precipitated, and almost
the whole of the silver is removed from solution, even if the
amount of the chloride employed be not in excess of that
theoretically reauired.

But if there De no tendency to form an insoluble compound,
or one which is not liable to react upon any of the other substances
present, this is no longer the case. For example, when a solution
of a ferric salt is added to a solution of potassium thiocyanate,
a deep red coloration is produced, owing to the formation of
ferric thiocyanate. Theoretically the reaction takes place in
the case of ferric nitrate in the manner represented by the
equation

Fe(NO3)3 + 3KCNS = Fe(CNS), + 3KNO,;

Ferric nitrate. Potassium thiocyanate. Ferric thiocyanate. Potassium nitrate.

but it is found that even when more than sixty times the amount
of potassium thiocyanate required by this equation is added,
a portion of the ferric nitrate still remains unconverted, doubtless
owing to the occurrence of the reverse change —

Fe(CNS)3+3KNO3=Fe(NO3)3+3KCNS.

In this, as in most other cases in which substances act upon one
another under such circumstances that the resulting compounds
are free to react, the extent to which the different kinds of action
which may occur take place is dependent upon the mass of the
substances present in the mixture. As another instance of this
kind, the decomposition of bismuth chloride by water may be
cited. If a very large quantity of water be added, the chloride
is entirely decomposed in the manner represented by the
equation —

BiCl3 + OH2 = BiOCl + 2HCI,
Bismuth chloride. Bismuth oxychloride.

the oxychloride being precipitated; but if smaller quantities
of water be added the decomposition is incomplete, and it is
found that the extent to which decomposition takes place is
proportional to the quantity of water employed, the decom-
position being incomplete, except in presence of large quantities
of water, because of the occurrence of the reverse action —
BiOCl +2HC1 = BiCl,+O2H.

Chemical change which merely involves simple decomposition
is thus seen to be influenced by the masses of the reacting sub-
stances and the presence of the products of decomposition; in
other words the system of reacting substances and resultants
form a mixture in which chemical action has apparently ceased,
or the system is in equilibrium. Such reactions are termed
reversible (see CHEMICAL ACTION).

44

CHEMISTRY

[INORGANIC

III. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Inorganic chemistry is concerned with the descriptive study
of the elements and their compounds, except those of carbon.
Reference should be made to the separate articles on the different
elements and the more important compounds for their prepara-
tion, properties and uses. In this article the development of
this branch of the science is treated historically.

The earliest discoveries in inorganic chemistry are to be found
in the metallurgy, medicine and chemical arts of the ancients.
The Egyptians obtained silver, iron, copper, lead, zinc and tin,
either pure or as alloys, by smelting the ores; mercury is men-
tioned by Theophrastus (c. 300 B.C.). The manufacture of glass,
also practised in Egypt, demanded a knowledge of sodium or
potassium carbonates; the former occurs as an efflorescence
on the shores of certain lakes; the latter was obtained from
wood ashes. Many substances were used as pigments: Pliny
records white lead, cinnabar, verdigris and red oxide of iron;
and the preparation of coloured glasses and enamels testifies to
the uses to which these and other substances were put. Salts of
ammonium were also known; while alum was used as a mordant
in dyeing. Many substances were employed in ancient medicine :
galena was the basis of a valuable Egyptian cosmetic and drug;
the arsenic sulphides, realgar and orpiment, litharge, alum,
saltpetre, iron rust were also used. Among the Arabian and
later alchemists we find attempts made to collate compounds by
specific properties, and it is to these writers that we are mainly
indebted for such terms as "alkali," "sal," &c. The mineral
acids, hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acids, and also aqua
regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) were discovered,
and the vitriols, alum, saltpetre, sal-ammonfeic, ammonium
carbonate, silver nitrate [(lunar caustic) became better known.
The compounds of mercury attracted considerable attention,
mainly on account of their medicinal properties; mercuric
oxide and corrosive sublimate were known to pseudo-Geber, and
the nitrate and basic sulphate to " Basil Valentine." Antimony
and its compounds formed the subject of an elaborate treatise
ascribed to this last writer, who also contributed to our knowledge
of the compounds of zinc, bismuth and arsenic. All the com-
monly occurring elements and compounds appear to have
received notice by the alchemists; but the writings assigned
to the alchemical period are generally so vague and indefinite
that it is difficult to determine the true value of the results
obtained.

In the succeeding iatrochemical period, the methods of the
alchemists were improved and new ones devised. Glauber
showed how to prepare hydrochloric acid, spiritus sails, by
heating rock-salt with sulphuric acid, the method in common
use to-day; and also nitric acid from saltpetre and arsenic
trioxide. Libavius obtained sulphuric acid from many sub-
stances, e.g. alum, vitriol, sulphur and nitric acid, by distillation.
The action of these acids on many metals was also studied;
Glauber obtained zinc, stannic, arsenious and cuprous chlorides
by dissolving the metals in hydrochloric acid, compounds
hitherto obtained by heating the metals with corrosive subh'mate,
and consequently supposed to contain mercury. The scientific
study of salts dates from this period, especial interest being
taken in those compounds which possessed a medicinal or
technical value. In particular, the salts of potassium, sodium
and ammonium were carefully investigated, but sodium and
potassium salts were rarely differentiated.1 The metals of the
alkaline-earths were somewhat neglected; we find Georg
Agricola considering gypsum (calcium sulphate) as a compound
of lime, while calcium nitrate and chloride became known at
about the beginning of the I7th century. Antimonial, bismuth
and arsenical compounds were assiduously studied, a direct
consequence of their high medicinal importance; mercurial
and silver compounds were investigated for -the same reason.
The general tendency of this period appears to have taken the
form of improving and developing the methods of the alchemists;

1 The definite distinction' between potash and soda was first
established by Duhamel de Monceau (1700-1781).

few new fields were opened, and apart from a more complete
knowledge of the nature of salts, no valuable generalizations
were attained.

The discovery of phosphorus by Brand, a Hamburg alchemist,
in 1669 excited chemists to an unwonted degree; it was also
independently prepared by Robert Boyle and J. Kunckel,
Brand having kept his process secret. Towards the middle of
the 1 8th century two new elements were isolated: cobalt by
G. Brandt in 1742, and nickel by A. F. Cronstedt in 1750. These
discoveries were followed by Daniel Rutherford's isolation of
nitrogen in 1772, and by K. Scheele's isolation of chlorine and
oxygen in 1774 (J. Priestley discovered oxygen independently
at about the same time), and his investigation of molybdic and
tungstic acids in the following year; metallic molybdenum
was obtained by P. J. Hjelm in 1783, and tungsten by Don
Fausto d'Elhuyar; manganese was isolated by J. G. Gahn in
1 774. In 1 784 Henry Cavendish thoroughly examined hydrogen,
establishing its elementary nature; and he made the far-reaching
discovery that water was composed of two volumes of hydrogen
to one of oxygen.

The phlogistic theory, which pervaded the chemical doctrine
of this period, gave rise to continued study of the products of
calcination and combustion; it thus happened that the know-
ledge of oxides and oxidation products was considerably
developed. The synthesis of nitric acid by passing electric
sparks through moist air by Cavendish is a famous piece of
experimental work, for in the first place it determined the
composition of this important substance, and in the second
place the minute residue of air which would not combine, although
ignored for about a century, was subsequently examined by
Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay, who showed that it
consists of a mixture of elementary substances — argon, krypton,
neon and xenon (see ARGON).

The 1 8th century witnessed striking developments in
pneumatic chemistry, or the chemistry of gases, which had
been begun by van Helmont, Mayow, Hales and Boyle. Gases
formerly considered to be identical came to be clearly distin-
guished, and many new ones were discovered. Atmospheric
air was carefully investigated by Cavendish, who showed that
it consisted of two elementary constituents: nitrogen, which
was isolated by Rutherford in 1772, and oxygen, isolated in
1774; and Black established the presence, in minute quantity,
of carbon dioxide (van Helmont's gas sylveslre). Of the many
workers in this field, Priestley occupies an important position.
A masterly device, initiated by him, was to collect gases over
mercury instead of water; this enabled him to obtain gases
previously only known in solution, such as ammonia, hydro-
chloric acid, silicon fluoride and sulphur dioxide. Sulphuretted
hydrogen and nitric oxide were discovered at about the
same time.

Returning to the history of the discovery of the elements and
their more important inorganic compounds, we come in 1789 to
M. H. Klaproth's detection of a previously unknown constituent
of the mineral pitchblende. He extracted a substance to which
he assigned the character of an element, naming it uranium
(from Oiiparos, heaven) ; but it was afterwards shown by E. M.
Peligot, who prepared the pure metal, that Klaproth's product
was really an oxide. This element was investigated at a later
date by Sir Henry Roscoe, and more thoroughly and successfully
by C. Zimmermann and Alibegoff. Pitchblende attained con-
siderable notoriety towards the end of the I9th century on
account of two important discoveries. The first, made by Sir
William Ramsay in 1896, was that the mineral evolved a peculiar
gas when treated with sulphuric acid; this gas, helium (q.v.),
proved to be identical with a constituent of the sun's atmosphere,
detected as early as 1868 by Sir Norman Lockyer during a
spectroscopic examination of the sun's chromosphere. The
second discovery, associated with the Curies, is that of the
peculiar properties exhibited by the impure substance, and due
to a constituent named radium. The investigation of this
substance and its properties (see RADIOACTIVITY) has proceeded
so far as to render it probable that the theory of the unalterability

INORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

45

of elements, and also the hitherto accepted explanations of
various celestial phenomena — the source of solar energy and
the appearances of the tails of comets— may require recasting.

In the same year as Klaproth detected uranium, he also
isolated zirconia or zirconium oxide from the mineral variously
known as zircon, hyacinth, jacynth and jargoon ; but he failed
to obtain the metal, this being first accomplished some years
later by Berzelius, who decomposed the double potassium
zirconium fluoride with potassium. In the following year, 1795,
Klaproth announced the discovery of a third new element,
titanium; its isolation (in a very impure form), as in the case of
zirconium, was reserved for Berzelius.

Passing over the discovery of carbon disulphide by W. A.
Lampadius in 1796, of chromium by L. N. Vauquelin in 1797, and
Klaproth's investigation of tellurium in 1798, the next important
series of observations was concerned with platinum and the
allied metals. Platinum had been described by Antonio de Ulloa
in 1748, and subsequently discussed by H. T. Scheffer in 1752.
In 1803 W. H. Wollaston discovered palladium, especially
interesting for its striking property of absorbing (" occluding ")
as much as 376 volumes of hydrogen at ordinary temperatures,
and 643 volumes at 90°. In the following year he discovered
rhodium; and at about the same time Smithson Tennant added
two more to the list — iridium and osmium; the former was
so named from the changing tints of its oxides (Ipa, rainbow),
and the latter from the odour of its oxide (607x17, smell). The
most recently discovered " platinum metal," ruthenium,
was recognized by C. E. Claus in 1845. The great number
and striking character of the compounds of this group of
metals have formed the subject of many investigations, and
already there is a most voluminous literature. Berzelius was
an early worker in this field; he was succeeded by Bunsen,
and Deville and Debray, who worked out the separation of
rhodium; and at a later date by P. T. Cleve, the first to make
a really thorough study of these elements and their compounds.
Of especial note are the curious compounds formed by the union
of carbon monoxide with platinous chloride, discovered by Paul
Schtitzenberger and subsequently investigated by F. B. Mylius
and F. Foerster and by Pullinger; the phosphoplatinic com-
pounds formed primarily from platinum and phosphorus penta-
chloride; and also the '" ammino " compounds, formed by the
union of ammonia with the chloride, &c., of these metals, which
have been studied by many chemists, especially S. M. Jorgensen.
Considerable uncertainty existed as to the atomic weights of
these metals, the values obtained by Berzelius being doubtful.
K. F. O. Seubert redetermined this constant for platinum,
osmium and iridium; E. H. Reiser for palladium, and A. A.
Joly for ruthenium.

The beginning of the igth century witnessed the discovery
of certain powerful methods for the analysis of compounds and
the isolation of elements. Berzelius's investigation of the
action of the electric current on salts clearly demonstrated
the invaluable assistance that electrolysis could render to the
isolator of elements; and the adoption of this method by Sir
Humphry Davy for the analysis of the hydrates of the metals of
the alkalis and alkaline earths, and the results which he thus
achieved, established its potency. In 1808 Davy isolated
sodium and potassium; he then turned his attention to the
preparation of metallic calcium, barium, strontium and mag-
nesium. Here he met with greater difficulty, and it is to be
questioned whether he obtained any of these metals even in an
approximately pure form (see ELECTROMETALLURGY). The
discovery of boron by Gay Lussac and Davy in 1809 led
Berzelius to investigate silica (silex). In the following year he
announced that silica was the oxide of a hitherto unrecognized
element, which he named silicium, considering it to be a metal.
This has proved to be erroneous; it is non-metallic in character,
and its name was altered to silicon, from analogy with carbon
and boron. At the same time Berzelius obtained the element,
in an impure condition, by fusing silica with charcoal and iron
in a blast furnace; its preparation in a pure condition he first
accomplished in 1823, when he invented the method of heating

double potassium fluorides with metallic potassium. The
success which attended his experiments in the case of silicon led
him to apply it to the isolation of other elements. In 1824 he
obtained zirconium from potassium zirconium fluoride; the
preparation of (impure) titanium quickly followed, and in 1828
he obtained thorium. A similar process, and equally efficacious,
was introduced by F. Wohler in 1827. It consisted in heating
metallic chlorides with potassium, and was first applied to
aluminium, which was isolated in 1827; in the following year,
beryllium chloride was analysed by the same method, beryllium
oxide (berylla or glucina) having been known since 1798, when
it was detected by L. N. Vauquelin in the gem-stone beryl.

In 1812 B. Courtois isolated the element iodine from " kelp,"
the burnt ashes of marine plants. The chemical analogy of this
substance to chlorine was quickly perceived, especially after
its investigation by Davy and Gay Lussac. Cyanogen, a
compound which in combination behaved very similarly to
chlorine and iodine, was isolated in 1815 by Gay Lussac. This
discovery of the first of the then-styled " compound radicals "
exerted great influence on the prevailing views of chemical
composition. Hydrochloric acid was carefully investigated
at about this time by Davy, Faraday and Gay Lussac, its
composition and the elementary nature of chlorine being thereby
established.

In 1817 F. Stromeyer detected a new metallic element, cad-
mium, in certain zinc ores; it was rediscovered at subsequent
dates by other observers and its chemical resemblance to zinc
noticed. In the same year Berzelius discovered selenium in a
deposit from sulphuric acid chambers, his masterly investigation
including a study of the hydride, oxides and other compounds.
Selenic acid was discovered by E. Mitscherlich, who also observed
the similarity of the crystallographic characters of selenates
and sulphates, which afforded valuable corroboration of his doc-
trine of isomorphism. More recent and elaborate investigations
in this direction by A. E. H. Tutton have confirmed this view.

In 1818 L. J. Thenard discovered hydrogen dioxide, one of
the most interesting inorganic compounds known, which has
since been carefully investigated by H. E. Schone, M. Traube,
Wolfenstein and others. About the same time, J. A. Arfvedson,
a pupil of Berzelius, detected a new element, which he named
lithium, in various minerals — notably petalite. Although
unable to isolate the metal, he recognized its analogy to sodium
and potassium; this was confirmed by R. Bunsen and A.
Matthiessen in 1855, who obtained the metal by electrolysis
and thoroughly examined it and its compounds. Its crimson
flame-coloration was observed by C. G. Gmelin in 1818.

The discovery of bromine in 1826 by A. J. Balard completed
for many years Berzelius's group of " halogen " elements; the
remaining member, fluorine, notwithstanding many attempts,
remained unisolated until 1886, when Henri Moissan obtained
it by the electrolysis of potassium fluoride dissolved in hydro-
fluoric acid. Hydrobromic and hydriodic acids were investigated
by Gay Lussac and Balard, while hydrofluoric acid received
considerable attention at the hands of Gay Lussac, Thenard
and Berzelius. We may, in fact, consider that the descriptive
study of the various halogen compounds dates from about this
time. Balard discovered chlorine monoxide in 1834, investigat-
ing its properties and reactions; and his observations on hypo-
chlorous acid and hypochlorites led him to conclude that " bleach-
ing-powder " or " chloride of lime " was a compound or mixture
in equimolecular proportions of calcium chloride and hypo-
chlorite, with a little calcium hydrate. Gay Lussac investigated
chloric acid; Stadion discovered perchloric acid, since more
fully studied by G. S. Serullas and Roscoe; Davy and Stadion
investigated chlorine peroxide, formed by treating potassium
chlorate with sulphuric acid. Davy also described and partially
investigated the gas, named by him " euchlorine," obtained
by heating potassium chlorate with hydrochloric acid; this
gas has been more recently examined by Pebal. The oxy-acids
of iodine were investigated by Davy and H. G. Magnus; periodic
acid, discovered by the latter, is characterized by the striking
complexity of its salts as pointed out by Kimmins.

CHEMISTRY

[INORGANIC

In 1830 N. G. Sefstrom definitely proved the existence of a
metallic element vanadium, which had been previously detected
(in 1801) in certain lead ores by A. M. del Rio; subsequent
elaborate researches by Sir Henry Roscoe showed many in-
accuracies in the conclusions of earlier workers (for instance, the
substance considered to be the pure element was in reality an
oxide) and provided science with an admirable account of this
element and its compounds. B. W. Gerland contributed to our
knowledge of vanadyl salts and the vanadic acids. Chemically
related to vanadium are the two elements tantalum and colum-
bium or niobium. These elements occur in the minerals colum-
bite and tantalite, and their compounds became known in the
early part of the ipth century by the labours of C. Hatchett,
A. G. Ekeberg, W. H. Wollaston and Berzelius. But the
knowledge was very imperfect; neither was it much clarified
by H. Rose, who regarded niobium oxide as the element. The
subject was revived in 1866 by C. W. Blomstrand and J. C.
Marignac, to whom is due the credit of first showing the true
chemical relations of these elements. Subsequent researches by
Sainte Claire Deville and L. J. Troost, and by A. G. Kriiss and
L. E. Nilson, and subsequently (1904) by Hall, rendered notable
additions to our knowledge of these elements and their compounds.
Tantalum has in recent years been turned to economic service,
being employed, in the same manner as tungsten, for the pro-
duction of the filaments employed in incandescent electric
lighting.

In 1833 Thomas Graham, following the paths already traced
out by E. D. Clarke, Gay Lussac and Stromeyer, published his
masterly investigation of the various phosphoric acids and
their salts, obtaining results subsequently employed by J. von
Liebig in establishing the doctrine of the characterization and
basicity of acids. Both phosphoric and phosphorous acids
became known, although imperfectly, towards the end of the
i8th century; phosphorous acid was first obtained pure by
Davy in 1812, while pure phosphorous oxide, the anhydride
of phosphorous acid, remained unknown until T. E. Thorpe's
investigation of the products of the slow combustion of phos-
phorus. Of other phosphorus compounds we may here notice
Gengembre's discovery of phosphuretted hydrogen (phosphine)
in 1783, the analogy of which to ammonia was first pointed out
by Davy and supported at a later date by H. Rose; liquid
phosphuretted hydrogen was first obtained by Thenard in
1838; and hypophosphorous acid was discovered by Dulong
in 1816. Of the halogen compounds of phosphorus, the tri-
chloride was discovered by Gay Lussac and Thenard, while the
pentachloride was obtained by Davy. The oxychloride, bro-
mides, and other compounds were subsequently discovered;
here we need only notice Moissan's preparation of the trifluoride
and Thorpe's discovery of the pentafluoride, a compound of
especial note, for it volatilizes unchanged, giving a vapour of
normal density and so demonstrating the stability of a pentava-
lent phosphorus compound (the pentachloride and pentabromide
dissociate into a molecule of the halogen element and phosphorus
trichloride).

In 1840 C. F. Schonbein investigated ozone, a gas of peculiar
odour (named from the Gr. o£uv, to smell) observed in 1785 by
Martin van Marum to be formed by the action of a silent electric
discharge on the oxygen of the air; he showed it to be an
allotropic modification of oxygen, a view subsequently confirmed
by Marignac, Andrews and Soret. In 1 845 a further contribution
to the study of allotropy was made by Anton Schrotter, who
investigated the transformations of yellow and red phosphorus,
phenomena previously noticed by Berzelius, the inventor of the
term " allotropy." The preparation of crystalline boron in 1856
by Wohler and Sainte Claire Deville showed that this element
also existed in allotropic forms, amorphous boron having been
obtained simultaneously and independently in 1809 by Gay
Lussac and Davy. Before leaving this phase of inorganic
chemistry, we may mention other historical examples of allo-
tropy. Of great importance is the chemical identity of the
diamond, graphite and charcoal, a fact demonstrated in part by
Lavoisier in 1773, Smithson Tennant in 1796, and by Sir George

Steuart-Mackenzie (1780-1848), who showed that equal weights
of these three substances yielded the same weight of carbon
dioxide on combustion. The allotropy of selenium was first
investigated by Berzelius; and more fully in 1851 by J. W.
Hittorf, who carefully investigated the effects produced by heat;
crystalline selenium possesses a very striking property, viz.
when exposed to the action of light its electric conductivity
increases. Another element occurring in allotropic forms is
sulphur, of which many forms have been described. E. Mit-
scherlich was an early worker in this field. A modification
known as " black sulphur," soluble in water, was announced
by F. L. Knapp in 1848, and a colloidal modification was
described by H. Debus. The dynamical equilibrium between
rhombic, liquid and monosymmetric sulphur has been worked
out by H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom. The phenomenon of allo-
tropy is not confined to the non-metals, for evidence has been
advanced to show that allotropy is far commoner than hitherto
supposed. Thus the researches of Carey Lea, E. A. Schneider
and others, have proved the existence of " colloidal silver ";
similar forms of the metals gold, copper, and of the platinum
metals have been described. The allotropy of arsenic and
antimony is also worthy of notice, but in the case of the first
element the variation is essentially non-metallic, closely resemb-
ling that of phosphorus. The term allotropy has also been
applied to inorganic compounds, identical in composition, but
assuming different crystallographic forms. Mercuric oxide,
sulphide and iodide; arsenic trioxide; titanium dioxide and
silicon dioxide may be cited as examples.

The joint discovery in 1859 of the powerful method of spectrum
analysis (see SPECTROSCOPY) by G. R. Kirchhoff and R. W.
Bunsen, and its application to the detection and the characteriza-
tion of elements when in a state of incandescence, rapidly led
to the discovery of many hitherto unknown elements. Within
two years of the invention the authors announced the discovery
of two metals, rubidium and caesium, closely allied to sodium,
potassium and lithium in properties, in the mineral lepidolite
and in the Diirkheim mineral water. In 1861 Sir William Crookes
detected thallium (named from the Gr. ftiXXos, a green bud, on
account of a brilliant green line in its spectrum) in the selenious
mud of the sulphuric acid manufacture; the chemical affinities
of this element, on the one hand approximating to the metals
of the alkalis, and on the other hand to lead, were mainly
established by C. A. Lamy. Of other metals first detected by
the spectroscope mention is to be made of indium, determined
by F. Reich and H. T. Richter in 1863, and of gallium, detected
in certain zinc blendes by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875. The
spectroscope has played an all-important part in the character-
ization of the elements, which, in combination with oxygen,
constitute the group of substances collectively named the " rare
earths." The substances occur, in very minute quantity, in a
large number of sparingly-distributed and comparatively rare
minerals — euxenite, samarksite, cerite, yttrotantalite, &c.
Scandinavian specimens of these minerals were examined by
J. Gadolin, M. H. Klaproth, and especially by Berzelius; these
chemists are to be regarded as the pioneers in this branch of
descriptive chemistry. Since their day many chemists have
entered the lists, new and powerful methods of research have
been devised, and several new elements definitely characterized.
Our knowledge on many points, however, is very chaotic; great
uncertainty and conflict of evidence circulate around many of
the " new elements " which have been announced, so much so
that P. T. Cleve proposed to divide the " rare earth " metals into
two groups, (i) " perfectly characterized "; (2) " not yet
thoroughly characterized." The literature of this subject is
very large. The memorial address on J. C. G. de Marignac, a
noted worker in this field, delivered by Cleve, a high authority
on this subject, before the London Chemical Society (/. C. S.
Trans., 1895, p. 468), and various papers in the same journal
by Sir William Crookes, Bohuslav Brauner and others should
be consulted for details.

In the separation of the constituents of the complex mixture
of oxides obtained from the " rare earth " minerals, the methods

INORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

47

generally forced upon chemists are those of fractional precipita-
tion or crystallization; the striking resemblances of the com-
pounds of these elements rarely admitting of a complete separa-
tion by simple precipitation and filtration. The extraordinary
patience requisite to a successful termination of such an analysis
can only be adequately realized by actual research; an idea
may be obtained from Crookes's Select Methods in Analysis.
Of recent years the introduction of various organic compounds as
precipitants or reagents has reduced the labour of 'the process;
and advantage has also been taken of the fairly complex double
salts which these metals form with compounds. The purity of
the compounds thus obtained is checked by spectroscopic
observations. Formerly the spark- and absorption-spectra
were the sole methods available; a third method was introduced
by Crookes, who submitted the oxides, or preferably the basic
sulphates, to the action of a negative electric discharge in- vacua,
and investigated the phosphorescence induced spectroscopically.
By such a study in the ultra-violet region of a fraction prepared
from crude yttria he detected a new element victorium, and
subsequently by elaborate fractionation obtained the element
itself.

The first earth of this group to be isolated (although in an
impure form) was yttria, obtained by Gadolin in 1794 from the
mineral gadolinite, which was named after its discoverer and
investigator. Klaproth and Vauquelin also investigated this
earth, but without detecting that it was a complex mixture —
a discovery reserved for C. G. Mosander. The next discovery,
made independently and simultaneously in 1803 by Klaproth and
by W. Hisinger and Berzelius, was of ceria, the oxide of cerium,
in the mineral cerite found at Ridderhytta, Westmannland,
Sweden. These crude earths, yttria and ceria, have supplied
most if not all of the " rare earth " metals. In 1841 Mosander,
having in 1839 discovered a new element lanthanum in the
mineral cerite, isolated this element and also a hitherto un-
recognized substance, didymia, from crude yttria, and two years
later he announced the determination of two fresh constituents
of the same earth, naming them erbia and terbia. Lanthanum
has retained its elementary character, but recent attempts at
separating it from didymia have led to the view that didymium
is a mixture of two elements, praseodymium and neodymium
(see DIDYMIUM). Mosander's erbia has been shown to contain
various other oxides — thulia, holmia, &c. — but this has not yet
been perfectly worked out. In 1878 Marignac, having subjected
Mosander's erbia, obtained from gadolinite, to a careful examina-
tion, announced the presence of a new element, ytterbium;
this discovery was confirmed by Nilson, who in the following year
discovered another element, scandium, in Marignac's ytterbia.
Scandium possesses great historical interest, for Cleve showed
that it was one of the elements predicted by Mendeleeff about ten
years previously from considerations based on his periodic
classification of the elements (see ELEMENT). Other elements
predicted and characterized by Mendeleeff which have been
since realized are gallium, discovered in 1875, and germanium,
discovered in 1885 by Clemens Winkler.

In 1880 Marignac examined certain earths obtained from the
mineral samarskite, which had already in 1878 received attention
from Delafontaine and later from Lecoq de Boisbaudran. He
established the existence of two new elements, samarium and
gadolinium, since investigated more especially by Cleve, to whom
most of our knowledge on this subject is due. In addition to
the rare elements mentioned above, there are a score or so more
whose existence is doubtful. Every year is attended by fresh
" discoveries " in this prolific source of ejementary substances,
but the paucity of materials and the predilections of the investi-
gators militate in some measure against a just valuation being
accorded to such researches. After having been somewhat
neglected for the greater attractions and wider field pre-
sented by organic chemistry, the study of the elements
and their inorganic compounds is now rapidly coming into
favour; new investigators are continually entering the lists;
the beaten paths are being retraversed and new ramifications
pursued.

IV. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

While inorganic chemistry was primarily developed through
the study of minerals — a connexion still shown by the French
appellation chimie mintrale — organic chemistry owes its origin
to the investigation of substances occurring in the vegetable
and animal organisms. The quest of the alchemists for the
philosopher's stone, and the almost general adherence of the
iatrochemists to the study of the medicinal characters and
preparation of metallic compounds, stultified in some measure
the investigation of vegetable and animal products. It is true
that by the distillation of many herbs, resins and similar sub-
stances, several organic compounds had been prepared, and in a
few cases employed as medicines; but the prevailing classifica-
tion of substances by physical and, superficial properties led to
the correlation of organic and inorganic compounds, without
any attention being paid to their chemical composition. The
clarification and spirit of research so clearly emphasized by
Robert Boyle in the middle of the I7th century is reflected in
the classification of substances expounded by Nicolas L6mery,
in 1675, in his Cours de chymie. Taking as a basis the nature of
the source of compounds, he framed three classes: " mineral,"
comprising the metals, minerals, earths and stones; " vege-
table," comprising plants, resins, gums, juices, &c.; and
" animal," comprising animals, their different parts and excreta.
Notwithstanding the inconsistency of his allocation of substances
to the different groups (for instance, acetic acid was placed in
the vegetable class, while the acetates and the products of their
dry distillation, acetone, &c., were placed in the mineral class),
this classification came into favour. The phlogistonists en-
deavoured to introduce chemical notions to support it: Becher,
in his Physica subterranea (1669), stated that mineral, vegetable
and animal matter contained the same elements, but that more
simple combinations prevailed in the mineral kingdom; while
Stahl, in his Specimen Becherianum (1702), held the " earthy "
principle to predominate in the mineral class, and the " aqueous "
and " combustible " in the vegetable and animal classes. It
thus happened that in the earlier treatises on phlogistic chemistry
organic substances were grouped with all combustibles.

The development of organic chemistry from this time until
almost the end of the i8th century was almost entirely confined
to such compounds as had practical applications, especially in
pharmacy and dyeing. A new and energetic spirit was introduced
by Scheele; among other discoveries this gifted experimenter
isolated and characterized many organic acids, and proved the
general occurrence of glycerin (Olsuss) in all oils and fats.
Bergman worked in the same direction; while Rouelle was
attracted to the study of animal chemistry. Theoretical specula-
tions were revived by Lavoisier, who, having explained the nature
of combustion and determined methods for analysing com-
pounds, concluded that vegetable substances ordinarily contained
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, while animal substances generally
contained, in addition to these elements, nitrogen, and sometimes
phosphorus and sulphur. Lavoisier, to whom chemistry was
primarily the chemistry of oxygen compounds, having developed
the radical theory initiated by Guyton de Morveau, formulated
the hypothesis that vegetable and animal substances were oxides
of radicals composed of carbon and hydrogen; moreover, since
simple radicals (the elements) can form more than one oxide,
he attributed the same character to his hydrocarbon radicals:
he considered, for instance, sugar to be a neutral oxide and
oxalic acid a higher oxide of a certain radical, for, when oxidized
by nitric acid, sugar yields oxalic acid. At the same time, how-
ever, he adhered to the classification of Lemery; and it was
only when identical compounds were obtained from both vege-
table and animal sources that this subdivision was discarded, and
the classes were assimilated in the division organic chemistry.

At this time there existed a belief, held at a later date by
Berzelius, Gmelin and many others, that the formation of
organic compounds was conditioned by a so-called vital force;
and the difficulty of artificially realizing this action explained
the supposed impossibility of synthesizing organic compounds.

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

This dogma was shaken by Wohler's synthesis of urea in
1828. But the belief died hard; the synthesis of urea remained
isolated for many years; and many explanations were attempted
by the vitalists (as, for instance, that urea was halfway between
the inorganic and organic kingdoms, or that the carbon, from
which it was obtained, retained the essentials of this hypothetical
vital force), but only to succumb at a later date to the indubitable
fact that the same laws of chemical combination prevail in both
the animate and inanimate kingdoms, and that the artificial
or laboratory synthesis of any substance, either inorganic or
organic, is but a question of time, once its constitution is
determined.1

The exact delimitation of inorganic and organic chemistry
engrossed many minds for many years; and on this point there
existed considerable divergence of opinion for several decades.
In addition to the vitalistic doctrine of the origin of organic
compounds, views based on purely chemical considerations were
advanced. The atomic theory, and its correlatives — the laws
of constant and multiple proportions — had been shown to possess
absolute validity so far as well-characterized inorganic com-
pounds were concerned; but it was open to question whether
organic compounds obeyed the same laws. Berzelius, in 1813
and 1814, by improved methods of analysis, established that
the Daltonian laws of combination held in both the inorganic
and organic kingdoms; and he adopted the view of Lavoisier
that organic compounds were oxides of compound radicals, and
therefore necessarily contained at least three elements — carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. This view was accepted in 1817 by
Leopold Gmelin, who, in his Handbuch der Chemie, regarded
inorganic compounds as being of binary composition (the
simplest being oxides, both acid and basic, which by combination
form salts also of binary form), and organic compounds as
ternary, i.e. composed of three elements; furthermore, he
concluded that inorganic compounds could be synthesized,
whereas organic compounds could not. A consequence of this
empirical division was that marsh gas, ethylene and cyanogen
were regarded as inorganic, and at a later date many other
hydrocarbons of undoubtedly organic nature had to be included
in the same division.

The binary conception of compounds held by Berzelius received
apparent support from the observations of Gay Lussac, in 1815,
on the vapour densities of alcohol and ether, which pointed to
the conclusion that these substances consisted of one molecule
of water and one and two of ethylene respectively; and from
Pierre Jean Robiquet and Jean Jacques Colin, showing, in 1816,
that ethyl chloride (hydrochloric ether) could be regarded as
a compound of ethylene and hydrochloric acid.2 Compound
radicals came to be regarded as the immediate constituents of
organic compounds; and, at first, a determination of their
empirical composition was supposed to be sufficient to char-
acterize them. To this problem there was added another in
about the third decade of the ipth century — namely, to determine
the manner in which the atoms composing the radical were
combined; this supplementary requisite was due to the dis-
covery of the isomerism of silver fulminate and silver cyanate
by Justus von Liebig in 1823, and to M. Faraday's discovery of
butylene, isomeric with ethylene, in 1825.

The classical investigation of Liebig and Friedrich Wohler
on the radical of benzoic acid (" Uber das Radikal der Benzoe-
saure," Ann. Chem., 1832, 3, p. 249) is to be regarded as a most
important contribution to the radical theory, for it was shown
that a radical containing the elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, which they named benzoyl (the termination yl coming
from the Gr. OXij, matter), formed the basis of benzaldehyde,
benzoic acid, benzoyl chloride, benzoyl bromide and benzoyl
sulphide, benzamide and benzoic ether. Berzelius immediately
appreciated the importance of this discovery, notwithstanding

1 The reader is specially referred to the articles ALIZA RIN ; INDIGO ;
PURIN and TERPENES for illustrations of the manner in which
chemists have artificially prepared important animal and vegetable
products.

1 These observations were generalized by J. B. Dumas and
Polydore Boullay (1806-1835) in their " etherin theory " (vide infra).

that he was compelled to reject the theory that oxygen could
not play any part in a compound radical — a view which he
previously considered as axiomatic; and he suggested the
names " proin " or " orthrin " (from the Gr. irptai and 6p0pos,
at dawn). However, in 1833, Berzelius reverted to his earlier
opinion that oxygenated radicals were incompatible with his
electrochemical theory; he regarded benzoyl as an oxide of the
radical CnHio, which he named " picramyl " (from irucpfa,
bitter, and ayuirySaXij, almond), the peroxide being anhydrous
benzoic acid; and he dismissed the views of Gay Lussac and
Dumas that ethylene was the radical of ether, alcohol and ethyl
chloride, setting up in their place the idea that ether was a
suboxide of ethyl, (CzHj)^, which was analogous to KjO, while
alcohol was an oxide of a radical CjHe; thus annihilating any
relation between these two compounds. This view was modified
by Liebig, who regarded ether as ethyl oxide, and alcohol as the
hydrate. of ethyl oxide; here, however, he was in error, for he
attributed to alcohol a molecular weight double its true value.
Notwithstanding these errors, the value of the " ethvl theory "
was perceived; other radicals — formyl, methyl, amyl, acetyl,
&c. — were characterized; Dumas, in 1837, admitted the failure
of the etherin theory; and, in company with Liebig, he defined
organic chemistry as the "chemistry of compound radicals."
The knowledge of compound radicals received further increment
at the hands of Robert W. Bunsen, the discoverer of the cacodyl
compounds.

The radical theory, essentially dualistic in nature in view of
its similarity to the electrochemical theory of Berzelius, was
destined to succumb to a unitary theory. Instances had already
been recorded of cases where a halogen element replaced hydrogen
with the production of a closely allied substance: Gay Lussac
had prepared cyanogen chloride from hydrocyanic acid; Faraday,
hexachlorethane from ethylene dichloride, &c. Here the electro-
negative halogens exercised a function similar to electro-positive
hydrogen. Dumas gave especial attention to such substitutions,
named metakpsy GueraXr^is, exchange); and framed the
following empirical laws to explain the reactions: — (i) a body
containing hydrogen when substituted by a halogen loses one
atom of hydrogen for every atom of halogen introduced; (2) the
same holds if oxygen be present, except that when the oxygen
is present as water the latter first loses its hydrogen without
replacement, and then substitution according to (i) ensues.
Dumas went no further that thus epitomizing his observations;
and the next development was made in 1836 by Auguste Laurent,
who, having amplified and discussed the applicability of Dumas'
views, promulgated his Nucleus Theory, which assumed the
existence of " original nuclei or radicals " (radicaux or noyaux
fondamentaux) composed of carbon and hydrogen, and " derived
nuclei " (radicaux or noyaux derives) formed from the original
nuclei by the substitution of hydrogen or the addition of other
elements, and having properties closely related to the primary
nuclei.

Vigorous opposition was made by Liebig and Berzelius, the
latter directing his attack against Dumas, whom he erroneously
believed to be the author of what was, in his opinion, a pernicious
theory. Dumas repudiated the accusation, affirming that he
held exactly contrary views to Laurent; but only to admit
their correctness in 1839, when, from his own researches and
those of Laurent, Malaguti and Regnault, he formulated his
type theory. According to this theory a " chemical type "
embraced compounds containing the same number of equivalents
combined in a like manner and exhibiting similar properties;
thus acetic and trichloracetic acids, aldehyde and chloral, marsh
gas and chloroform are pairs of compounds referable to the same
type. He also postulated, with Regnault, the existence of
" molecular or mechanical types " containing substances which,
although having the same number of equivalents, are essentially
different in characters. His unitary conceptions may be sum-
marized: every chemical compound forms a complete whole,
and cannot therefore consist of two parts; and its chemical
character depends primarily upon the arrangement and number
of the atoms, and, in a lesser degree, upon their chemical nature.

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

49

More emphatic opposition to the dualistic theory of Berzelius
was hardly possible; this illustrious chemist perceived that the
validity of his electrochemical theory was called in question,
and therefore he waged vigorous war upon Dumas and his
followers. But he fought in a futile cause; to explain the facts
put forward by Dumas he had to invent intricate and involved
hypotheses, which, it must be said, did not meet with general
acceptance; Liebig seceded from him, and invited Wohler to
endeavour to correct him. Still, till the last Berzelius remained
faithful to his original theory; experiment, which he had hitherto
held to be the only sure method of research, he discarded, and
in its place he substituted pure speculation, which greatly injured
the radical theory. At the same time, however, the conception
of radicals could not be entirely displaced, for the researches of
Liebig and Wohler, and those made subsequently by Bunsen,
demonstrated beyond all doubt the advantages which would
accrue from theif correct recognition.

A step forward — the fusion of Dumas' type theory and the
radical theory — was made by Laurent and Charles Gerhardt.
As early as 1842, Gerhardt in his Prtcis de chimie organique
exhibited a marked leaning towards Dumas' theory, and it is
without doubt that both Dumas and Laurent exercised con-
siderable influence on his views. Unwilling to discard the strictly
unitary views of these chemists, or to adopt the copulae theory
of Berzelius, he revived the notion of radicals in a new form.
According to Gerhardt, the process of substitution consisted
of the union of two residues to form a unitary whole; these
residues, previously termed " compound radicals," are atomic
complexes which remain over from the interaction of two
compounds. Thus, he interpreted the interaction of benzene
and nitric acid as C,H6+HNO3= C6H6NO2+H2O, the "residues"
of benzene being CisH5 and H, and of nitric acid HO and NOj.
Similarly he represented the reactions investigated by Liebig
and Wohler on benzoyl compounds as double decompositions.

This rejuvenation of the notion of radicals rapidly gained
favour; and the complete fusion of the radical theory with the
theory of types was not long delayed. In 1849 C. A. Wurtz
discovered the amines or substituted ammonias, previously
predicted by Liebig; A. W. von Hofmann continued the investi-
gation, and established their recognition as ammonia in which
one or more hydrogen atoms had been replaced by hydrocarbon
radicals, thus formulating the " ammonia type." In 1850
A. W. Williamson showed how alcohol and ether were to be
regarded as derived from water by substituting one or both
hydrogen atoms by the ethyl group; he derived acids and the
acid anhydrides from the same type; and from a comparison
of many inorganic and the simple organic compounds he con-
cluded that this notion of a " water-type " clarified, in no small
measure, the conception of the structure of compounds.

These conclusions were co-ordinated in Gerhardt's " new
theory of types." Taking as types hydrogen, hydrochloric acid,
water and ammonia, he postulated that all organic compounds
were referable to these four forms: the hydrogen type included
hydrocarbons, aldehydes and ke tones; the hydrochloric acid
type, the chlorides, bromides and iodides; the water type, the
alcohols, ethers, monobasic acids, acid anhydrides, and the
analogous sulphur compounds; and the ammonia type, the
amines, acid-amides, and the analogous phosphorus and arsenic
compounds. The recognition of the polybasicity of acids,
which followed from the researches of Thomas Graham and
Liebig, had caused Williamson to suggest that dibasic acids could
be referred to a double water type, the acid radical replacing an
atom of hydrogen in each water molecule; while his discovery
of tribasic formic ether, CH(OC2HJ3, in 1854 suggested a triple
water type. These views were extended by William Odling, and
adopted by Gerhardt, but with modifications of Williamson's
aspects. A further generalization was effected by August
Kekule, who rejected the hydrochloric acid type as unnecessary,
and introduced the methane type and condensed mixed types.
Pointing out that condensed types can only be fused with a
radical replacing more than one atom of hydrogen, he laid the
foundation of the doctrine of valency, a doctrine of incalcul-

able service to the knowledge of the structure of chemical
compounds.

At about the same time Hermann Kolbe attempted a re-
habilitation, with certain modifications, of the dualistic con-
ception of Berzelius. He rejected the Berzelian tenet as to the
unalterability of radicals, and admitted that they exercised a
considerable influence upon the compounds with which they were
copulated. By his own investigations and those of Sir Edward
Frankland it was proved that the radical methyl existed in
acetic acid; and by the electrolysis of sodium acetate, Kolbe
concluded that he had isolated this radical; in this, however,
he was wrong, for he really obtained ethane, CjHj, and not
methyl, CH3. From similar investigations of valerianic acid
he was led to conclude that fatty acids were oxygen compounds
of the radicals hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, &c., combined with the
double carbon equivalent Cj. Thus the radical of acetic acid,
acetyl,1 was C2H3-C2. (It will be noticed that Kolbe used the
atomic weights H=i, C = 6, O = 8, S=i6, &c.; his formulae,
however, were molecular formulae, i.e. the molecular weights
were the same as in use to-day.) This connecting link, Cz, was
regarded as essential, while the methyl, ethyl, &c. was but a
sort of appendage; but Kolbe could not clearly conceive the
manner of copulation.

The brilliant researches of Frankland on the organo-metallic
compounds, and his consequent doctrine of saturation capacity
or valency of elements and radicals, relieved Kolbe's views of
all obscurity. The doctrine of copulae was discarded, and in
1859 emphasis was given to the view that all organic compounds
were derivatives of inorganic by simple substitution processes.
He was thus enabled to predict compounds then unknown,
e.g. the secondary and tertiary alcohols; and with inestimable
perspicacity he proved intimate relations between compounds
previously held to be quite distinct. Lactic acid and alanine
were shown to be oxy- and amino-propionic acids respectively;
glycollic acid and glycocoll, oxy- and amino-acetic acids; salicylic
and benzamic acids, oxy- and amino-benzoic acids.

Another consequence of the doctrine of valency was that it
permitted the graphic representation of the molecule. The
" structure theory " (or the mode of linking of the atoms) of
carbon compounds, founded by Butlerow, Kekule and Couper
and, at a later date, marvellously enhanced by the doctrine of
stereo-isomerjsm, due to J. H. van't Hoff and Le Bel, occupies
such a position in organic chemistry that its value can never
be transcended. By its aid the molecule is represented as a
collection of atoms connected together by valencies in such a
manner that the part played by each atom is represented;
isomerism, or the existence of two or more chemically different
substances having identical molecular weights, is adequately
shown; and, most important of all, once the structure is
determined, the synthesis of the -compound is but a matter of
time.

In this summary the leading factors which have contributed
to a correct appreciation of organic compounds have so far been
considered historically, but instead of continuing this method it
has been thought advisable to present an epitome of present-day
conclusions, not chronologically, but as exhibiting the principles
and subject-matter of our science.

Classification of Organic Compounds.

An apt definition of organic chemistry is that it is " the study
of the hydrocarbons and their derivatives." This description,
although not absolutely comprehensive, serves as a convenient
starting-point for a preliminary classification, since a great
number of substances, including the most important, are directly
referable to hydrocarbons, being formed by replacing one or
more hydrogen atoms by other atoms or groups. Two distinct
types of hydrocarbons exist: (i) those consisting of an open
chain of carbon atoms — named the " aliphatic series " (&\(i<pap,
oil or fat), and (2) those consisting of a closed chain — the
" carbocyclic series." The second series can be further divided

1 This must not be confused with the modern acetyl, CHj-CO,
which at that time was known as acetoxyl.

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

into two groups: (i) those exhibiting properties closely analo-
gous to the aliphatic series — the polymethylenes (q.v.), and (2)
a series exhibiting properties differing in many respects from the
aliphatic and polymethylene compounds, and characterized by
a peculiar stability which is to be associated with the disposi-
tion of certain carbon valencies not saturated by hydrogen —
the " aromatic series." There also exists an extensive class of
compounds termed the " heterocyclic series " — these compounds
are derived from ring systems containing atoms other than
carbon; this class is more generally allied to the aromatic
series than to the aliphatic.

We now proceed to discuss the types of aliphatic compounds;
then, the characteristic groupings having been established, an
epitome of their derivatives will be given. Carbocyclic rings
will next be treated, benzene and its allies in some detail; and
finally the heterocyclic nuclei.

Accepting the doctrine of the tetravalency 06 carbon (its
divalency in such compounds as carbon monoxide, various
isocyanides, fulminic acid, &c., and its possible trivalency in
M. Gomberg's triphenyl-methyl play no part in what follows),
it is readily seen that the simplest hydrocarbon has the formula
CH», named methane, in which the hydrogen atoms are of
equal value, and which may be pictured as placed at the vertices
of a tetrahedron, the carbon atom occupying the centre. This
tetrahedral configuration is based on the existence of only one
methylene dichloride, two being necessary if the carbon valencies
were directed from the centre of a plane square to its corners,
and on the existence of two optical isomers of the formula
C.A.B.D.E., C being a carbon atom and A.B.D.E. being different
monovalent atoms or radicals (see STEREO-!SOMERISM). The
equivalence of the four hydrogen atoms of methane rested on
indirect evidence, e.g. the existence of only one acetic acid,
methyl chloride, and other monosubstitution derivatives — until
the experimental proof by L. Henry (Zeit. f. Phys. Chem., 1888,
2. P- 553), who prepared the four nitromethanes, CH3N2O, each
atom in methane being successively replaced by the nitro-group.

Henry started with methyl iodide, the formula of which we write
in the form C\,Hi,lieHd. This readily gave with silver nitrite a
nitromethane in which we may suppose the nitro-group to replace
the a hydrogen atom, i.e. C(NO2)<.Hi,HcH<f. The same methyl iodide
gave with potassium cyanide, acetonitril, which was hydrolysed to
acetic acid; this must be C(COOH}«H!,H(;H<i. Chlorination of this
substance gave a monochloracetic acid ; we will assume the chlorine
atom to replace the b hydrogen atom. This acid with silver nitrite
gave nitroacetic acid, which readily gave the second nitromethane,
CHatNO^HcHd, identical with the first nitromethane. From the
nitroacetic acid obtained above, malonic acid was prepared, and
from this a monochlormalonic acid was obtained ; we assume the
chlorine atom to replace the c hydrogen atom. This acid gives with
silver nitrite the corresponding nitromalonic acid, which readily
yielded the third nitromethane, CHaH6(NO2)cH<i, also identical with
the first. The fourth nitromethane was obtained from the nitro-
malonic acid previously mentioned by a repetition of the method
by which the third was prepared ; this was identical with the other
three.

Let us now consider hydrocarbons containing 2 atoms of
carbon. Three such compounds are possible according to the
number of valencies acting directly between the carbon atoms.
Thus, if they are connected by one valency, and the remaining
valencies saturated by hydrogen, we obtain the compound
H3C-CH3, ethane. This compound may be considered as
derived from methane, CH4, by replacing a hydrogen atom by
the monovalent group CHa, known as methyl; hence ethane
may be named " methylmethane." If the carbon atoms are
connected by two valencies, we obtain a compound H2C:CH2,
ethylene; if by three valencies, HCiCH, acetylene. These last
two compounds are termed unsaturated, whereas ethane is
saturated. It is obvious that we have derived three combinations
of carbon with hydrogen, characterized by containing a single,
double, and triple linkage; and from each of these, by the
substitution of a methyl group for a hydrogen atom, compounds
of the same nature result. Thus ethane gives H3C-CH2-CH3,
propane; ethylene gives H2C:CH-CH3, propylene; and acety-
lene gives HC • C-CH3, allylene. By continuing the introduction
of methyl groups we obtain three series of homologous hydro-

carbons given by the general formulae CBH2n+2, CnH*,, and
CnH2n-2, each member differing from the preceding one of the
same series by CHj. It will be noticed that compounds contain-
ing two double linkages will have the same general formula as
the acetylene series; such compounds are known as the " diole-
fines." Hydrocarbons containing any number of double or
triple linkages, as well as both double and triple linkages, are
possible, and a considerable number of such compounds have
been prepared.

A more complete idea of the notion of a compound radical follows
from a consideration of the compound propane. We derived this
substance from ethane by introducing a methvl group; hence it
may be termed " methylethane." Equally well we may derive it
from methane by replacing a hydrogen atom by the monovalent
group CHj-CHs, named ethyl; hence propane may be considered
as " ethylmethane." Further, since methane may be regarded as
formed by the conjunction of a methyl group with a hydrogen atom,
it may be named "methyl hydride"; similarly ethane is "ethyl
hydride," propane, " propyl hydride," and so on. The importance
of such groups as methyl, ethyl, &c. in attempting a nomenclature
of organic compounds cannot be overestimated ; these compound
radicals, frequently termed alkyl radicals, serve a similar purpose to
the organic chemist as the elements to the inorganic chemist.

In methane and ethane the hydrogen atoms are of equal value,
and no matter which one may be substituted by another element
or group the same compound will result. In propane, on the
other hand, the hydrogen atoms attached to the terminal
carbon atoms differ from those joined to the medial atom; we
may therefore expect to obtain different compounds according
to the position of the hydrogen atom substituted. By intro-
ducing a methyl group we may obtain CH3- CH2- CH2- CH»,
known as " normal " or n-butane, substitution occurring at a
terminal atom, or CH3-CH(CH3)-CH3, isobutane, substitution
occurring at the medial atom. From n-butane we may derive,
by a similar substitution of methyl groups, the two hydrocarbons:

(1) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3, and (2) CH3-CH(CH,)-CH2-CH3;
from isobutane we may also derive two compounds, one identical
with (2), and a new one (3) CH3(CH3)C(CH3)CH3. These
three hydrocarbons are isomeric, i.e. they possess the same
formula, but differ in constitution. We notice that they may
be differentiated as follows: (i) is built up solely of methyl and
•CH2- (methylene) groups and the molecule consists of a single
chain; such hydrocarbons are referred to as being normal;

(2) has a branch and contains the group- CH (methine) in which
the free valencies are attached to carbon atoms; such hydro-
carbons are termed secondary or iso-; (3) is characterized by a
carbon atom linked directly to four other carbon atoms; such
hydrocarbons are known as tertiary.

Deferring the detailed discussion of cyclic or ringed hydro-
carbons, a correlation of the various types or classes of compounds
which may be derived from hydrocarbon nuclei will now be given.
It will be seen that each type depends upon a specific radical
or atom, and the copulation of this character with any hydro-
carbon radical (open or cyclic) gives origin to a compound of
the same class.

It is convenient first to consider the effect of introducing one,
two, or three hydroxyl (OH) groups into the -CH3, > CH2, and
>-CH groups, which we have seen to characterize the different
types of hydrocarbons. It may be noticed here that cyclic
nuclei can only contain the groups > CH2. and >• CH, the first
characterizing the polymethylene and reduced heterocyclic
compounds, the second true aromatic compounds.

Substituting one hydroxyl group into each of these residues, we
obtain radicals of the type-CH2-OH, >CH-OH, and >C-OH;
these compounds are known as alcohols (q.v.), and are termed primary,
secondary, and tertiary respectively. Polymethylenes can give only
secondary and tertiary alcohols, benzene only tertiary ; these latter
compounds are known as phenols. A second hydroxyl group may be
introduced into the residues -CH2-OH and >CH-OH, with the
production of radicals of the form -CH(OH)2 and >C(OH)2.
Compounds containing these groupings are, however, rarely observed
(see CHLORAL), and it is generally found that when compounds of
these types are expected, the elements of water are split off, and the
typical groupings are reduced to — CH : O and > C : O. Compounds
containing the group — CH:O are known as aldehydes (q.v.), while
the group >C:O (sometimes termed the carbonyl or keto group)
characterizes the ketones (q.v.). A third hydroxyl group may be

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

introduced into the — CH : O residue with the formation of the radical
— C(OH):O; this is known as the carboxyl group, and characterizes
the organic acids.

Sulphur analogues of these oxygen compounds are known. Thus
the thio-alcohols or mercaptans (q.v.) contain the group — CHj-SH;
and the elimination of the elements of sulphuretted hydrogen
between two molecules of a thio-alcohol results in the formation of a
thio-ether or sulphide, RzS. Oxidation of thio-etbers results in the
formation of sulphoxides, R2:S:O, and sulphones, R2:SO2;
oxidation of mercaptans yields sulphonic acids, R-SOsH, and of
sodium mercaptides sulphinic acids, R-Sp(OH). We may also
notice that thio-ethers combine with alkyl iodides to form sulphine
or sulphonium compounds, Ra • SI. Thio-aldehydes, thio-ketones
and thio-acids also exist.

We proceed to consider various simple derivatives of the
alcohols, which we may here regard as hydroxy hydrocarbons,
R-OH, where R is an alkyl radical, either aliphatic or cyclic in
nature.

Of these, undoubtedly the simplest are the ethers (q.v.), formed by
the elimination of the elements of water between two molecules of
the same alcohol, " simple ethers," or of different alcohols, " mixed
ethers." These compounds may be regarded as oxides in just the
same way as the alcohols are regarded as hydroxides. In fact, the
analogy between the alkyl groups and metallic elements forms a
convenient basis from which to consider many derivatives. Thus
from ethyl alcohol there can be prepared compounds, termed esters
(q.v.), or ethereal salts, exactly comparable in structure with corres-
ponding salts of, say, potassium; by the action of the phosphorus
haloids, the hydroxyl group is replaced by a halogen atom with the
formation of derivatives of the type R-Cl(Br,I); nitric acid forms
nitrates, R-O-NO2; nitrous acid, nitrites, R-O-NO; sulphuric acid
gives normal sulphates R2SO4, or acid sulphates, R-SO4H. Organic
acids also condense with alcohols to form similar compounds: the
fats, waxes, and essential oils are naturally occurring substances of
this class.

An important class of compounds, termed amines (q.v.), results
from the condensation of alcohols with ammonia, water being
eliminated between the alcoholic hydroxyl group and a hydrogen
atom of the ammonia. Three types of amines are possible and have
been prepared: primary, R-NH2; secondary, R2: NH; and tertiary,
R3:N;the examines, R3N:O, are closely related to the tertiary
ammonias, which also unite with a molecule of alkyl iodide to form
salts of quaternary ammonium bases, e.g. R»N-I. It is worthy of
note that phosphorus and arsenic bases analogous to the amines
are known (see PHOSPHORUS and ARSENIC). From the primary
amines are derived the diazo compounds (q.v.) and azo compounds
(q.v.); closely related are the hydrazines (q.v.). Secondary amines
yield nitrosamines, R2N-NO, with nitrous acid. By the action of
hydroxylamine or phenylhydrazine on aldehydes or ketones, con-
densation occurs between the carbonyl oxygen of the aldehyde or
ketone and the amino group of the hydroxylamine or hydrazine.
Thus with hydroxylamine aldehydes yield aldoximes, R-CH : N-OH,
and ketones, ketoximes, R2C:N-OH (see OXIMES), while phenyl
hydrazine gives phenylhydrazones, R2C:N-NH-CeH5 (see HYDRA-
ZONES). _ Oxyaldehydes and oxyketones (viz. compounds containing
an oxy in addition to an aldehydic or ketonic group) undergo
both condensation and oxidation when treated with phenylhydrazine,
forming compounds known as osozones; these are of great import-
ance in characterizing the sugars (q.v.).

The carboxyl group constitutes another convenient starting-
point for the orientation of many types of organic compounds.
This group may be considered as resulting from the fusion of a
carbonyl (:CO) and a hydroxyl (HO-) group; and we may
expect to meet with compounds bearing structural resemblances
to the derivatives of alcohols and aldehydes (or ketones).

Considering derivatives primarily concerned with transformations
of the hydroxyl group, we may regard our typical acid as a fusion
of a radical R-CO — (named acetyl, propionyl, butyl, &c., generally
according to the name of the hydrocarbon containing the same
number of carbon atoms) and a hydroxyl group. By replacing the
hydroxyl group by a halogen, acid-haloids result ; by the elimination
of the elements of water between two molecules, acid-anhydrides,
which may be oxidized to acid-peroxides; by replacing the hydroxyl
group by the group -SH, thio-acids; by replacing it by the amino
group, acid-amides (q.v.); by replacing it by the group — NH-NHj,
acid-hydra zides. The structural relations of these compounds are
here shown :

R-CO-OH; R-CO-C1; (R-CO)2O; R-CO-SH;

acid; acid-chloride; acid-anhydride; thio-acid;

R-CO-NH,; R-CO-NH-NH2.

acid-amide ; acid-hydrazide.

It is necessary clearly to distinguish such compounds as the
amino- (or amido-) acids and acid -amides; in the first case the
amino group is substituted in the hydrocarbon residue, in the second
it is substituted in the carboxyl group.

By transformations of the carbonyl group, and at the same time
of the hydroxyl group, many interesting types of nitrogen com-
pounds may be correlated.

Thus from the acid-amides, which we have seen to be closely related
to the acids themselves, we obtain, by replacing the carbonyl oxygen
by chlorine, the acidamido-chlorides, R-CClj-NHj, from which are
derived the imido-chlorides, R-CC1:NH, by loss of one molecule of
hydrochloric acid. By replacing the chlorine in the imido-chloride
by an oxyalkyl group we obtain the imido-ethers, R-C(OR'):NH;
and by an amino group, the amidines, R-C(NH»):NH. The
carbonyl oxygen may also be replaced by the oxime group, : N-OH ;
thus the acids yield the hydroxamic acids, R-C(OH) : NOH, and the
acid-amides the amidoximes, R-C(NH2) : NOH. Closely related to
the amidoximes are the nitrolic acids, R-C(NO2):NOH.

Cyclic Hydrocarbons and Nuclei.

Having passed in rapid review the various types of compounds
derived by substituting for hydrogen various atoms or groups of
atoms in hydrocarbons (the separate articles on specific com-
pounds should be consulted for more detailed accounts), we now
proceed to consider the closed chain compounds. Here we meet
with a great diversity of types: oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and
other elements may, in addition to carbon, combine together in a
great number of arrangements to form cyclic nuclei, which
exhibit characters Closely resembling open-chain compounds in
so far as they yield substitution derivatives, and behave as
compound radicals. In classifying closed chain compounds, the
first step consists in dividing them into: (i) carbocyclic, in which
the ring is composed solely of carbon atoms — these are also
known as homocyclic or isocyclic on account of the identity of the
members of the ring — and (2) heterocyclic, in which different
elements go to make up the ring. Two primary divisions of
carbocyclic compounds may be conveniently made: (i) those
in which the carbon atoms are completely saturated — these are
known by the generic term polymethylenes, their general formula
being (CH2)n: it will be noticed that they are isomeric with
ethylene and its homologues; they differ, however, from this
series in not containing a double linkage, but have a ringed
structure; and (2) those containing fewer hydrogen atoms than
suffice to saturate the carbon valencies — these are known as the
aromatic compounds proper, or as benzene compounds, from the
predominant part which benzene plays in their constitution.

It was long supposed that the simplest ring obtainable con-
tained six atoms of carbon, and the discovery of trimethylene
in 1 88 2 by August Freund by the action of sodium on trimethylene
bromide, Br(CH2)3Br, came somewhat as a surprise, especially
in view of its behaviour with bromine and hydrogen bromide.
In comparison with the isomeric propylene, CH3-HC:CH2, it is
remarkably inert, being only very slowly attacked by bromine,
which readily combines with propylene. But on the other hand,
it is readily converted by hydrobromic acid into normal propyl
bromide, CH3-CH2-CH2Br. The separation of carbon atoms
united by single affinities in this manner at the time the observa-
tion was made was altogether without precedent. A similar
behaviour has since been noticed in other trimethylene deri-
vatives, but the fact that bromine, which usually acts so much
more readily than hydrobromic acid on unsaturated compounds,
should be so inert when hydrobromic acid acts readily is one still
needing a satisfactory explanation. A great impetus was given to
the study of polymethylene derivatives by the important and
unexpected observation made by W. H. Perkin, junr., in 1883,
that ethylene and trimethylene bromides are capable of acting
in such a way on sodium acetoacetic ester as to form tri- and tetra •
methylene rings. Perkin has himself contributed largely to our
knowledge of such compounds; penta- and hexa-methylene
derivatives have also received considerable attention (see
POLYMETHYLENES) .

A. von Baeyer has sought to explain the variations in stability
manifest in the various polymethylene rings by a purely
mechanical hypothesis, the " strain " or Spannungs theory
(Ber., 1885, p. 2277). Assuming the four valencies of the
carbon atom to be directed from the centre of a regular tetra-
hedron towards its four corners, the angle at which they meet
is 109° 28'. Baeyer supposes that in the formation of carbon

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

" rings " the valencies become deflected from their positions, and
that the tension thus introduced may be deduced from a com-
parison of this angle with the angles at which the strained
valencies would meet. He regards the amount of deflection as
a measure of the stability of the " ring." The readiness with
which ethylene is acted on in comparison with other types of
hydrocarbon, for example, is in harmony, he considers, with
the circumstance that the greatest distortion must be involved
in its formation, as if deflected into parallelism each valency will
be drawn out of its position through ^.109° 28'. The values in
other cases are calculable from the formula $(109° 28'— a), where
a is the internal angle of the regular polygon contained by sides
equal in number to the number of the carbon atoms composing
the ring. These values are: —

Trimethylene. Tetramethylene.

i(i09°28'-6o°)=24044'. $(109° 28' -90*) =9° 44'.

Pentamethylene. Hexamethylene.

|(I09° 28'-io8°)=o° 44'. i(i09° 28' -120°) = -5° 16'.

The general behaviour of the several types of hydrocarbons is
certainly in accordance with this conception, and it is a remark-
able fact that when benzene is reduced with hydriodic acid, it is
converted into a mixture of hexamethylene and methylpenta-
methylene (cf. W. Markownikov, Ann., 1898, 302, p. i); and
many other cases of the conversion of six-carbon rings into five-
carbon rings have been recorded (see below, Decompositions of
the Benzene Ring). Similar considerations will apply to rings
containing other elements besides carbon. As an illustration it
may be pointed out that in the case of the two known types of
lactones — the 7-lactones, which contain four carbon atoms and
one oxygen atom in the ring, are more readily formed and more
stable (less readily hydrolysed) than the 5-lactones, which
contain one oxygen and five carbon atoms in the ring. That the
number of atoms which can be associated in a ring by single
affinities is limited there can be no doubt, but there is not yet
sufficient evidence to show where the limit must be placed. Baeyer
has suggested that his hypothesis may also be applied to explain
the instability of acetylene and its derivatives, and the still
greater instability of the polyacetylene compounds.

Benzene.

The ringed structure of benzene, C6H6, was first suggested in
1865 by August Kekule, who represented the molecule by six
CH groups placed at the six angles of a regular hexagon, the sides
of which denoted the valencies saturated by adjacent carbon
atoms, the fourth valencies of each carbon atom being represented
as saturated along alternate sides. This formula, notwithstand-
ing many attempts at both disproving and modifying it, has well
stood the test of time; the subject has been the basis of constant
discussion, many variations have been proposed, but the original
conception of Kekule remains quite as convenient as any of the
newer forms, especially when considering the syntheses and
decompositions of the benzene complex. It will be seen, however,
that the absolute disposition of the fourth valency may be
ignored in a great many cases, and consequently the complex may
be adequately represented as a hexagon. This symbol is in
general use; it is assumed that at each corner there is a CH
group which, however, is not always written in; if a hydrogen
atom be substituted by another group, then this group is
attached to the corner previously occupied by the displaced
hydrogen. The following diagrams illustrate these statements : — •

CH C-OH OH

HCPr n Hcfr n

HCI^CH L^ HCH^CH (^1

CH CH

Benzene, Ac*r«vuted.Oxytcn«ne. Abbreviated.

From the benzene nucleus we can derive other aromatic nuclei,
graphically represented by fusing two or more hexagons along
common sides. By fusing two nuclei we obtain the formula of
naphthalene, CioH8 ; by fusing three, the hydrocarbons anthracene
and phenanthrene, Ci4Hio; by fusing four, chrysene, CisHij, and
possibly pyrene, Ci«Hw; by fusing five, picene, C«Hu. But it
must be here understood that each member of these condensed nuclei
need not necessarily be identical in structure; thus the central
nuclei in anthracene and phenanthrene differ very considerably
from the terminal nuclei (see below, Condensed Nuclei). Other

com-
pound*.

hydrocarbon nuclei generally classed as aromatic in character result
from the union of two or more benzene nuclei joined by one or two
valencies with polymethylene or oxidized polymethylene rings;
instances of such nuclei are indene, hydrindene, nuorene, and fluor-
anthene. From these nuclei an immense number of derivatives may
be obtained, for the hydrogen atoms may be substituted by any
of the radicals discussed in the preceding section on the classification
of organic compounds.

We now proceed to consider the properties, syntheses, decom-
positions and constitution of the benzene complex. It has
already been stated that benzene derivatives may be Distlat-
regarded as formed by the replacement of hydrogen tioas
atoms by other elements or radicals in exactly the Jjf/^'fc
same manner as in the aliphatic series. Important aaj
differences, however, are immediately met with aromatic
when we consider the methods by which derivatives
are obtained. For example: nitric acid and sulphuric
acid readily react with benzene and its homologues with the
production of nitro derivatives and sulphonic acids, while in the
aliphatic series these acids exert no substituting action (in the
case of the olefines, the latter acid forms an addition product) ;
another distinction is that the benzene complex is more stable
towards oxidizing agents. This and other facts connected with
the stability of benzenoid compounds are clearly shown when
we consider mixed aliphatic-aromatic hydrocarbons, i.e. com-
pounds derived by substituting aliphatic radicals in the benzene
nucleus; such a compound is methylbenzene or toluene,
This compound is readily oxidized to benzoic acid,
the aromatic residue being unattacked; nitric
and sulphuric acids produce nitro-toluenes, CsHrCHj-NOz,
and toluene sulphonic acids, CeHcCHs-SOaH; chlorination
may result in the formation of derivatives substituted either
in the aromatic nucleus or in the side chain; the former substitu-
tion occurs most readily, chlor-toluenes, C6H4-CH3-C1, being
formed, while the latter, which needs an elevation in temperature
or other auxiliary, yields benzyl chloride, CeHs-CHjCl, and
benzal chloride, C6H6-CHC12. In general, the aliphatic residues
in such mixed compounds retain the characters of their class,
while the aromatic residues retain the properties of benzene.

Further differences become apparent when various typical
compounds are compared. The introduction of hydroxyl
groups into the benzene nucleus gives rise to compounds generic-
ally named phenols, which, although resembling the aliphatic
alcohols in their origin, differ from these substances in their
increased chemical activity and acid nature. The phenols
more closely resemble the tertiary alcohols, since the hydroxyl
group is linked to a carbon atom which is united to other carbon
atoms by its remaining three valencies; hence on oxidation they
cannot yield the corresponding aldehydes, ketones or acids
(see below, Decompositions of the Benzene Ring). The amines
also exhibit striking differences: in the aliphatic series these
compounds may be directly formed from the alkyl haloids and
ammonia, but in the benzene series this reaction is quite im-
possible unless the haloid atom be weakened by the presence of
other substituents, e.g. nitro groups. Moreover, while methyl-
amine, dimethylamine, and trimethylamine increase in basicity
corresponding to the introduction of successive methyl groups,
phenylamine or aniline, diphenylamine, and triphenylamine
are in decreasing order of basicity, the salts of diphenylamine
being decomposed by water. Mixed aromatic-aliphatic amines,
both secondary and tertiary, are also more strongly basic than
the pure aromatic amines, and less basic than the true aliphatic
compounds; e.g. aniline, CeHeNHj, monomethyl aniline,
C6H5-NH-CH3, and dimethyl aniline, C6H6-N(CH3)2, are in
increasing order of basicity. These observations may be sum-
marized by saying that the benzene nucleus is more negative
in character than the aliphatic residues.

Isomerism- of Benzene Derivatives. — Although Kekule founded
his famous benzene formula in 1865 on the assumptions that
the six hydrogen atoms in benzene are equivalent and that the
molecule is symmetrical, i.e. that two pairs of hydrogen atoms
are symmetrically situated with reference to any specified
hydrogen atom, the absolute demonstration of the validity of

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

53

these assumptions was first given by A. Ladenburg in 1874
(see Ber., 1874, 7, p. 1684; 1875, 8, p. 1666; Theorie der
aromatischen V erbindungen, 1876). These results may be
graphically represented as follows: numbering the hydrogen
atoms in cyclical order from i to 6, then the first thesis demands
that whichever atom is substituted the same compound results,
while the second thesis points out that the pairs 2 and 6, and 3
and 5 are symmetrical with respect to i, or in other words, the
di-substitution derivatives 1.2 and 1.6, and also 1.3 and 1.5 are
identical. Therefore three di-derivatives are possible, viz.
1.2 or 1.6, named art ho- (o), 1.3 or 1.5, named meta- (m), and
1.4, named para- compounds (/>). In the same way it may be
shown that three tri-substitution, three tetra-substitution, one
penta-substitution, and one hexa-substitution derivative are
possible. Of the tri-substitution derivatives, i.2.3.-compounds
are known as " adjacent " or " vicinal " (?), the 1.2.4 as " asym-
metrical " (as), the 1.3.5 as " symmetrical " (s); of the tetra-
substitution derivatives, i.2.3.4-compounds are known as
" adjacent," 1.2.3.5 as " asymmetrical," and 1.2.4.5 as " sym-
metrical."

Dtslerivatlves

Tri- derivatives

Tetra- derivatives

0

X XXX

o m p v as f v as s

Here we have assumed the substituent groups to be alike;
when they are unlike, a greater number of isomers is possible.
Thus in the tri-substitution derivatives six isomers, and no
more, are possible when two of the substituents are alike; for
instance, six diaminobenzoic acids, CaHsCNHz^COOH, are
known; when all are unlike ten isomers are possible; thus,
ten oxytoluic acids, C6H3-CH3-OH-COOH, are known. In the
case of tetra-substituted compounds, thirty isomers are possible
when all the groups are different.

The preceding considerations render it comparatively easy to
follow the reasoning on which the experimental verification of the

above statements is based. The proof is divided into two

ya'. parts: (i) that four hydrogen atoms are equal, and (2)

enceo that two pairs of hydrogen atoms are symmetrical with

~* reference toa specified hydrogen atom. In the first thesis,

phenol or oxybenzene,C«Hs-OH, in which we will assumethe
hydroxyl group to occupy position i, is converted into brombenzene,
which is then converted into benzoic acid, C6Hi-COOH. From this
substance, an oxybenzoic acid (meta-), CsHi-OH-COOH, may be
prepared; and the two other known oxybenzoic acids (ortho- and
para-) may be converted into benzoic acid. These three acids yield
on heating phenol, identical with the substance started with, and
since in the three oxybenzoic acids the hydroxyl groups must occupy
positions other than i, it follows that four hydrogen atoms are equal
in value.

R. Httbner and A. Petermann (Ann., 1869, 149, p. 129) provided

the proof of the equivalence of the atoms 2 and 6 with respect

„ _ to i. From meta-brombenzoicacid two nitrpbrombenzoic

f"aln ot ac'ds are obtained on direct nitration ; elimination of the

"hydrogen Drom'ne atom and the reduction of the nitro to an amino

group in these two acids resultsin the formation of the same

ortho-aminobenzoicacid. Hence the positionsoccupied by
the nitro groups in the two different nitrobrombenzoic acids must be
symmetrical with respect to the carboxyl group. In 1879, Hubner
(Ann., 195, p. 4) proved the equivalence of the second pair, viz.
3 and 5> by starting out with ortho-aminobenzoic acid, previously
obtained by two different methods. This substance readily yields
ortho-pxybenzoic acid or salicylic acid, which on nitration yields two
mononitro-pxybenzoic acids. By eliminating the hydroxy groups
in these acids the same nitrobenzoic acid is obtained, which yields
on reduction an aminobenzoic acid different from the starting-out
acid. Therefore there must be another pair of hydrogen atoms,
other than 2 and 6, which are symmetrical with respect to i. The
symmetry of the second pair was also established in 1878 by E.
Wroblewsky (Ann., 192, p. 196).

Orientation of Substituent Groups. — The determination of the
relative positions of the substituents in a benzene derivative
constitutes an important factor in the general investigation
of such compounds. Confining OUT attention, for the present, to
di-substitution products we see that there are three distinct
series of compounds to be considered. Generally if any group
be replaced by another group, then the second group enters the
nucleus in the position occupied by the displaced group; this

means that if we can definitely orientate three di-derivatives
of benzene, then any other compound, which can be obtained
from or converted into one of our typical derivatives, may be
definitely orientated. Intermolecular transformations — migra-
tions of substituent groups from one carbon atom to another —
are of fairly common occurrence among oxy compounds at
elevated temperatures. Thus potassium ortho-oxybenzoate is
converted into the salt of para-oxybenzoic acid at 220°; the
three bromphenols, and also the brombenzenesulphonic acids,
yield m-dioxybenzene or resorcin when fused with potash. It is
necessary, therefore, to avoid reactions involving such inter-
molecular migrations when determining the orientation of
aromatic compounds.

Such a series of typical compounds are the benzene dicarboxylic
acids (phthalic acids), C«H4(COOH),. C. Graebe (Ann., 1869, 149,
p. 22) orientated the ortho-compound or phthalic acid from its
formation from naphthalene on oxidation; the meta-compound or
isophthalic acid is orientated by its production from mesitylene,
shown by A. Ladenburg (Ann., 1875, 179, p. 163) to be symmetrical
trimethyl benzene; terephthalic acid, the remaining isomer, must
therefore be the para-compound.

P. Griess (Ber., 1872, 5, p. 192; 1874, 7, p. 1223) orientated the
three diaminobenzenes or phenylene diamines by considering their
preparation by the elimination of the carboxyl group in the six
diaminobenzoic acids. The diaminobenzene resulting from two of
these acids is the ortho-compound; from three, the meta-; and
from one the para- ; this is explained by the following scheme : —

NH3

NH,

NHS

Nil,

NHi

CT-

W. Korner (Gazz. Chem. Ital., 4, p. 305) in 1874 orientated the
three dibrpmbenzenes in a somewhat similar manner. Starting with
the three isomeric compounds, he found that one gave two tribrom-
benzenes, another gave three, while the third gave only one. A
scheme such as the preceding one shows that the first dibrombenzene
must be the ortho-compound, the second the meta-, and the third
the para-derivative. Further research in this direction was made by
D. E. Noetling (Ber., 1885, 18, p. 2657), who investigated the nitro-,
amino-, and oxy-xylenes in their relations to the three xylenes or
dimethyl benzenes.

The orientation of higher substitution derivatives is determined
by considering the di- and tri-substitution compounds into which
they can be transformed.

Substitution of the Benzene Ring. — As a general rule, homologues
and mono-derivatives of benzene react more readily with sub-
stituting agents than the parent hydrocarbon; for example,
phenol is converted into tribromphenol by the action of bromine
water, and into the nitrophenols by dilute nitric acid; similar
activity characterizes aniline. Not only does the substituent
group modify the readiness with which the derivative is attacked,
but also the nature of the product. Starting with a mono-
derivative, we have seen that a substituent group may enter
in either of three positions to form an ortho-, meta-, or para-
compound. Experience has shown that such mono-derivatives
as nitro compounds, sulphonic acids, carboxylic acids, aldehydes,
and ketones yield as a general rule chiefly the meta-compounds,
and this is independent of the nature of the second group in-
troduced; on the other hand, benzene haloids, amino-,
homologous-, and hydroxy-benzenes yield principally a mixture
of the ortho- and para-compounds. These facts are embodied
in the " Rule of Crum Brown and J. Gibson " (Jour. Chem. Soc.
61, p. 367): If the hydrogen compound of the substituent
already in the benzene nucleus can be directly oxidized to the
corresponding hydroxyl compound, then meta-derivatives
predominate on further substitution, if not, then ortho- and para-
derivatives. By further substitution of ortho- and para-di-
derivatives, in general the same tri-derivative [1.2.4] is formed
(Ann., 1878, 192, p. 219); meta-compounds yield [1.3.4] and
[1.2.3] tri-derivatives, except in such cases as when both sub-
stituent groups are strongly acid, e.g. m-dinitrobenzene, then
[i-3-Sl-derivatives are obtained.

Syntheses of the Benzene Ring.^- The characteristic distinctions

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

which exist between aliphatic and benzenoid compounds make
the transformations of one class into the other especially
interesting.

In the first place we may notice a tendency of several aliphatic
compounds, e.g. methane, tetrachlormethane, &c., to yield aromatic
compounds when subjected to a high temperature, tha so-called
pyrogenetic reactions (from Greek tnp, fire, and ytvviua, I produce) ;
the predominance of benzenoid, and related compounds — naphtha-
lene, anthracene, phenanthrene, &c. — in coal-tar is probably to be
associated with similar pyrocondensations. Long-continued treat-
ment with halogens may, in some cases, result in the formation of
aromatic compounds; thus perchlorbenzene, C«C16, frequently
appears as a product of exhaustive chlorination, while hexyl iodide,
CeHiiI, yields perchlor- and perbrom-benzene quite readily.

The trimolecular polymerization of numerous acetylene com-
pounds— substances containing two trebly linked carbon atoms,
— C:C — , to form derivatives of benzene is of considerable interest.
M. P. E. Berthelot first accomplished the synthesis of benzene in
1870 by leading acetylene, HC • CH, through tubes heated to dull
redness; at higher temperatures the action becomes reversible,
the benzene yielding diphenyl, diphenylbenzene, and acetylene.
The condensation of acetylene to benzene is also possible at ordinary
temperatures by leading the gas over pyrophoric iron, nickel,
cobalt, or spongy platinum (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens).
The homologues of acetylene condense more readily ; thus allylene,
CH ; C-CH3, and crotonylene, CH,-C : C-CH3, yield trimethyl- and
hexamethyl-benzene under the influence of sulphuric acid. Toluene
or mono-methylbenzene results from the pyrocondensation of a
mixture of acetylene and allylene. Substituted acetylenes also
exhibit this form of condensation; for instance, bromacetylene,
BrC : CH, is readily converted into tribrombenzene, while propiolic
acid, HC : C-COOH, under the influence of sunlight, gives benzene
tricarboxylic acid.

A larger and more important series of condensations may be
grouped together as resulting from the elimination of the elements
of water between carbonyl (CO) and methylene (CH2) groups.
A historic example is that of the condensation of three molecules of
acetone, CHj-CO-CHs, in the presence of sulphuric acid, to s-tri-
methylbenzene or mesitylene, C6H3(CH3)3, first observed in 1837 by
R. Kane; methylethyl ketone and methyl-n-propyl ketone suffer
similar condensations to j-triethylbenzene and i-tn-n-propylbenzene
respectively. Somewhat similar condensations are : of geranial or
citral. (CH3)2CH-CH2-CH:CH-C(CH3):CH-CHO, to £-isopropyl-
methylbenzene or cymene; of the condensation product of methyl-
ethylacrolein and acetone, CH3-CH2-CH:C(CH3)-CH:CH-CO-CH3,
to [I. 3. 4]-trimethylbenzene or pseudocumene; and of the con-
densation product of two molecules of isovaleryl aldehyde with one
of acetone, C3H7-CH2-CH:C(C3H7)-CH:CH-CO-CH3> to (i)-methyl-
2-4-di-isopropyl benzene. An analogous synthesis is that of di-
hydro-m-xylenefrommethylheptenone,(CH3)2C:CH-(CH2)2-CO-CH8.
Certain o-diketones condense to form benzenoid quinones, two
molecules of the diketone taking part in the reaction; thus diacetyl,
CHs-CO-CO-CHj, yields />-xyloquinone, C6H2(CH3)2O2 (Ber., 1888,

21, p. 1411), and acetylpropionyl, CHs-CO-CO-CzHs, yields duro-
quinone, or tetramethylquinone, C6(CH3)4O2, Oxymethylene com-
pounds, characterized by the grouping >C:CH(OH), also give
benzene derivatives by hydrolytic condensation between three
molecules; thus oxy methylene acetone, or formyl acetone,
CHs-CO-CH :CH (OH) , formed by acting on formic ester with acetone
in the presence of sodium ethylate, readily yields [i.3.5]-triacetyl-
benzene, C«H3(CO-CH3)3; oxymethylene acetic ester or formyl
acetic ester or 0-oxyacrylic ester, (HO)CH:CH-CO2C?H6, formed by
condensing acetic ester with formic ester, and also its dimolecular
condensation product, coumalic acid, readily yields esters of [1.3.5]-
benzene tricarboxylic acid or trimesic acid (see Ber., 1887, 20,
p. 2930).

In 1890, 0. Doebner (Ber. 23, p. 2377) investigated the condensation
of pyroracemic acid, CH3'CO-COOH, with various aliphatic alde-
hydes, and obtained from two molecules of the acid and one of the
aldehyde in the presence of baryta water alkylic isophthalic acids :
with acetaldehyde [i.3.5]-methylisophthalic acid or uvitic acid,
CdH3-CH8-(COOH)2, was obtained, with propionic aldehyde [1.3.5]-
ethylispphthalic acid, and with butyric aldehyde the corresponding
propylisophthalic acid. We may here mention the synthesis of
oxyuvitic ester (5-methyl-4-oxy-i-3-benzene dicarboxylic ester) by
the condensation of two molecules of sodium acetoacetic ester
with one of chloroform (Ann., 1883, 222, p. 249). Of other
syntheses of true benzene derivatives, mention may be made of
the formation of orcinol or [3'5]-dioxytoluene from dehydracetic
acid; and the formation of esters of oxytoluic acid (5-methyl-
3-oxy-benzoic acid), C«H3-CH3-OH-COOH,when acetoneoxalic ester,
CHs-CO-CHj-CO-CO-COijCjHj, is boiled with baryta (Ber., 1889,

22, p. 3271). Of interest also are H. B. Hill and J. Torray's observa-
tions on nitromalonic aldehyde, NO2-CH(CHO)2,formed by acting on
mucobromic acid, probably CHO-CBr:CBr:COOH, with alkaline
nitrites; this substance condenses with acetone to give ^-nitrophenol,
and forms [i.3.s]-trinitrobenzene when its sodium salt is decomposed
with an acid.

By passing carbon monoxide over heated potassium J. von Liebig

discovered, in 1834, an interesting aromatic compound, potassium
carbon monoxide or potassium hexaoxybenzene, the nature of
which was satisfactorily cleared up by R. Nietzki and T. Benckiser
(Ber. 1 8, p. 499) in 1885, who showed that it yielded hexaoxy-
benzene, C»(pH)«, when acted upon with dilute hydrochloric acid;
further investigation of this compound brought to light a consider-
able number of highly interesting derivatives (see QUINONES).
Another hexa-substituted benzene compound capable of direct
synthesis is mellitic acid or benzene carboxylic acid, Ce(COOH)6.
This substance, first obtained from the mineral honeystone, alu-
minium mellitate, by M. H. Klaproth in 1799, is obtained when pure
carbon (graphite or charcoal) is oxidized by alkaline permanganate,
or when carbon forms the positive pole in an electrolytic cell (Ber.,
1883, 16, p. 1209). The composition of this substance was deter-
mined by A. von Baeyer in 1870, who obtained benzene on distilling
the calcium salt with lime.

Hitherto we have generally restricted ourselves to syntheses
which result in the production of a true benzene ring; but there
are many reactions by which reduced benzene rings are synthesized,
and from the compounds so obtained true benzenoid compounds
may be prepared. Of such syntheses we may notice: the con-
densation of sodium malonic ester to phloroglucin tricarboxyKc
ester, a substance which gives phloroglucin or trioxybenzene when
fused with alkalis, and behaves both as a triketohexamethylene
tricarboxylic ester and as a trioxybenzene tricarboxylic ester; the
condensation of succinic ester, (CH2-CO*C2Hj)2, under the influence
of sodium to succinosuccinic ester, a diketohexamethylene di-
carboxylic ester, which readily yields dioxyterephthalic acid and
hydroquinone (F. Herrmann, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 306; also see below,
Configuration of the Benzene Complex) ; the condensation of acetone
dicarboxylic ester with malonic ester to form triketohexamethylene
dicarboxylic ester (E. Rimini, Gazz. Chem., 1896, 26, (2), p. 374);
the condensation of acetone-di-propionic acid under the influence
of boiling water to a diketohexamethylene propionic acid (von
Pechmann and Sidgwick, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 3816). Many diketo
compounds suffer condensation between two molecules to form
hydrobenzene derivatives; thus a,-y-di-acetoglutaric ester,
C2H6O2C(CH,-CO)CH-CH2-CH(CO-CH3)CO2C2H6, yields a methyl-
ketohexamethylene,while7-acetobutyricester,CHsCO(CH2)2CO2C2Hj,
is converted into dihydroresorcinol or w-diketohexamethylene by
sodium ethylate; this last reaction is reversed by baryta (see De-
compositions of Benzene Ring). For other syntheses of hexamethylene
derivatives, see POLYMETHYLENES.

Decompositions of the Benzene Ring. — We have previously
alluded to the relative stability of the benzene complex; con-
sequently reactions which lead to its disruption are all the more
interesting, and have engaged the attention of many chemists.
If we accept Kekule's formula for the benzene nucleus, then we
may expect the double linkages to be opened up partially, either
by oxidation or reduction, with the formation of di-, tetra-, or
hexa-hydro derivatives, or entirely, with the production of open
chain compounds. Generally rupture occurs at more than one
point; and rarely are the six carbon 'atoms of the complex
regained as an open chain. Certain compounds withstand ring
decomposition much more strongly than others; for instance,
benzene and its homologues, carboxylic acids, and nitro com-
pounds are much more stable towards oxidizing agents than
amino- and oxy-benzenes, aminophenols, quinones, and oxy-
carboxylic acids.

Strong oxidation breaks the benzene complex into stfch compounds
as carbon dioxide, oxalic acid, formic acid, &c. ; such decompositions
are of little interest. More important are Kekule's Simpie
observations that nitrous acid oxidizes pyrocatechol or oxiaatloa.
[i.2]-dioxybenzene, and protocatechuic acid or [3.4]-
dioxybenzoic acid to dioxytartaric acid, (C(OH)2-COOH)2 (Ann.,
1883, 221, p. 230); and O. Doebner's preparation of mesotartaric
acid, the internally compensated tartaric acid, (CH(OH)-COOH)i,
by oxidizing phenol with dilute potassium permanganate (Ber., 1891,

24, p. 1753)-

For many years it had been known that a mixture of potassium
chlorate and hydrochloric or sulphuric acids possessed strong
oxidizing powers. L. Carius showed that potassium _ . .
chlorate and sulphuric acid oxidized benzene to trichlor- Jj£"
phenomalic acid, a substance afterwards investigated by .«-<;„„
Kekule and O. Strecker (Ann., 1884, 223, p. 170), and
shown to be 0-trichloracetoacrylic acid, CCl.-CO-CH :CH-COOH.
which with baryta gave chloroform and maleic acid. Potassium
chlorate and hydrochloric acid oxidize phenol, salicylic acid (o-oxy-
benzoic acid), and gallic acid ([2.3.4] trioxybenzoic acid) to tri-
chlorpyroracemic acid (isotrichlorglyceric acid), CC13-C(OH)2-CO2H,
a substance also obtained from trichloracetonitrile, CCls-CO-CN, by
hydrolysis. We may also notice the conversion of picric acid.
[2.4.6]-trinitrophenol) into chloropicrin, CChNOj, by bleaching lime
(calcium hypochlorite), and into bromopicrin, CBr3NO2, by bromine
water.

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

55

The action of chlorine upon di- and tri-pxybenzenes has been
carefully investigated by Th. Zincke; and his researches have led
to the discovery of many chlorinated oxidation products which admit
of decomposition into cyclic compounds containing fewer carbon
atoms than characterize the benzene ring, and in turn yielding open-
chain or aliphatic compounds. In general, the rupture occurs
between a keto group (CO) and a keto-chloride group (CC12), into
which two adjacent carbon atoms of the ring are converted by the
oxidizing and substituting action of chlorine. Decompositions of
this nature were first discovered in the naphthalene series, where it
was found that derivatives of indene (and of hydrindene and indone)
and also of benzene resulted; Zincke then extended his methods to
the disintegration of the oxybenzenes and obtained analogous
results, R-pentene and aliphatic derivatives being formed (R-
symbolizing a ringed nucleus).

When treated with chlorine, pyrocatechol (1.2 or ortho-dioxy-
benzene) (l) yields a tetrachlpr ortho-quinone, which suffers further
chlorination to hexachlor-o-diketo-R-hexene (2). This substance is
transformed into hexachlor-R-pentene oxycarboxylic acid (3) when
digested with water; and chromic acid oxidizes this substance to
hexachlor-R-pentene (4). The ring of this compound is ruptured by
caustic soda with the formation of perchlprvinyl acrylic acid (5),
which gives on reduction ethidine propionic acid (6), a compound
containing five of the carbon atoms originally in the benzene ring
(see Zincke, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 3364) (the carbon atoms are omitted in
some of the formulae).

OOH __
OH.

OH. C,o
CI-

ci

Ci

CI,

CCI
C COH

jH CH COjH
~

"cci.

CH3

(')

CI

(3) (4) <S> («)

Resorcin (1.3 or meta dioxybenzene) (i) is decomposed in a
somewhat similar manner. Chlorination in glacial acetic acid
solution yields pentachlor-m-diketo-R-hexene (2) and, at a later
stage, heptachlor-m-diketo-R-hexene (3). These compounds are
both decomposed by water, the former giving dichloraceto-trichlor-
crotonic acid (4), which on boiling with water gives dichlormethyl-
vinyl-a-diketone (5). The heptacnlor compound when treated with
chlorine water gives trichloraceto-pentachlorbutyric acid (6), which
is hydrolysed by alkalis to chloroform and pentachlorglutaric acid
(7^, and is converted by boiling water into tetrachlor-diketo-R-
pentene (8). This latter compound may be chlorinated to
perchloracetoacrylic chloride (9), from which the corresponding acid
(10) is obtained by treatment with water; alkalis hydrolyse the acid
to chloroform and dichlormaleic acid (n).

OH

0--

^C13,

I

(3)

r HO,C.CCI-CHCI-CCI,-CO-CCI,

HO2OCCl:CH-CCl2-CO-CHCIj . * (6) I

I (4)

CO2+C1HC:CH-CO-CO-CHCI2
(5)

HOjC-CClj-CHCl-CCl^COjH+CHCI.,
(7)

CO-CC1..

C1OC-CC1: CCI-CO-CCU— I ^CO (8)

. (9) CC1-CCK

HO2C-CCI:CC1-CO-CCI3 — - HO2C-CCI:CCI-CO2H+CHCl3
do) (n)

Hydroquinone (1.4 or para-dioxybenzene) (i) gives with chlorine,
first, a tetrachlorquinone (2), and then hexachlor-p-diketo-R-hexene
(3), which alcoholic potash converts into perchloracroylacrylic acid
(4). This substance, and also the preceding compound, is converted
by aqueous caustic soda into dichlormaleic acid, trichlorethylene,
and hydrochloric acid (5) (Th. Zincke and O. Fuchs, Ann., 1892,
267, p. i).

&.

-^ C'||1CI — C'|T|Cl2

at/ci ciLJa,

COOH

cic.

CO

CO.,H

CHCI

(«) <») (3) (4) (5)

Phlproglucin (i.3.5-trioxybenzene) (i) behaves similarly to
resorcin, hexachlor [1.3.5] triketo-R-hexylene (2) being first formed.
This compound is converted by chlorine water into octachloracetyl-
acetone (3) ; by methyl alcohol into the ester of dichlormalonic acid
and tetrachloracetone (4) ; whilst ammonia gives dichloracetamide
(5) (Th. Zincke and O. Kegel, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1706).

0
OH

-c'f>v:

ok^o
ci,

(4) Cl3HC-CO-CHCI,,+CH.i02C-CCl!iC0.1-CH.I
C12HC-CONH,

<0

When phenol is oxidized in acid solution by chlorine, tetrachlor-
quinone is obtained, a compound also obtainable from hydroquinone.
By conducting the chlorination in alkaline solution, n»dlJcWo
A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1889, 22, p. 1238) succeeded in ob- t ikallnt
taining derivatives of o-diketo-R-hexene, which yield TO/U</01|;
R-pentene and aliphatic compounds on decomposition.
When thus chlorinated phenol (i) yields trichlor-o-diketo-R-hexene
(2), which may be hydrolysed to an acid (3), which, in turn,
suffers rearrangement to trichlor-R-pentene-oxycarboxylic acid (4).
Bromine water oxidizes this substance to oxalic acid and tetrabrom-
dichloracetone (5).

OH o HOOC _. _ lC-OH

Ocij^No HCI2Ci NCO 'pCOOH ClaBrC-CO-CBr3t

H^Hr Hcl^JcH,"* "CVf CHj " HOaC-CO,H

CI
(»)

CCI
(3)

(i) (») (3) (4) (S)

The reduction of o-pxybenzoic acids by sodium in amyl alcohol
solution has been studied by A. Einhorn and J. S. Lumsden (Ann.,
1895, 286, p. 257). It is probable that tetrahydro acids are first
formed, which suffer rearrangement to orthoketpne carboxylic acids.
These substances absorb water and become pimelic acids. Thus
salicylic acid yields n-pimelic acid, HOOC-(CH,)»-COOH, while o-,
m-, and p-cresotinic acids, CeHj(CH8)(OH)(COOH), yield isomeric
methylpimelic acids.

Resorcin on reduction gives dihydroresorcin, which G. Merling
(Ann., 1894, 278, p. 20) showed to be converted into n-glutaric acid,
HOOC'(CH2)3-COOH, when oxidized with potassium permanganate;
according to D. Vorlander (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2348) it is converted
into -x-acetobutyric acid, CHjCO-(CH2)3-COOH, when heated with
baryta to 150-160°.

Configuration of the Benzene Complex. — The development of
the " structure theory " in about 1860 brought in its train an
appreciation of the chemical structure of the derivatives of
benzene. The pioneer in this field was August Kekule, who,
in 1865 (Ann., 137, p. 129; see also his Lehrbuch der organischen
Chemie), submitted his well-known formula for benzene, so
founding the " benzene theory " and opening up a problem
which, notwithstanding the immense amount of labour since
bestowed upon it, still remains imperfectly solved. Arguing
from the existence of only one mono-substitution derivative,
and of three di-derivatives (statements of which the rigorous
proof was then wanting), he was led to arrange the six carbon
atoms in a ring, attaching a hydrogen atom to each carbon
atom; being left with the fourth carbon valencies, he mutually
saturated these in pairs, thus obtaining the symbol I (see below).
The value of this ringed structure was readily perceived, but
objections were raised with respect to Kekule's disposal of the
fourth valencies. In 1866 Sir James Dewar proposed an un-
symmetrical form (II); while in 1867, A. Claus (Theorelische
Betrachtungen und deren A nwendung zur Systematik der organischen
Chemie) proposed his diagonal formula (III), and two years
later, A. Ladenburg (Ber., 2, p. 140) devised his prism formula
(IV), the six carbon atoms being placed at the six corners of a
right equilateral triangular prism, with its plane projections
(V, VI).

CH CH

t HCfTlCH

CH

I KekuU

Ladenburg

One of the earliest and strongest objections urged against Kekuld's
formula was that it demanded two isomeric prtho-di-substitution
derivatives; for if we number the carbon atoms in cyclical
order from I to 6, then the derivatives 1 .2 and 1 .6 should Objection*
be different.1 Ladenburg submitted that if the 1-2 and toKetult's
i .6 compounds were identical, then we should expect the formula.
two well-known crotonic acids, CHj-CH : CH-COOH and
CH2: CH-CH2-COOH, to be identical. This view was opposed by
Victor Meyer and Kekule1. The former pointed out that the supposed
isomerism was not due to an arrangement of atoms, but to the dis-
position of a valency, and therefore it was doubtful whether such a
subtle condition could exert any influence on the properties of the
substance. Kekuld answered Ladenburg by formulating a dynamic
interpretation of valency. He assumed that if we have one atom

1 It is now established that ortho compounds do exist in isomeric
forms, instances being provided by chlor-, brom-, and amino-toluene,
chlorphenol, and chloraniline; but arguments, e.g. E. Knoevenagel's
theory of " motoisomerism," have been brought forward to cause
these facts to support Kekule.

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

connected by single bonds to (say) four other atoms, then in a certain
unit of time it will collide with each of these atoms in turn. Now
suppose two of the attached atoms are replaced by one atom, then
this atom must have two valencies directed to the central atom;
and consequently, in the same unit of time, the central atom will
collide once with each of the two monovalent atoms and twice with
the divalent. Applying this notion to benzene, let us consider the
impacts made by the carbon atom (i) which we will assume to be
doubly linked to the carbon atom (2) and singly linked to (6), h
standing for the hydrogen atom. In the first unit of time, the
impacts are 2, 6, h, 2 ; and in the second 6, 2, h, 6. If we represent
graphically the impacts in the second unit of time, we perceive that
they point to a configuration in which the double linkage is between
the carbon atoms I and 6, and the single linkage between I and 2.
Therefore, according to KekuI6, the double linkages are in a state of
continual oscillation, and if his dynamical notion of valency, or a
similar hypothesis, be correct, then the difference between the 1.2
and 1.6 di-derivatives rests on the insufficiency of his formula,
which represents the configuration during one set of oscillations only.
The difference is only apparent, not real. An analogous oscillation
prevails in the pyrazol nucleus, for L. Knorr (Ann., 1894, 279, p. 188)
has shown that 3- and 5-methylpyrazols are identical.

The explanation thus attempted by Kekul6 was adversely criti-
cized, more especially by A. Ladenburg, who devoted much attention
to the study of the substitution products of benzene, and

Laden- tQ t^e suppOrt of h;s own formula. His views are presented
I in his pamphlet : Theorie der aromatischen Verbindungen,

burg's

1876. The prism formula also received support from the
following data : protocatechuic acid when oxidized by nitrous acid
gives carboxytartronic acid, which, on account of its ready de-
composition into carbon dioxide and tartronic acid, was considered
to be HO-C(COOH)3. This implied that in the benzene complex
there was at least one carbon atom linked to three others, thus
rendering Kekul6's formula impossible and Ladenburg's and Claus'
possible. Kekule1 (Ann., 1883, 221, p. 230), however, reinvestigated
this acid; he showed that it was dibasic and not tribasic; that it
gave tartaric acid on reduction; and, finally, that it was dioxy-
tartaric acid, HOOC-C(OH)2-C(OH)2-COOH. The formation of
this substance readily follows from Kekul6's formula, while con-
siderable difficulties are met with when one attempts an explanation
based on Ladenburg's representation. Kekute also urged that the
formation of trichlorphenomalic acid, shown by him and O. Strecker
to be trichloracetoacrylic acid, was more favourably explained by
his formula than by Ladenburg's.

Other objections to Ladenburg's formula resulted from A. von
Baeyer's researches (commenced in 1886) on the reduced phthalic
acids. Baeyer pointed out that although benzene deri-
Baeyer's vatives were obtainable from hexamethylene compounds,
researches. yet jt ^y no means follows that only hexamethylene
compounds need result when benzene compounds are reduced. He
admitted the possibility of the formulae of Kekule', Claus, Dewar
and Ladenburg, although as to the last di-trimethylene derivatives
should be possible reduction products, being formed by severing
two of the prism edges ; and he attempted to solve the problem by a
systematic investigation of the reduced phthalic acids.

Ladenburg's prism admits of one mono-substitution derivative
and three di-derivatives. Furthermore, it is in accordance with
certain simple syntheses of benzene derivatives (e.g. from acetylene
and acetone); but according to Baeyer (Ber., 1886, 19, p. 1797)
it fails to explain the formation of dioxyterephthalic ester from
succinosuccinic ester, unless we make the assumption that the
transformation of these substances is attended by a migration of the
substituent groups. For succinosuccinic ester, formed by the action
of sodium on two molecules of succinic ester, haseitherof theformulae
(I) or (II) ; oxidation of the free acid gives dioxyterephthalic acid in
which the para-positions must remain substituted as in (I) and (II).
By projecting Ladenburg's prism on a plane and numbering the
atoms so as to correspond with Kekule' 's form, viz. that 1.2 and 1.6
should be ortho-positions, 1.3 and 1.5 meta-, and 1.4 para-, and
following out the transformation on the Ladenburg formula, then
an ortho-dioxyterephthalic acid (IV) should result, a fact denied
by experience, and inexplicable unless we assume a wandering of
atoms. Kekute's formula (III), on the other hand, is in full agree-
ment (Baeyer). This explanation has been challenged by Ladenburg

CO

C-OH

HcX\CH-CO,Et

C-OH

CO

C-OH

Et HcXNc-COjEt
~KtO,C-cLJcH

(i)OH

cH

C-OH

(4)H

(Ber., 1886, 19, p. 971 ; Ber., 1887, 20, p. 62) and by A. K. Miller
(J.C.S. Trans., 1887, p. 208). The transformation is not one of the
oxidation of a hexamethylene compound to a benzenoid compound,
for only two hydrogen atoms are removed. Succinosuccinic ester
behaves both as a ketone and as a phenol, thereby exhibiting
desmotropy; assuming the ketone formula as indicating the con-
stitution, then in Baeyer's equation we have a migration of a
hydrogen atom, whereas to bring Ladenburg's formula into line,
an oxygen atom must migrate.

The relative merits of the formulae of Kekuld, Claus and Dewar
were next investigated by means of the reduction products of benzene,
it being Baeyer's intention to detect whether double linkages were
or were not present in the benzene complex.

To follow Baeyer's results we must explain his nomenclature of
the reduced benzene derivatives. We numbers the carbon atoms
placed at the corners of a hexagon from I to 6, and each side in the
same order, so that the carbon atoms I and 2 are connected by the
side i, atoms 2 and 3 by the side 2, and so on. A doubly linked pair
of atoms is denoted by the sign A with the index corresponding to
the side; if there are two pairs of double links, then indices corre-
sponding to both sides are employed. Thus A* denotes a tetrahydro
derivative in which the double link occupies the side I ; A1-3, a
dihydro derivative, the double links being along the sides i and 3.
Another form of isomerism is occasioned by spatial arrangements,
many of the reduced terephthalic acids existing in two stereo-isomeric
forms. Baeyer explains this by analogy with fumaric and maleic
acids: he assumes the reduced benzene ring to lie in a, plane; when
both carboxyl groups are on the same side of this plane, the acids,
in general, resemble maleic acids, these forms he denotes by Tcis-cis,
or shortly cis-; when the carboxyl groups are on opposite sides,
the acids correspond to fumaric acid, these forms are denoted by
Tcis-trans, or shortly trans-.

By reducing terephthalic acid with sodium amalgam, care being
taken to neutralize the caustic soda simultaneously formed by
passing in carbon dioxide, A2-6 dihydroterephthalic acid is obtained ;
this results from the splitting of a para-linkage. By boiling with
water the A2 5 acid is converted into the A1-' dihydroterephthalic
acid. This acid is converted into the A1-4 acid by soda, and into the
A2 tetrahydro acid by reduction. From this acid the A1-' dihydro
and the A1 tetrahydro acids may be obtained, from both of which
the hexahydro acid may be prepared. From these results Baeyer
concluded that Claus' formula with three para-linkings cannot
possibly be correct, for the A2-6 dihydroterephthalic acid undoubtedly
has two ethylene linkages, since it readily takes up two or four
atoms of bromine, and is oxidized in warm aqueous solution by
alkaline potassium permanganate. But the formation of the A2-*
acid as the first reduction product is not fully consistent with
Kekul6's symbol, for we should then expect the A1-3 or the A1-6 acid
to be first formed (see also POLYMETHYLENES).

The stronger argument against the ethylenoid linkages
demanded by Kekule's formula is provided by the remark-
able stability towards oxidizing and reducing agents which
characterizes all benzenoid compounds. From the fact that
reduction products containing either one or two double linkages
behave exactly as unsaturated aliphatic compounds, being
readily reduced or oxidized, and combining with the halogen
elements and haloid acids, it seems probable that in benzenoid
compounds the fourth vilencies are symmetrically distributed
in such a manner as to induce a peculiar stability in the molecule.
Such a configuration was proposed in 1887 by H. E. Armstrong
(J.C.S. Trans., 1887, p. 258), and shortly afterwards by Baeyer
(Ann., 1888, 245, p. 103). In this formula, the so-called "_ centric
formula," the assumption made is that the fourth valencies are
simply directed towards the centre of the ring; nothing further
is said about the fourth valencies except that they exert a
pressure towards the centre. Claus maintained that Baeyer's
view was identical with his own, for as in Baeyer's formula, the
fourth valencies have a different function from the peripheral
valencies, being united at the centre in a form of potential
union.

It is difficult to determine which configuration most accurately
explains the observed facts; Kekule's formula undoubtedly
explains the synthetical production of benzenoid compounds
most satisfactorily, and W. Marckwald (Ann., 1893, 274, p. 331;
1894, 279, p. 14) has supported this formula from considerations
based on the syntheses of the quinoline ring. Further researches
by Baeyer, and upon various nitrogenous ring systems by E.
Bamberger (a strong supporter of the centric formula), have
shown that the nature of the substituent groups influences the
distribution of the fourth valencies; therefore it may be con-
cluded that in compounds the benzene nucleus appears to be
capable of existence in two tautomeric forms, in the sense that
each particular derivative possesses a definite constitution.
The benzene nucleus presents a remarkable case, which must be
considered in the formulation of any complete theory of valency.
From a study of the reduction of compounds containing two
ethylenic bonds united by a single bond, termed a " conjugated
system," E. Thick suggested a doctrine of " partial valencies,"

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

57

which assumes that in addition to the ordinary valencies, each
doubly linked atom has a partial valency, by which the atom first
interacts. When applied to benzene, a twofold conjugated
system is suggested in which the partial valencies of adjacent
atoms neutralize, with the formation of a potential double link.
The stability of benzene is ascribed to this conjugation.1

Physico-chemical properties have also been drawn upon to
decide whether double unions are present in the benzene com-
plex; but here the predilections of the observers
d?emtai/ apparently influence the nature of the conclusions to
'methods, be drawn from such data. It is well known that
singly, doubly and trebly linked carbon atoms affect
the physical properties of substances, such as the refractive
index, specific volume, and the heat of combustion; and by
determining these constants for many substances, fairly definite
values can be assigned to these groupings. The general question
of the relation of the refractive index to constitution has been
especially studied by J. W. Briihl, who concluded that benzene
contained 3 double linkages; whereas, in 1901, Pellini (Gazetta,
31, i. p. i) calculated that 9 single linkages were present. A
similar contradiction apparently exists with regard to the
specific volume, for while benzene has a specific volume corre-
spinding to Glaus' formula, toluene, or methylbenzene, rather
points to Kekule's. The heat of combustion, as first determined
by Julius Thomsen, agreed rather better with the presence of
nine single unions. His work was repeated on a finer scale by
M. P. E. Berthelot of Paris, and F. C. A. Stohmann of Leipzig;
and the new data and the conclusions to be drawn from them
formed the subject of much discussion, Briihl endeavouring
to show how they supported Kekule's formula, while Thomsen
maintained that they demanded the benzene union to have a
different heat of combustion from the acetylene union. Thomsen
then investigated heats of combustion of various benzenoid
hydrocarbons — benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene,
&c. — in the crystallized state. It was found that the results
were capable of expression by the empirical relation C<,H2»=
I04-3&+49-09W+I05-47W, where CaH2» denotes the formula
of the hydrocarbon, m the number of single carbon linkings and
n the number of double linkings, m and n being calculated on
the Kekule formulae. But, at the same time, the constants in
the above relation are not identical with those in the corre-
sponding relation empirically deduced from observations on fatty
hydrocarbons; and we are therefore led to conclude that a
benzene union is considerably more stable than an ethylene
union.

Mention may be made of the absorption spectrum of benzene.
According to W. N. Hartley (J.C.S., 1905, 87, p. 1822), there
are six bands in the ultra-violet, while E. C. C. Baly and J. N.
Collie (J.C.S., 1905, 87, p. 1332; 1906, 89, p. 524) record seven.
These bands are due to molecular oscillations; Hartley suggests
the carbon atoms to be rotating and forming alternately single
and double linkages, the formation of three double links giving
three bands, and of three single links another three; Baly and
Collie, on the other hand, suggest the making and breaking of
links between adjacent atoms, pointing out that there are seven
combinations of one, two and three pairs of carbon atoms in the
benzene molecule.

Stereo-chemical Configurations. — Simultaneously with the dis-
cussions of Kekule, Ladenburg, Claus, Baeyer and others as to the
merits of various plane formulae of the benzene complex, there
were published many suggestions with regard to the arrange-
ment of the atoms in space, all of which attempted to explain
the number of isomers and the equivalence of the hydrogen
atoms. The development of stereo-isomerism at the hands of

1 Victor Meyer and G. Heyl (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2776) attempted a
solution from the following data. It is well known that di-ortho-
substituted benzoic acids are esterified with difficulty. Two acids
corresponding to the formula of Kekul<5 and Claus are triphenyl
acrylic acid, (C,H5)2C: C(COOH)-C6H6, and triphenyl acetic acid,
(C,Hj)»C-COOH. Experiments showed that the second acid was
much more difficult to esterify than the first, pointing to the con-
clusion that Claus' formula for benzene was more probable than
Kekul6's.

J. Wislicenus, Le Bel and van 't Hoff has resulted in the intro-
duction of another condition which formulae for the benzene
complex must satisfy, viz. that the hydrogen atoms must all
lie in one plane. The proof of this statement rests on the fact
that if the hydrogen atoms were not co-planar, then substitution
derivatives (the substituting groups not containing asymmetric
carbon atoms) should exist in enantiomorphic forms, differing in
crystal form and in their action on polarized light; such optical
antipodes have, however, not yet been separated. Ladenburg's
prism formula would give two enantiomorphic ortho-di-substi-
tution derivatives; while forms in which the hydrogen atoms
are placed at the corners of a regular octahedron would yield
enantiomorphic tri-substitution derivatives.

The octahedral formula discussed by Julius Thomsen (Ber., 1886,
19, p. 2944) consists of the six carbon atoms placed at the corners
of a regular octahedron, and connected together by the full lines as
shown in (I) ;_ a plane projection gives a hexagon with diagonals
(II). Reduction to hexamethylene compounds necessitates the
disruption of three of the edges of the octahedron, the diagonal
linkings remaining intact, or, in the plane projection, three peripheral
linkages, the hexamethylene ring assuming the form (III):

III

In 1888 J. E. Marsh published a paper (Phil. Mag. [V.], 26, p. 426)
in which he discussed various stereo-chemical representations of
the benzene nucleus. (The stereo-chemistry of carbon compounds
has led to the spatial representation of a carbon atom as being
situated at the centre of a tetrahedron, the four valencies being
directed towards the apices; see above, and ISOMERISM.) A form
based on Kekul6's formula consists in taking three pairs of tetra-
hedra, each pair having a side in common, and joining them up
along the sides of a regular hexagon by means of their apices. This
form, afterwards supported by Carl Graebe (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 526; see
also Marsh's reply, Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans., 1902, p. 961) shows
the proximity of the ortho-positions, but fails to explain the identity
of 1.2 and 1.6 compounds. Arrangements connected with _Claus'
formula are obtained by placing six tetrahedra on the six triangles
formed by the diagonals of a plane hexagon. The form in which the
tetrahedra are all on one side, afterwards discussed by J. Loschmidt
(Monats., 1890, n, p. 28), would not give stereo-isomers; and the
arrangement of placing the tetrahedra on alternate sides, a form
afterwards developed by W. Vaubel (Journ. Pr. Chem., 1894 [2],
49, p. 308), has the advantage of bringing the meta-positions on one
side, and the ortho- and para- on opposite sides, thus exhibiting
the similarity actually observed between these series of compounds.
Marsh also devised a form closely resembling that of Thomsen,
inasmuch as the carbon atoms occupied the angles of a regular
octahedron, and the diagonal linkages differed in nature from
the peripheral, but different from Thomson's since rupture of the
diagonal and not peripheral bonds accompanied the reduction to
hexamethylene.

We may also notice the model devised by H. Sachse (Ber., 1888,
21, 2530; Zeit. fur phys. Chem., II, p. 214; 23, p. 2062). Two
parallel triangular faces are removed from a cardboard model of a
regular octahedron, and on the remaining six faces tetrahedra are
then placed; the hydrogen atoms are at the free angles. This
configuration is, according to Sachse, more stable than any other
form; no oscillation is possible, the molecule being only able to
move as a whole. In 1897, J. N. Collie (Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans.,
p. 1013) considered in detail an octahedral form, and showed how by
means of certain simple rotations of his system the formulae
of Kekule' and Claus could be obtained as projections. An entirely
new device, suggested by B. Konig (Chem. Zeit., 1905, 29, p. 30),
assumed the six carbon atoms to occupy six of the corners of a cube,
each carbon atom being linked to a hydrogen atom and by single
bonds to two neighbouring carbon atoms, the remaining valencies
being directed to the unoccupied corners of the cube, three to each,
where they are supposed to satisfy each other.

Condensed Nuclei.

Restricting ourselves to compounds resulting from the fusion
of benzene rings, we have first to consider naphthalene, CioH8,
which consists of two benzene rings having a pair of carbon atoms
in common. The next members are the isomers anthracene and
phenanthrene, C^Hio, formed from three benzene nuclei. Here
we shall only discuss the structure of these compounds in the
light of the modern benzene theories; reference should be made

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

to the articles NAPHTHALENE, ANTHRACENE and PHENAN-
THRENE for syntheses, decompositions, &c.

Naphthalene. — Of the earlier suggestions for the constitution
of naphthalene we notice the formulae of Wreden (i) and (2),
Berthelot and Balls (3), R. A. C. E. Erlenmeyer (4) and Adolf
Claus (S).

(3)

(4)

The first suggestion is quite out of the question. C. Graebe in
1866 (Ann. 149, p. 20) established the symmetry of the naph-
thalene nucleus, and snowed that whichever half of the molecule
be oxidized the same phthalic acid results. Therefore formula ( 2 ) ,
being unsymmetrical, is impossible. The third formula is based
on Dewar's benzene formula, which we have seen to be incorrect.
Formula (4) is symmetrical and based on Kekule's formula: it
is in full accord with the syntheses and decompositions of the
naphthalene nucleus and the number of isomers found. In
1882 Claus suggested a combination of his own and Dewar's
benzene formulae. This is obviously unsymmetrical, consisting
of an aliphatic and an aromatic nucleus; Claus explained the
formation of the same phthalic acid from the oxidation of either
nucleus by supposing that if the aromatic group be oxidized, the
aliphatic residue assumes the character of a benzene nucleus.
Bamberger opposed Claus' formula on the following grounds: —
The molecule of naphthalene is symmetrical, since 2.7 dioxy-
naphthalene is readily esterified by methyl iodide and sulphuric
acid to a dimethyl ether; and no more than two mono-substi-
tution derivatives are known. The molecule is aromatic but not
benzenoid; however, by the reduction of one half of the mole-
cule, the other assumes a benzenoid character.

If j8-naphthylamine and /3-naphthol be reduced, tetrahydro
products are obtained in which the amino- or oxy-bearing half of
the molecule becomes aliphatic in character. The compounds so
obtained, alicyclic-/3-tetrahydronaphthylamine and alicyclic-/3-
tetrahydronaphthol, closely resemble /3-aminodiethylbenzene,
C6H4(C2H6)-C2H4NH2,and,S-oxydiethylbenzene,C6H<(C2H5)-C2H4C)H.
If a-naphthylamine and a-naphthol be reduced, the hydrogen atoms
attach themselves to the non-substituted half of the molecule,
and the compounds so obtained resemble aminodiethylbenzene,
C6H3-NH2(C2H6)2, and oxydiethylbenzene, C,H3-OH(C2H6)2. Bam-
berger's observations on reduced quinoline derivatives point to the
same conclusion, that condensed nuclei are not benzenoid, but
possess an individual character, which breaks down, however, when
the molecule is reduced.

It remains, therefore, to consider Erlenmeyer's formula and
those derived from the centric hypothesis. The former, based
on Kekule's symbol for benzene, explains the decompositions
and syntheses of the ring, but the character of naphthalene
is not in keeping with the presence of five double linkages,
although it is more readily acted upon than benzene is. On the
centric hypothesis two formulae are possible: (i) due to H.E.
Armstrong, and (2) due to E. Bamberger.

• 00

In the first symbol it is assumed that one of the affinities of each
of the two central carbon atoms common to the two rings acts
into both rings, an assumption involving a somewhat wide
departure from all ordinary views as to the manner in which
affinity acts. This symbol harmonizes with the fact that the two
rings are in complete sympathy, the one responding to every
change made in the other. Then, on account of the relatively
slight — because divided — influence which would be exercised
upon the two rings by the two affinities common to both, the
remaining four centric affinities of each ring would presumably
be less attracted into the ring than in the case of benzene;
consequently they would be more active outwards, and com-
bination would set in more readily. When, as in the formation
of naphthalene tetrachloride, for example, the one ring becomes
saturated, the other might be expected to assume the normal

centric form and become relatively inactive. This is absolutely
the case. On the other hand, if substitution be effected in the
one ring, and the affinities in that ring become attracted inwards,
as apparently happens in the case of benzene, the adjoining ring
should become relatively more active because the common
affinities would act less into it. Hence, unless the radical
introduced be one which exercises a special attractive influence,
substitution should take place in preference in the previously
unsubstituted ring. In practice this usually occurs; for example,
on further bromination, a-bromonaphthalene yields a mixture
of the (1.4) and (1.5) dibromonaphthalenes; and when nitro-
naphthalene is either brominated, or nitrated or sulphonated,
the action is practically confined to the second ring. .The
centric formula proposed by Bamberger represents naphthalene as
formed by the fusion of two benzene rings, this indicates that it
is a monocyclic composed of ten atoms of carbon. The formula
has the advantage that it may be constructed from tetrahedral
models of the carbon atom; but it involves the assumption that
the molecule has within it a mechanism, equivalent in a measure
to a system of railway points, which can readily close up and
pass into that characteristic of benzene.

Anthracene and Phenanthrene. — These isomeric hydrocarbons,
of the formula Ci4H10, are to be regarded as forme^ by the
fusion of three benzenoid rings as represented by the symbols: —

ODD

Anthracene

Phenanthrene

In both cases the medial ring is most readily attacked; and
various formulae have been devised which are claimed by their
authors to represent this and other facts. According to Arm-
strong, anthracene behaves unsymmetrically towards sub-
stituents, and hence one lateral ring differs from the other; he
represents the molecule as consisting of one centric ring, the
remaining medial and lateral ring being ethenoid. Bamberger,
on the other hand, extends his views on benzene and naphthalene
and assumes the molecule to be (i). For general purposes,
however, the symbol (2), in which the lateral rings are benzenoid
and the medial ring fatty, represents quite adequately the
syntheses, decompositions, and behaviour of anthracene.

(0 (')

Phenanthrene is regarded by Armstrong as represented by (3),
the lateral rings being benzenoid, and the medial ring fatty;
Bamberger, however, regards it as (4), the molecule being

(3)

(4)

entirely aromatic. An interesting observation by Baeyer, viz.
that stilbene, C6H5'CH:CH-C6H5, is very readily oxidized,
while phenanthrene is not, supports, in some measure, the views
of Bamberger.

Heterocyclic Compounds.

During recent years an immense number of ringed or cyclic
compounds have been discovered, which exhibit individual
characters more closely resembling benzene, naphthalene, &c.
than purely aliphatic substances, inasmuch as in general they
contain double linkages, yet withstand oxidation, and behave as
nuclei, forming derivatives in much the same way as benzene.
By reduction, the double linkages become saturated, and
compounds result which stand in much about the same relation
to the original nucleus as hexamethylene does to benzene. In
general, therefore, it may be considered that the double linkages
are not of exactly the same nature as the double linkage present
in ethylene and ethylenoid compounds, but that they are
analogous to the potential valencies of benzene. The centric
hypothesis has been applied to these rings by Bamberger and
others; but as in the previous rings considered, the ordinary

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

59

representation with double and single linkages generally repre-
sents the syntheses, decompositions, &c.; exceptions, however,
are known where it is necessary to assume an oscillation of the
double linkage. Five- and six-membered rings are the most
stable and important, the last-named group resulting from the
polymerization of many substances; three- and four-membered
rings are formed with difficulty, and are easily ruptured; rings
containing seven or more members are generally unstable, and
are relatively little known. The elements which go to form
heterocyclic rings, in addition to carbon, are oxygen, sulphur,
selenium and nitrogen. It is remarkable that sulphur can
replace two methine or CH groups with the production of com-
pounds greatly resembling the original one. Thus benzene,
(CH)6, gives thiophene, (CH)4S, from which it is difficultly dis-
tinguished; pyridine, (CH)6N, gives thiazole, (CH)3-N-S, which
is a very similar substance; naphthalene gives thionaphthen,
CsH6S, with which it shows great analogies, especially in the
derivatives. Similarly a CH group may be replaced by a nitrogen
atom with the production of compounds of similar stability;
thus benzene gives pyridine, naphthalene gives quinoline and
isoquinoline; anthracene gives acridine and a and /3 anthra-
pyridines. Similarly, two or more methine groups may be
replaced by the same number of nitrogen atoms with the forma-
tion of rings of considerable stability.

Most of the simple ring systems which contain two adjacent
carbon atoms may suffer fusion with any other ring (also containing
two adjacent carbon atoms) with the production of nuclei of greater
complexity. Such condensed nuclei are, in many cases, more readily
obtained than the parent nucleus. The more important types are
derived from aromatic nuclei, benzene, naphthalene, &c. ; the
ortho-di-derivatives of the first named, lending themselves particu-
larly to the formation of condensed nuclei. Thus ortho-phenylene
diamine yields the following products : —

Aiimidobcnzenc Btntpiirthiolc

Benrimidazolone

Quinoxilifit

In some cases oxidation of condensed benzenoid-heterocyclic nuclei
results in the rupture of the heterocyclic ring with the formation of
a benzene dicarboxylic acid ; but if the aromatic nucleus be weakened
by the introduction of an amino group, then it is the benzenoid
nucleus which is destroyed and a dicarboxylic acid of the heterocyclic
ring system obtained.

Heterocyclic rings may be systematically surveyed from two
aspects: (i) by arranging the rings with similar hetero-atoms
according to the increasing number of carbon atoms, the so-called
" homologous series "; or (2) by first dividing the ring systems
according to the number of members constituting the ring, and
then classifying these groups according to the nature of the
hetero-atoms, the so-called " isologous series." The second
method possesses greater- advantages, for rings of approximate
stability come in one group, and, consequently, their derivatives
may be expected to exhibit considerable analogies.

As a useful preliminary it is convenient to divide heterocyclic
ring systems into two leading groups: (i) systems resulting
from simple internal dehydration (or similar condensations) of
saturated aliphatic compounds — -such compounds are: the
internal anhydrides or cyclic ethers of the glycols and thioglycols
(ethylene oxide, &c.) ; the cyclic alkyleneimides resulting from
the splitting off of ammonia between the amino groups of diamino-
paraffins (pyrrolidine, piperazine, &c.); the cyclic esters of
oxycarboxylic acids (lactones, lactides) ; the internal anhydrides
of aminocarboxylic acids (lactams, betaines); cyclic derivatives
of dicarboxylic acids (anhydrides, imides, alkylen-esters, alkylen-
amides, &c.). These compounds retain their aliphatic nature,
and are best classified with open-chain compounds, into which,
in general, they are readily converted. (2) Systems which
are generally unsaturated compounds, often of considerable
stability, and behave as nuclei; these compounds constitute a
well-individualized class exhibiting closer affinities to benzenoid
substances than to the open-chain series.

The transition between the two classes as differentiated above
may be illustrated by the following cyclic compounds, each of which

contains a ring composed of four carbon atoms and one oxygen
atom:

.^(_» ..

v

Tetramethylene Butyrolactone.
oxide.

Fujfurane.

Succinic M?leic

anhydride. anhydride.

The first four substances are readily formed from, and converted
into, the corresponding dihydroxy open-chain compound; these
substances are truly aliphatic in character. The fifth compound,
on the other hand, does not behave as an unsaturated aliphatic
compound, but its deportment is that of a nucleus, many substitution
derivatives being capable of synthesis. Reduction, however, con-
verts it into an aliphatic compound. This is comparable with the
reduction of the benzene nucleus into hexamethylene, a substance of
an aliphatic character.

True ring systems, which possess the characters of organic
nuclei, do not come into existence in three- and four-membered
rings, their first appearance being in penta-atomic rings. The
three primary members are furfurane, thiophene and pyrrol,
each of which contains four methine or CH groups, and an
oxygen, sulphur and imido (NH) member respectively; a
series of compounds containing selenium is also known. The
formulae of these substances are:

= CH

= CH

V

Se

CH = CH.

| >S

CH=CH CH=CHX CH = CH/ C

Furfurane. Thiophene. Selenophene. Pyrrol.

|
H=CH

>NH
'

By substituting one or more CH groups in these compounds
by nitrogen atoms, ring-systems, collectively known as azoles,
result. Obviously, isomeric ring-systems are possible, since the
carbon atoms in the original rings are not all of equal value.
Thus furfurane yields the following rings by the introduction
of one and two nitrogen atoms :

CH = N , N = CH v N = N

I >0 I

CH=CH/
Oxazole.

>0

CH=CH'

Isoxazole.

>
CH=CH/

Diazo-oxides.

Hi N>o *[ HN>O V '">o

HC = NX CH = N/ N = CH'/

Furazane.

Azoximes.

Oxybiazole.

Thiophene yields a similar series: isothiazole (only known as
the condensed ring, isobenzothiazole), thiazole, diazosulphides,
piazthioles, azosulphimes and thiobiazole (the formulae are
easily derived from the preceding series by replacing oxygen by
sulphur). Thiophene also gives rise to triazsulphole, three
nitrogen atoms being introduced. Selenophene gives the series:
selenazole, diazoselenide and piaselenole, corresponding to
oxazole, diazo-oxides and furazane. Pyrrol yields an analogous
series: pyrazole, imidazole or glyoxaline, azimide or osotriazole,
triazole and tetrazole:

CH = N x

I >NH

CH=CH/
Pyrazole.

N=CH

N = CH
I

V

^NH
CH/

Imidazole.

N = N

:H i

N = N

\

^CH/

Azimide.

NH

\

NH

Triazole.

Tetrazole.

Six-membered ring systems can be referred back, in a manner
similar to the above, to pyrone, penthiophene and pyridine, the
substances containing a ring of five carbon atoms, and an
oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen atom respectively. As before,
only true ring nuclei, and not internal anhydrides of aliphatic
compounds, will be mentioned. From the pyrone ring the
following series of compounds are derived (for brevity, the
hydrogen atoms are not printed) :

Cf^N

O

Mcu-oxiilAe
»r Pentoiucoltne

O

PtraxAlttH

Penthiophene gives, by a similar introduction of nitrogen atoms,
penthiazoline, corresponding to meta-oxazine, and para-thiazine,

6o

CHEMISTRY

[ANALYTICAL

corresponding to paroxazine (para-oxazine). Pyridine gives
origin to: pyridazine or ortho-diazine, pyrimidine or meta-
diazine, pyrazine or para-diazine, osotriazine, unsymmetrical
triazine, symmetrical triazine, osotetrazone and tetrazine. The
skeletons of these types are (the carbon atoms are omitted for
brevity) :

o o. 0- j

ulirM Fyr.di/m* pynmidiix fynnne

r a xa

We have previously referred to the condensation of hetero-
cyclic ring systems containing two vicinal carbon atoms with
benzene, naphthalene and other nuclei. The more important
nuclei of this type have received special and non-systematic
names; when this is not the case, such terms as phen-, benzo-,
naphtho- are prefixed to the name of the heterocyclic ring. One
or two benzene nuclei may suffer condensation with the furfurane,
thiophene and pyrrol rings, the common carbon atoms being
vicinal to the hetero-atom. The mono-benzo-derivatives are
coumarone, benzothiophene and indole; the dibenzo-derivatives
are diphenylene oxide, dibenzothiophene or diphenylene sulphide,
and carbazole. Typical formulae are (R denoting 0, S or NH) :

Cu.CcQ

Isomers are possible, for the condensation may be effected on
the two carbon atoms symmetrically placed to the hetero-atom;
these isomers, however, are more of the nature of internal
anhydrides. Benz-oxazoles and -thiazoles have been prepared,
benz-isoxazoles are known as indoxazenes; benzo-pyrazoles
occur in two structural forms, named indazoles and isindazoles.
Derivatives of osotriazol also exist in two forms — azimides and
pseudo-azimides.

Proceeding to the six-membered hetero-atomic rings, the
benzo-, dibenzo- and naphtho-derivatives are frequently of
great commercial and scientific importance, a-pyrone condenses
with the benzene ring to form coumarin and isocoumarin;
benzo-7-pyrone constitutes the nucleus of several vegetable
colouring matters (chrysin, fisetin, quercetin, &c., which are
derivatives of flavone or phenyl benzo-7-pyrone); dibenzo-7-
pyrone is known as xanthone; related to this substance are
fluorane (and fluorescein), fluorone, fluorime, pyronine, &c.
The pyridine ring condenses with the benzene ring to form
quinoline and isoquinoline; acridine and phenanthridine are
dibenzo-pyri dines; naphthalene gives rise to o-and /3-naphtho-
quinolines and the anthrapyridines; anthracene gives anthra-
quinoline; while two pyridine nuclei connected by an inter-
mediate benzene nucleus give the phenanthrolines. Naph-
thyridines and naphthinolines result from the condensation of
two pryridine and two quinoline nuclei respectively; and
quino-quinolines are unsymmetrical naphthyridine nuclei
condensed with a benzene nucleus. Benzo-orthoxazines,
-metoxazines and -paroxazines are known: dibenzoparoxazine
or phenoxazine is the parent of a valuable series of dyestuffs;
dibenzoparathiazine or thiodiphenylamine is important from
the same aspect. Benzo-ortho-diazines exist in two structural
forms, cinnolin and phthalazine; benzo-meta-diazines are
known as quinazolines; benzo-para-diazines are termed quinoxa-
lines; the dibenzo-compounds are named phenazines, this last
group including many valuable dyestuffs — indulines, safranines,
&c. In addition to the types of compounds enumerated above
we may also notice purin, tropine and the terpenes.

V. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

This branch of chemistry has for its province the determination
of the constituents of a chemical compound or of a mixture of
compounds. Such a determination is qualitative, the constituent
being only detected or proved to be present, or quantitative, in
which the amount present is ascertained. The methods of
chemical analysis may be classified according to the type of

reaction: (i) dry or blowpipe analysis, which consists in an
examination of the substance in the dry condition; this includes
such tests as ignition in a tube, ignition on charcoal in the
blowpipe flame, fusion with borax, microcosmic salt or fluxes,
and flame colorations (in quantitative work the dry methods are
sometimes termed " dry assaying "); (2) wet analysis, in which
a solution of the substance is treated with reagents which
produce specific reactions when certain elements or groups of
elements are present. In quantitative analysis the methods
can be subdivided into: (a) gravimetric, in which the constituent
is precipitated either as a definite insoluble compound by the
addition of certain reagents, or electrolytically, by the passage
of an electric current; (b) volumetric, in which the volume of a
reagent of a known strength which produces a certain definite
reaction is measured; (c) colorimetric, in which the solution has
a particular tint, which can be compared with solutions of
known strengths.

Historical. — The germs of analytical chemistry are to be
found in the writings of the pharmacists and chemists of the
iatrochemical period. The importance of ascertaining the
proximate composition of bodies was clearly realized by Otto
Tachenius; but the first systematic investigator was Robert
Boyle, to whom we owe the introduction of the term analysis.
Boyle recognized many reagents which gave precipitates with
certain solutions: he detected sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids by the white precipitates formed with calcium chloride
and silver nitrate respectively; ammonia by the white cloud
formed with the vapours of nitric or hydrochloric acids; and
copper by the deep blue solution formed by a solution of ammonia.
Of great importance is his introduction of vegetable juices (the
so-called indicators, q.v.) to detect acids and bases. During the
phlogistic period, the detection of the constituents of compounds
was considerably developed. Of the principal workers in this
field we may notice Friedrich Hoffmann, Andreas Sigismund
Marggraf (who detected iron by its reaction with potassium
ferrocyanide, and potassium and sodium by their flame colora-
tions), and especially Carl Scheele and Torberu Olof Bergman.
Scheele enriched the knowledge of chemistry by an immense
number of facts, but he did not possess the spirit of working
systematically as Bergman did. Bergman laid the foundations
of systematic qualitative analysis, and devised methods by which
the metals may be separated into groups according to their
behaviour with certain reagents. This subdivision, which is of
paramount importance in the analysis of minerals, was subse-
quently developed by Wilhelm August Lampadius in his Hand-
buck zur chemischen Analyse der Miner alien (1801) and by John
Friedrich A. Gottling in his Praktische Anleitung zur prufenden
und zurlegenden Chemie (1802).

The introduction of the blowpipe into dry qualitative analysis
by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt marks an important innovation.
The rapidity of the method, and the accurate results which it
gave in the hands of a practised experimenter, led to its system-
atization by Jons Jakob Berzelius and Johann Friedrich Ludwig
Hausmann, and in more recent times by K. F. Plattner, whose
treatise Die Probirkunst mil dem Lolhrohr is a standard work on
the subject. Another type of dry reaction, namely, the flame
coloration, had been the subject of isolated notices, as, for example,
the violet flame of potassium and the orange flame of sodium
observed by Marggraf and Scheele, but a systematic account was
wanting until Cartmell took the subject up. His results (Phil.
Mag. 16, p. 382) were afterwards perfected by Robert Wilhelm
Bunsen and Gustav Merz. Closely related to the flame-colora-
tions, we have to notice the great services rendered by the
spectroscope to the detection of elements. Rubidium, caesium,
thallium, indium and gallium were first discovered by means of
this instrument; the studyfof the rare earths is greatly facilitated,
and the composition of the heavenly bodies alone determinable
by it.

Quantitative chemistry had been all but neglected before
the time of Lavoisier, for although a few chemists such as
Tachenius, Bergman and others had realized the advantages
which would accrue from a knowledge of the composition of

ANALYTICAL]

CHEMISTRY

61

bodies by weight, and had laid down the lines upon which such
determinations should proceed, the experimental difficulties in
making accurate observations were enormous, and little progress
could be made until the procedure was more accurately
determined. Martin Heinrich Klaproth showed the necessity for
igniting precipitates before weighing them, if they were not
decomposed by this process; and he worked largely with Louis
Nicolas Vauquelin in perfecting the analysis of minerals. K. F.
Wenzel and J. B. Rkhter contributed to the knowledge of the
quantitative composition of salts. Anton Laurent Lavoisier,
however, must be considered as the first great exponent of this
branch of chemistry. He realized that the composition by
weight of chemical compounds was of the greatest moment if
chemistry were to advance. His fame rests upon his exposition
of the principles necessary to chemistry as a secience, but of his
contributions to analytical inorganic chemistry little can be said.
He applied himself more particularly to the oxygen compounds,
and determined with a fair degree of accuracy the ratio of carbon
to oxygen in carbon dioxide,but his values for the ratio of hydrogen
to oxygen in water, and of phosphorus to oxygen in phosphoric
acid, are only approximate; he introduced no new methods
either for the estimation or separation of the metals. The next
advance was made by Joseph Louis Proust, whose investigations
led to a clear grasp of the law of constant proportions. The
formulation of the atomic theory by John Dalton gave a fresh
impetus to the development of quantitative analysis; and the
determination of combining or equivalent weights by Berzelius
led to the perfecting of the methods of gravimetric analysis.
Experimental conditions were thoroughly worked out; the
necessity of working with hot or cold solutions was clearly
emphasized; and the employment of small quantities of
substances instead of the large amounts recommended by
Klaproth was shown by him to give more consistent results.

Since the time of Berzelius many experimenters have entered
the lists, and introduced developments which we have not space
to mention. We may, however, notice Heinrich Rose1 and
Friedrich Wohler,2 who, having worked up the results of their
teacher Berzelius, and combined them with their own valuable
observations, exerted great influence on the progress of analytical
chemistry by publishing works which contained admirable
accounts of the then known methods of analysis. To K. R.
Fresenius, the founder of the Zeitschrift fiir anaiylische Chemie
(1862), we are particularly indebted for perfecting and systematiz-
ing the various methods of analytical chemistry. By strengthen-
ing the older methods, and devising new ones, he exerted an
influence which can never be overestimated. His text-books on
the subject, of which the Qualitative appeared in 1841, and the
Quantitative in 1846, have a world- wide reputation, and have
passed through several editions.

The quantitative precipitation of metals by the electric current,
although known to Michael Faraday, was not applied to analytical
chemistry until O. Wolcott Gibbs worked out the electrolytic
separation of copper in 1865. Since then the subject has been
extensively studied, more particularly by Alexander Classen, who
has summarized the methods and results in his Quantitative
Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis (1903). The ever-increasing
importance of the electric current in metallurgy and chemical
manufactures is making this method of great importance, and in
some cases it has partially, if not wholly, superseded the older
methods.

Volumetric analysis, possessing as it does many advantages
over the gravimetric methods, has of late years been extensively
developed. Gay Lussac may be regarded as the founder of the
method, although rough applications had been previously made
by F. A. H. Descroizilles and L. N. Vauquelin. Chlorimetry
(1824), alkalimetry (1828), and the volumetric determination of
silver and chlorine (1832) were worked out by Gay Lussac; but
although the advantages of the method were patent, it received
recognition very slowly. The application of potassium per-
manganate to the estimation of iron by E. Margueritte in 1846,

1 H. Rose, Ausfiihrliches Handbuch der analytischen Chemie (1851).
' F. Wohler, Die Mineralanalyse in Beispielen (1861).

and of iodine and sulphurous acid to the estimation of copper and
many other substances by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, marks an
epoch in the early history of volumetric analysis. Since then it
has been rapidly developed, particularly by Karl Friedrich Mohr
and J. Volhard, and these methods rank side by side in value
with the older and more tedious gravimetric methods.

The detection of carbon and hydrogen in organic compounds
by the formation of carbon dioxide and water when they are
burned was first correctly understood by Lavoisier, and as he
had determined the carbon and hydrogen content of these two
substances he was able to devise methods by which carbon and
hydrogen in organic compounds could be estimated. In his
earlier experiments he burned the substance in a known volume
of oxygen, and by measuring the residual gas determined the
carbon and hydrogen. For substances of a difficultly combustible
nature he adopted the method in common Use to-day, viz. to mix
the substance with an oxidizing agent — mercuric oxide, lead
dioxide, and afterwards copper oxide — and absorb the carbon
dioxide in potash solution. This method has been improved,
especially by Justus v. Liebig; and certain others based on a
different procedure have been suggested. The estimation of
nitrogen was first worked out in 1830 by Jean Baptiste Dumas,
and different processes have been proposed by Will and F.
Varrentrapp, J. Kjeldahl and others. Methods for lie estimation
of. the halogens and sulphur were worked out by L. Carius (see
below, § Organic Analysis).

Only a reference can be made in this summary to the many
fields in which analytical chemistry has been developed. Pro-
gress in forensic chemistry was only possible after' the reactions
of poisons had been systematized; a subject which has been
worked out by many investigators, of whom we notice K. R.
Fresenius, J. and R. Otto, and J. S. Stas. Industrial chemistry
makes many claims upon the chemist, for it is necessary to deter-
mine the purity of a product before it can be valued. This has
led to the estimation of sugar by means of the polarimeter, and
of the calorific power of fuels, and the valuation of ores and
metals, of coal-tar dyes, and almost all trade products.

The passing of the Food and Drug Acts (1875-1899) in England,
and the existence of similar adulteration acts in other countries,
have occasioned great progress in the analysis of foods, drugs, &c.
For further information on this branch of analytical chemistry,
see ADULTERATION.

There exists no branch of technical chemistry, hygiene or
pharmacy from which the analytical chemist can be spared,
since it is only by a continual development of his art that we can
hope to be certain of the purity of any preparation. In England
this branch of chemistry is especially cared for by the Institute
of Chemistry, which, since its foundation in 1877, has done much
for the training of analytical chemists.

In the preceding sketch we have given a necessarily brief
account of the historical development of analytical chemistry in
its main branches. We shall now treat the different methods in
more detail. It must be mentioned here that the reactions of
any particular substance are given under its own heading, and in
this article we shall only collate the various operations and outline
the general procedure. The limits of space prevent any sys-
tematic account of the separation of the rare metals, the alkaloids,
and other classes of organic compounds, but sources where these
matters may be found are given in the list of references.

Qualitative Inorganic Analysis.

The dry examination of a substance comprises several opera-
tions, which may yield definite results if no disturbing
element is present; but it is imperative that any in-
ference should be confirmed by other methods.

i. Heat the substance in a hard glass tube. Note whether
any moisture condenses on the cooler parts of the tube, a gas is
evolved, a sublimate formed, or the substance changes colour.

Moisture is evolved from substances containing water of crystal-
lization or decomposed hydrates. If it possesses an alkaline or
acid reaction, it must be tested in the first case for ammonia, and
in the second case for a volatile acid, such as sulphuric, nitric,
hydrochloric, &c.

62

CHEMISTRY

[ANALYTICAL

Any evolved gas must be examined. Oxygen, recognized by its
power of igniting a glowing splinter, results from the decomposition
of oxides of the noble metals, peroxides, chlorates, nitrates and other
highly oxygenized salts. Sulphur dioxide, recognized by its smell
and acid reaction, results from the ignition of certain sulphites,
sulphates, or a mixture of a sulphate with a sulphide. Nitrogen
oxides, recognized by their odour and brown-red colour, result from
the decomposition of nitrates. Carbon dioxide, recognized by
turning lime-water milky, indicates decomposable carbonates or
oxalates. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine, each recognizable by its
colour and odour, result from decomposable haloids; iodine forms
also a black sublimate. Cyanogen and hydrocyanic acid, recogniz-
able by their odour, indicate decomposable cyanides. Sulphuretted
hydrogen, recognized by its odour, results from sulphides containing
water, and hydrosulphides. Ammonia, recognizable by its odour
and alkaline reaction, indicates ammoniacal salts or cyanides
containing water.

A sublimate may be formed of: sulphur — reddish-brown drops,
cooling to a yellow to brown solid, from sulphides or mixtures;
iodine — violet vapour, black sublimate, from iodides, iodic acid, or
mixtures; mercury and its compounds — metallic mercury forms
minute globules, mercuric sulphide is black and becomes red on
rubbing, mercuric chloride fuses before subliming, mercurous
chloride does not fuse, mercuric iodide gives a yellow sublimate;
arsenic and its compounds — metallic arsenic gives a grey mirror,
arsenious oxide forms white shining crystals, arsenic sulphides give
reddish-yellow sublimates which turn yellow on cooling; antimony
oxide fuses and gives a yellow acicular sublimate; lead chloride
forms a white sublimate after long and intense heating.

If the substance does not melt but changes colour, we may have
present: zinc oxide — from white to yellow, becoming white on
cooling; stannic oxide — white to yellowish brown, dirty white on
cooling; lead oxide — from white or yellowish-red to brownish-red,
yellow on cooling; bismuth oxide — from white or pale yellow to
orange-yellow or reddish-brown, pale yellow on cooling; manganese
oxide — from white or yellowish white to dark brown, remaining
dark brown on cooling (if it changes on cooling to a bright reddish-
brown, it indicates cadmium oxide) ; copper oxide — from bright
blue or green to black; ferrous oxide — from greyish-white to black;
ferric oxide — from brownish-red to black, brownish-red on cooling;
potassium chromate — yellow to dark orange, fusing at a red heat.

2. Hejt the substance on a piece of charcoal in the reducing
flame of the blowpipe.

(a) The substance may fuse and be absorbed by the charcoal;
this indicates more particularly the alkaline metals.

(0) An infusible white residue may be obtained,which may denote
barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium or zinc. The
first three give characteristic flame colorations (see below) ; the last
three, when moistened with cobalt nitrate and re-ignited, give
coloured masses; aluminium (or silica) gives a brilliant blue ; zinc
gives a green; whilst magnesium phosphates or arsenate (and to a
less degree the phosphates of the alkaline earths) give a violet mass.

A metallic globule with or without an incrustation may be obtained.
Gold and copper salts give a metallic bead without an incrustation.
If the incrustation be white and readily volatile, arsenic is present,
if more difficultly volatile and beads are present, antimony; zinc
gives an incrustation yellow whilst hot, white on cooling, and
volatilized with difficulty ; tin gives a pale yellow incrustation,
which becomes white on cooling, and does not volatilize in either the
reducing or oxidizing flames; lead gives a lemon-yellow incrustation
turning sulphur-yellow on cooling, together with metallic malleable
beads; bjsmuth gives metallic globules and a dark orange-yellow
incrustation, which becomes lemon-yellow on cooling; cadmium
gives a reddish-brown incrustation, which is removed without
leaving a gleam by heating in the reducing flame; silver gives white
metallic globules and a dark-red incrustation.

3. Heat the substance with a bead of microcosmic salt or
borax on a platinum wire in the oxidizing flame.

(a) The substance dissolves readily and in quantity, forming a
bead which is clear when hot. If the bead is coloured we may have
present : cobalt, blue to violet ; copper, green, blue on cooling ;
in the reducing flame, red when cold; chromium, green, unaltered
in the reducing flame; iron, brownish-red, light-yellow or colourless
on cooling; in the reducing flame, red while hot, yellow on cooling,
greenish when cold ; nickel, reddish to brownish-red, yellow to
reddish-yellow or colourless on cooling, unaltered in the reducing
flame; bismuth, yellowish-brown, light-yellow or colourless on
cooling; in the reducing flame, almost colourless, blackish-grey when
cold ; silver, light yellowish to opal, somewhat opaque when cold ;
whitish-grey in the reducing flame; manganese, amethyst red,
colourless in the reducing flame. If the hot bead is colourless and
remains clear on cooling, we may suspect the presence of antimony,
aluminium, zinc, cadmium, lead, calcium and magnesium. When
present in sufficient quantity the five last-named give enamel-white
beads; lead oxide in excess gives a yellowish bead. If the hot
colourless bead becomes enamel-white on cooling even when minute
quantities of the substances are employed, we may infer the presence
of barium or strontium.

(/3) The substance dissolves slowly and in small quantity, and forms
a colourless bead which remains so on cooling. Either silica or tin
may be present. If silica be present, it gives the iron bead when
heated with a little ferric oxide ; if tin is present there is no change.
Certain substances, such as the precious metals, are quite insoluble in
the bead, but float about in it.

4. Hold a small portion of the substance moistened with
hydrochloric acid on a clean platinum wire in the fusion zone
of the Bunsen burner, and note any colour imparted to the flame.

Potassium gives a blue-violet flame which may be masked by the
colorations due to sodium, calcium and other elements. By
viewing the flame through an indigo prism it appears sky-blue,
violet and ultimately crimson, as the thickness of the prism is
increased. Other elements do not interfere with this method.
Sodium gives an intense and persistent yellow flame; lithium gives
a carmine coloration, and may be identified in the presence of sodium
by viewing through a cobalt glass or indigo prism; from potassium
it may be distinguished by its redder colour ; barium gives a yellowish-
green flame, which appears bluish-green When viewed through green
glass ; strontium gives a crimson flame which appears purple or rose
when viewed through blue glass; calcium gives an orange-red
colour which appears finch-green through green glass; indium
gives a characteristic bluish-violet flame; copper gives an intense
emerald-green coloration.

5. Film Reactions. — These reactions are practised in the
following manner: — A thread of asbestos is moistened and then
dipped in the substance to be tested; it is then placed in the
luminous point of the Bunsen flame, and a small porcelain basin
containing cold water placed immediately over the asbestos.
The formation of a film is noted. The operation is repeated with
the thread in the oxidizing flame.

Any film formed in the first case is metallic, in the second it is the
oxide. The metallic film is tested with 20% nitric acid and with
bleaching-powder solution. Arsenic is insoluble in the acid, but
immediately dissolves in the bleaching-powder. The black films of
antimony and bismuth and the grey mottled film of mercury are
slowly soluble in the acid, and untouched by bleaching-powder.
The black films of tin, lead and cadmium dissolve at once in the acid,
the lead film being also soluble in bleaching-powder. The oxide
films of antimony, arsenic, tin and bismuth are white, that of bismuth
slightly yellowish; lead yields a very pale yellow film, and cadmium
a brown one; mercury yields no oxide film. The oxide films (the
metallic one in the case of mercury) are tested with hydriodic acid,
and with ammonium sulphide, and from the changes produced the
film can be determined (see F. M. Perkin, Qualitative Chemical
Analysis, 1905).

Having completed the dry analysis we may now pass on to
the wet and more accurate investigation. It is first necessary
to get the substance into solution. Small portions
should be successively tested with water,' dilute hydro- mlthods.
chloric acid, dilute nitric acid, strong hydrochloric
acid, and a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids, first in the
cold and then with warming. Certain substances are insoluble
in all the.se reagents, and other methods, such as the fusion with
sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate, and subsequent treat-
ment with an acid, must be employed. Some of these insoluble
compounds can be detected by their colour and particular re-
actions. For further information on this subject, we refer the
readers to Fresenius's Qualitative Analysis.

The procedure for the detection of metals in solution consists of
first separating them into groups and then examining each group
separately. For this purpose the cold solution is treated with
hydrochloric acid, which precipitates lead, silver and mercurous '
salts as chlorides. The solution is filtered and treated with an excess
of sulphuretted hydrogen, either in solution or by passing in the gas;
this precipitates mercury (mercuric), any lead left over from the
first group, copper, bismuth, cadmium, arsenic, antimony and tin
as sulphides. The solution is filtered off, boiled till free of sulphur-
etted hydrogen, and ammonium chloride and ammonia added. If
phosphoric acid is absent, aluminium, chromium and ferric hydrates
are precipitated. If, however, phosphoric acid is present in the
original substance.we may here obtain a precipitate of the phosphates
of the remaining metals, together with aluminium, chromium and
ferric hydrates. In this case, the precipitate is dissolved in as little
as possible hydrochloric acid and boiled with ammonium acetate,
acetic acid and ferric chloride. The phosphates of aluminium,
chromium and iron are precipitated, and the solution contains the
same metals as if phosphoric acid had been absent. To the filtrate
from the aluminium, iron and chromium precipitate, ammonia and
ammonium sulphide are added; the precipitate may contain nickel,
cobalt, zinc and manganese sulphides. Ammonium carbonate is
added to the filtrate; this precipitates calcium, strontium and

ANALYTICAL]

CHEMISTRY

barium. The solution contains magnesium, sodium and potassium,
which are separately distinguished by the methods given under their
own headings.

We now proceed with the examination of the various group
precipitates. The white precipitate formed by cold hydrochloric
acid is boiled with water, and the solution filtered while hot. Any
lead chloride dissolves, and may be identified by the yellow precipitate
formed with potassium chromate. To the residue add ammonia,
shake, then filter. Silver chloride goes into solution, and may be
precipitated by dilute nitric acid. The residue, which is black in
colour, consists of mercuroso-ammonium chloride, in which mercury
can be confirmed by its ordinary tests.

The precipitate formed by sulphuretted hydrogen may contain
the black mercuric, lead, and copper sulphides, dark-brown bismuth
sulphide, yellow cadmium and arsenious sulphides, orange-red
antimony sulphide, brown stannous sulphide, dull-yellow stannic
sulphide, and whitish sulphur, the last resulting from the oxidation
of sulphuretted hydrogen by ferric salts, chromates, &c. Warming
with ammonium sulphide dissolves out the arsenic, antimony and
tin salts, which are reprecipitated by the addition of hydrochloric
acid to the ammonium sulphide solution. The precipitate is shaken
with ammonium carbonate, which dissolves the arsenic. Filter and
confirm arsenic in the solution by its particular tests. Dissolve the
residue in hydrochloric acid and test separately for antimony and
tin. The residue from the ammonium sulphide solution is warmed
with dilute nitric acid. Any residue consists of black mercuric
sulphide (and possibly white lead sulphate), in which mercury is
confirmed by its usual tests. The solution is evaporated with a
little sulphuric acid and well cooled. The white precipitate consists
of lead sulphate. To the filtrate add ammonia in excess: a white
precipitate indicates bismuth; if the solution be blue, copper is
present. Filter from the bismuth hydrate, and if copper is present,
add potassium cyanide till the colour is destroyed, then pass sulphur-
etted hydrogen, and cadmium is precipitated as the yellow sulphide.
If copper is absent, then sulphuretted hydrogen can be passed
directly into the solution.

The next group precipitate may contain the white gelatinous
aluminium hydroxide, the greenish chromium hydroxide, reddish
ferric hydroxide, and possibly zinc and manganese hydroxides.
Treatment with casutic soda dissolves out aluminium hydroxide,
which is reprecipitated by the addition of ammonium chloride.
The remaining metals are tested for separately.

The next group may contain black nickel and cobalt sulphides,
flesh-coloured manganese sulphide, and white zinc sulphide. The
last two are dissolved out by cold, very dilute hydrochloric acid,
and the residue is tested for nickel and cobalt. The solution is
boiled till free from sulphuretted hydrogen and treated with excess
of sodium hydrate. A white precipitate rapidly turning brown
indicates manganese. The solution with ammonium sulphide gives
a white precipitate of zinc sulphide.

The next group may contain the white calcium, barium and
strontium carbonates. The flame coloration (see above) may give
information as to which elements are present. The carbonates are
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and calcium sulphate solution is
added to a portion of the solution. An immediate precipitate
indicates barium; a precipitate on standing indicates strontium.
If barium is present, the solution of the carbonates in hydrochloric
acid is evaporated and digested with strong alcohol for some time ;
barium chloride, which is nearly insoluble in alcohol.is thus separated,
the remainder being precipitated by a few drops of hydrofluosilicic
acid, and may be confirmed by the ordinary tests. The solution free
from barium is treated with ammonia and ammonium sulphate,
which precipitates strontium, and the calcium in the solution may be
identified by the white precipitate with ammonium oxalate.

Having determined the bases, it remains to determine the acid
radicals. There is no general procedure for these operations,
and it is customary to test for the acids separately by special
tests; these are given in the articles on the various acids. A
knowledge of the solubility of salts considerably reduces the
number of acids likely to be present, and affords evidence of great
value to the analyst (see A. M. Comey, Dictionary of Chemical
Solubilities). In the above account we have indicated the pro-
cedure adopted in the analysis of a complex mixture of salts.
It is unnecessary here to dwell on the precautions which can only
be conveniently acquired by experience; a sound appreciation
of analytical methods is only possible after the reactions and
characters of individual substances have been studied, and we
therefore refer the reader to the articles on the particular ele-
ments and compounds for more information on this subject.

Quantitative Inorganic Analysis.

Quantitative methods are divided into four groups, which we
now pass on to consider in the following sequence: (a) gravimetric,
(J3) volumetric, (7) electrolytic, (5) colorimetric.

(a) Gravimetric. — This method is made up of four operations:
(i) a weighed quantity of the substance is dissolved in a suitable
solvent; (2) a particular reagent is added which precipitates
the substance it is desired to estimate; (3) the precipitate is
filtered, washed and dried; (4) the filter paper containing the
precipitate is weighed either as a tared filter, or incinerated and
ignited either in air or in any other gas, and then weighed.

(l) Accurate weighing is all-important; for details of the various
appliances and methods see WEIGHING MACHINES. (2) No general
directions can be given as to the method of precipitation. Sometimes
it is necessary to allow the solution to stand for a considerable time
either in the warm or cold or in the light or dark ; to work with cold
solutions and then boil ; or to use boiling solutions of both the
substance and reagent. Details will be found in the articles on
particular metals. (3) The operation of filtration and washing is
very important. If the substance to be weighed changes in com-
position on strong heating, it is necessary to employ a tared filter,
i.e. a filter paper which has been previously heated to the temperature
at which the substance is to be dried until its weight is constant.
If the precipitate settles readily, the supernatant liquor may be
decanted through the filter paper, more water added to the pre-
cipitate and again decanted. By this means most of the washing,
i.e. freeing from the other substances in the solution, can be accom-
plished in the precipitating vessel. If, however, the precipitate
refuses to settle, it is directly transferred to the filter paper, the last
traces being removed by washing and rubbing the sides of the vessel
with a piece of rubber, and the liquid is allowed to drain through.
It is washed by ejecting a jet of water, ammonia or other prescribed
liquid on to the side of the filter paper until the paper is nearly full.
It can be shown that a more efficient washing results from alternately
filling and emptying the funnel than by endeavouring to keep the
funnel full. The washing is continued until the filtrate is free from
salts or acids. (4) After washing, the funnel containing t,he filter paper
is transferred to a drying oven. In the case of a tared filter it is
weighed repeatedly until the weight suffers no change; then knowing
the weight of the filter paper, the weight of the precipitate is obtained
by subtraction. If the precipitate may be ignited, it is transferred
to a clean, weighed and recently ignited crucible, and the filter paper
is burned separately on the lid, the ash transferred to the crucible,
and the whole ignited. After ignition, it is allowed to cool in a
desiccator and then weighed. Knowing the weight of the crucible
and of the ash of the filter paper, the weight of the precipitate is
determined. The calculation of the percentage of the particular con-
stituent is simple. We know the amount present in the precipitate,
and since the same amount is present in the quantity of substance
experimented with, we have only to work out a sum in proportion.

(j3) Volumetric. — This method is made up of three operations:
— (i) preparation of a standard solution; (2) preparation of a
solution of the substance; (3) titration, or the determination of
what volume of the standard solution will occasion a known
and definite reaction with a known volume of the test solution.

(i) In general analytical work the standard solution contains the
equivalent weight of the substance in grammes dissolved in a litre
of water. Such a solution is known as normal. Thus a normal
solution of sodium carbonate contains 53 grammes per litre, of
sodium hydrate 40 grammes, of hydrochloric acid 36-5 grammes,
and so on. By taking j^th or Ttath of these quantities, decinormal
or centinormal solutions are obtained. We see therefore that i
cubic centimetre of a normal sodium carbonate solution will exactly
neutralize 0-049 gramme of sulphuric acid, 0-0365 gramme of
hydrochloric acid (i.e. the equivalent quantities), and similarly for
decinormal and centinormal solutions. Unfortunately, the term
normal is sometimes given to solutions which are strictly decinormal ;
for example, iodine, sodium thiosulphate, &c. In technical analysis,
where a solution is used for one process only, it may be prepared so
that i cc. is equal to -oi gramme of the substance to be estimated.
This saves a certain amount of arithmetic, but when the solution
is applied in another determination additional calculations are
necessary. Standard solutions are prepared by weighing out the
exact amount of the pure substance and dissolving it in water, or
by forming a solution of approximate normality, determining its
exact strength by gravimetric or other means, and then correcting
it for any divergence. This may be exemplified in the case of
alkalimetry. Pure sodium carbonate is prepared by igniting the
bicarbonate, and exactly 53 grammes are dissolved in water, forming
a strictly normal solution. An approximate normal sulphuric acid is
prepared from 30 ccs. of the pure acid (1-84 specific gravity) diluted
to i litre. The solutions are titrated (see below) and the acid solution
diluted until equal volumes are exactly equivalent. A standard
sodium hydrate solution can be prepared by dissolving 42 grammes
of sodium hydrate, making up to a litre, and diluting until one
cubic centimetre is exactly equivalent to one cubic centimetre of the
sulphuric acid. Similarly, normal solutions of hydrochloric and nitric
acids can be prepared. Where a solution is likely to change in
composition on keeping, such as potassium permanganate, iodine,

CHEMISTRY

[ANALYTICAL

sodium hydrate, &c., it is necessary to check or re-standardize it
periodically.

(2) The preparation of the solution of the substance consists in
dissolving an accurately determined weight, and making up the
volume in a graduated cylinder or flask to a known volume.

(3) The titration is conducted by running the standard solution
from a burette into a known volume of the test solution, which is
usually transferred from the stock-bottle to a beaker or basin by
means of a pipette. Various artifices are employed to denote the
end of the reaction. These may be divided into two groups: (i)
those in which a change in appearance of the reacting mixture occurs ;
(2) those in which it is necessary to use an indicator which, by its
change in appearance, shows that an excess of one reagent is present.
In the first group, we have to notice the titration of a cyanide with
silver nitrate, when a milkiness shows how far the reaction has gone ;
the titration of iron with permanganate, when the faint pink colour
shows that all the iron is oxidizea. In the second group, we may
notice the application of litmus, methyl orange or phenolphthalein
in alkalimetry, when the acid or alkaline character of the solution
commands the colour which it exhibits; starch paste, which forms
a bjue compound with free iodine in iodometry ; potassium chromate,
which forms red silver chromate after ail the hydrochloric acid is
precipitated in solutions of chlorides; and in die estimation of
ferric compounds by potassium bichromate, the indicator, potassium
ferricyanide, is placed in drops on a porcelain plate, and the end of
the reaction is shown by the absence of a blue coloration when
a drop of the test solution is brought into contact with it.

(y) Electrolytic. — This method consists in decomposing a
solution of a salt of the metal by the electric current and weigh-
ing the metal deposited at the cathode.

It is only by paying great attention to the current density that
good results are obtained, since metals other than that sought for may
be deposited. In acid copper solutions, mercury is deposited before
the copper with which it subsequently amalgamates; silver is
thrown down simultaneously; bismuth appears towards the end;
and after all the copper has been precipitated, arsenic and antimony
may be deposited. Lead and manganese are partially separated
as peroxides, but the remaining metals are not deposited from acid
solutions. It is therefore necessary that the solution should be free
from metals which may vitiate the results, or special precautions
taken by which the impurities are rendered harmless. In such cases
the simplicity of manipulation and the high degree of accuracy of
the method have made it especially valuable. The electrolysis is
generally conducted with platinum electrodes, of which the cathode
takes the form of a piece of foil bent into a cylindrical form, the
necessary current being generated by one or more Daniell cells.

, (5) Colorimetric. — This method is adopted when it is necessary
to determine minute traces (as in the liquid obtained in the
electrolytic separation of copper) of substances which afford
well-defined colour reactions.

The general procedure is to make a series of standard solutions
containing definite quantities of the substance which it is desired to
estimate; such a series will exhibit tints which deepen as the
quantity of the substance is increased. A known weight of the test
substance is dissolved and a portion of the solution is placed in a
tube similar to those containing the standard solutions. The colour-
producing reagent is added and the tints compared. In the case of
copper, the colour reactions with potassium ferrocyanide or ammonia
are usually employed; traces of ammonia are estimated with
Nessler's reagent; sulphur in iron and steel is determined by the
tint assumed by a silver-copper plate suspended in the gases liberated
when the metal is dissolved in sulphuric acid (Eggertz's test) (see
W. Crookes, Select Methods in Analytical Chemistry).

Organic Analysis.

The elements which play important parts in organic com-
pounds are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine,
sulphur, phosphorus and oxygen. We shall here consider the
qualitative and quantitative determination of these elements.

Qualitative. — Carbon is detected by the formation of carbon
dioxide, which turns lime-water milky, and hydrogen by the forma-
tion of water, which condenses on the tube, when the substance is
heated with copper oxide. Nitrogen may be detected by the
evolution of ammonia when the substance is heated with soda-lime.
A more delicate method is that due to J. L. Lassaigne and improved
by O. Jacobsen arid C. Graebe. The substance is heated with
metallic sodium or potassium (in excess if sulphur be present) to
redness, the residue treated with water, filtered, and ferrous sulphate,
ferric chloride and hydrochloric acid added. A blue coloration
indicates nitrogen, and is due to the formation of potassium (or
sodium) cyanide during the fusion, and subsequent interaction
with the iron salts. The halogens may be sometimes detected by
fusing with lime, and testing the solution for a bromide, chloride
and iodide in the usual way. F. Beilstein determines then- presence
by heating the substance with pure copper oxide on a platinum
wire in the Bunsen flame; a green coloration is observed if halogens
be present. Sulphur is detected by heating the substance with

sodium, dissolving the product in water, and adding sodium nitro-
prusside; a bluish-violet coloration indicates sulphur (H. Vphl).
Or we may use J. Horbaczewski's method, which consists in boiling
the substance with strong potash, saturating the cold solution with
chlorine, adding hydrochloric acid, and boiling till no more chlorine is
liberated, and then testing for sulphuric acid with barium chloride.
Phosphorus is obtained as a soluble phosphate (which can be ex-
amined in the usual way) by lixiviating the product obtained when
the substance is ignited with potassium nitrate and carbonate.

Quantitative. — Carbon and hydrogen are generally estimated by
the combustion process, which consists in oxidizing the substance
and absorbing^ the products of combustion in suitable carbon and
apparatus. The oxidizing agent in commonest use is hydrogen.
copper oxide, which must be freshly ignited before use on
account of its hygroscopic nature. Lead chromate is sometimes
used, and many other substances, such as platinum, manganese
dioxide, &c., have been suggested. The procedure for a combustion
is as follows : —

FIG. i.

A hard glass tube slightly longer than the furnace and 12 to 15 mm.
in diameter is thoroughly cleansed and packed as shown in fig. i.
The space o must allow for the inclusion of a copper spiral if the
substance contains nitrogen, and a silver spiral if halogens be
present, for otherwise nitrogen oxides and the halogens may be
condensed in the absorption apparatus; b contains copper oxide;
c is a space for the insertion of a porcelain or platinum boat containing
a weighed quantity of the substance ; d is a copper spiral. The end
d is connected to an air or oxygen supply with an intermediate
drying apparatus. _The other endis connected with the absorption
vessels, which consist of a tube (e) containing calcium chloride, and
a set of bulbs (/) containing potash solution. Various forms of potash
bulbs _are employed; fie. 2 is Liebig's, fig. 3 Mohr's or Geissler's,
fig. 4 is a more recent form, of which special variations have been

FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4-

made by Anderson, Gomberg, Delisle and others. After having
previously roasted the tube and copper oxide, and reduced the
copper spiral a, the weighed calcium chloride tube and potash bulbs
are put in position, the boat containing the substance is inserted
(in the case of a difficultly combustible substance it is desirable to
mix it with cupric oxide or lead chromate), the copper spiral (d)
replaced, and the air and oxygen supply connected up. The
apparatus is then tested for leaks. If all the connexions are sound,
the copper oxide is gradually heated from the end o, the gas-jets
under the spiral d are lighted, and a slow current of oxygen is passed
through the tube. The success of the operation depends upon the
slow burning of the substance. Towards the end the heat and the
oxygen supply are increased. When there is no more absorption
in the potash bulbs, the oxygen supply is cut off and air passed
through. Having replaced the oxygen in the absorption vessels by
air, they are disconnected and weighed, after having cooled down
to the temperature of the room. The increase in weight of the calcium
chloride tube gives the weight of water formed, and of the potash
bulbs the carbon dioxide.

Liquids are amenable to the same treatment, but especial care
must be taken so that they volatilize slowly. Difficultly volatile
liquids may be weighed directly into the boat ; volatile liquids are
weighed in thin hermetically sealed bulbs, the necks of which are
broken just before they are placed in the combustion tube.

The length of time and other disadvantages attending the com-
bustion method have caused investigators to devise other processes.
In 1855 C. Brunner described a method for oxidizing the carbon
to carbon dioxide, which could be estimated by the usual methods,
by heating the substance with potassium bichromate and sulphuric
acid. This process has been considerably developed by J. Messinger,
and we may hope that with subsequent improvements it may be
adapted to all classes of organic compounds. The oxidation, which
is effected by chromic acid and sulphuric acid, is conducted in a flask
provided with a funnel and escape tube, and the carbon dioxide
formed is swept by a current of dry air, previously freed from carbon
dioxide, through a drying tube to a set of potash bulbs and a tube
containing soda-lime; if halogens are present, a small wash bottle
containing potassium iodide, and a (J tube containing glass wool
moistened with silver nitrate on one side and strong sulphuric acid
on the other, must be inserted between the flask and the drying tube.
The increase in weight of the potash bulbs and soda-lime tube gives

PHYSICAL]

CHEMISTRY

the weight of carbon dioxide evolved. C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan
collected the carbon dioxide obtained in this way over mercury.
They also showed that carbon monoxide was given off towards the
end of the reaction, and oxygen was not evolved unless the tempera-
ture exceeded 100°.

Methods depending upon oxidation in the presence of a contact
substance have come into favour during recent years. In that of
M. Dennstedt, which was first proposed in 1902, the substance is
vaporized in a tube containing at one end platinum foil, platinized
quartz, or platinized asbestos. The platinum is maintained at a
bright red heat, either by a gas flame or by an electric furnace, and
the vapour is passed over it by leading in a current of oxygen. If
nitrogen be present, a boat containing dry lead peroxide and heated
to 320° is inserted, the oxide decomposing any nitrogen peroxide
which may be formed. The same absorbent quantitatively takes
up any halogen and sulphur which may be present. The process is
thereforeadapted to the simultaneous estimation of carbon.hydrogen,
the halogens and sulphur.

Nitrogen is estimated by (l) Dumas' method, which consists in
heating the substance with copper oxide and measuring the volume
NUrosea °* n'trogen liberated; (2) by Will and Varrentrapp's
method, in which the substance is heated with soda-lime,
and the ammonia evolved is absorbed in hydrochloric acid, and thence
precipitated as ammonium chlorplatinate or estimated volumetric-
ally ; of (3) by Kjeldahl's method, in which the substance is dissolved
in concentrated sulphuric acid, potassium permanganate added, the
liquid diluted and boiled with caustic soda, and the evolved ammonia
absorbed in hydrochloric acid and estimated as in Will and
Varrentrapp's method.

Dumas' Method. — In this method the operation is carried out in a
hard glass tube sealed at one end and packed as shown in fie. 5.
The magnesite (a) serves for the generation of carbon dioxide which
clears the tube of air before the compound (mixed with fine copper
oxide (6)) is burned, and afterwards sweeps the liberated nitrogen
into the receiving vessel (e), which contains a strong potash solution ;
c is coarse copper oxide; and d a reduced copper
gauze spiral, heated in order to decompose any
nitrogen oxides. Ulrich Kreusler generates the
carbon dioxide in a separate apparatus, and
in this case the tube is drawn out to a capillary
at the end (a). This artifice is specially valuable
when the substance decomposes or volatilizes
in a warm current of carbon dioxide. Various
forms of the absorbing apparatus (e) have been
discussed by M. Ilinski (Ber. 17, p. 1347), who
has also suggested the use of manganese car-
bonate instead of magnesite, since the change
of colour enables one to follow the decomposi-

FIG. 5.

tion. Substances which burn with difficulty may be mixed with
mercuric oxide in addition to copper oxide.

Will and Varrentrapp's Method. — This method, as originally pro-
posed, is not in common use, but has been superseded by Kjeldahl's
method, since the nitrogen generally comes out too low. It is
susceptible of wider application by mixing reducing agents with the
soda -lime; thus Goldberg (Ber. 16, p. 2546) uses a mixture of
soda-lime, stannous chloride and sulphur for nitro- and azo-com-
pounds, and C. Arnold (Ber. 18, p. 806) a mixture containing
sodium hyposulphite and sodium formate for nitrates.

Kjeldahl s Method. — This method rapidly came into favour on
account of its simplicity, both of operation and apparatus. Various
substances other than potassium permanganate have been suggested
for facilitating the operation; J. W. Gunning (Z. anal. Chem., 1889,
p. 189) uses potassium sulphate; Lassar-Cohn uses mercuric oxide.
The applicability of the process has been examined by F. W. Dafert
(Z. anal. Chem., 1888, p. 224), who has divided nitrogenous bodies
into two classes with respect to it. The first class includes those
substances which require no preliminary treatment, and comprises
the amides and ammonium compounds, pyridines, quinolines,
alkaloids, albumens and related bodies; the second class requires
preliminary treatment and comprises, with few exceptions, the nitro-,
nitroso-, azo-, diazo- and amidoazo-compounds, hydrazines, deriva-
tives of nitric and nitrous acids, and probably cyanogen compounds.
Other improvements have been suggested by Dyer (J.C.S. Trans.
67, p. 811). For an experimental comparison of the accuracy of
the Dumas, Will-Varrentrapp and Kjeldahl processes see L. L'H&te,
C.R. 1889, p. 817. Debordeaux (C.R. 1904, p. 905) has obtained
good results by distilling the substance with a mixture of potassium
thiosulphate and sulphide.

The halogens may be estimated by ignition with quicklime, or by
heating with nitric acid and silver nitrate in a sealed tube. In the

VI. 3

first method the substance, mixed with quicklime free from chlorine,
is heated in a tube closed at one end in a combustion furnace.
The product is dissolved in water, and the calcium Halotta*
haloid estimated in the usual way. The same decomposi- su/p/,ur> '
tion may be effected by igniting with iron, ferric oxide and pt,on-
sodium carbonate (E. Kopp, Ber.io, p. 290); the operation p*onu.
is easier if the lime be mixed with sodium carbonate, or a
mixture of sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate be used. With
iodine compounds, iodic acid is likely to be formed, and hence the
solution must be reduced with sulphurous acid before precipitation
with silver nitrate. C. Zulkowsky (Ber. 18, R. 648) burns the
substance in oxygen, conducts the gases over platinized sand, and
collects the products in suitable receivers. The oxidation with
nitric acid in sealed tubes at a temperature of 150° to 200° for aliphatic
compounds, and 250° to 260° for aromatic compounds, is in commoa
use, for both the sulphur and phosphorus can be estimated, the
former being oxidized to sulphuric acid and the latter to phosphoric
acid. This method was due to L. Carius (Ann. 136, p. 129). R.
Klason (Ber. 19, p. 1910) determines sulphur and the halogens by
oxidizing the substance in a current of oxygen and nitrous fumes,
conducting the vapours over platinum foil, and absorbing the vapours
in suitable receivers. Sulphur and phosphorus can sometimes be
estimated by Messinger's method, in which the oxidation is effected
by potassium permanganate and caustic alkali, or by potassium
bichromate and hydrochloric acid. A comparison of the various
methods for estimating sulphur has been given by O. Hammarsten
(Zeit. physiolog. Chem. o, p. 273), and by Holand (Chemiker Zeitung,
!893, p. 99i). H. H. Pnngsheim (Ber. 38, p. 1434) has devised a
method in which the oxidation is effected by sodium peroxide; the
halogens.phosphorusand sulphur can be determined by one operation.

VI. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

We have seen how chemistry may be regarded as having for
its province the investigation of the composition of matter,
and the changes in composition which matter or energy may
effect on matter, while physics is concerned with the general
properties of matter. A physicist, however, does more than
merely quantitatively determine specific properties of matter;
he endeavours to establish mathematical laws which co-ordinate
his observations, and in many cases the equations expressing such
laws contain functions or terms which pertain solely to the
chemical composition of matter. One example will suffice here.
The limiting law expressing the behaviour of gases under varying
temperature and pressure assumes the form pv=R.T; so stated,
this law is independent of chemical composition and may be
regarded as a true physical law, just as much as the law of uni-
versal gravitation is a true law of physics. But this relation is
not rigorously true; in fact, it does not accurately express the
behaviour of any gas. A more accurate expression (see CON-
DENSATION OF GASES and MOLECULE) is (p+a/v2) (v—b) = RT, in
which a and b are quantities which depend on the composition
of the gas, and vary from one gas to another.

It may be surmised that the quantitative measures of most
physical properties will be found to be connected with the
chemical nature of substances. In the investigation of these
relations the physicist and chemist meet on common ground;
this union has been attended by fruitful and far-reaching results,
and the correlation of physical properties and chemical composi-
tion is one of the most important ramifications of physical
chemistry. This branch receives treatment below. Of consider-
able importance, also, are the properties of solids, liquids and
gases in solution. This subject has occupied a dominant position
in physico-chemical research since the investigations of van't
Hoff and Arrhenius. This subject is treated in the article
SOLUTION; for the properties of liquid mixtures reference should
also be made to the article DISTILLATION.

Another branch of physical chemistry has for its purpose the
quantitative study of chemical action, a subject which has
brought out in clear detail the analogies of chemical and physical
equilibrium (see CHEMICAL ACTION). Another branch, related
to energetics (<?.».), is concerned with the transformation of
chemical energy into other forms of energy — heat, light, electri-
city. Combustion is a familiar example of the transformation
of chemical energy into heat and light; the quantitative measures
of heat evolution or absorption (heat of combustion or combina-
tion), and the deductions therefrom, are treated in the article
THERMOCHEMISTRY. Photography (q.v.) is based on chemical
action induced by luminous rays; apart from this practical

66

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

application there are many other cases in which actinic rays
occasion chemical actions; these are treated in the article
PHOTOCHEMISTRY. Transformations of electrical into chemical
energy are witnessed in the processes of electrolysis (q.v.; see
also ELECTROCHEMISTRY and ELECTROMETALLURGY). The con-
verse is presented in the common electric cell.

Physical Properties and Composition.

For the complete determination of the chemical structure of
any compound, three sets of data are necessary: (i) the empirical
chemical composition of the molecule; (2) the constitution, i.e.
the manner in which the atoms are linked together; and (3) the
configuration of the molecule, i.e. the arrangement of the atoms
in space. Identity in composition, but difference in constitution,
is generally known as " isomerism " (q.v.), and compounds
satisfying this relation differ in many of their physical properties.
If, however, two compounds only differ with regard to the spatial
arrangement of the atoms, the physical properties may be (i)
for the most part identical, differences, however, being apparent
with regard to the action of the molecules on polarized light, as
is the case when the configuration is due to the presence of an
asymmetric atom (optical isomerism); or (2) both chemical
and physical properties may be different when the configuration
is determined by the disposition of the atoms or groups attached
to a pair of doubly-linked atoms, or to two members of a ring
system (geometrical isomerism or allo-isomerism). Three sets
of physical properties may therefore be looked for: (i) depending
on composition, (2) depending on constitution, and (3) depending
on configuration. The first set provides evidence as to the
molecular weight of a substance: these are termed " colligative
properties." The second and third sets elucidate the actual
structure of the molecule: these are known as " constitutional
properties."

In any attempts to gain an insight into the relations between
the physical properties and chemical composition of substances,
the fact must never be ignored that a comparison can only be
made when the particular property under consideration is deter-
mined under strictly comparable conditions, in other words,
when the molecular states of the substances experimented upon
are identical. This is readily illustrated by considering the pro-
perties of gases — the simplest state of aggregation. According
to the law of Avogadro, equal volumes of different gases under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal
numbers of molecules; therefore, since the density depends upon
the number of molecules present in unit volume, it follows that
for a comparison of the densities of gases, the determinations
must be made under coincident conditions, or the observations
reduced or re-computed for coincident conditions. When this
is done, such densities are measures of the molecular weights
of the substances in question.

Volume Relations.1 — When dealing with colligative properties
of liquids it is equally necessary to ensure comparability of con-
ditions. In the article CONDENSATION OF GASES (see also
MOLECULE) it is shown that the characteristic equation of gases
and liquids is conveniently expressed in the form (p+a/v2) (v— b)
= RT. This equation, which is mathematically deducible from
the kinetic theory of gases, expresses the behaviour of gases,
the phenomena of the critical state, and the behaviour of liquids;
solids are not accounted for. If we denote the critical volume,
pressure and temperature by Vjt, Pi and Tk, then it may be
shown, either by considering the characteristic equation as a
perfect cube in » or by using the relations that dp/dv — o,
d*p/dv2=o at the critical point, that Vk = $b, Pfc=0/27&2,
T* = 80/276. Eliminating a and b between these relations, we
derive PjfcVfc/Tk=iR, a relation which should hold between the
critical constants of any substance. Experiment, however,
showed that while the quotient on the left hand of this equation
was fairly constant for a great number of substances, yet its
value was not fR but -^rR; this means that the critical density
is, as a general rule, 3-7 times the theoretical density. Deviation
from this rule indicates molecular dissociation or association.

1 For the connexion between valency and volume, see VALENCY.

Name.

Formula.

Crit. Vol.

Vol. per CH,.|

Methyl formate

H-CO8CH,

171

Ethyl formate

H-CO,C2H6

228 1

56-5

Methyl acetate

CH.-COjCH,

227 f 227 5

Propyl formate

H-COsC.H,

284!

55-8

Ethyl acetate

CH,-COSC,H4

285 r 283-3

Methyl propionate

C2H6-CO2CH,

28lJ

Propyl acetate .

CH,-CO2C,H7

343]

57-4

Ethyl propionate
Methyl n-butyrate
Methyl isobutyrate

C,H4-C02C2H6
LC8H7-C02CH3

3« 340-7
337J

By actual observations it has been shown that ether, alcohol,
many esters of the normal alcohols and fatty acids, benzene,
and its halogen substitution products, have critical constants
agreeing with this originally empirical law, due to Sydney Young
and Thomas; acetic acid behaves abnormally, pointing to
associated molecules at the critical point.

The critical volume provides data which may be tested for additive
relations. Theoretically the critical volume is three times the
volume at absolute zero, i.e. the actual volume of the
molecules; this is obvious by considering the result of
making T zero in the characteristic equation. Experi- ° °
mentally (by extrapolation from the" law of the rectilinear ^absolute
diameter ") the critical volume is four times the volume tero.
at absolute zero (see CONDENSATION OF GASES). The
most direct manner in which to test any property for additive
relations is to determine the property for a number of elements, and
then investigate whether these values hold for the elements in com-
bination. Want of data for the elements, however, restricts this
method to narrow limits, and hence an indirect method is necessary.
It is found that isomers have nearly the same critical volume, and
that equal differences in molecular content occasion equal differ-
ences in critical volume. For example, the difference due to an
increment of CH2 is about 56-6, as is shown in the following table: —

Since the critical volume of normal pentane CjHu is 307-2, we
have H2 = C6H12-5CH2 = 307-2-5X56-6 = 24-2,and C = CH,-H,=

32-4. The critical volume of oxygen can be deduced from the data
of the above table, and is found to be 29, whereas the experimental
value is 25.

The researches of H. Kopp, begun in 1842, on the molecular
volumes, i.e. the volume occupied by one gramme molecular weight
of a substance, of liquids measured at their boiling-point
under atmospheric pressure, brought to light a series of
additive relations which, in the case of carbon compounds,
render it possible to predict, in some measure, the com- po
position of the substance. In practice it is generally more convenient
to determine the density, the molecular volume being then obtained
by dividing the molecular weight of the substance by the density.
By the indirect method Kopp derived the following atomic volumes:
C. O. H. Cl. Br. I. S.

II 12-2 5'5 22-8 27-8 37-5 22-6.

These values hold fairly well when compared with the experimental
values determined from other compounds, and also with the mole-
cular volumes of the elements themselves. Thus the actually
observed densities of liquid chlorine and bromine at the boiling-
points are 1-56 and 2-96, leading to atomic volumes 22-7 and 26-9,
which closely correspond to Kopp's values deduced from organic
compounds.

These values, however, require modification in certain cases, for
discrepancies occur which can be reconciled in some cases by assuming
that the atomic value of a polyvalent element varies according to the
distribution of its valencies. Thus a double bond of oxygen, as in the
carbonyl group CO, requires a larger volume than a single bond, as
in the hydroxyl group- OH, being about 12-2 in the first case and
7-8 in the second. Similarly, an increase of volume is associated
with doubly and trebly linked carbon atoms.

Recent researches have shown that the law originally proposed by
Kopp — " That the specific volume of a liquid compound (molecular
volume) at its boiling-point is equal to the sum of the specific volumes
of its constituents (atomic volumes), and that every element has a
definite atomic value in its compounds " — is by no means exact,
for isomers have different specific volumes, and the volume for an
increment of CH2 in different homologous series is by no means
constant ; for example, the difference among the esters of the fatty
acids is about 57, whereas for the aliphatic aldehydes it is 49. We
may therefore conclude that the molecular volume depends more
upon the internal structure of the molecule than its empirical content.
W. Ostwald (Lehr. der ollg. Chem.), after an exhaustive review of the
material at hand, concluded that simple additive relations did
exist but with considerable deviations, which he ascribed to differ-
ences in structure. In this connexion we may notice W. Stadel's
determinations :

CH,CC1,
CH2C1-CHC1,

108
102-8

CHClBr-CH,
CHjBr-CHsCl

96-5

88

PHYSICAL]

These differences do not disappear at the critical point, and hence
the critical volumes are not strictly additive. •

Theoretical considerations as to how far Kopp was justified in
choosing the boiling-points under atmospheric pressure as being
comparable states for different substances now claim our attention.
Van der Waal's equation (p+a/v2)(» — 6) = RT contains two constants
a and b determined by each particular substance. If we express
the pressure, volume and temperature as fractions of the critical
constants, then, calling these fractions the " reduced " pressure,
volume and temperature, and denoting them by ir, 0 and 9 re-
spectively, the characteristic equation becomes (IT +3/<£2) (3* — I ) = 89 ;
which ha's the same form for all substances. Obviously, therefore,
liquids are comparable when the pressures, volumes and tem-
peratures are equal fractions of the critical constants. In view
of the extremely slight compressibility of liquids, atmospheric
pressure may be regarded as a coincident condition; also C. M.
Guldberg pointed out that for the most diverse substances the
absolute boiling-point is about two-thirds of the critical temperature.
Hence within narrow limits Kopp's determinations were carried out
under coincident conditions, and therefore any regularities presented
by the critical volumes should be revealed in the specific volumes
at the boiling-point. . .

The connexion between the density and chemical composition of
solids has not been investigated with the same completeness as in the
case of gases and, liquids. The relation between the atomic
Volume volumes and the atomic weights of the solid elements
relation* exhibits the periodicity which generally characterizes the
of solids, elements. The molecular volume is additive in certain
cases, in particular pf analogous compounds of simple constitution.
For instance, constant differences are found between the chlorides,
bromides and iodides of sodium and potassium : —

CHEMISTRY

67

I.

Diff.

II.

Diff.

Diff. I. & II.

KC1=37'4
KBr = 44-3
KI =54-0

6-9
9-7

NaCl = 27-i
NaBr = 33-8
Nal =43-5

6-7
97

io-3
10-5
io-5

geses.

According to H. Schroeder the silver salts of the fatty acids
exhibit additive relations; an increase in the molecule of CH2
causes an increase in the molecular volume of about 15-3.

Thermal Relations.

Specific Heat and Composition. — The nature and experi-
mental determination of specific heats are discussed in the
article CALORIMETRY; here will be discussed the relations exist-
ing between the heat capacities of elements and compounds.

In the article THERMODYNAMICS it is shown that the amount
of heat required to raise a given weight of a gas through a certain
range of temperature is different according as the gas
*s maintained at constant pressure, the volume in-
creasing, or at constant volume, thepressure increasing.
A gas, therefore, has two specific heats, generally
denoted by Cp and Cr, when the quantity of gas taken as a unit
is one gramme molecular weight, the range of temperature being
i° C. It may be shown that CP-C,= R, where R is the gas-
constant, i.e. R in the equation PV = RT. From the ratio Cp/Cr
conclusions may be drawn as to the molecular condition of the
gas. By considerations based on the kinetic theory of gases
(see MOLECULE) it may be shown that when no energy is utilized
in separating the atoms of a molecule, this ratio is 5/3 = 1-67.
If, however, an amount of energy a is taken up in separating
atoms, the ratio is expressible as Cp/C,,= (5+a)/(3+a), which
is obviously smaller than 5/3, and decreases with increasing
values of a. These relations may be readily tested, for the ratio
Cp/C, is capable of easy experimental determination. It is found
that mercury vapour, helium, argon and its associates (neon,
krypton, &c.) have the value 1-67; hence we conclude that these
gases exist as monatomic molecules. Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen
and carbon monoxide have the value 1-4; these gases have
diatomic molecules, a fact capable of demonstration by other
means. Hence it may be inferred that this value is typical for
diatomic molecules. Similarly, greater atomic complexity is
reflected in a further decrease in the ratio CP/C,. The following
table gives a comparative view of the specific heats and the
ratio for molecules of variable atomic content.

The abnormal specific heats of the halogen elements may be due
to a loosening of the atoms, a preliminary to the dissociation into
monatomic molecules which occurs at high temperatures. In the
more complex gases the specific heat varies considerably with
temperature; only in the case of monatomic gases does it remain

Molecular Content.

Examples.

C,.

C..

C,/C*.

Monatomic .
Diatomic
Triatomic

He, Zn, Cd, He, Ar, &c. .
( H2, 0,, N, (o°-20oj) .
JCk Br,, 1 2 (o°-200e).
( HC1, HBr, HI, NO, CO
H«O, H,S, N,O, COi .
( As4, P4

6-83
8-6

9-2
13-4

I:!3

7-2
11-4

•66
•41
•30

•41

•28
•175

Tetratomic .

I NH,, C,H, ....
CHCIi

u-6
14

9-6

12

•21
•17

Hexatomic .

C8H4, C,H,Br . . .

16-4

14-4

•14

constant. Le Chatelier (Zeit. f. phys. Chem. i. 456) has given the
formula Cp = 6-5+oT, where a is a constant depending on the
complexity of the molecule, as an expression for the molecular heat
at constant pressure at any temperature T (reckoned on the absolute
scale). For a further discussion of the ratio of the specific heats see
MOLECULE.

Specific Heals of Solids. — The development of the atomic
theory and the subsequent determination of atomic weights
in the opening decades of the ipth century inspired A. T. Petit
and P. L. Dulong to investigate relations (if any) existing
between specific heats and the atomic weight. Their obser-
vations on the solid elements led to a remarkable generalization,
now known as Dulong and Petit's law. This states that " the
atomic heat (the product of the atomic weight and specific
heat) of all elements is a constant quantity." The value
of this constant when H=i is about 6-4; Dulong and Petit,
using O=i, gave the value -38, the specific heat of water being
unity in both cases. This law — purely empirical in origin — was
strengthened by Berzelius, who redetermined many specific
heats, and applied the law to determine the true atomic weight
from the equivalent weight. At the same time he perceived
that specific heats varied with temperature and also with allo-
tropes, e.g. graphite and diamond. The results of Berzelius were1
greatly extended by Hermann Kopp, who recognized that carbon,
boron and silicon were exceptions to the law. He regarded these
anomalies as solely due to the chemical nature of the elements,
and ignored or regarded as insignificant such factors as the state
of aggregation and change of specific heat with temperature.

The specific heats of carbon, boron and silicon subsequently
formed the subject of elaborate investigations by H. F. Weber, who
showed that with rise of temperature the specific (and atomic) heat
increases, finally attaining a fairly constant value; diamond,
graphite and the various amorphous forms of carbon having the value
about 5-6 at 1000°, and silicon 5-68 at 232°; while he concluded
that boron attained a constant value of 5 • 5. Nilson and Pettersson's
observations on beryllium and germanium have shown that the
atomic heats of these metals increase with rise of temperature,
finally becoming constant with a value 5-6. W. A. Tilden (Phil.
Trans., 1900, p. 233) investigated nickel and cobalt over a wide
range of temperature (from —182-5° to 100°); his results are: —

Cobalt.

Nickel.

From

-182-5° to
- 78-4° to
15° to

-78-4° . .
J5 o ' '

100° . .

4-1687
5-4978
6-0324

4-1874
5-6784
6-3I43

It is evident that the atomic heats of these intimately associated
elements approach nearer and nearer as we descend in temperature,
approximating to the value 4. Other metals were tested in order
to determine if their atomic heats approximated to this value at low
temperatures, but with negative results.

It is apparent that the law of Dulong and Petit is not rigorously
true, and that deviations are observed which invalidate the law as
originally framed. Since the atomic heat of the same element
varies with its state of aggregation, it must be concluded that some
factor taking this into account must be introduced; moreover, the
variation of specific heat with temperature introduces another factor.

We now proceed to discuss molecular heats of compounds,
that is, the product of the molecular weight into the specific
heat. The earliest generalization in this direction is associated
with F. E. Neumann, who, in 1831, deduced from observations
on many carbonates (calcium, magnesium, ferrous, zinc, barium
and lead) that stoichiometric quantities (equimolecular weights)
of compounds possess the same heat capacity. This is spoken of
as " Neumann's law." Regnault confirmed Neumann's obser-
vations, and showed that the molecular heat depended on the
number of atoms present, equiatomic compounds having the
same molecular heat. Kopp systematized the earlier observations,

68

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

and, having made many others, he was able to show that
the molecular heat was an additive property, i.e. each element
retains the same heat capacity when in combination as in the
free state. This has received confirmation by the researches
of W. A. Tilden (Phil. Trans., 1904, 203 A, p. 139) for those
elements whose atomic heats vary considerably with temperature.

The specific heat of a compound may, in general, be calculated
from the specific heats of its constituent elements. Conversely, if
the specific heats of a compound and its constituent elements,
except one, be known, then the unknown atomic heat is readily
deducible. Similarjy , by taking the difference of the molecular heats
of compounds differing by one constituent, the molecular (or atomic)
heat of this constituent is directly obtained. By this method it is
shown that water, when present as " water of crystallization,"
behaves as if it were ice.

Deductions from Dulong and Petit's Law. — Denoting the
atomic weight by W and the specific heat by s, Dulong and
Petit's law states that 6-4 = Vfs. Thus if s be known, an approxi-
mate value of W is determinate. In the determination of the
atomic weight of an element two factors must be considered:
(i) its equivalent weight, i.e. the amount which is equivalent to
one part of hydrogen; and (2) a factor which denotes the number
of atoms of hydrogen which combines with or is equivalent to
one atom of the particular element. This factor is termed the
valency. The equivalent weight is capable of fairly ready
determination, but the settlement of the second factor is some-
what more complex, and in this direction the law of atomic heats
is of service. To take an example: 38 parts of indium combine
with 35-4 parts of chlorine; hence, if the formula of the chloride
be InCl, InCl2 or InCU, indium has the atomic weights 38, 76
or 114. The specific heat of indium is 0-057; an<l the -atomic
heats corresponding to the atomic weights 38, 76 and 114 are
3-2, 4-3, 6-5. Dulong and Petit's law thus points to the value
114, which is also supported by the position occupied by this
element in the periodic classification. C. Winkler decided the
atomic weight of germanium by similar reasoning.

Boiling-Point and Composition. — From the relation between

the critical constants P* Vt/Tfc=T^R or T*/P*=3-7V*/R, and

O /

since V* is proportional to the volume at absolute zero, the ratio
T*/P* should exhibit additive relations. This ratio, termed by
Guye the critical coefficient, has the following approximate
values: —

r H ri n -o NT M— p Double Triple
C. H. U. -0-. -O. JN. W=. V. iinkage. linkage.

i -35 0-57 2-66 0-87 1-27 1-6 1-86 3-01 0-88 1-03
Since at the boiling-point under atmospheric pressure liquids
are in corresponding states, the additive nature of the critical
coefficient should also be presented by boiling-points. It may
be shown theoretically that the absolute boiling-point is pro-
portional to the molecular volume, and, since this property is
additive, the boiling-point should also be additive.

These relations have been more thoroughly tested in the case of
organic compounds, and the results obtained agree in some measure
with the deductions from molecular volumes. In general, isomers
boil at about the same temperature, as is shown by the isomeric
esters C»H«O2: —

Methyl octoate . . 192-9° Amyl butyrate . . 184-8°
Ethyl heptoate . . 187-1° Heptyl acetate . . 191-3°
Propyl hexoate . . 185-5° Octyl formate . . 198-1°
Butyl pentoate . . 185-8°

Equal increments in the molecule are associated with an equal
rise in the boiling-point, but this increment varies in different
homologous series. Thus in the normal fatty alcohols, acids, esters,
nitriles and ketones, the increment per CH2 is 19° — 21°; in the alde-
hydes it is 26°— 27°. In the aromatic compounds there is no regu-
larity between the increments due to the introduction of methyl
groups into the benzene nucleus or side chains; the normal value
of 20° — 21° is exhibited, however, by pyridine and its derivatives.
The substitution of a hydrogen atom by the hydroxyl group generally
occasions a rise in boiling-point at about 100°. The same increase
accompanies the introduction of the amino group into aromatic nuclei.
While certain additive relations hold between some homologous
series, yet differences occur which must be referred to the constitution
Constltu- °f t^e molecule. As a general rule, compounds formed
tlve with a great evolution of heat have high boiling-points,

Influences. anc^ v'ce versa. The introduction of negative groups into
a molecule alters the boiling-point according to the number
of negative groups already present. This is shown in the case of the
chloracetic acids:

CH,COiH
ClCH,-CO2H
Cl,CH-CO,H

Diff.

67°
ioe

According to van 't Hoff the substitution of chlorine atoms into a
methyl group occasions the following increments: —
Cl in CH, 66°

Cl „ CH.C1 39°
Cl ,,CHC12 13°.

The introduction of chlorine, however, may involve a fall in the
boiling-point, as is recorded by Henry in the case of the chlorinated
acetonitriles : —

NC-CH,. NC-CH.C1. NC-CHC12. NC-CC1,.
81° 123° 112° 83°

42° -ll° -29°

The replacement of one negative group by another is accompanied by
a change in the boiling-point, which is independent of the compound
in which the substitution is effected, and solely conditioned by the
nature of the replaced and replacing groups. Thus bromine and iodine
replace chlorine with increments of about 22° and 50° respectively.
A factor of considerable importance irwdetermining boiling-points
of isomers is the symmetry of the molecule. Referring to the esters
C9Hi8O2 previously mentioned, it is seen that the highest boiling-
points belong to methyl octoate and octyl formate, the least sym-
metrical, while the minimum belongs to amyl butyrate, the most
symmetrical. The isomeric pentanes also exhibit a similar rcla-
° °°

.

similar reason secondary alcohols boil at a lower temperature than
the corresponding primary, the difference being about 19°. A. E.
Earp (Phil. Mag., 1893 [5], 35, p. 458) has shown that, while an
increase in molecular weight is generally associated with a rise in
the boiling-point, yet the symmetry of the resulting molecule may
exert such a lowering effect that the final result is a diminution in the
boiling-point. The series H2S = -61°, CHaSH=2i°, (CH8)2S = 4i°
is an example; in the first case, the molecular weight is in-
creased and the symmetry diminished, the increase of boiling-point
being 82°; in the second case the molecular weight is again increased
but the molecule assumes a more symmetrical configuration, hence
the comparatively slight increase of 20°. A similar depression is
presented by methyl alcohol (67°) and methyl ether (—23°).

Among the aromatic di-substitution derivatives the ortho com-
pounds have the highest boiling-point, and the mcta boil at a higher,
or about the same temperature as the para compounds. Of the
tri-derivatives the symmetrical compounds boil at the lowest
temperature, the asymmetric next, and the vicinal at the highest.

An ethylenic or double carbon union in the aliphatic hydrocarbons
has, apparently, the same effect on the boiling-point as two hydrogen
atoms, since the compounds CBH2n+2 and CnH2n boil at about the
same temperature. An acetylenic or triple linkage is associated
with a rise in the boiling-point ; for example, propargyl compounds
boil about 19-5° higher than the corresponding propyl compound.

Certain regularities attend the corresponding property of the
melting-point. A rule applicable to organic compounds, due to
Adolf v. Baeyer and supported by F. S. Kipping (Jour. Chem. Soc.,
1893, 63, p. 465) states, that the melting-point of any odd member
of a homologous series is lower than the melting-point of the even
member containing one carbon atom .less. This is true of the fatty
acid series, and the corresponding ketones and alcohols, and also of
the succinic acid series. Other regularities exist, but generally with
many exceptions. It is to be noted that although the correlation of
melting-point with constitution has not been developed to such
an extent as the chemical significance of other physical properties,
the melting-point is the most valuable test of the purity of a sub-
stance, a circumstance due in considerable measure to the fact that
impurities always tend to lower the melting-point.

Heat of Combustion and Constitution. — In the article THERMO-
CHEMISTRY a general account of heats of formation of chemical
compounds is given, and it is there shown that this constant
measures the stability of the compound. In organic chemistry
it is more customary to deal with the " heat of combustion,"
i.e. the heat evolved when an organic compound is completely
burned in oxygen; the heat of formation is deduced from the
fact that it is equal to the heats of formation of the products
of combustion less the observed heat of combustion. The
researches of Julius Thomsen and others have shown that in many
cases definite conclusions regarding constitution can be drawn
from quantitative measurements of the heats of combustion;
and in this article a summary of the chief results will be given.

The identity of the four valencies of the carbon atom follows
from the fact that the heats of combustion of methane, ethane,
propane, trimethyl methane, and tetramethyl methane, have a
constant differencein the order given, viz. is8-6calories; this means

PHYSICAL]

CHEMISTRY

69

that the replacement ot a hydrogen atom by a methyl group is
attended by a constant increase in the heat of combustion. The
same difference attends the introduction of the methyl group into
many classes of compounds, for example, the paraffins, defines,
acetylenes, aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones
and esters, while a slightly lower value (157-1) is found in the case
of the halogen compounds, nitriles, amines, acids, ethers, sulphides
and nitro compounds. It therefore appears that the difference be-
tween the heats of combustion of two adjacent members of a series
of homologous compounds is practically a constant, and that this
constant has two average values, viz. 158-6 and 157-1.

An important connexion between heats of combustion and
constitution is found in the investigation of the effect of single,
double and triple carbon linkages on the thermochemical constants.
If twelve grammes of amorphous carbon be burnt to carbon dioxide
under constant volume, the heat evolved (96-96 cal.) does not measure
the entire thermal effect, but the difference between this and the
heat required to break down the carbon molecule into atoms.
If the number of atoms in the carbon molecule be denoted by n,
and the heat required to split off each atom from the molecule by d,
then the total heat required to break down a carbon molecule
completely into atoms is nd. It follows that the true heat of com-
bustion of carbon, i.e. the heat of combustion of one gramme-atom,
is 96-96 -\-d. The value of d can be evaluated by considering the
combustion of amorphous carbon to carbon monoxidfe and carbon
dioxide. In the first case the thermal effect of 58-58 calories actually
observed must be increased by 2d to allow for the heat absorbed in
splitting off two gramme-atoms of carbon; in the second case the
thermal effect of 96-96 must be increased by d as above. Now in
both cases one gramme-molecule of oxygen is decomposed, and the
two oxygen atoms thus formed are combined with two carbon
valencies. It follows that the thermal effects stated above must be
equal, i.e. 58-58 +2d =96-96+^, and therefore*/ = 38-38. Theabsolute
heat of combustion of a carbon atom is therefore 135-34 calories,
and this is independent of the form of the carbon burned.

Consider now the combustion of a hydrocarbon of the general
formula CnHjm. We assume that each carbon atom and each
hydrogen atom contributes equally to the thermal effect. If o be
the heat evolved by each carbon atom, and ft that by each hydrogen
atom, the thermal effect may be expressed as H=na-f-2mj8-A,
where A is the heat required to break the moleculeintoitsconstituent
atoms. If the hydrocarbon be saturated, i.e. only contain single
carbon linkages, then the number of such linkages is 2n—m, and if
the thermal effect of such a linkage be X, then the term Aisobviously
equal to (2n-»n)X. The value of H then becomes H=na+2fn/J—
(2»-f»)X or nf+m?;, where £ and rj are constants. Let double
bonds be present, in number p, and let the energy due to such a
bond be Y. Then the number of single bonds is 2n—m—2p, and the
heat of combustion becomes HI =nJ+mij+/>(2X-Y). If triple bonds,
q in number, occur also, and the energy of such a bond be Z, the
equation for H becomes

H = Mt+fmr +#(2X-Y) +S&X-Z).

This is the general equation for calculating the heat of combustion
of a hydrocarbon. It contains four independent constants; two
of these may be calculated from the heats of combustion of
saturated hydrocarbons, and the other two from the combustion of
hydrocarbons containing double and triple linkages. By experiment
it is found that the thermal effect of a double bond is much less than
the effect of two single bonds, while a triple bond has a much smaller
effect than three single bonds. J. Thomsen deduces the actual
values of X, Y, Z to be 14-71, 13-27 and zero; the last value he
considers to be in agreement with the labile equilibrium of acetylenic
compounds. One of the most important applications of these values
is found in the case of the constitution of benzene, where Thomsen
decides in favour of the Claus formula, involving nine single carbon
linkages, and rejects the Kekul6 formula, which has three single
and three double bonds (see section IV.).

The thermal effects of the common organic substituents have
also been investigated. The thermal effect of the " alcohol " group
C-OH may be determined by finding the heat of formation of the
alcohol and subtracting the thermal effects of the remaining linkages
in the molecule. The average value for primary alcohols is 44-67 cal.,
but many large differences from this value obtain in certain cases.
The thermal effects increase as one passes from primary to tertiary
alcohols, the values deduced from propyl and isopropyl alcohols and
trimethyl carbinol being: — primary = 45-08, secondary = 50-39, ter-
tiary =60-98. The thermal effect of the aldehyde group has the
average value 64-88 calories, i.e. considerably greater thanthealcohol
group. The ketone group corresponds to a thermal effect of 53-52
calories. It is remarkable that the difference in the heats of forma-
tion of ketones and the paraffin containing one carbon atom less is
67-94 calories, which is the heat of formation of carbon monoxide
at constant volume. It follows therefore that two hydrocarbon
radicals are bound to the carbon monoxide residue with the same
strength as they combine to form a paraffin. The average value for
the carboxyl group is 119-75 calories, i.e. it is equal to the sum of
the thermal effects of the aldehyde and carbonyl groups.

The thermal effects of the halogens are: chlorine = 15- 13 calories,
bromine = 7-68; iodine = -4-25 calories. It is remarkable that the

position of the halogen in the molecule has no effect on the heat of
formation ; for example, chlorpropylene and allylchloride, and also
ethylene dichloride and ethylidene dichloride, have equal heats of
formation. The thermal effect of the ether group has an average
value of 34-31 calories. This value does not hold in the case of

methylene oxide if we assign to it the formula HjC-O-CHj, but
if the formula HjC-O-CHj (which assumes the presence of two free
valencies) be accepted, the calculated and observed heats of formation
are in agreement.

The combination of nitrogen with carbon may result in the
formation of nitriles, cyanides, or primary, secondary or tertiary
amines. Thomsen deduced that a single bond between a carbon and
a nitrogen gramme-atom corresponds to a thermal effect of 2-77
calories, a double bond to 5-44, and a treble bond to 8-31. From
this he infers that cyanogen is C:N-N:C and not N;C-C:N,that
hydrocyanic acid is HC-N, and acetonitrile CH>-C \ N.' In the case
of the amines he decides in favour of the formulae

H2C:NH,

iprmary, secondary, tertiary.

These involve pentavalent nitrogen. These formulae, however, only
apply to aliphatic amines; the results obtained in the aromatic series
are in accordance with the usual formulae.

Optical Relations.

Refraction and Composition. — Reference should be made to
the article REFRACTION for the general discussion of the pheno-
menon known as the refraction of light. It is there shown that
every substance, transparent to light, has a definite refractive
index, which is the ratio of the velocity of light in vacua to its
velocity in the medium to which the refractive index refers.
The refractive index of any substance varies with (i)- the wave-
length of the light; (2) with temperature; and (3) with the state
of aggregation. The first cause of variation may be at present
ignored; its significance will become apparent when we consider
dispersion (vide infra). The second and third causes, however,
are of greater importance, since they are associated with the
molecular condition of the substance; hence, it is obvious that
it is only from some function of the refractive index which is
independent of temperature variations and changes of state
(i.e. it must remain constant for the same substance at any
temperature and in any form) that quantitative relations between
refractivity and chemical composition can be derived.

The pioneer work in this field, now frequently denominated
" spectro-chemistry," was done by Sir Isaac Newton, who, from
theoretical considerations based on his corpuscular theory of light,
determined the function («2— i), where n is the refractive index,
to be the expression for the refractive power; dividing this
expression by the density (d), he obtained (w2— i)/rf, which he
named the " absolute refractive power." To P. S. Laplace is
due the theoretical proof that this function is independent of
temperature and pressure, and apparent experimental confirma-
tion was provided by Biot and Arago's, and by Dulong's observa-
tions on gases and vapours. The theoretical basis upon which
this formula was devised (the corpuscular theory) was shattered
early in the ipth century, and in its place there arose the modern
wave theory which theoretically invalidates Newton's formula.
The question of the dependence of refractive index on tempera-
ture was investigated in 1858 by J. H. Gladstone and the Rev.
T. P. Dale; the more simple formula (n-i)/d, which remained
constant for gases and vapours, but exhibited slight discrepancies
when liquids were examined over a wide range of temperature,
being adopted. The subject was next taken up by Hans Landolt,
who, from an immense number of observations, supported in
a general way the formula of Gladstone and Dale. He introduced
the idea of comparing the refractivity of equimolecular quantities
of different substances by multiplying the function (n— i)/<f
by the molecular weight (M) of the substance, and investigated
the relations of chemical grouping to refractivity. Although
establishing certain general relations between atomic and
molecular refractions, the results were somewhat vitiated by the
inadequacy of the empirical function which he employed, since it
was by no means a constant which depended only on the actual
composition of the substance and was independent of its physical
condition. A more accurate expression (n*—i)/(nI+2)d was

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

suggested in 1880 independently and almost simultaneously by
L. V. Lorenz of Copenhagen and H. A. Lorentz of Leiden, from
considerations based on the Clausius-Mossotti theory of dielectrics.

Assuming that the molecules are spherical, R. J. E. Clausius and
O. F. Mossotti found a relation between the dielectric constant and
the space actually occupied by the molecules, viz. K = (i +2o)/(l —a),
or a-(K — i)/(K+2), where K is the dielectric constant and a the
fraction of the total volume actually occupied by matter. According
to the electromagnetic theory of light K = N2, where N is the
refractive index for rays of infinite wave-length. Making this
substitution, and dividing by d, the density of the substance, we
obtain a/d = (N2 — l)/(N2+2)<Z. Since a/d is the real specific volume
of the molecule, it is therefore a constant; hence (NJ — i)/(N2+2)d
is also a constant and is independent of all changes of temperature,
pressure, and of the state of aggregation. To determine N
recourse must be made to Cauchy s formula of dispersion (5.11.),
n = A + B/X2+C/X4+. . . from which, by extrapolation, X becoming
infinite, we obtain N=A. In the case of substances possessing
anomalous dispersion, the direct measurement of the refractive
index for Hertzian waves of very long wave-length may be
employed.

It is found experimentally that the Lorenz and Lorentz
function holds fairly well, and better than the Gladstone and Dale
formula. This is shown by the following observations of Riihl-
mann on water, the light used being the D line of the spectrum: —

/.

(n -!)/</.

(n2-l)/(n2+2)d.

0
10

20
90

100

0-3338
0-3338
0-3336
0-3321
0-3323

0-2061
0-2061
0-2061
0-2059
0-2061

Eykmann's observations also support the approximate
constancy of the Lorenz-Lorentz formula over wide temperature
differences, but in some cases the deviation exceeds the errors
of observation. The values are for the Ha line: —

Substance.

Temp.

(rc2-l)/(n2+2)d.

Isosafrol, CioHioO2

\ I7'6o
1 141-1°

0-2925

0-2962

Diphenyl ethylene, CnHi2

J 22°
? 143-4°

0-3339
0-3382

Quinoline, C«H7N

1 16-2°

141"

0-3187
0-3225

The empirical formula (n2-i)/(»2+o-4)d apparently gives more
constant values with change of temperature than the Lorenz-
Lorentz form. The superiority of the Lorenz-Lorentz formula
over the Gladstone and Dale formula for changes of state is
shown by the following observations of Briihl (Zeit.f. phys. Chem.,
1891, 71, p. 4). The values are for the D line: —

either directly, by investigating the various elements, or indirectly,
by considering differences in the molecular refractions of related
compounds. The first method needs no explanation. The second
method proceeds on the same lines as adopted for atomic volumes.
By subtracting the value for CH2, which may be derived from two
substances belonging to the same homologous series, from the mole-
cular refraction of methane, CH«, the value of hydrogen is obtained ;
subtracting this from CH2, the value of carbon is determined.
Hydroxylic oxygen is obtained by subtracting the molecular refrac-
tions of acetic acid and acetaldehyde. Similarly, by this method of
differences, the atomic refraction of any element may be determined.
It is found, however, that the same element has not always the same
atomic refraction, the difference being due to the nature of the
elements which saturate its valencies. Thus oxygen varies according
as whether it is linked to hydrogen (hydroxync oxygen), to two
atoms of carbon (ether oxygen), or to one carbon atom (carbonyl
oxygen) ; similarly, carbon varies according as whether it is singly,
doubly, or trebly bound to carbon atoms.

A table of the atomic refractions and dispersions of the principal
elements is here given : —

Element.

H..

D.

H7.

Dispersion
H-r- Ha.

Hydrogen

1-103

1-051

I-I39

0-036

Oxygen, hydroxyl .

1-506

1-521

1-525

0-019

,, ether

1-655

1-683

1-667

O-OI2

„ carbonyl .

2-328

2-287

2-414

0-086

Chlorine ....

6-014

5-998

6-190

0-I76

Bromine ....

8-863

8-927

9-211

0-348

Iodine ....

13-808

14-12

14-582

0-774

Carbon (singly bound)

2-365

2-501

2-404

0-039

Double linkage of carbon

1-836

1-707

1-859

0-23

Triple

2-22

2-41

0-19

Nitrogen, singly bound

and only to carbon .

2-76

2-95

0-19

Substance.

Temp.

Gladstone and Dale.

Lorenz and Lorentz.

Vapour.

Liquid.

Vapour.

Liquid.

Water
Carbon disulphide .
Chloroform ....

10°
10°
10°

0-3101

0-4347
0-2694

0-3338
0-4977
0-3000

0-2068
0-2898
0-1796

0-2061
0-2805
0-1790

Landolt and Gladstone, and at a later date J. W. Briihl, have
investigated the relations existing between the refractive power
and composition. To Landolt is due the proof that,
in general, isomers, i.e. compounds having the same
composition, have equal molecular refractions, and that
equal differences in composition are associated with equal differences
in refractive power. This is shown in the following table (the values
are for H,) : —

Additive
relations.

Dispersion and Composition. — In the preceding section we have
seen that substances possess a definite molecular (or atomic) refrac-
tion for light of particular wave-length; the difference between the
refractions for any two rays is known as the molecular (or atomic)
dispersion. Since molecular refractions are independent of tempera-
ture and of the state of aggregation, it follows that molecular dis-
persions must be also independent of these conditions; and hence
quantitative measurements should give an indication as to the
chemical composition of substances. This subject has been princi-
pally investigated by Briihl; he found that molecular dispersions
of liquids and gases were independent of temperature, and fairly
independent of the state of aggregation, but that no simple connexion
exists between atomic refractions and dispersions (see preceding
table). He also showed how changes in constitution effected dis-
persions to a far greater extent than they did refractions; thus,
while the atomic dispersion of carbon is 0-039, the dispersions due
to a double and treble linkage is 0-23 and 0-19 respectively.

Colour and Constitution. — In this article a summary of the
theories which have been promoted in order to connect the colour
of organic compounds with their constitution
will be given, and the reader is referred to the
article COLOUR for the physical explanation of
this property, and to VISION for the physiological
and psychological bearings. A clear distinction
must be drawn between colour and the property
of dyeing; all coloured substances are not dyes,

Substance.

Mol.
Refract.

Substance.

Mol.
Refract.

Diff. for
CH2.

Ethylene chloride i r « Cl

J 20-96

Acetic acid

12-93

\ 4-49

Ethylidene chloride 5 * '

I 21-08

Propionic acid

17-42

J

Fumaric acid i /-^ u n
Maleicacid S U4"«u« • •

( 70-89
? 70-29

Butyric acid .

22-OI

] 4'59

o-Cresol )

Acetaldehyde .

11-50

I 4-4-1

m-Cresol [ C7H,O . . .
p-Cresol )

( 32-57

Propionaldehyde .
Butylaldehyde

15-93
20-52

Additive relations undoubtedly exist, but many discrepancies occur
which may be assigned, as in the case of molecular volumes, to
differences in constitution. Atomic refractions may be obtained

and it is shown in the article DYEING that the property of
entering into chemical or physical combination with fibres involves
properties other than those essential to colour. At the same
time, however, all dyestuffs are coloured substances.

A survey of coloured substances led O. N. Witt in 1876 toformulate
his " chromophore-auxochrome " theory. On this theory colour is
regarded as due to the presence of a chromophore," and dyeing
power to an " auxochrome " ; the latter by itself
cannot produce colour or dyeing power, but it is
only active in the presence of a chromophore, when
it intensifies the colour and confers the property
of dyeing. The principal chromophores are the azo,

— N=N — , azoxy, = N2O, nitro, — NO2, nitroso,

— NO, and carbonyl, = CO, groups. The azo-group
is particularly active, both the aliphatic and
aromatic compounds being coloured. The simplest
aliphatic compounds, such as diazo-methane, diazo-
ethane, and azo-formic acid, are yellow; the
diamide of the latter acid is orange-red. Of the

aromatic compounds azo-benzene is bright orange-red, and a-azo-
naphthalene forms red needles or small steel-blue prisms. 'The azo-
group, however, has little or no colouring effect when present in a

PHYSICAL]

ring system, such as in cinnolene, phthalazine and tolazone. The
nitro group has a very important action mainly on account of the
readiness with which it can be introduced into the molecule, but its
effect is much less than that of the azo group. The colour produced
is generally yellow, which, in accordance with a general rule, is
intensified with an increase in the number of groups; compare, for
example, mono-, di- and tri-nitrobenzene. The nitroso group is
less important. The colour produced is generally of a greenish
shade; for example, njtrosobenzene is green when fused orin solution
(when crystalline, it is colourless), and dinitrosoresorcin has been
employed as a dyestuff under the names " solid green " and
" chlorine." The carbonyl group by itself does not produce colour,
but when two adjacent groups occur in the molecule, as for example
in the o-diketones (such as di-acetyl and benzil), a yellow colour is
produced. It also acts as a chromogenic centre when double bonds
or ethylenic linkages are present, as in fluorene ketone or fluorenone.
A more complex chromophoric group is the triple ethylenic

CHEMISTRY

groupng p = , the introduction of which was rendered neces-

sary by the discovery of certain coloured hydrocarbons. As a general
rule, hydrocarbons are colourless; the exceptions include the golden
yellow acenaphthylene, the red bidiphenylene-ethylene, and the

CH * CH

derivatives of fulvene ..,„ \ £„ ^>CH2, which have been discussed by

J. Thiele (Ber., 1900, 33, p. 666). This grouping is not always
colour-producing, since diphenyl is colourless.

The most important auxochromes are the hydroxyl (-OH) and
amino (-NH2) groups. According to the modern theory of auxo-
chromic action, the introduction of a group into the molecule is
accompanied by some strain, and the alteration in colour produced
is connected with the magnitude of the strain. The amino group is
more powerful than the hydroxyl, and the substituted amino group
more powerful still; the repeated substitution of hydroxyl groups
sometimes causes an intensification and sometimes a diminution of
colour.

We may here notice an empirical rule formulated by Nietzski in
1879: — the simplest colouring substances are in the greenish-yellow
and yellow, and with increasing molecular weight the colour passes
into orange, red, violet, blue and green. This rule, however, is by
no means perfect. Examination of the absorption spectra of coloured
compounds shows that certain groupings displace the absorption
bands in one direction, and other groupings in the other. If the
bands be displaced towards the violet, involving a regression through
the colours mentioned above, the group is said to be " hypso-
chromic "; if the reverse occurs the group is " bathochromic. ' It
may be generally inferred that an increase in molecular weight is
accompanied by a change in colour in the direction of the violet.

Auxochromic groups generally aid one another, i.e. the tjnt
deepens as the number of auxochromes increases. Also the relative
position of the auxochrome to the chromophore influences colour,
the ortho-position being generally the most powerful. Kauffmann
(Ber., 1906, 39, p. 1959) attempted an evaluation of the effects of
auxochromic groups by means of the magnetic optical constants.
The method is based on the supposition that the magnetic rotation
measures the strain produced in the molecule by an auxochrome,
and he arranges the groups in the following order : —
•0-COCH, -OCH3 -NHCOCH3 -NH2 -N(CH,)2 -N(C2H6)2
-0-260 1-459 I-949 3'821 8-587 8-816

The phenomena attending the salt formation of coloured and
colouring substances are important. The chromophoric groups are
rarely strongly acid or basic ; on the other hand, the auxochromes
are strongly acid or basic and form salts very readily. Notable
differences attend the neutralization of the chromophoric and auxo-
chromic groups. With basic substances, the chromophoric combina-
tion with a colourless acid is generally attended by a deepening in
colour; auxochromic combination, on the other hand, with a lessen-
ing. Examples of the first case are found among the colourless
acridines and qujnoxalines which give coloured salts; of the second
case we may notice the colourless hydrochloride and sulphate of the
deep yellow o-aminobenzophenone. With acid substances, the com-
bination with " colourless " metals, i.e. metals producing colour-
less salts with acids, is attended by cojour changes contrary to those
given above, auxochromic combination being accompanied by a
deepening, and chromophoric by a lessening of the tint.

Mention may be made of the phenomenon of halochromism, the
name given to the power of colourless or faintly-coloured substances
of combining with acids to form highly-coloured substances without
the necessary production of a chromophoric group. The researches
of Adolf von Baeyer and Villiger, Kehrmann, Kauffmann and others,
show that this property is possessed by very many and varied
substances. In many cases it may be connected with basic oxygen,
and the salt formation is assumed to involve the passage of divalent
into tetravalent oxygen. It seems that intermolecular change also
occurs, but further research is necessary before a sound theory can
be stated.

Quinone Theory of Colour. — A theory of colour in opposition to
the Witt theory was proposed by Henry Armstrong in 1888 and 1892.
This assumed that all coloured substances were derivatives of ortho-
or para-quinone (see QUINONES), and although at the time of its

promotion little practical proof was given, yet the theory found
wide acceptance on account of the researches of many other chemists.
It follows on this theory that all coloured substances contain either
of the groupings

Q-

the former being a para-quinonoid, the latter an ortho-quinonoid.
While very many coloured substances must obviously contain this
grouping, yet in many cases it is necessary to assume a simple
intermolecular change, while in others a more complex rearrangement
of bonds is necessary. Quinone, which is light yellow in colour, is
the simplest coloured substance on this theory. Hydrocarbons
of similar structure have been prepared by Thiele, for example, the
orange-yellow tetraphenyl-6ora-xylylene, which is obtained by
boiling the bromide C«H4|CBr(C«Hj)2]2 with benzene and molecular
silver. The quinonoid structure of many coloured compounds has
been proved experimentally, as, for example, by Hewitt for the
benzene-azo-phenols, and Hantzsch for triaminotriphenyl methane
and acridine derivatives; but, at the same time, many substances
cannot be so explained. A notable example is provided by the
phthaleins, which result by the condensation of phthalic anhydride
with phenols. In the free state these substances are colourless,
and were assumed to have the formula shown in I. Solution in
dilute alkali was supposed to be accompanied by the rupture of the
lactone ring with the formation of the quinonoid salt shown in 2.

Baeyer (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 569) and Silberrad (Journ. Ghent. Soc^
1906, 89, p. 1787) have disputed the correctness of this explanation,
and the latter has prepared melliteins and pyromelliteins, which are
highly-coloured compounds produced from mellitic and pyromellitic
acids, and which cannot be formulated as quinones. Baeyer has
suggested that the nine carbon atom system of xanthone may act as a
chromophore. An alternative view, due to Green, is that the oxygen
atom of the xanthone ring is tetravalent, a supposition which permits
the formulation of these substances as ortho-quinonoids.

The theories of colour have also been investigated by Hantzsch,
who first considered the nitro-phenols. On the chromophore-
auxochrome theory (the nitro group being the chromophore, and the
hydroxyl the auxochrome) it is necessary in order to explain the high
colour of the metallic salts and the colourless alkyl and aryl derivatives
to assume that the auxochromic action of the hydroxyl group is only
brought strongly into evidence by salt formation. Armstrong, on
the other hand, assumed an intermolecular change, thus: —

H A

o

0

The proof of this was left for Hantzsch, who traced a connexion
with the nitrolic acids of V. Meyer, which are formed when nitrous
acid acts on primary aliphatic nitro compounds. Meyer formulated
these compounds as nitroximes or nitro-isnitroso derivatives, viz.
R-C(NO2)(NOH). Hantzsch explains the transformation of the
colourless acid into red salts, which on standing yield more stable,
colourless salts, by the following scheme: —

NOH

RC

'Na

Colourless, stable. Coloured, labile. Colourless, stable.
He has also shown that the nitrophenols yield, in addition to the
colourless true nitrophenol ethers, an isomeric series of coloured un-
stable quinonoid oci-ethers, which have practically the same colour
and yield the same absorption spectra as the coloured metallic
salts. He suggests that the term quinone " theory be abandoned,
and replaced by the Umlagerungs theory, since this term implies
some intermolecular rearrangement, and does not connote simply
benzenoid compounds as does " quinonoid." _ H. von Liebig (Ann.,
1908, 360, p. 128), from a very complete discussion of tnphenyl-

methane derivatives, concluded that the grouping £.£_£ was t'le
only true organic chromophore, colour production, however, re-
quiring another condition, usually the closing of a ring.

The views as to the question of colour and constitution may be
summarized as follows: — (i) The quinone theory (Armstrong,
Gomberg, R. Meyer) regards all coloured substances as having
a quinonoid structure. (2) The chromophore-auxochrome
theory (Kauffmann) regards colour as due to the entry of an
" auxochrome " into a " chromophoric " molecule. (3) If a
colourless compound gives a coloured one on solution or by

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

salt-formation, the production of colour may be explained as a
particular form of ionization (Baeyer), or by a molecular re-
arrangement (Hantzsch). A dynamical theory due to E. C. C.
Baly regards colour as due to " isorropesis " or an oscillation
between the residual affinities of adjacent atoms composing the
molecule.

Fluorescence and Constitution. — The physical investigation
of the phenomenon named fluorescence — the property of
transforming incident light into light of different refrangibility —
is treated in the article FLUORESCENCE. Researches in syntheti-
cal organic chemistry have shown that this property of
fluorescence is common to an immense number of substances,
and theories have been proposed whose purpose is to connect
the property with constitution.

In 1897 Richard Meyer (Zeit. physik. Chemie, 24, p. 468) submitted
the view that fluorescence was due to the presence of certain " fluoro-
phore" groups; such groupings are the pyrone ring and its con-
geners, the central rings in anthracene and acridine derivatives,
and the paradiazine ring in safranines. A novel theory, proposed
by J. T. Hewitt in 1900 (Zeit.f. physik. Chemie, 34, p. i ; B.A. Report,
'903. P- 628, and later papers in the Journ. Chem. Soc.), regards the
property as occasioned by internal vibrations within the molecule
conditioned by a symmetrical double tautomerism, light of one
wave-length being absorbed by one form, and emitted with a different
wave-length by the other. This oscillation may be represented in
the case of acridine and fluorescein as

CH

C8H;COOH

This theory brings the property of fluorescence into relation with
that of colour; the forms which cause fluorescence being the coloured
modifications: ortho-quinonoid in the case of acridine, para-
quinonoid in the case of fluorescein. H. Kauffmann«(5er., 1900, 33,
p. 1731 ; 1904, 35, p. 294; 1905, 38, p. 789; Ann., 1906, 344, p. 30)
suggested that the property is due to the presence of at least two
groups. The first group, named the "luminophore," is such. that
when excited by suitable aetherial vibrations emits radiant energy ;
the other, named the " fluorogen," acts with the luminophore in
some way or other to cause the fluorescence. This theory explains
the fluorescence of anthranilic acid (0-aminobenzoic acid), by regard-
ing the aniline residue as the luminophore, and the carboxyl group
as the fluorogen, since, apparently, the introduction of the Tatter
into the non-fluorescent aniline molecule involves the production of
a fluorescent substance. Although the theories of Meyer and
Hewitt do not explain (in their present form) the behaviour of
anthranilic acid, yet Hewitt has shown that his theory goes far to
explain the fluorescence of substances in which a double symmetrical
tautomerism is possible. This tautomerism may be of a twofold
nature:— (i) it may involve the mere oscillation of linkages, as in
acridine; or (2) it may involve the oscillation of atoms, as in fluor-
escein. A theory of a physical nature, based primarily upon Sir
J. J. Thomson's theory of corpuscles, has been proposed by J. de
Kowalski (Compt. rend. 1907, 144, p. 266). We may notice that
ethyl oxalosuccmonitrile is the first case of a fluorescent aliphatic
compound (see W. Wislicenus and P. Berg, Ber., 1908, 41, p. 3757).

Capillarity and Surface Tension, — Reference should be made
to the article CAPILLARY ACTION for the general discussion of this
phenomenon of liquids. It is there shown that the surface
tension of a liquid may be calculated from its rise in a capillary
tube by the formula y = %rhs, where y is the surface tension per
square centimetre, r the radius of the tube, h the height of the
liquid column, and 5 the difference between the densities of
the liquid and its vapour. At the critical point liquid and vapour
become identical, and, consequently, as was pointed out by
Frankenheim in 1841, the surface tension is zero at the critical
temperature.

Mendele'eff endeavoured to obtain a connexion between surface
energy and constitution; more successful were the investigations
Relation °^ Scliiff, who found that the " molecular surface tension,"

no/ecu- which ne defined as the surface tension divided by the
lar weight, molecular weight, is constant for isomers, and that two
atoms of hydrogen were equal to one of carbon, three to
one of oxygen, and seven to one of chlorine; but these ratios were
by no means constant, and afforded practically no criteria as to the
molecular weight of any substance.

In 1886 R. Eotvos (Wied. Ann. 27, p. 452), assuming that two
liquids may be compared when the ratios of the volumes of the
liquids to the volumes of the saturated vapours are the same,
deduced that VV'(where y is the surface tension, and V the molecular
volume of the liquid) causes all liquids to have the same temperature

coefficients. This theorem was investigated by Sir W. Ramsay and
J. Shields (Journ. Ghent. Soc. 63, p. 1089; 65, p. 167), whose results
have thrown considerable light on the subject of the molecular
complexity of liquids. Ramsay and Shields suggested that there
exists an equation for the surface energy of liquids, analogous to the
volume-energy equation of gases, PV = RT. The relation they
suspected to be of the form 78 = KT, where K is a constant analogous
to R, and S the surface containing one gramme-molecule, y and T
being the surface tension and temperature respectively. Obviously
equimolecular surfaces are given by (Mr)*, where M is the molecular
weight of the substance, for equimolecular volumes are Mr, and
corresponding surfaces the two-thirds power of this. Hence S may
be replaced by (Mt>)3. Ramsay and Shields found from investiga-
tions of the temperature coefficient of the surface energy thatTin the
equation -y(M»)' = KT must be counted downwards from the critical
temperature T less about 6°. Their surface energy equation therefore
assumes the form •y(M»)' = K(r-6c). Now the value of K, y being
measured in dynes and M being the molecular weight of the substance
as a gas, is in general 2-121; this value is never exceeded, but in
many cases it is less. This diminution implies an association of
molecules, the surface containing fewer molecules than it is supposed
to. Suppose the coefficient of association be n, i.e. n is the mean
number of molecules which associate to form one molecule, then by
the normal equation we have y(Mnv)* = 2-i2l(r — 6°); if the calcu-
lated constant be Ki, then we have also y(M.v)* = K.i(r — 6°). By
division we obtain ns=2-i2i/Ki, or w = (2-i2i/Ki)', the coefficient
of association being thus determined.

The apparatus devised by Ramsay and Shields consisted of a
capillary tube, on one end of which was blown a bulb provided with
a minute hole. Attached to the bulb was a glass rod and then a tube
containing iron wire. This tube was placed in an outer tube contain-
ing the liquid to be experimented with; the liquid is raised to its
boiling-point, and then hermetically sealed. The whole is enclosed
in a jacket connected with a boiler containing a liquid, the vapour
of which serves to keep the inner tube at any desired temperature.
The capillary tube can be raised or lowered at will by running a
magnet outside the tube.and the heights of the columns are measured
by a cathetometer or micrometer microscope.

Normal values of K were given by nitrogen peroxide, NjC>4, sulphur
chloride, S2C12, silicon tetrachloride, SiCl«, phosphorus chloride,
PCls, phosphoryl chloride, POC18, nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)4, carbon
disulphide, benzene, pyridine, ether, methyl propyl ketone ; associa-
tion characterized many hydroxylic compounds: for ethyl alcohol
the factor of association was 2 • 74-2-43 , for n-propyl alcohol 2 • 86-2-72 ,
acetic acid 3-62-2-77, acetone 1-26, water 3-81-2-32; phenol,
nitric acid, sulphuric acid, nitroethane, and propionitril, also exhibit
association.

Crystalline Form and Composition.

The development of the theory of crystal structure, and the
fundamental principles on which is based the classification of
crystal forms, are treated in the article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY; in
the same place will be found an account of the doctrine of iso-
morphism, polymorphism and morphotropy. Here we shall
treat the latter subjects in more detail, viewed from the stand-
point of the chemist. Isomorphism may be defined as the
existence of two or more different substances in the same crystal
form and structure, polymorphism as the existence of the same
substance in two or more crystal modifications, and morphotropy
(after P. von Groth) as the change in crystal form due to altera-
tions in the molecule of closely (chemically) related substances.
In order to permit a comparison of crystal forms, from which
we hope to gain an insight into the prevailing molecular con-
ditions, it is necessary that some unit of crystal dimensions must
be chosen. A crystal may be regarded as built up of primitive
parallelepipeda, the edges of which are in the ratio of the
crystallographic axes, and the angles the axial angles of the
crystals. To reduce these figures to a common standard, so
that the volumes shall contain equal numbers of molecules,
the notion of molecular volumes is introduced, the arbitrary
values of the crystallographic axes (a, b, c) being replaced by the
topic parameters1 (x, ^, w), which are such that, combined with
the axial angles, they enclose volumes which contain equal
numbers of molecules. The actual values of the topic para-
meters can then readily be expressed in terms of the elements of
the crystals (the axial ratios and angles), the density, and the
molecular weight (see Groth, Physikalische Krystallographie, or
Chemical Crystallography).

1 This was done simultaneously in 1894 by W. Muthmann and
A. E. H. Tutton, the latter receiving the idea from F. Becke (see
Journ. Chem. Soc., 1896, 69, p. 507; 1905, 87, p. 1183).

PHYSICAL]

CHEMISTRY

73

Polymorphism. — On the theory that crystal form and structure
are the result of the equilibrium between the atoms and molecules
composing the crystals, it is probable, a priori, that the same
substance may possess different equilibrium configurations of
sufficient stability, under favourable conditions, to form different
crystal structures. Broadly this phenomenon is termed poly-
morphism; however, it is necessary to examine closely the diverse
crystal modifications in order to determine whether they are
really of different symmetry, or whether twinning has occasioned
the apparent difference. In the article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY the
nature and behaviour of twinned crystals receives full treat-
ment; here it is sufficient to say that when the planes and axes
of twinning are planes and axes of symmetry, a twin would
exhibit higher symmetry (but remain in the same crystal system)
than the primary crystal; and, also, if a crystal approximates
in its axial constants to a higher system, mimetic twinning
would increase the approximation, and the crystal would be
pseudo-symmetric.

In general, polysymmetric and polymorphous modifications
suffer transformation when submitted to variations in either
temperature or pressure, or both. The criterion whether
a pseudo-symmetric form is a true polymorph or not consists
in the determination of the scalar properties (e.g. density,
specific heat, &c.) of the original and the resulting modifica-
tion, a change being in general recorded only when polymorphism
exists. Change of temperature usually suffices to determine
this, though in certain cases a variation in pressure is
necessary; for instance, sodium magnesium uranyl acetate,
NaMg(UO2)s(C2H3O2)9-9H2O shows no change in density unless
the observations are conducted under a considerable pressure.
Although many pseudo-symmetric twins are transformable into
the simpler form, yet, in some cases, a true polymorph results,
the change being indicated, as before, by alterations in scalar
(as well as vector) properties.

For example, boracite forms pseudo-cubic crystals which become
truly cubic at 265°, with a distinct change in density; leucite
behaves similarly at about 560°. Again, the pyroxenes, RSiOa
(R = Fe, Mg, Mn, &c.), assume the forms (i) monoclinic, sometimes
twinned so as to become pseudo-rhombic; (2) rhombic, resulting
from the pseudo-rhombic structure of (l) becoming ultramicroscopic;
and (3) triclinic, distinctly different from (i) and (2); (i) and (2)
are polysymmetric modifications, while (3) and the pair (i) and (2)
are polymorphs.

While polysymmetry is solely conditioned by the manner
in which the mimetic twin is built up from the single crystals,
there being no change in the scalar properties, and the vector
properties being calculable from the nature of the twinning,
in the case of polymorphism entirely different structures present
themselves, both scalar and vector properties being altered;
and, in the present state of our knowledge, it is impossible to
foretell the characters of a polymorphous modification. We may
conclude that in polymorphs the substance occurs in different
phases (or molecular aggregations), and the equilibrium bet ween
these phases follows definite laws, being dependent upon tempera-
ture and pressure, and amenable to thermodynamic treatment
(cf. CHEMICAL ACTION and ENERGETICS). The transformation
of polymorphs presents certain analogies to the solidification
of a liquid. Liquids may be cooled below their freezing-point
without solidification, the melaslable (after W. Ostwald) form
so obtained being immediately solidified on the introduction
of a particle of the solid modification; and supersaturated
solutions behave in a similar manner. At the same time there
may be conditions of temperature and pressure at which poly-
morphs may exist side by side.

The above may be illustrated by considering the equilibrium
between rhombic and monoclinic sulphur. The former, which is
deposited from solutions, is transformed into monoclinic sulphur
at about 96°, but with great care it is possible to overheat it and
even to fuse it (at 113-5°) without effecting the transformation.
Monoclinic sulphur, obtained by crystallizing fused sulphur, melts
at i 19-5°! and admits of undercooling even to ordinary temperatures,
but contact with a fragment of the rhombic modification spontane-
ously brings about the transformation. From Reicher's determina-
tions, the exact transition point is 95-6°; it rise_s with increasing
pressure about 0-05° for one atmosphere ; the density of the rhombic

form is greater than that of the monoclinic. The equilibria of these
modifications may be readily represented on a pressure-temperature
diagram. If OT, OP (fig. 6), be the axes of temperature and pressure,
and A corresponds to the transition point (95-6°) of rhombic sulphur,
we may follow out the line AB which shows the elevation of the
transition point with increasing pressure. The overheating curve of
rhombic sulphur extends along the curve
AC, where C is the melting-point of
monoclinic sulphur. The line BC, repre-
senting the equilibrium between mono-
clinic and liquid sulphur, is thermo-
dynamically calculable; the point B is
found to correspond to 131* and 400
atmospheres. From B the curve of
equilibrium (BD) between rhombic and
liquid sulphur proceeds; and from C
(along CE) the curve of equilibrium
between liquid sulphur and sulphur
vapour. Of especial interest is the
curve BD; along this line liquid and FIG. 6.

rhombic sulphur are in equilibrium, which

means that at above 131° and 400 atmospheres the rhombic (and
not the monoclinic) variety would separate from liquid sulphur.

Mercuric iodide also exhibits dimorphism. When precipitated
from solutions it forms red tetragonal crystals, which, on careful
heating, give a yellow rhombic form, also obtained by crystallization
from the fused substance, or by sublimation. The transition point
is 126-3° (W. Schwarz, Zeit.f. Kryst. 25, p. 613), but both modifica-
tions may exist in metastable forms at higher and lower temperatures
respectively; the rhombic form may be cooled down to ordinary
temperature without changing, the transformation, however, being
readily induced by a trace of the red modification, or by friction.
The density and specific heat of the tetragonal form are greater
than those of the yellow.

Hexachlorethane is trimorphous, forming rhombic, triclinic and
cubic crystals; the successive changes occur at about 44° and 71°,
and are attended by a decrease in density.

Tetramorphism is exhibited by ammonium nitrate. According to
O. Lehmann it melts at 168° (or at a slightly lower temperature in
its water of crystallization) and on cooling forms optically isotropic
crystals; at 125-6° the mass becomes doubly refracting, and from
a solution rhombohedral (optically uniaxial) crystals are deposited ;
by further cooling acicular rhombic crystals are produced at 82-8°,
and at 32-4° other rhombic forms are obtained, identical with the
product obtained by crystallizing at ordinary temperatures. The
reverse series of transformations occurs when this final modification
is heated. M. Bellati and R. Romanese (Zeit. f. Kryst. 14, p. 78)
determined the densities and specific heats of these modifications.
The first and third transformations (reckoned in order with in-
creasing temperature of the transition point) are attended by an
increase in volume, the second with a contraction; the solubility
follows the same direction, increasing up to 82-8°, then diminishing
up to 125-6°, and then increasing from this temperature upwards.

The physical conditions under which polymorphous modifica-
tions are prepared control the form which the substance assumes.
We have already seen that temperature and pressure exercise
considerable influence in this direction. In the case of separation
from solutions, either by crystallization or by precipitation by
double decomposition, the temperature, the concentration of
the solution, and the presence of other ions may modify the
form obtained. In the case of sodium dihydrogen phosphate,
NaH2PO4-H2O, a stable rhombic form is obtained from warm
solutions, while a different, unstable, rhombic form is obtained
from cold solutions. Calcium carbonate separates as hexagonal
calcite from cold solutions (below 30°), and as rhombic aragonite
from solutions at higher temperatures; lead and strontium
carbonates, however, induce the separation of aragonite at lower
temperatures. From supersaturated solutions the form unstable
at the temperature of the experiment is, as a rule, separated,
especially on the introduction of a crystal of the unstable form;
and, in some cases, similar inoculation of the fused substance
is attended by the same result. Different modifications may
separate and exist side by side at one and the same time from
a solution; e.g. telluric acid forms cubic and monoclinic crystals
from a hot nitric acid solution, and ammonium fluosilicate gives
cubic and hexagonal forms from aqueous solutions between
6° and 13°.

A comparison of the transformation of polymorphs leads to
a twofold classification: (i) polymorphs directly convertible
in a reversible manner — termed " enantiotropic " by O. Lehmann
and (2) polymorphs in which the transformation proceeds in
one direction only — termed " monotropic." In the first class

74

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

are included sulphur and ammonium nitrate; monotropy is
exhibited by aragonite and calcite.

It is doubtful indeed whether any general conclusions can yet
be drawn as to the relations between crystal structure and scalar
properties and the relative stability of polymorphs. As a
general rule the modification stable at higher temperatures
possesses a lower density; but this is by no means always the
case, since the converse is true for antimonious and arsenious
oxides, silver iodide and some other substances. Attempts to
connect a change of symmetry with stability show equally a lack
of generality. It is remarkable that a great many polymorphous
substances assume more symmetrical forms at higher tempera-
tures, and a possible explanation of the increase in density of
such compounds as silver iodide, &c., may be sought for in the
theory that the formation of a more symmetrical configuration
would involve a drawing together of the molecules, and conse-
quently an increase in density. The insufficiency of this argu-
ment, however, is shown by the data for arsenious and anti-
monious oxides, and also for the polymorphs of calcium carbonate,
the more symmetrical polymorphs having a lower density.

Morphotropy. — Many instances have been recorded where sub-
stitution has effected a deformation in one particular direction,
the crystals of homologous compounds often exhibiting the same
angles between faces situated in certain zones. The observations
of Slavik (Zeit. f. Kryst., 1902, 36, p. 268) on ammonium and
the quaternary ammonium iodides, of J. A. Le Bel and A. Ries
(Zeit.f. Kryst., 1902, 1904, et seq.) on the substituted ammonium
chlorplatinates, and of G. Mez (ibid., 1901, 35, p. 242) on
substituted ureas, illustrate this point.

Ammonium iodide assumes cubic forms with perfect cubic cleavage ;
tetramethyl ammonium iodide is tetragonal with perfect cleavages
parallel to (100) and jooi( — a difference due to the lengthening of
the a axes; tetraethyl ammonium iodide also assumes tetragonal
forms, but does not exhibit the cleavage of the tetramethyl com-
pound ; while tetrapropyl ammonium ioaide crystallizes in rhombic
form. The equivalent volumes and topic parameters are tabulated :

NHJ.

NMeJ.

NEtJ.

NPrJ.

V

X

*

0)

57-5i
3-86o
3-860
3-860

108-70
S-3'9
5-3I9

3-842

162-91
6-648
6-648
3-686

235-95
6-093

7-85I
4-933

From these figures it is obvious that the first three compounds
form a morphotropic series; the equivalent volumes exhibit a
regular progression; the values of x and 4>, corresponding to the a
axes, are regularly increased, while the value of «, corresponding
to the c axis, remains practically unchanged. This points to the
conclusion that substitution has been effected in one of the cube
faces. We may therefore regard the nitrogen atoms as occupying
the centres of a cubic space lattice composed of iodine atoms, between
which the hydrogen atoms are distributed on the tetrahedron face
normals. Coplanar substitution in four hydrogen atoms would
involve the pushing apart of the iodine atoms in four horizontal
directions. The magnitude of this separation would obviously
depend on the magnitude of the substituent group, which may be
so large (in this case propyl is sufficient) as to cause unequal horizontal
deformation and at the same time a change in the vertical direction.

The measure of the loss of symmetry associated with the intro-
duction of alkyl groups depends upon the relative magnitudes
of the substituent group and the rest of the molecule; and the
larger the molecule, the less would be the morphotropic effect
of any particular substituent. The mere retention of the same
crystal form by homologous substances is not a sufficient reason
for denying a morphotropic effect to the substituent group;
for, in the case of certain substances crystallizing in the cubic
system, although the crystal form remains unaltered, yet the
structures vary. When both the crystal form and structure are
retained, the substances are said to be isomorphous.

Other substituent groups exercise morphotropic effects similar
to those exhibited by the alkyl radicles; investigations have
been made on halogen-, hydroxy-, and nitro-derivatives of
benzene and substituted benzenes. To Jaeger is due the deter-
mination of the topic parameters of certain haloid-derivatives,
and, while showing that the morphotropic effects closely resemble
those occasioned by methyl, he established the important fact

that, in general, the crystal form depended upon the orientation
of the substituents in the benzene complex.

Benzoic acid is pseudo-tetragonal, the principal axis being remark-
ably long; there is no cleavage at right angles to this axis. Direct
nitration gives (principally) wi-nitrobenzoic acid, also pseudo-
tetragonal with a much shorter principal axis. From this two
chlornitrobenzoic acids [COOH-NOj-Cl = 1.3.6 and 1.3.4] may be
obtained. These are also pseudotetragonal; the (1.3.6) acid" has
nearly the same values of x and <!/ as benzoic acid, but u is increased ;
compared with ra-nitrobenzoic acid, x and ^ have been diminished,
whereas a is much increased; the (1.3.^) acid is more closely
related to m-nitrobenzoic acid, x and <!/ being increased, a diminished.
The results obtained for the (I. 2) and (1.4) chlorbenzoic acids also
illustrate the dependence of crystal form and structure on the
orientation of the molecule.

The hydroxyl group also resembles the methyl group in its morpho-
tropic effects, producing, in many cases, no change in symmetry but
a dimensional increase in one direction. This holds for benzene and
phenol, and is supported by the observations of Gossner on [i. 3.5]
trinitrobenzene and picric acid (i.3.s-trinitro, 2 oxy benzene);
these last two substances assume rhombic forms, and picric acid
differs from trinitrobenzene in having a considerably greater,
with x and <!/ slightly less. A similar change, in one direction only,
characterizes benzoic acid and salicylic acid.

The nitro group behaves very similarly to the hydroxyl group.
The effect of varying the position of the nitro group in the molecule
is well marked, and conclusions may be drawn as to the orientation
of the groups from a knowledge of the crystal form; a change in
the symmetry of the chemical molecule being often attended by a
loss in the symmetry of the crystal.

It may be generally concluded that the substitution of alkyl,
nitro, hydroxyl, and haloid groups for hydrogen hi a molecule
occasions a deformation of crystal structure in one definite
direction, hence permitting inferences as to the configuration
of the atoms composing the crystal; while the nature and degree
of the alteration depends (i) upon the crystal structure of the
unsubstituted compound; (2) on the nature of the substituting
radicle; (3) on the complexity of the substituted molecule;
and (4) on the orientation of the substitution derivative.

Isomorphism. — It has been shown that certain elements and
groups exercise morphotropic effects when substituted in a
compound; it may happen that the effects due to two or more
groups are nearly equivalent, and consequently the resulting
crystal forms are nearly identical. This phenomenon was first
noticed in 1822 by E. Mitscherlich, in the case of the acid phos-
phate and acid arsenate of potassium, KH2P(As)C>4, who adopted
the term isomorphism, and regarded phosphorus and arsenic as
isomorphously related elements. Other isomorphously related
elements and groups were soon perceived, and it has been shown
that elements so related are also related chemically.

Tutton's investigations of the morphotropic effects of the metals
potassium, rubidium and caesium, in combination with the acid
radicals of sulphuric and selenic acids, showed that the replacement
of potassium by rubidium, and this metal in turn by caesium.was
accompanied by progressive changes in both physical and crystal-
lographical properties, such that the rubidium salt was always inter-
mediate between the salts of potassium and caesium (see table;
the space unit is taken as a pseudo-hexagonal prism). This fact finds
a parallel in the atomic weights of these metals.

V

X

t

H

KjSO*
Rb,SO4
Cs,SO4

64-92
73-36
83-64

4.464

4-634
4-846

4-491
4-664
4-885

4-997
5-237
5-519

K2SeO4
RbjSeO*
Cs£eO,

71-71

79-95
91-16

4-636

4-785
4-987

4-662
4-826
5-035

5-118
5-346
5-697

By taking appropriate differences the following facts will be
observed: (i) the replacement of potassium by rubidium occasions
an increase in the equivalent volumes by about eigh t units, and of rubi-
dium by caesium by about eleven units; (2) replacement in the same
order is attended by a general increase in the three topic parameters, a
greater increase being met with in the replacement of rubidium by
caesium ; (3) the parameters x and ^ are about equally increased,
while the increase in a is always the greatest. Now consider the
effect of replacing sulphur by selenium. It will be seen that (i) the
increase in equivalent volume is about 6-6; (2) all the topic para-
meters are increased; (3) the greatest increase is effected in the
parameters x and <//, which are equally lengthened.

These observations admit of ready explanation in the following

K_o-s-o-K.

PHYSICAL]

manner. The ordinary structural formula of potassium sulphate is

n

If the crystal structure be regarded as composed of

three interpenetrating point systems, one consisting of sulphur
atoms, the second of four times as many oxygen atoms, and the
third of twice as many potassium atoms, the systems being soarranged
that the sulphur system is always centrally situated with respect
to the other two, and the potassium system so that it would affect
the vertical axis, then it is obvious that the replacement of potassium
by an element of greater atomic weight would specially increase the
length of w (corresponding to the vertical axis), and cause a smaller
increase in the horizontal parameters (x and \M; moreover, the
increments would advance with the atomic weight of the replacing
metal. If, on the other hand, the sulphur system be replaced by a
corresponding selenium system, an element of higher atomic weight,
it would be expected that a slight increase would be observed in the
vertical parameter, and a greater increase recorded equally in the
horizontal parameters.

Muthmann (Zeit.f. Kryst., 1 894), in his researches on the tetragonal
potassium and ammonium dihydrogen phosphates and arsenates,
found that the replacement of potassium by ammonium was attended
by an increase of about six units in the molecular volume, and of
phosphorus by arsenic by about 4-6 units. In the topic parameters
the following changes were recorded: replacement of potassium by
ammonium was attended by a considerable increase in to, x and <l/
being equally, but only slightly, increased; replacement of phos-
phorus by arsenic was attended by a considerable increase, equally
in x and ^, while o> suffered a smaller, but not inconsiderable, increase.
It is thus seen that the ordinary plane representation of the structure
of compounds possesses a higher significance than could have been
suggested prior to crystallographical researches.

Identity, or approximate identity, of crystal form is not in
itself sufficient to establish true isomorphism. If a substance
deposits itself on the faces of a crystal of another substance
of similar crystal form, the substances are probably isomorphous.
Such parallel overgrowths, termed episomorphs, are very common
among the potassium and sodium felspars; and K. von Hauer
has investigated a number of cases in which salts exhibiting
episomorphism have different colours, thereby clearly demonstrat-
ing this property -of isomorphism. For example, episomorphs
of white potash alum and violet chrome alum, of white mag-
nesium sulphate and green nickel sulphate, and of many other
pairs of salts, have been obtained. More useful is the property
of isomorphous substances of forming mixed crystals, which
are strictly isomorphous with their constituents, for all variations

in composition. In such
crystals each component
plays its own part in de-
termining the physical pro-
perties; in other words,
any physical constant of a
mixed crystal can be cal-
culated as additively com-
posed of the constants of
the two components.

Fig. 7 represents the
specific volumes of mixtures
of ammonium and potassium
sulphates; the ordinates re-
presenting specific volumes,
and the abscissae the per-
centage composition of the
mixture. Fig. 8 shows the
variation of refractive index
of mixed crystals of potash
alum and thallium alum with
variation in composition.
In these two instances the component crystals are miscible in all
proportions; but this is by no means always the case. It may
happen that the crystals dp not form double salts, and are only
miscible in certain proportions. Two cases then arise: (i) the
properties may be expressed as linear functions of the composition,
the terminal values being identical with those obtained for the
individual components, and there being a break in the curve corre-
sponding to the absence of mixed crystals ; or (2) similar to (l) except
that different values must be assigned to the terminal values in order
to preserve collinearity. Fig. 9 illustrates the first case : the ordinates
represent specific volumes, and the abscissae denote the composition
of isomorphous mixtures of ammonium and potassium dihydrogen
phosphates, which mutually take one another up to the extent of
20 % to form homogeneous crystals. The second case is illustrated
in fig. 10. Magnesium sulphate (orthorhombic) takes up ferrous

CHEMISTRY

75

10 30 30 40 60 00 TO 80 OO

(NH4)jSQ,=o%

FIG. 7.

K AJum=o%
T) Alum- too

FIG. 8.

sulphate (monoclinic) to the extent of 19%, forming isomorphous
orthorhombic crystals; ferrous sulphate, on the other hand, takes
up magnesium sulphate to the extent of 54 % to form monoclinic
crystals. By plotting the specific volumes of these mixed crystals
as ordinates, it is found that they fall on two lines, the upper corre-
sponding to the orthorhombic crystals, the lower to the monoclinic.
From this we may conclude that these salts are isodimorphous :
the upper line represents isomorphous crystals of stable orthorhombic
magnesium sulphate and unstable orthorhombic ferrous sulphate,
the lower line isomor-
phous crystals of stable
monoclinic ferrous sul-
phate and unstable
monoclinic magnesium
sulphate.

An important distinc-
tion separates true mixed
crystals and crystallized
double salts, for in the
latter the properties are
not linear functions of
the properties of the
components ; generally
there is a contraction in
volume, while the re-
fractive indices and other
physical properties do

K H,P04 = ,

N H4H aP04

FIG. 9.

0-S33
O-837

not, in general, obey the
additive law.

Isomorphism is most peso,<7H,o=«x>*,
clearly discerned be-
tween elements of

FIG. 10.

analogous chemical properties; and from the wide generality
of such observations attempts have been made to form a classifica-
tion of elements based on isomorphous replacements. The
following table shows where isomorphism may be generally
expected. The elements are arranged in eleven series, and the
series are subdivided (as indicated by semicolons) into groups;
these groups exhibit partial isomorphism with the other groups
of the same series (see W. Nernst, Theoretical Chemistry).

Series I. Cl, Br, I, F; Mn (in permanganates).

2. S, Se; Te (in tellurides) ; Cr, Mn, Te (in the acids

H2RO4) ; As, Sb (in the glances MR2).

3. As, Sb, Bi; Te (as an element); P, Vd (in salts); N,

P (in organic bases).

4. K, Na, Cs, Rb, Li; Tl, Ag.

5. Ca, Ba, Sr, Pb; Fe, Zn, Mn, Mg; Ni, Co, Cu; Ce, La,

Di, Er, Y, Ca; Cu, Hg, Pb; Cd, Be, In, Zn; Tl, Pb.

6. Al, Fe, Cr, Mn; Ce, U (in sesquioxides).
7- Cu, Ag (when monovalent) ; Au.

8. Pt, Ir, Pd, Rh. Ru, Os; Au, Fe, Ni; Sn, Te.

9. C, Si.Ti, Zr, Th, Sn; Fe, Ti.

10. Ta, Cb (Mb).

11. Mo, W, Cr.

For a detailed comparison of the isomorphous relations of the
elements the reader is referred to P. von Groth, Chemical Crystal-
lography. Reference may also be made to Ida Freund, The Study
of Chemical Composition; and to the Annual Reports of the Chemical
Society for 1908, p. 258.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — History: F. Hoefer, Histoire de la chimie (2nd
ed., 1866-1869); Hermann Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie (1869),
Entwickelung der Chemie in d. neueren Zeit (1871-1874); E. von
Meyer, Geschichte der Chemie (yd ed., 1905, Eng. trans.); A.
Ladenburg, Entwickelungsgeschichte der Chemie (4th ed., 1907); A.
Stange, Die Zeitalter der Chemie (1908). Reference may also be
made to M. M. Pattison Muir, History of Chemical Theories and Laws
(1907); Ida Freund, Study of Chemical Composition (1904); T. E.
Thorpe, Essays in Historical Chemistry (2nd ed., 1902). See also
the article ALCHEMY.

Principles and Physical. — W. Ostwald, Principles of Inorganic
Chemistry (yA Eng. ed., 1908), Outlines of General Chemistry,
Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie; W. Nernst, Theoretische Chemie
(4th ed., 1907, Eng. trans.); J. H. van't Hoff, Lectures on Theoretical
and Physical Chemistry; J. Walker, Introduction to Physical Chemistry
(4th ed., 1907); H. C. Jones, Outlines of Physical Chemistry (1903);
D. Mendefeeff, Principles of Chemistry (3rd ed., 1905).

Inorganic. — Roscoe and Schorlemmer, Inorganic Chemistry (3rd
ed., Non-metals, 1905; Metals, 1907); R. Abegg, Handbuch der
anorganischen Chemie; Gmelin- Kraut, Handbuch der anorganischen
Chemie; O. Dammer, Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie; H.
Moissan, Chimie minerale.

Organic. — F. Beilstein, Handbuch der organischen Chemie; M. M.
Richter, Lexikon der Kohlenstoffverbindungen (these are primarily
works of reference) ; V. Meyer and P. H. Jacobson, Lehrbuch der
organischen Chemie; Richter-Anschutz, Organische Chemie (l ith ed.,

76

CHEMNITZ, MARTIN— CHEMNITZ

vol. i., 1909, Eng. trans.); G. K. Schmidt, Kurzes Lehrbuch der
organischen Chemie; A. Bernthsen, Orginische Chemie (Eng. trans.).
Practical methods are treated in Lassar-Cohn, Arbeitsmethoden fur
organisch-chemische Laboratorien (4th ed., 1906-1907). Select chap-
ters are treated in A. Lachmann, Spirit of Organic Chemistry; J. B.
Cohen, Organic Chemistry (1908) ; A. W. Stewart, Recent Advances in
Organic Chemistry (1908) ; and in a series of pamphlets issued since
1896 with the title Sammlung chemischer und cnemisch-technischer
Vortraee.

Analytical. — For Blowpipe Analysis: C. F. Plattner, Probirkunst
mil dem Lothrohr. For General Analysis: C. R. Fresenius, Qualita-
tive and Quantitative Analysis, Eng. trans, by C. E. Groves (Qualita-
tive, 1887) and A. I. Cohn (Quantitative, 1903); F. P. Treadwell,
Kurzes Lehrbuch der analytischen Chemie (1905); F. Julian, Textbook
of Quantitative Chemical Analysis (1904); A. Classen, Ausgewahlte
Methoden der analytischen Chemie (1901-1903); W. Crookes, Select
Methods in Chemical Analysis (1894). Volumetric Analysis:
F. Sutton, Systematic Handbook of Volumetric Analysis (1904);
F. Mohr, Lehrbuch der chemisch-analytischen Titrirmethode (1896).
Organic Analysis: Hans Meyer, Analyse und Konstitutionsermittlung
organischer Verbindungen (1909) ; Wilhelm Vaubel, Die physikalischen
und chemischen Methoden der quantitativen Bestimmung organischer
Verbindungen. For the historical development of the proximate
analysis of organic compounds see M. E. H. Dennstedt, DieEntwicke-
lung der organischen Elementaranalyse (1899).

Encyclopaedias. — The early dictionaries of Muspratt and Watts
are out of date; there is a later edition of the latter by H. F. Morley
and M. M. P. Muir. A. Ladenburg, Handworterbuch der Chemie,
A. Wurtz, Dictionnaire de chimie, and F. Selmi, Encyclopedia di
chimica, are more valuable; the latter two are kept up to date by
annual supplements. (C. E.*)

CHEMNITZ (or KEMNITZ), MARTIN (1522-1586), German
Lutheran theologian, third son of Paul Kemnitz, a cloth-worker
of noble extraction, was born at Treuenbrietzen, Brandenburg,
on the gth of November 1522. Left an orphan at the age of
eleven, he worked for a time at his father's trade. A relative at
Magdeburg put him to school there (1539-1542). Havingmadea
little money by teaching, he went (1543) to the university of
Frankfort-on-Oder; thence (1545) to that of Wittenberg. Here
he heard Luther preach, but was more attracted by Melanchthon,
who interested him in mathematics and astrology. Melanchthon
gave him (i 547) an introduction to his son-in-law, Georg Sabinus,
at Konigsberg, where he was tutor to some Polish youths, and
rector (1548) of the Kneiphof school. He practised astrology;
this recommended him to Duke Albert of Prussia, who made him
his librarian (1550). He then turned to Biblical, patristic and
kindred studies. His powers were first brought out in contro-
versy with Osiander on justification by faith. Osiander, main-
taining the infusion of Christ's righteousness into the believer,
impugned the Lutheran doctrine of imputation; Chemnitz
defended it with striking ability. As Duke Albert sided with
Osiander, Chemnitz resigned the h'brarianship. Returning (1553)
to Wittenberg, he lectured on Melanchthon 's Loci Communes, his
lectures forming the basis of his own Loci Theologici (published
posthumously, 1591), which constitute probably the best ex-
position of Lutheran theology as formulated and modified by
Melanchthon. His lectures were thronged, and a university career
of great influence lay before him, when he accepted a call to become
coadjutor at Brunswick to the superintendent, Joachim Morlin,
who had known him at Konigsberg. He removed to Brunswick
on the isth of December 1554, and there spent the remainder of
his life, refusing subsequent offers of important offices from
various Protestant princes of Germany. Zealous in the duties of
his pastoral charge, he took a leading part in theological con-
troversy. His personal influence, at a critical period, did much to
secure strictness of doctrine and compactness of organization
in the Lutheran Church. Against Crypto-Calvinists he upheld
the Lutheran view of the eucharist in his Repetitio sanae doctrinae
de Vera Praesentia (1560; in German, 1561). To check the
reaction towards the old religion he wrote several works of great
power, especially his Theologiae Jesuitarum praecipua capita
(1562), an incisive attack on the principles of the society, and the
Examen concilii Tridentini (four parts, 1565-66-72-73), his
greatest work. His Corpus doctrinae Prutenicum (1567), drawn
up in conjunction with Morlin, at once acquired great authority.
In the year of its publication he became superintendent of
Brunswick, and in effect the director of his church throughout
Lower Saxony. His tact was equal to his learning. In conjunc-

tion with Andrea and Selnecker he induced the Lutherans of
Saxony and Swabia to adopt the Formula Concordiae and so
become one body. Against lax views of Socinian tendency he
directed his able treatise De duabus naturis in Chrislo (1570).
Resigning office in infirm health (1584) he survived till the 8th of
April 1586.

Lives of Chemnitz are numerous, e.g. by J. Gasmerus (1588).
T. Pressel (1862), C. G. H. Lentz (1866). H. Hachfeld (1867), H.

Schmid in J. J. Herzog's Realencyklopddie (1878), J. Kunze in A.

CHEMNITZ, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
the capital of a governmental district, 50 m. W.S.W. of Dresden
and 51 S.E. of Leipzig by rail. Pop. (1885) 110,817; (1895)
161,017; (i9°S) 244,405- It lies 950 ft. above the sea, in a
fertile plain at the foot of the Erzgebirge, watered by the
river Chemnitz, an affluent of the Mulde. It is the chief
manufacturing town in the kingdom, ranks next to Dresden
and Leipzig in point of population, and is one of the principal
commercial and industrial centres of Germany. It is well
provided with railway communication, being directly connected
with Berlin and with the populous and thriving towns of the
Erzgebirge and Voigtland. Chemnitz is in general well built,
the enormous development of its industry and commerce having
of late years led to the laying out of many fine streets and
to the embellishing of the town with handsome buildings. The
centre is occupied by the market square, with the handsome
medieval Rathaus, now superseded for municipal business by a
modern building in the Post-strasse. In this square are monu-
ments to the emperor William I., Bismarck and Moltke. The
old inner town is surrounded by pleasant promenades, occupying
the site of the old fortifications, and it is beyond these that
industrial Chemnitz h'es, girdling the old town on all sides with a
thick belt of streets and factories, and ramifying far into the
country. Chemnitz has eleven Protestant, churches, among
them the ancient Gothic church of St James, with a fine porch,
and the modern churches of St Peter, St Nicholas and St Mark.
There are also a synagogue and chapels of various sects. The
industry of Chemnitz has gained for the town the name of

Saxon Manchester." First in importance are its locomotive
and engineering works, which give employment to some 20,000
hands in 90 factories. Next come its cotton-spinning, hosiery,
textile and glove manufactures, in which a large trade is done
with Great Britain and the United States. It is also the seat
of considerable dyeworks, bleachworks, chemical and woollen
factories, and produces leather and straps, cement, small vehicles,
wire-woven goods, carpets, beer and bricks. The town is well
provided with technical schools for training in the various
industries, including commercial, public, economic and agri-
cultural schools, and has a chamber of commerce. There are
also industrial and historical museums, and collections of paint-
ing and natural history. The local communications are main-
tained by an excellent electric tramway system. To the north-
west of the town is the Gothic church of a former Benedictine
monastery, dating from 1514-1525, with a tower of 1897.
Chemnitz is a favourite tourist centre for excursions into the
Erzgebirge, the chain of mountains separating Saxony from
Bohemia.

Chemnitz (Kaminizi) was originally a settlement of the
Sorbian Wends and became a market town in 1 143. Its municipal
constitution dates from the I4th century, and it soon became the
most important industrial centre in the mark of Meissen. A
monopoly of bleaching was granted to the town, and thus a
considerable trade in woollen and linen yarns was attracted to
Chemnitz; paper was made here, and in the i6th century the
manufacture of cloth was very flourishing. In 1 539 the Reforma-
tion was introduced, and in 1546 the Benedictine monastery,
founded about 1136 by the emperor Lothair II. about 2 m. north
of the town, was dissolved. During the Thirty Years' War
Chemnitz was plundered by all parties and its trade was com-
pletely ruined, but at the beginning of the i8th century it had
begun to recover. Further progress in this direction was made

CHEMOTAXIS— CHENG

77

during the ipth century, especially after 1834 when Saxony
joined the German Zollverein.

See Zollner, Geschichte der Fabrik- und Handelsstadt Chemnitz
(1891) ; and Straumer, Die Fabrik- und Handelsstadt Chemnitz (1892).

CHEHOTAXIS (from the stem of " chemistry" and Gr. rAfis,
arrangement), a biological term for the attraction exercised on
living or growing organisms or their members by chemical
substances; e.g. the attraction of the male cells of ferns or
mosses by an organic acid or sugar-solution.

CHENAB (the Greek Acesines), one of the " Five rivers " of the
Punjab, India. It rises in the snowy Himalayan ranges of
Kashmir, enters British territory in the Sialkot district, and flows
through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary between
the Rechna and the Jech Doabs. Finally it joins the Jhelum
at Trimmu.

The CHENAB COLONY, resulting from the great success of the
Chenab Canal in irrigating the desert of the Bar, was formed out
of the three adjacent districts of Gujranwala, Jhang, and
Montgomery in 1892, and contained in 1901 a population of
791,861. It lies in the Rechna Doab between the Chenab and
Ravi rivers in the north-east of the Jhang district, and is designed
to include an irrigated area of 25 million acres. The Chenab
Canal (opened 1887) is the largest and most profitable per-
ennial canal in India. The principal town is Lyallpur, called after
Sir J. Broadwood Lyall, lieutenant-governor of the Punjab 1887-
1892, which gives its name to a district created in 1904.

CHENEDOLLE, CHARLES JULIEN LIOULT DE (1769-1833),
French poet, was born at Vire (Calvados) on the 4th of November
1769. He early showed a vocation for poetry, but the outbreak
of the Revolution temporarily diverted his energy. Emigrating
in 1791, he fought two campaigns in the army of Conde, and
eventually found his way to Hamburg, where he met Antoine de
Rivarol, of whose brilliant conversation he has left an account.
He also visited Mme de Stael in her retreat at Coppet. On his
return to Paris in 1799 he met Chateaubriand and his sister
Lucile (Mme de Caud), to whom he became deeply attached.
After her death in 1804, Chenedolle returned to Normandy,
where he married and became eventually inspector of the
academy of Caen (1812-1832). With the exception of occasional
visits to Paris, he spent the rest of his life in his native province.
He died at the chateau de Coisel on the 2nd of December 1833.
He published his Genie de I'Homme in 1807, and in 1820 his
Uludes poetiques, which had the misfortune to appear shortly
after the Meditations of Lamartine, so that the author did not
receive the credit of their real originality. Chenedolle had many
sympathies with the romanticists, and was a contributor to their
organ, the Musefranfaise. His other works include the Esprit de
Rivarol (1808) in conjunction with F. J. M. Fayolle.

The works of Chgnedoll6 were edited in 1864 by Sainte-Beuve,
who drew portraits of him in his Chateaubriand el son groupe and in
an article contributed to the Revue des deux mondes (June 1849).
See also E. Helland, Etude bingraphique et litteraire sur Chenedolle
(1857); Cazin, Notice sur Chenedolle (1869).

CHENERY, THOMAS (1826-1884), English scholar and editor
of The Times, was born in 1826 at Barbados. He was educated at
Eton and Caius College, Cambridge. Having been called to the
bar, he went out to Constantinople as The Times correspondent
just before the Crimean War, and it was under the influence there
of Algernon Smythe (afterwards Lord Strangford) that he first
turned to those philological studies in which he became eminent.
After the war he returned to London and wrote regularly for The
Times for many years, eventually succeeding Delane as editor in
1877. He was then an experienced publicist, particularly well
versed in Oriental affairs, an indefatigable worker, with a rapid
and comprehensive judgment, though he lacked Delane's
intuition for public opinion. It was as an Orientalist, however,
that he had meantime earned the highest reputation, his
knowledge of Arabic and Hebrew being almost unrivalled and his
gift for languages exceptional. In 1868 he was appointed Lord
Almoner's professor of Arabic at Oxford, and retained his
position until he became editor of The Times. He was one of the
company of revisers of the Old Testament. He was secretary for

some time to the Royal Asiatic Society, and published learned
editions of the Arabic classic The Assemblies of Al-Harirl and of
the Machberoth Ithiel. He died in London on the nth of
February 1884.

CHENG, TSCHENG or TSCHIANO (Ger. Scheng), an ancient
Chinese wind instrument, a primitive organ, containing the
principle of the free reed which found application in the accordion,
concertina and harmonium. The cheng resembles a tea-pot
filled with bamboo pipes of graduated lengths. It consists of a
gourd or turned wooden receptacle acting as wind reservoir, in
the side of which is inserted an insufflation tube curved like a
swan's neck or the spout of a tea-pot. The cup-shaped reservoir
is closed by means of a plate of horn pierced with seventeen round
holes arranged round the edge in an unfinished circle, into which
fit the bamboo pipes. The pipes are cylindrical as far as they are
visible above the plate, but the lower end inserted in the wind
reservoir is cut to the shape of a beak, somewhat like the mouth-
piece of the clarinet, to receive the reed. The construction of the
free reed is very simple: it consists of a thin plate of metal — gold
according to the Jesuit missionary Joseph Amiot,1 but brass in
the specimens brought to Europe — of the thickness of ordinary
paper. In this plate is cut a rectangular flap or tongue which
remains fixed at one end, while at the other the tongue is filed so
that, instead of closing the aperture, it passes freely through,
vibrating as the air is forced through the pipe (see FREE-REED
VIBRATOR). The metal plate is fastened with wax longitudinally
across the diameter of the beak end of the pipe, a little layer of
wax being applied also to the free end of the vibrating tongue for
the purpose of tuning by adding weight and impetus. About
half an inch above the horn plate a small round hole or stop is
bored through the pipe, which speaks only when this hole is
covered by the finger. A longitudinal aperture about an inch
long cut in the upper end of the bamboo pipe serves to determine
the length of the vibrating column of air proper to respond to the
vibrations of the free reed. The length of the bamboo above this
opening is purely ornamental, as are also four or five of the
seventeen pipes which have no reeds and do not speak, being
merely inserted for the purposes of symmetry in design. The
notes of the cheng, like those of the concertina, speak either by
inspiration or expiration of air, the former being the more usual
method. Mahillon states that performers on the cheng in China
are rare, as the method of playing by inspiration induces in-
flammation of the throat.2 Amiot, who gives a description of the
instrument with illustrations showing the construction, states
that in the great Chinese encyclopaedia Eulh-ya, articles Yu and
Ho, the Yu of ancient China was the large cheng with nineteen
free reeds (twenty-four pipes), and the Ho the small cheng with
thirteen reeds or seventeen pipes described in this article. The
compass of the latter is given by him as the middle octave with
chromatic intervals, the thirteenth note giving the octave of the
first. Mahillon gives the compass of a modern cheng as follows:

?&^-» F-

* 1» = E

V IS 7

5 14 4 or 8 3

E. F. F. Chladni,3 who examined a cheng sent from China to Herr
Muller, organist of the church of St Nicholas, Leipzig, at the
beginning of the igth century, gives an excellent description of
the instrument, reproducing in illustration a plate from Giulio
Ferrario's work on costume.4 Miiller's cheng had the same
compass as Mahillon's. Chladni's article was motived by the
publication of an account of the exhibition of G. J. Greni6's
Orgue expressif, invented about 1810, in the Conservatoire of

1 Memoirs sur la musique des Chinois (Paris, 1779), pp. 78 and 82,
pi. vi., or Memoire sur les Chinois, tome vi. pi. vi.

8 Catalogue descriptif, vol. ii. (Ghent, 1896), p. 91 ; also vol. i.
(1880), pp. 29, 44, 154.

3 " Weitere Nachrichten von dem . . . chinesischen Blasinstru-
mente Tscheng oder Tschiang," in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
(Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. No. 22,pp.369, 374 et seq., and illustration
appendix ii.

4 // Costume anticho e moderno (Milan, 1816), pi. 66, vol. i.

CHEN-HAI— CHENIER, A. DE

Paris.1 Greni6's invention, perfected by Alexandre and Debain
about 1840, produced the harmonium. Kratzenstein (see under
HARMONIUM) of St Petersburg was the first to apply the free
reed to the organ in the second half of the i8th century. In-
ventions of similar instruments, which after a short life were
relegated to oblivion, followed at the beginning of the ipth
century. An interesting reproduction of a Persian cheng dating
from the loth or nth century is to be seen on a Persian vase
described and illustrated together with a shawm in the Gazette
archeologique (tome xi., 1886). (K. S.)

CHEN-HAI [CHiNHAi],a district town of China, in the province
of Cheh-kiang, at the mouth of the Yung-kiang, 12 m. N.E.
of Ningpo, in 29° 58' N., 121° 45' E. It lies at the foot of a hill on
a tongue of land, and is partly protected from the sea on the N.
by a dike about 3 m. long, composed entirely of large blocks of
hewn granite. The walls are 20 ft. high and 3 m. in circumfer-
ence. The defences were formerly of considerable strength, and
included a well-built but now dismantled citadel on a precipitous
cliff, 250 ft. high, at the extremity of the tongue of land on which
the town is built. In the neighbourhood an engagement took
place between the English and Chinese in 1841.

CHENIER, ANDRfiDE (1762-1794), French poet, was born at
Constantinople on the 3oth of October 1762. His father, Louis
Ch6nier, a native of Languedoc, after twenty years of successful
commerce in the Levant as a cloth-merchant, was appointed to a
position equivalent to that of French consul at Constantinople.
His mother, Elisabeth Santi-Lomaca, whose sister was grand-
mother of A. Thiers, was a Greek. When the poet was three
years old his father returned to France, and subsequently from
1768101775 served as consul-general of France in Morocco. The
family, of which Andre was the third son, and Marie- Joseph (see
below) the fourth, remained in France; and after a few years,
during which Andre ran wild with " la tante de Carcasonne," he
distinguished himself as a verse-translator from the classics at
the College de Navarre (the school in former days of Gerson and
Bossuet) in Paris. In 1783 he obtained a cadetship in a French
regiment at Strassburg. But the glamour of the military life
was as soon exhausted by Chenier as it was by Coleridge. He
returned to Paris before the end of the year, was well received by
his family, and mixed in the cultivated circle which frequented
the salon of his mother, among them Lebrun-Pindare, Lavoisier,
Lesueur, Dorat, Parmy, and a little later the painter David. He
was already a poet by predilection, an idyllist and steeped in the
classical archaism of the time, when, in 1784, his taste for the
antique was confirmed by a visit to Rome made in the company
of two schoolfellows, the brothers Trudaine. From Naples, after
visiting Pompeii, he returned to Paris, his mind fermenting with
poetical images and projects, few of which he was destined to
realize. For nearly three years, however, he was enabled to
study and to experiment in verse without any active pressure or
interruption from his family — three precious years in which the
first phase of his art as a writer of idylls and bucolics, imitated to
a large extent from Theocritus, Bion and the Greek anthologists,
was elaborated. Among the poems written or at least sketched
during this period were L'Oaristys, L'Aveugle, La Jeune Malade,
Bacchus, Euphrosine and La Jeune Tarentine, the last a synthesis
of his purest manner, mosaic though it is of reminiscences of at
least a dozen classical poets. As in glyptic so in poetic art, the
Hellenism of the time was decadent and Alexandrine rather than
Attic of the best period. But Ch6nier is always far more than an
imitator. La Jeune Tarentine is a work of personal emotion and
inspiration. The colouring is that of classic mythology, but the
spiritual element is as individual as that of any classical poem by
Milton, Gray, Keats or Tennyson. Apart from his idylls and his
elegies, Chenier also experimented from early youth in didactic
and philosophic verse, and when he commenced his Hermes in
1783 his ambition was to condense the Encyclopedic of Diderot
into a poem somewhat after the manner of Lucretius. This poem
was to treat of man's position in the Universe, first in an isolated
state, and then in society. It remains fragmentary, and though

'See Allg. mus. Zt. (Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. Nos. 9 and 10, pp.
133 and 149 et seq.

some of the fragments are fine, its attempt at scientific exposition
approximates too closely to the manner of Erasmus Darwin to
suit a modern ear. Another fragment called L'Invention sums
Ch6nier's Ars Poetica in the verse " Sur des pensers nouveaux,
faisons des vers antiques." Suzanne represents the torso of a
Biblical poem on a very large scale, in six cantos.

In the meantime, Andre had published nothing, and some of
these last pieces were in fact not yet written, when in November
1787 an opportunity of a fresh career presented itself. The new
ambassador at the court of St James's, M. de la Luzerne, was
connected in some way with the Chenier family, and he offered to
take Andre with him as his secretary. The offer was too good to
be refused, but the poet hated himself on the banks of the fiere
Tamise, and wrote in bitter ridicule of

" Ces Anglais.

Nation toute a vendre & qui peut la payer.
De contree en contree allant au monde entier,
Offrir sa joie ignoble et son faste grossier."

He seems to have been interested in the poetic diction of Milton
and Thomson, and a few of his verses are remotely inspired by
Shakespeare and Gray. To say, however, that he studied
English literature would be an exaggeration. The events of 1 789
and the startling success of his younger brother, Marie- Joseph,
as political playwright and pamphleteer, concentrated all his
thoughts upon France. In April 1790 he could stand London no
longer, and once more joined his parents at Paris in the rue
de Clery.

The France that he plunged into with such impetuosity was
upon the verge of anarchy. A strong constitutionalist, Chenier
took the view that the Revolution was already complete and that
all that remained to be done was the inauguration of the reign of
law. Moderate as were his views and disinterested as were his
motives, his tactics were passionately and dangerously aggressive.
From an idyllist and elegist we find him suddenly transformed
into an unsparing master of poetical satire. His prose Avis au
peuple franqais (August 24, 1790) was followed by the rhetorical
Jeu de paume, a somewhat declamatory moral ode addressed
" a Louis David, peintre." In the meantime he orated at the
Feuillants Club, and contributed frequently to the Journal de
Paris from November 1791 to July 1792, when he wrote his
scorching lambes to Collot d'Herbois, Sur les Suisses revoltes du
regiment de Chdteauvieux. The loth of August uprooted his party,
his paper and his friends, and the management of relatives who
kept him out of the way in Normandy alone saved him from the
massacre of September. In the month following these events his
democratic brother, Marie- Joseph, had entered the Convention.
Andre's sombre rage against the course of events found vent in
the line on the Maenads who mutilated the king's Swiss Guard,
and in the Ode a Charlotte Corday congratulating France that
" Un scelerat de moins rampe dans cette fange." At the express
request of Malesherbes he furnished some arguments to the
materials collected for the defence of the king. After the execu-
tion he sought a secluded retreat on the Plateau de Satory at
Versailles and took exercise after nightfall. There he wrote the
poems inspired by Fanny (Mme Laurent Lecoulteux), including
the exquisite Ode a Versailles, one of his freshest, noblest and
most varied poems.

His solitary life at Versailles lasted nearly a year. On the 7th
of March 1794 he was taken at the house of Mme Piscatory at
Passy. Two obscure agents of the committee of public safety
were in search of a marquise who had flown, but an unknown
stranger was found in the house 'and arrested on suspicion.
This was Andre, who had come on a visit of sympathy. He was
taken to the Luxembourg and afterwards to Saint-Lazare.
During the 140 days of his imprisonment there he wrote the
marvellous lambes (in alternate lines of 12 and 8 syllables), which
hiss and stab like poisoned bullets, and which were transmitted to
his family by a venal gaoler. There he wrote the best known of
all his verses, the pathetic Jeune captive, a poem at once of
enchantment and of despair. Suffocating in an atmosphere of
cruelty and baseness, Chinier's agony found expression almost to
the last in these murderous lambes which he launched against the

CHENIER, M.-J. B. DE

Convention. Ten days before the end, the painter J. B. Suvee
executed the well-known portrait. He might have been over-
looked but for the well-meant, indignant officiousness of his
father. Marie- Joseph had done his best to prevent this, but he
could do nothing more. Robespierre, who was himself on the
brink of the volcano, remembered the venomous sallies in the
Journal de Paris. At sundown on the 25th of July 1794, the very
day of his condemnation on a bogus charge of conspiracy, Andr6
Ch6nier was guillotined. The record of his last moments by La
Touche is rather melodramatic and is certainly not above
suspicion.

Incomplete as was his career — he was not quite thirty-two —
his life was cut short in a crescendo of all its nobler elements.
Exquisite as was already his susceptibility to beauty and his
mastership of the rarest poetic material, we cannot doubt that
Ch6nier was preparing for still higher flights of lyric passion and
poetic intensity. Nothing that he had yet done could be said
to compare in promise of assured greatness with the lambes, the
Odes and the Jeune Captive. At the moment he left practically
nothing to tell the world of his transcendent genius, and his
reputation has had to be retrieved from oblivion page by page,
and almost poem by poem. During his lifetime only his Jeu
de paume (1791) and Hymne sur les Suisses (1792) had been
given to the world. The Jeune Captive appeared in the Decade
philosophique, Jan. 9, 1795; La Jeune Tarentine in the Mercure
of March 2 2 , 1 801 . Chateaubriand quoted three or four passages
in his Genie du christianisme. Fayette and Lefeuvre-Deumier
also gave a few fragments; but it was not until 1819 that a
first imperfect attempt was made by H. de la Touche to collect
the poems in a substantive volume. Since the appearance of the
editio princeps of Chenier's poems in La Touche's volume, many
additional poems and fragments have been discovered, and an
edition of the complete works of the poet, collated with the MSS.
bequeathed to the Bibliotheque Nationale by Mme Elisa de
Chenier in 1892, has been edited by Paul Dimoff and published
by Delagrave. During the same period the critical estimates
of the poet have fluctuated in a truly extraordinary manner.
Sainte-Beuve in his Tableau of 1828 sang the praises of Chenier
as an heroic forerunner of the Romantic movement and a
precursor of Victor Hugo. Chenier, he said, had " inspired and
determined " Romanticism. This suggestion of modernity in
Chenier was echoed by a chorus of critics who worked the idea
to death; in the meantime, the standard edition of Chenier's
works was being prepared by M. Becq de Fouquieres and was
issued in 1862, but rearranged and greatly improved by the
editor in 1872. The same patient investigator gave his New
Documents on Andre Chenier to the world in 1875.

In the second volume of La Vie litteraire Anatole France
contests the theory of Sainte-Beuve. Far from being an initiator,
he maintains that Chenier's poetry is the last expression of an
expiring form of art. His matter and his form belong of right
to the classic spirit of the i8th century. He is a contemporary,
not of Hugo and Leconte de Lisle, but of Suard and Moreliet.
M. Faguet sums up on the side of M. France in his volume on the
i8th century ,(1890). Chenier's real disciples, according to the
latest view, are Leconte de Lisle and M. de Heredia, mosa'istes
who have at heart the cult of antique and pagan beauty, of
" pure art " and of " objective poetry." Heredia himself
reverted to the judgment of Sainte-Beuve to the effect that
Chenier was the first to make modern verses, and he adds,
" I do not know in the French language a more exquisite fragment
than the three hundred verses of the Bucoliques." Chenier's
influence has been specially remarkable in Russia, where Pushkin
imitated him, Kogloff translated La Jeune Captive, La jeune
Tarentine and other famous pieces, while the critic Vesselovsky
pronounces " II a retabli le lyrisme pur dans la poesie franchise."
The general French verdict on his work is in the main well
summed by Morillot, when he says that, judged by the usual
tests of the Romantic movement of the 'twenties (love for strange
literatures of the North, medievalism, novelties and experiments),
Chenier would inevitably have been excluded from the cenacle of
1817. On the other hand, he exhibits a decided tendency to

79

the world-ennui and melancholy which was one of the earlier
symptoms of the movement, and he has experimented in French
verse in a manner which would have led to his excommunication
by the typical performers of the i8th century. What is univer-
sally admitted is that Chdnier was a very great artist, who like
Ronsard opened up sources of poetry in France which had long
seemed dried up. In England it is easier to feel his attraction
than that of some far greater reputations in French poetry, for,
rhetorical though he nearly always is, he yet reveals something
of that quality which to the Northern mind has always been of
the very essence of poetry, that quality which made Sainte-
Beuve say of him that he was the first great poet " personnel
et reveur " in France since La Fontaine. His diction is still very
artificial, the poetic diction of Delille transformed in the direction
of Hugo, but not very much. On the other hand, his descriptive
power in treating of nature shows far more art than the Trianin
school ever attained. His love of the woodland and his political
fervour often remind us of Shelley, and his delicate perception of
Hellenic beauty, and the perfume of Greek legend, give us
almost a foretaste of Keats. For these reasons, among others,
Chenier, whose art is destined to so many vicissitudes of criticism
in his own country, seems assured among English readers of a
place among the Dii Majores of French poetry.

The Chenier literature of late years has become enormous. His
fate has been commemorated in numerous plays, pictures and poems,
notably in the fine epilogue of Sully Prudnomme, the Stella of A. de
Vigny, the delicate statue by Puech in the Luxembourg, and the
well-known portrait in the centre of the " Last Days of the Terror."
The best editions are still those of Becq de Fouquieres (Paris, 1862,
1872 and 1881), though these are now supplemented by those of
L. Moland (2 vols., 1889) and R. Guillard (2 vols., 1899). (T.SE.)

CHENIER, MARIE-JOSEPH BLAISE DE (1764-1811), French
poet, dramatist and politician, younger brother of Andre de
Chenier, was born at Constantinople on the nth of February
1 764.' He was brought up at Carcassonne, and educated in
Paris at the College de Navarre. Entering the army at seventeen,
he left it two years afterwards; and at nineteen he produced
Azemire, a two-act drama (acted in 1786), and Edgar, on le page
suppost, a comedy (acted in 1785), which were failures. His
Charles IX was kept back for nearly two years by the censor.
Chenier attacked the censorship in three pamphlets, and the
commotion aroused by the controversy raised keen interest in
the piece. When it was at last produced on the 4th of November
1789, it achieved an immense success, due in part to its political
suggestion, and in part to Talma's magnificent impersonation of
Charles IX. Camilla Desmoulins said that the piece had done
more for the Revolution than the days of October, and a con-
temporary memoir-writer, the marquis de Ferriere, says that
the audience came away " ivre de vengeance et tourmente d'une
soif de sang." The performance was the occasion of a split among
the actors of the Comedie Francaise, and the new theatre in the
Palais Royal, established by the dissidents, was inaugurated
with Henri VIII (1791), generally recognized as Chenier's
masterpiece; Jean Galas, ou I'icole des juges followed in the
same year. In 1792 he produced his Cains Gracchus, which was
even more revolutionary in tone than its predecessors. It was
nevertheless proscribed in the next year at the instance of the
Montagnard deputy Albitte, for an anti-anarchical hemistich
(Des lois et non du sangl); Finelon (1793) was suspended after
a few representations; and in 1794 his Timollon, set to fitienne
Mehul's music, was also proscribed. This piece was played
after the fall of the Terror, but the fratricide of Timoleon became
the text for insinuations to the effect that by his silence Joseph
de Chenier had connived at the judicial murder of Andr6, whom
Joseph's enemies alluded to as A bel. There is absolutely nothing
to support the calumny, which has often been repeated since.
In fact, after some fruitless attempts to save his brother, variously
related by his biographers, Joseph became aware that Andre's
only chance of safety lay in being forgotten by the authorities,
and that ill-advised intervention would only hasten the end.
Joseph Chenier had been a member of the Convention and of

1 This is the date given by G. de Chenier in his La VMU sur la
famUle de Chenier (1844).

8o

CHENILLE— CHEOPS

the Council of Five Hundred, and had voted for the death of
Louis XVI.; he had a seat in the tribunate; he belonged to
the committees of public instruction, of general security, and of
public safety. He was, nevertheless, suspected of moderate
sentiments, and before the end of the Terror had become a
marked man. His purely political career ended in 1802, when
he was eliminated with others from the tribunate for his opposi-
tion to Napoleon. In 1801 he was one of the educational jury
for the Seine ; from 1803 to 1606 he was inspector-general of
public instruction. He had allowed himself to be reconciled
with Napoleon's government, and Cyrus, represented in 1804,
was written in his honour, but he was temporarily disgraced
in 1806 for his £pitre a Voltaire. In 1806 and 1807 he delivered
a course of lectures at the Athen6e on the language and literature
of France from the earliest years; and in 1808 at the emperor's
request, he prepared his Tableau historique de I'etat el du progris
de la litteraturc fran^aise depuis 1789 jusqu'd 1808, a book con-
taining some good criticism, though marred by the violent
prejudices of its author. He died on the loth of January 1811.
The list of his works includes hymns and national songs — among
others, the famous Chant du depart; odes, Sur la mart de
Mirabeau, Sur I' oligarchic de Robespierre, &c.; tragedies which
never reached the stage, Brutus et Cassius, Philippe deux,
Tibere; translations from Sophocles and Lessing, from Gray
and Horace, from Tacitus and Aristotle; with elegies, dithyr-
ambics and Ossianic rhapsodies. As a satirist he possessed
great merit, though he sins from an excess of severity, and is
sometimes malignant and unjust. He is the chief tragic poet
of the revolutionary period, and as Camille Desmoulins expressed
it, he decorated Melpomene with the tricolour cockade.

See the (Euvres completes de Joseph Chenier (8 vols., Paris, 1823-
1826), containing notices of the poet by Arnault and Daunou;
Charles Labitte, £ludes litteraires (1846) ; Henri Welschinger, Le
Tht&tre revolutionnaire, ifSQ-iJQQ (1881); and A. Lieby, £tude sur
le thULtre de Marie-Joseph Chenier (1902).

CHENILLE (from the Fr. chenille, a hairy caterpillar), a
twisted velvet cord, woven so that the short outer threads
stand out at right angles to the central cord, thus giving a
resemblance to a caterpillar. Chenille is used as a trimming
for dress and furniture.

CHENONCEAUX, a village of central France, in the department
of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Cher, 20 m. E. by S.
of Tours on the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 216. Chenonceaux
owes its interest to its chateau (see ARCHITECTURE: Renaissance
Architecture in France), a building in the Renaissance style
on the river Cher, to the left bank of which it is united by a
two-storeyed gallery built upon five arches, and to the right by
a drawbridge flanked by an isolated tower, part of an earlier
building of the i$th century. Founded in 1515 by Thomas
Bohier (d. 1523), financial minister in Normandy, the chateau
was confiscated by Francis I. in 1535. Henry II. presented
it to his mistress Diane de Poitiers, who on his death was forced
to exchange it for Chaumont-sur-Loire by Catherine de' Medici.
The latter built the gallery which leads to the left bank of the
Cher. Chenonceaux passed successively into the hands of
Louise de Vaudemont, wife of Henry III., the house of Vend6me,
and the family of Bourbon-Conde. In the i8th century it came
into the possession of the farmer-general Claude Dupin (1684-
1769), who entertained the most distinguished people in France
within its walls. In 1864 it was sold to the chemist Theophile
P61ouze, whose wife executed extensive restorations. It sub-
sequently became the property of the Credit Foncier, and again
passed into private occupancy.

CHENOPODIUM, or GOOSE-FOOT, a genus of erect or prostrate
herbs (natural order Chenopodiaceae), usually growing on the
seashore or on waste or cultivated ground. The green angular
stem is often striped with white or red, and, like the leaves,
often more or less covered with mealy hairs. The leaves are
entire, lobed or toothed, often more or less deltoid or triangular
in shape. The minute flowers are bisexual, and borne in dense
axillary or terminal clusters or spikes. The fruit is a membranous
one-seeded utricle often enclosed by the persistent calyx. Ten
species occur in Britain, one of which, C. Bonus-Henricus, Good

King Henry, is cultivated as a pot-herb, in lieu of asparagus^
under the name mercury, and all-good.

CHEOPS, in Herodotus, the name of the king who built the
Great Pyramid in Egypt. Following on a period of good rule
and prosperity under Rhampsinitus, Cheops closed the temples,
abolished the sacrifices and made all the Egyptians labour for
his monument, working in relays of 100,000 men every three
months (see PYRAMID). Proceeding from bad to worse, he
sacrificed the honour of his daughter in order to obtain the money
to complete his pyramid; and the princess built herself besides
a small pyramid of the stones given to her by her lovers. Cheops
reigned 50 years and was succeeded by his brother, Chephren,
who reigned 56 years and built the second pyramid. During
these two reigns the Egyptians suffered every kind of misery
and the temples remained closed. Herodotus continues that
in his own day the Egyptians were unwilling to name these
oppressors and preferred to call the pyramids after a shepherd
named Philition, who pastured his flocks in their neighbour-
hood. At length Mycerinus, son of Cheops and successor of
Chephren, reopened the temples and, although he built the Third
Pyramid, allowed the oppressed people to return to their proper
occupations.

Cheops, Chephren and Mycerinus are historical personages
of the fourth Egyptian dynasty, in correct order, and they built
the three pyramids attributed to them here. But they are
wholly misplaced by Herodotus. Rhampsinitus, the predecessor
of Cheops, appears to represent Rameses III. of the twentieth
dynasty, and Mycerinus in Herodotus is but a few generations
before Psammetichus, the founder of the twenty-sixth dynasty.
Manetho correctly places the great Pyramid kings in Dynasty IV.
InEgyptianthe name of Cheops (Chemmisor Chembisin Diodorus
Siculus, Suphis in Manetho) is spelt Hwfw (Khufu), but the
pronunciation, in late times perhaps Khoouf, is uncertain.
The Greeks and Romans generally accepted the view that Hero-
dotus supplies of his character, and moralized on the uselessness
of his stupendous work; but there is nothing else to prove that
the Egyptians themselves execrated his memory. Modern
writers rather dwell on the perfect organization demanded by his
scheme, the training of a nation to combined labour, the level
attained here by art and in the fitting of masonry, and finally
the fact that the Great Pyramid was the oldest of the seven
wonders of the ancient world and now alone of them survives.
It seems that representations of deities, and indeed any represen-
tations at all, were rare upon the polished walls of the great
monuments of the fourth dynasty, and Petrie thinks that he
can trace a violent religious revolution with confiscation of
endowments at this time in the temple remains at Abydos;
but none the less the wants of the deities were then attended to
by priests selected from the royal family and the highest in the
land. Khufu's work in the temple of Bubastis is proved by a
surviving fragment, and he is figured slaying his enemy at Sinai
before the god Thoth. In late times the priests of Denderah
claimed Khufu as a benefactor; he was reputed to have built
temples to the gods near the Great Pyramids and Sphinx (where
also a pyramid of his daughter Hentsen is spoken of), and there
are incidental notices of him in the medical and religious
literature. The funerary cult of Khufu and Khafre was practised
under the twenty-sixth dynasty, when so much that had fallen
into disuse and been forgotten was revived. Khufu is a leading
figure in an ancient Egyptian story (Papyrus Westcar), but it
is unfortunately incomplete. He was the founder of the fourth
dynasty, and was probably born in Middle Egypt near Beni
Hasan, in a town afterwards known as " Khufu's Nurse," but
was connected with the Memphite third dynasty. Two tablets
at the mines of Wadi Maghara in the peninsula of Sinai, a
granite block from Bubastis, and a beautiful ivory statuette
found by Petrie in the temple at Abydos, are almost all that can
be definitely assigned to Khufu outside the pyramid at Giza
and its ruined accompaniments. His date, according to Petrie,
is 3960-3908 B.C., but in the shorter chronology of Meyer,
Breasted and others he reigned (23 years) about a thousand years
later, c. 2900 B.C.

CHEPSTOW— CHER

81

See Herodotus ii. 124; Diodorus Siculus i. 64; Sethe in Pauly-
Wisspwa's Realencydopddie, s.v. ; W. M. F. Petrie, History of Egypt,
vol. i., and Abydos, part ii. p. 48; J. H. Breasted, History.

(F. LL. G.)

CHEPSTOW, a market town and river-port in the southern
parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, on the Wye,
2 m. above its junction with the Severn, and on the Great Western
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3067. It occupies the
slope of a hill on the western (left) bank of the river, and is
environed by beautiful scenery. The church of St Mary, origin-
ally the conventual chapel of a Benedictine priory of Norman
foundation, has remains of that period in the west front and
the nave, but a rebuilding of the chancel and transepts was
effected in the beginning of the igth century. The church
contains many interesting monuments. The castle, still a mag-
nificent pile, was founded in the nth century by William
Fitz-Osbern, earl of Hereford, but was almost wholly rebuilt
in the I3th. There are, however, parts of the original building in
the keep. The castle occupies a splendid site on the summit of
a cliff above the Wye, and covers about 3 acres. The river is
crossed by a fine iron bridge of five arches, erected in 1816, and
by a tubular railway bridge designed by Sir Isambard Brunei.
There is a free passage on the Wye for large vessels as far as the
bridge. From the narrowness and depth of the channel the tide
rises suddenly and to a great height, forming a dangerous bore.
The exports are timber, bark, iron, coal, cider and millstones.
Some shipbuilding is carried on.

As the key to the passage of the Wye, Chepstow (Estrighorel,
Striguil) was the site successively of British, Roman and Saxon
fortifications. Domesday Book records that the Norman castle
was built by William Fitz-Osbern to defend the Roman road
into South Wales. On the confiscation of his son's estates,
the castle was granted to the earls of Pembroke, and after its
reversion to the crown in 1306, Edward II. in 1310 granted it
to his half-brother Thomas de Brotherton. On the latter's
death it passed, through his daughter Margaret, Lady Segrave,
to the dukes of Norfolk, from whom, after again reverting to the
crown, it passed to the earls of Worcester. It was confiscated
by parliament and settled on Oliver Cromwell, but was restored
to the earls in 1660. The borough must have grown up between
1310, when the castle and vill were granted to Thomas de
Brotherton, and 1432, when John duke of Norfolk died seised
of the castle, manor and borough of Struguil. In 1524 Charles,
first earl of Worcester and then lord of the Marches, granted a
new charter of incorporation to the bailiffs and burgesses of the
town, which had fallen into decay. This was sustained until
the reign of Charles II., when, some dispute arising between the
earl of Bridgwater and the burgesses, no bailiff was appointed
and the charter lapsed. Chepstow was afterwards governed by
a board of twelve members. A port since early times, when the
lord took dues of ships going up to the forest of Dean, Chepstow
had no ancient market and no manufactures but that of glass,
which was carried on for a short time within the ruins of the
castle.

CHEQUE, or CHECK, in commercial law, a bill of exchange
drawn on a banker and signed by the drawer, requiring the
banker to pay on demand a certain sum in money to or to the
order of a specified person or to bearer. In this, its most modern
sense, the cheque is the outcome of the growth of the banking
system of the igth century. For details see BANKS AND BANK-
ING: Law, and BILL OF EXCHANGE. The word check,1 of which
" cheque " is a variant now general in English usage, signified
merely the counterfoil or indent of an exchequer bill, or any
draft form of payment, on which was registered the particulars
of the principal part, as a check to alteration or forgery. The

wt!-ThV'gJraI mea?in£, °f " check " 's a move in the game of chess
which directly attacks the king; the word comes through the Old

*uF%Zi ^^ ftT th? M^' Ut- f°fm scaccus of the Persian
shah, king, t.e the king in the game of chess; cf. the origin of

«rf cJr?m the Ar?b'C *hah-mat< th« king is dead. The word was
early used m a transferred sense of a stoppage or rebuff, and so is
applied to anything wh.ch stops or hinders a matter in progresVor
which controls or restrains anything, hence a token, ticket or
counterfoil which serves as a means ofidentification &c

check or counterfoil parts remained in the hands of the banker,
the portion given to the customer being termed a " drawn note "
or " draft." From the beginning of the igth century the word
" cheque " gradually became synonymous with " draft " as
meaning a written order on a banker by a person having money
in the banker's hands, to pay some amount to bearer or to a
person named. Ultimately, it entirely superseded the word
" draft," and has now a statutory definition (Bills of Exchange
Act 1882, s. 73) — " a bill of exchange drawn on a banker payable
on demand." The word " draft " has come to have a wider
meaning, that of a bill drawn by one person on another for a sum
of money, or an order (whether on a banker or other) to pay
money. The employment of cheques as a method of payment
offering greater convenience than coin is almost universal in
Great Britain and the United States. Of the transactions
through the banks of the United Kingdom between 86 and 90%
are conducted by means of cheques, and an even higher propor-
tion in the United States. On the continent of Europe the use
of cheques, formerly rare, is becoming more general, particularly
in France, and to some extent in Germany.

CHER, a department of central France, embracing the eastern
part of the ancient province of Berry, and parts of Bourbonnais,
Nivernais and Orleanais, bounded N. by the department of
Loiret, W. by Loir-et-Cher and Indre, S. by Allier and Creuse,
and E. by Nievre. . Pop. (1906) 343,484. Area 2819 sq. m.
The territory of the department is elevated in the south, where
one point reaches 1654 ft., and in the east. The centre is occupied
by a wide calcareous table-land, to the north of which stretches
the plain of Sologne. The principal rivers, besides the Cher and
its tributaries, are the Grande Sauldre and the Petite Sauldre
on the north, but the Loire and Allier, though not falling within
the department, drain the eastern districts, and are available
for navigation. The Cher itself becomes navigable when it
receives the Arnon and Yevre, and the communications of the
department are greatly facilitated by the Canal du Berry, which
traverses it from east to west, the lateral canal of the Loire,
which follows the left bank of that river, and the canal of the
Sauldre. The climate is temperate, and the rainfall moderate.
Except in the Sologne, the soil is generally fertile, but varies
considerably in different localities. The most productive region
is that on the east, which belongs to the valley of the Loire;
the central districts are tolerably fertile but marshy, being often
flooded by the Cher; while in the south and south-west there
is a considerable extent of dry and fertile land. Wheat and oats
are largely cultivated, while hemp, vegetables and various
fruits are also produced. The vine flourishes chiefly in the east
of the arrondissement of Sancerre. The department contains
a comparatively large extent of pasturage, which has given rise
to a considerable trade in horses, cattle, sheep and wool for the
northern markets. Nearly one-fifth of the whole area consists
of forest. Mines of iron are worked, and various sorts of stone
are quarried. Brick, porcelain and glassworks employ large
numbers of the inhabitants. There are also flour-mills, dis-
tilleries, oil-works, saw-mills and tanneries. Bourges and Vierzon
are metallurgical and engineering centres. Coal and wine are
leading imports, while cereals, timber, wool, fruit and industrial
products are exported. The department is served by the Orleans
railway, and possesses in all more than 300 m. of navigable
waterways. It is divided into three arrondissements (29 cantons,
292 communes) cognominal with the towns of Bourges, Saint-
Amand-Mont-Rond, and Sancerre, of which the first is the
capital, the seat of an archbishop and of a court of appeal and
headquarters of the VIII. army-corps. The department
belongs to the acadSmie (educational division) of Paris. Bourges,
Saint-Amand-Mont-Rond, Vierzon and Sancerre (q.v.) are the
principal towns. Mehun-sur- Yevre (pop. 5227), a town with an
active manufacture of porcelain, has a Romanesque church and
a chateau of the i4th century. Among the other interesting
churches of the department, that at St Satur has a fine choir
of the i4th and isth centuries; those of Dun-sur-Auron,
Plaimpied, Aix d'Angillon and Jeanvrin are Romanesque in
style, while Aubigny-Ville has a church of the I2th, i3th and

82

CHERAT— CHERCHEL

15th centuries and a chateau of later date. Drevant, built on
the site of a Roman town, preserves ruins of a large theatre and
other remains. Among the megalithic monuments of Cher,
the most notable is that at Villeneuve-sur-Cher, known as the
Pierre-de-la-Roche.

CHERAT, a hill cantonment and sanatorium hi the Peshawar
district of the North- West Frontier Province, India, 34 m. S.E.
of Peshawar. It is situated at an elevation of 4500 ft., on the
west of the Khattak range, which divides the Peshawar from the
Kohat district. It was first used in 1861, and since then has
been employed during the hot weather as a health station for
the British troops quartered in the hot and malarious vale of
Peshawar.

CHERBOURG, a naval station, fortified town and seaport
of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Manche, on the English Channel, 232 m. W.N.W.
of Paris on the Ouest-Etat railway. Pop. (1906) town, 35,710;
commune, 43,827. Cherbourg is situated at the mouth of the
Divette, on a small bay at the apex of the indentation formed
by the northern shore of the peninsula of Cotentin. Apart from
a fine hospital and the church of La Trinite dating from the
1 5th century, the town has no buildings of special interest. A
rich collection of paintings is housed hi the h6tel de ville. A
statue of the painter J. F. Millet, born near Cherbourg, stands
in the public garden, and there is an equestrian statue of
Napoleon I. in the square named after him. Cherbourg is a
fortified place of the first class, headquarters of one of the five
naval arrondissements of France, and the seat of a sub-prefect.
It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber
of commerce, a lycee and a naval school. The chief industries
of the town proper are fishing, saw-milling, tanning, leather-
dressing, ship-building, iron and copper-founding, rope-making
and the manufacture of agricultural implements. There are
stone quarries in the environs, and the town has trade in farm
produce.

Cherbourg derives its chief importance from its naval and
commercial harbours, which are distant from each other about
half a mile. The former consists of three main basins cut out
of the rock, and has an area of 55 acres. The minimum depth
of water is 30 ft. Connected with the harbour are dry docks,
the yards where the largest ships in the French navy are con-
structed, magazines, rope walks, and the various workshops
requisite for a naval arsenal of the first class. The works and
town are carefully guarded on every side by redoubts and
fortifications, and are commanded by batteries on the surround-
ing hills. There is a large naval hospital close to the harbour.
The commerical harbour at the mouth of the Divette com-
municates with the sea by a channel 650 yds. long. It consists
of two parts, an outer and tidal harbour 17$ acres in extent, and
an inner basin 15 acres in extent, with a depth on sill at ordinary
spring tide of 25 ft. Outside these harbours is the triangular
bay, which forms the roadstead of Cherbourg. The bay is
admirably sheltered by the land on every side but the north. On
that side it is sheltered by a huge breakwater, over 2 m. in length,
with a width of 650 ft. at its base and 30 ft. at its summit, which
is protected by forts, and leaves passages for vessels to the east
and west. These passages are guarded by forts placed on islands
intervening between the breakwater and the mainland, and
themselves united to the land by breakwaters. The surface
within these barriers amounts to about 3700 acres. Cherbourg
is a port of call for the American, North German Lloyd and other
important lines of transatlantic steamers. The chief exports
are stone for road-making, butter, eggs and vegetables; the
chief imports are coal, timber, superphosphates and wine from
Algeria. Great Britain is the principal customer.

Cherbourg is supposed by some investigators to occupy the
site of the Roman station of Coriallum, but nothing definite is
known about its origin. The name was long regarded as a
corruption of Caesaris Burgus (Caesar's Borough). William
the Conqueror, under whom it appears as Carusbur, provided
it with a hospital and a church; and Henry II. of England on
several occasions chose it as his residence. In 1295 it was

pillaged by an English fleet from Yarmouth-, and in the i4th
century it frequently suffered during the wars against the
English. Captured by the English in 1418 after a four months'
siege, it was recovered by Charles VII. of France in 1450. An
attempt was made under Louis XIV. to construct a military port;
but the fortifications were dismantled in 1688, and further
damage was inflicted by the English in 1758. In 1686 Vauban
planned harbour-works which were begun under Louis XVI.
and continued by Napoleon I. It was left, however, to Louis
Philippe, and particularly to Napoleon III., to complete them,
and their successful realization was celebrated in 1858, in the
presence of the queen of England, against whose dominions they
had at one time been mainly directed. At the close of 1857,
£8,000,000, of which the breakwater cost over £2,500,000, had
been expended on the works; in 1889 a further sum of £680,000
was voted by the Chamber of Deputies for the improvement of
the port.

CHERBULIEZ, CHARLES VICTOR (1820-1899), French
novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born on the igth of July
1829, at Geneva, where his father, Andr6 Cherbuliez (1795-1874),
was a classical professor at the university. He was descended
from a family of Protestant refugees, and many years later
Victor Cherbuliez resumed his French nationality, taking
advantage of an act passed in the early days of the Revolution.
Geneva was the scene of his early education; thence he proceeded
to Paris, and afterwards to the universities of Bonn and Berlin.
He returned to his native town and engaged in the profession of
teaching. After his resumption of French citizenship he was
elected a member of the Academy (1881), and having received
the Legion of Honour in 1870, he was promoted to be officer of
the order in 1892. He died on the ist of July 1899. Cherbuliez
was a voluminous and successful writer of fiction. His first book,
originally published in 1860, reappeared in 1864 under the title
of Un Cheval de Phidias: it is a romantic study of art in the
golden age of Athens. He went on to produce a series of novels,
of which the following are the best known: — Le Comte Kostia
(1863), Le Prince Vitale (1864), Le Roman d'une honnete femme
(1866), L'Aventure de Ladislas Bolski (1869), Miss Hovel (1875),
Samuel Brohl et Cie (1877), L'ldee de Jean Telerol (1878), Noirs
el rouges (1881), La Vocation du Comte Ghislain (1888), Une
Gageure (1890), Le Secret du precepteur (1893), Jacquine Vanesse
(1898), &c. Most of these novels first appeared in the Revue des
deux mondes, to which Cherbuh'ez also contributed a number
of political and learned articles, usually printed with the pseu-
donym G. Valbert. Many of these have been published in
collected form under the titles L'Allemagne politique (1870),
L'Espagne politique (1874), Profils Grangers (1889), L'Arl et la
nature (1892), &c. The volume £ludesde litterdture etd'art (1873)
includes articles for the most part reprinted from Le Temps.
The earlier novels of Cherbuliez have been said with truth to
show marked traces of the influence of George Sand; and in
spite of modification, his method was that of an older school.
He did not possess the sombre power or the intensely analytical
skill of some of his later contemporaries, but his books are
distinguished by a freshness and honesty, fortified by cosmo-
politan knowledge and lightened by unobtrusive humour, which
fully account for their wide popularity in many countries besides
his own. His genius was the reverse of dramatic, and attempts
to present two of his stories on the stage have not succeeded.
His essays have all the merits due to liberal observation and
thoroughness of treatment; their style, like that of the novels,
is admirably lucid and correct. (C.)

CHERCHEL, a seaport of Algeria, in the arrondissement and
department of Algiers, 55 m. W. of the capital. It is the centre
of an agricultural and vine-growing district, but is commercially
of no great importance, the port, which consists of part only of
the inner port of Roman days, being small and the entry difficult.
The town is chiefly noteworthy for the extensive ruins of former
cities on the same site. Of existing buildings the most remarkable
is the great Mosque of the Hundred Columns, now used as a
military hospital. The mosque contains 89 columns of diorite,
surmounted by a variety of capitals brought from other buildings.

CHERCHEN— CHERNIGOV

The population of the town in 1906 was 4733; of the commune
of which Cherchel is the centre 11,088.

Cherchel was a city of the Carthaginians, who named it Jol.
Juba II. (25 B.C.) made it the capital of the Mauretanian king-
dom under the name of Caesarea. Juba's tomb, the so-called
Tombeau de la Chretienne (see ALGERIA), is ;J m. E. of the town.
Destroyed by the Vandals, Caesarea regained some of its im-
portance under the Byzantines. Taken by the Arabs it was
renamed by them Cherchel. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa captured
the city in 1520 and annexed it to his Algerian pashalik. In
the early years of the i8th century it was a commercial city
of some importance, but was laid in ruins by a terrible earthquake
in 1738. In 1840 the town was occupied by the French. The
ruins suffered greatly from vandalism during the early period
of French rule, many portable objects being removed to
museums in Paris or Algiers, and most of the monuments
destroyed for the sake of their stone. Thus the dressed stones
of the ancient theatre served to build barracks; the material
of the hippodrome went to build the church; while the portico
of the hippodrome, supported by granite and marble columns,
and approached by a fine flight of steps, was destroyed by
Cardinal Lavigerie in a search for the tomb of St Marciana. The
fort built by Arouj Barbarossa, elder brother of Khair-ed-Din,
was completely destroyed by the French. There are many
fragments of a white marble temple. The ancient cisterns still
supply the town with water. The museum contains some of
the finest statues discovered in Africa. They include colossal
figures of Aesculapius and Bacchus, and the lower half of a
seated Egyptian divinity in black basalt, bearing the cartouche
of Tethmosis (Thothmes) I. This statue was found at Cherchel,
and is held by some archaeologists to indicate an Egyptian
settlement here about 1500 B.C.

See AFRICA, ROMAN, and the description of the museum by
P. Gauckler in the Musees et collections archeologiques de I'Algerie.

CHERCHEN, a town of East Turkestan, situated at the
northern foot of the Altyn-tagh, a range of the Kuen-lun, in
85° 35' E., and on the Cherchen-darya, at an altitude of 4100 ft.
It straggles mostly along the irrigation channels that go off from
the left side of the river, and in 1900 had a population of about
2000. The Cherchen-darya, which rises in the Arka-tagh, a more
southerly range of the Kuen-lun, in 87° E. and 36° 20' N., flows
north until it strikes the desert below Cherchen, after which it
turns north-east and meanders through a wide bed (300400 ft.),
beset with dense reeds and flanked by older channels. It is
probable that anciently it entered the disused channel of the
Ettek-tarim, but at present it joins the existing Tarim in the
lake of Kara-buran, a sort of lacustrine " ante-room " to the
Kara-koshun (N. M. Przhevalsky's Lop-nor). At its entrance
into the former lake the Cherchen-darya forms a broad delta.
The river is frozen in its lower course for two to three months
in the winter. From the foot of the mountains to the oasis of
Cherchen it has a fall of nearly 4000 ft., whereas in the 300 m.
or so from Cherchen to the Kara-buran the fall is 1400 ft. The
total length is 500-600 m., and the drainage basin measures
6000-7000 sq. m.

See Sven Hedin, Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia,
1899-1902, vols. i. and ii. (1905-1906) ; also TAKLA-MAKAN.

CHEREMISSES, or TCHEREMISSES, a Finnish people living in
isolated groups in the governments of Kazan, Viatka, Novgorod,
Perm, Kostroma and Ufa, eastern Russia. Their name for
themselves is Mori or Mari (people) , possibly identifiable with the
ancient Merians of Suzdalia. Their language belongs to the
Finno-Ugrian family. They number some 240,000. There are
two distinct physical types: one of middle height, black-haired,
brown skin and flat-faced; the other short, fair-haired, white
skinned, with narrow eyes and straight short noses. Those
who live on the right bank of the Volga are sometimes known
as Hill Cheremis, and are taller and stronger than those who
inhabit the swampsrof the left bank. They are farmers and herd
horses and cattle. Their religion is a hotchpotch of Shamanism,
Mahommedanism and Christianity. They are usually mono-
gamous. The chief ceremony of marriage is a forcible abduction

of the bride. The women, naturally ugly, are often disfigured
by sore eyes caused by the smoky atmosphere of the huts. They
wear a head-dress, trimmed with glass jewels, forming a hood
behind stiffened with metal. On their breasts they carry a
breastplate formed of coins, small bells and copper disks.

See Smirinov, Mordres et Tcheremisses (Paris, 1895); J. Aber-
cromby, Pre- arid Proto-historic Finns (London, 1898).

CHERIBON, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
Indies, bounded S. and W. by the Preanger regencies, N.W. by
Krawang, N. by the Java Sea, and E. by the residencies of Tegal
andBanyumas. Pop.(i897) i, 577, 521, including867 Europeans,
2 1 , 108 Chinese, and 2016 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The
natives consist of Middle Javanese in the north and Sundanese
in the south. Cheribon has been for many centuries the centre
of Islamism in western Java, and is also the seat of a fanatical
Mahommedan sect controlled from Mecca. The native population
is on the whole orderly and prosperous. The northern half of the
residency is flat and marshy in places, especially in the north-
western corner, while the southern half is mountainous. In the
middle stands the huge volcano Cherimai, clad with virgin
forest and coffee plantations, and surrounded at its foot by rice
fields. South-south-west of Cherimai on the Preanger border is
the Sawal volcano, at whose foot is the beautiful Penjalu lake.
Sulphur and salt springs occur on the slopes of Cherimai, and
near Palimanan there is a cavernous hole called Guwagalang (or
Payagalang), which exhales carbonic acid gas, and is considered
holy by the natives and guarded by priests. There is a similar
hole Li the Preanger. The principal products of cultivation are
sugar, coffee, rice and also tea and pulse (rachang),.the planta-
tions being for the most part owned by Europeans. The chief
towns are Cheribon, a seaport and capital of the residency, the
seaport of Indramaya, Palimanan, Majalengka, Kuningan and
Chiamis. Cheribon has a good open roadstead. The town is
very old and irregularly built, and the climate is unhealthy;
nevertheless it has a lively export trade hi sugar and coffee and
is a regular port of call. In 1008 the two descendants of the old
sultans of Cheribon still resided there in their respective Kratons
or palaces, and each received an annual income of over £1500 for
the loss of his privileges. A country residence belonging to one
of the sultans is situated close to Cheribon and is much visited
on account of its fantastic architecture. Indramaya was a
considerable trading place in the days of the early Portuguese
and Dutch traders. Kuningan is famous for a breed of small
but strong horses.

CHERKASY (Polish, Czerkasy) , a town of Russia, in the
government of Kiev, 96 m. S.E. of Kiev, on the right bank of the
Dnieper. Pop. (1883) 15,740; (1897) 26,619. The inhabitants
(Little Russians) are mostly employed in agriculture and garden-
ing; but sugar and tobacco are manufactured and spirits distilled.
Cherkasy was an important town of the Ukraine in the isth
century, and remained so, under Polish rule, until the revolt
of the Cossack hetman Chmielnicki (1648). It was annexed by
Russia in 1795.

CHERNIGOV, a government of Little Russia, on the left bank
of the Dnieper, bounded by the governments of Mogilev and
Smolensk on the N., Orel and Kursk on the E., Poltava on the
S., and Kiev and Minsk on the W. Area, 20,233 SQ- m- Its
surface is an undulating plain, 650 to 750 ft. high in the north
and 370 to 600 ft. in the south, deeply grooved by ravines and
the valleys of the rivers. In the north, beyond the Desna river,
about one-third of the area is under forest (rapidly disappearing),
and marshes occur along the courses of the rivers; while to the
south of the Desna the soil is dry and sometimes sandy, and
gradually it assumes the characters of a steppe-land as one
proceeds southward. The government is drained by the Dnieper,
which forms its western boundary for 180 m., and by its tributary
the Desna. The latter, which flows through Chernigov for
nearly 350 m., is navigable, and timber is brought down its
tributaries. The climate is much colder in the wooded tracts
of the north than in the south; the average yearly temperature
at the city of Chernigov is 44-4° F. (January, 23°; July 68-5°).

The population reached 1,996,250 in 1883, 2,316,818 in 1897,

CHERNIGOV— CHERRY

and 2,746,300 (estimate) in 1906. It is chiefly Little Russian
(85-6%); but Great Russians (6-1%), mostly Raskolniks,
i.e. nonconformists, and White Russians (5-6%) inhabit the
northern districts. There are, besides, some Germans, as well
as Greeks, at Nyezhin. Agriculture is the principal occupation;
in the north, however, many of the inhabitants are engaged in
the timber trade, and in the production of tar, pitch, wooden
wares, leather goods and so forth. Cattle-breeding is carried
on in the central districts. Beet is extensively cultivated. The
cultivation of tobacco is increasing. Hemp is widely grown in
the north, and the milder climate of the south encourages
gardening. Bee-keeping is extensively carried on by the Raskol-
niks. Limestone, grindstones, china-clay and building-stone
are quarried. Manufactures have begun to develop rapidly of
late, the most important being sugar-works, distilleries, cloth-
mills and glass-works. The government is divided into fifteen
districts, their chief towns being Chernigov (<?.».), Borzna (pop.
12,458 in 1897), Glukhov (14,856), Gorodnya (4197), Konotop
(23,083), Kozelets (5160), Krolevets (10,375), Mglin (7631),
Novgorod-Syeversk (9185), Novozybkov (15,480), Nyezhin
(32,481), Oster (5384), Sosnitsa (2507), Starodub (12,451) and
Surazh (4004).

CHERNIGOV, a town of Russia, capital of the above govern-
ment, on the right bank of the Desna, nearly half a mile
from the river, 141 m. by rail N.E. of Kiev on a branch line.
Pop. (1897) 27,006. It is an archiepiscopal see and possesses a
cathedral of the nth century. In 907 the city is mentioned
in the treaty of Oleg as next in importance to Kiev, and in the
nth century it became the capital of the principality of Syeversk
and an important commercial city. The Mongol invasion put
an end to its prosperity in 1239. Lithuania annexed it in the
I4th century, but it was soon seized by Poland, which held it until
the 1 7th century. In 1686 it was definitely annexed to Russia.

CHEROKEE (native Tsalagi, " cave people "), a tribe of North
American Indians of Iroquoian stock. Next to the Navaho they
are the largest tribe in the United States and live mostly in
Oklahoma (formerly Indian territory). Before their removal
they possessed a large tract of country now distributed among
the states of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Tennessee and the
west of Florida. Their chief divisions were then settled around
the head-waters of the Savannah and Tennessee rivers, and
were distinguished as the Elati Tsalagi or Lower Cherokees,
i.e. those in the plains, and Atali Tsalagi or Upper Cherokees,
i.e. those on the mountains. They were further divided into
seven exogamous clans. Fernando de Soto travelled through
their country in 1540, and during the next three centuries they
were important factors in the history of the south. They
attached themselves to the English in the disputes and contests
which arose between the European colonizers, formally recog-
nized the English king in 1730, and in 1755 ceded a part of
their territory and permitted the erection of English forts.
Unfortunately this amity was interrupted not long after;
but peace was again restored in 1761. When the revolutionary
war broke out they sided with the royalist party. This led
to their subjugation by the new republic, and they had to
surrender that part of their lands which lay to the south of the
Savannah and east of the Chattahoochee. Peace was made in
1781, and in 1785 they recognized the supremacy of the United
States and were confirmed in their possessions. In 1820 they
adopted a civilized form of government, and in 1827, as a
" Nation," a formal constitution. The gradual advance of white
immigration soon led to disputes with the settlers, who desired
their removal, and exodus after exodus took place; a small part
of the tribe agreed (1835) to remove to another district, but
the main body remained. An appeal was made by them to
the United States government; but President Andrew Jackson
refused to interfere. A force of 2000 men, under the command
of General Winfield Scott, was sent in 1838, and the Cherokees
were compelled to emigrate to their present position. After
the settlement various disagreements between the eastern and
western Cherokees continued for some time, but in 1839 a union
was effected. In the Civil War they all at first sided with the

South; but before long a strong party joined the North, and
this led to a disastrous internecine struggle. On the close of the
contest they were confirmed in the possession of their territory,
but were forced to give a portion of their lands to their eman-
cipated slaves. Their later history is mainly a story of hopeless
struggle to maintain their tribal independence against the white
man. In 1892 they sold their western territory known as the
" Cherokee outlet." Until 1906, when tribal government
virtually ceased, the " nation " had an elected chief, a senate and
house of representatives. Many of them have become Christians,
schools have been established and there is a tribal press. Those
in Oklahoma still number some 26,000, though most are of mixed
blood. A group, known as the Eastern Band, some 1400 strong,
are on a reservation in North Carolina. Their language consists
of two dialects — a third, that of the " Lower " branch, having
been lost. The syllabic alphabet invented in 1821 by George
Guess (Sequoyah) is the character employed.

See also Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907);
T. V. Parker, Cherokee Indians (N. Y., 1909) ; and INDIANS, NORTH
AMERICAN.

CHEROOT, or SHEROOT (from the Tamil word " shuruttu,"
a roll), a cigar made from tobacco grown in southern India and
the Philippine Islands. It was once esteemed very highly for
its delicate flavour. A cheroot differs from other cigars in having
both ends cut square, instead of one being pointed, and one end
considerably larger than the other.

CHERRAPUNJI, a village in the Khasi hills district of Assam.
It is notable as having the heaviest known rainfall in the world.
In 1861 it registered a total of 905 in., and its annual average
is 458 in. This excessive rainfall is caused by the fact that
Cherrapunji stands on the edge of the plateau overlooking the
plains of Bengal, where it catches the full force of the monsoon
as it rises from the sea. There is a good coal-seam in the vicinity.

CHERRY. As a cultivated fruit-tree the cherry is generally
supposed to be of Asiatic origin, whence, according to Pliny, it
was brought to Italy by Lucullus after his defeat of Mithradates,
king of Pontus, 68 B.C. As with most plants which have been
long and extensively cultivated, it is a matter of difficulty, if not
an impossibility, to identify the parent stock of the numerous
cultivated varieties of cherry; but they are generally referred
to two species: Prunus Cerasus, the wild or dwarf cherry, the
origin of the morello, duke and Kentish cherries, and P. Avium,
the gean, the origin of the geans, hearts and bigarreaus. Both
species grow wild through Europe and western Asia to the
Himalayas, but the dwarf cherry has the more restricted range
of the two in Britain, as it does not occur in Scotland and is rare
in Ireland. The cherries form a section Cerasus of the genus
Prunus; and they have sometimes been separated as a distinct
genus from the plums proper; both have a stone-fruit or drupe,
but the drupe of the cherry differs from that of the plum in not
having a waxy bloom ; further, the leaves of the plum are rolled
(convolute) in the bud, while those of the cherry are folded (con-
duplicate).

The cherries are trees of moderate size and shrubs, having
smooth, serrate leaves and white flowers. They are natives
of the temperate regions of both hemispheres; and the cultivated
varieties ripen their fruit in Norway as far as 63° N. The geans
are generally distinguished from the common cherry by the
greater size of the trees, and the deeper colour and comparative
insipidity of the flesh in the ripe fruit, which adheres firmly
to the " nut " or stone; but among the very numerous cultivated
varieties specific distinctions shade away so that the fruit
cannot be ranged under these two heads. The leading varieties
are recognized as bigarreaus, dukes, morellos and geans. Several
varieties are cultivated as ornamental trees and on account
of their flowers.

The cherry is a well-flavoured sub-acid fruit, and is much
esteemed for dessert. Some of the varieties are particularly
selected for pies, tarts, &c., and others for the preparation of
preserves, and for making cherry brandy. The fruit is also very
extensively employed in the preparation of the liqueurs known
as kirschwasser, ratafia and maraschino. Kirschwasser is made

CHERRYVALE— CHERSO

chiefly on the upper Rhine from the wild black gean, and in
the manufacture the entire fruit-flesh and kernels are pulped up
and allowed to ferment. By distillation of the fermented pulp
the liqueur is obtained in a pure, colourless condition. Ratafia
is similarly manufactured, also by preference from a gean.
Maraschino, a highly valued liqueur, the best of which is produced
at Zara in Dalmatia, differs from these in being distilled from
a cherry called marasca, the pulp of which is mixed with honey,
honey or sugar being added to the distillate for sweetening.
It is also said that the flavour is heightened by the use of the
leaves of the perfumed cherry, Primus Mahaleb, a native of
central and southern Europe. .

The wood of the cherry tree is valued by cabinetmakers,
and that of the gean tree is largely used in the manufacture
of tobacco pipes. The American wild cherry, Prunus serotina,
is much sought after, its wood being compact, fine-grained, not
liable to warp, and susceptible of receiving a brilliant polish.
The kernels of the perfumed cherry, P. Mahaleb, are used in
confectionery and for scent. A gum exudes from the stem of
cherry trees similar in its properties to gum arable.

The cherry is increased by budding on the wild gean, obtained
by sowing the stones of the small black or red wild cherries. To
secure very dwarf trees the Prunus Mahaleb has been used for
the May duke, Kentish, morello and analogous sorts, but it is
not adapted for strong-growing varieties like the bigarreaus.
The stocks are budded, or, more rarely, grafted, at the usual
seasons. The cherry prefers a free, loamy soil, with a well-
drained subsoil. Stiff soils and diy gravelly subsoils are both
unsuitable, though the trees require a large amount of moisture,
particularly the large-leaved sorts, such as the bigarreaus. For
standard trees, the bigarreau section should be planted 30 ft.
apart, or more, in rich soil, and the May duke, morello and
similar varieties 20 or 25 ft. apart; while, as trained trees against
walls and espaliers, from 20 to 24 ft. should be allowed for the
former, and from 1 5 to 20 ft. for the latter! In forming the stems
of a standard tree the temporary side-shoots should not be
allowed to attain too great a length, and should not be more
than two years old when they are cut close to the stem. The
first three shoots retained to form the head should be shortened
to about 15 in., and two shoots from each encouraged, one at the
end, and the other 3 or 4 in. lower down. When these have
become established, very little pruning will be required, and
that chiefly to keep the principal branches as nearly equal in
strength as possible for the first few years. Espalier trees
should have the branches about a foot apart, starting from the
stem with an upward curve, and then being trained horizontally.
In summer pruning the shoots on the upper branches must be
shortened at least a week before those on the lower ones. After
a year or two clusters of fruit buds will be developed on spurs
along the branches, and those spurs will continue productive
for an indefinite period. For wall trees any form of training
may be adopted; but as the fruit is always finest on young
spurs, fan-training is probably the most advantageous. A
succession of young shoots should be laid in every year. The
morello, which is of twiggy growth and bears on the young wood,
must be trained in the fan form, and care should be taken to
avoid the very common error of crowding its branches.

Forcing. — The cherry will not endure a high temperature nor
close atmosphere. A heat of 45° at night will be sufficient at
starting, this being gradually increased during the first few
weeks to 55°, but lowered again when the blossom buds are about
to open. After stoning the temperature may be again gradually
raised to 60°, and may go up to 70° by day, or 75° by sun heat,
and 60° at night. The best forcing cherries are the May duke
and the royal duke, the duke cherries being of more compact
growth than the bigarreau tribe and generally setting better;
nevertheless a few of the larger kinds, such as bigarreau Napoleon,
black tartarian and St Margaret's, should be forced for variety.
The trees may be either planted out in tolerably rich soil, or
grown in large pots of good turfy friable calcareous loam mixed
with rotten dung. If the plants are small, they may be put into
12-in. pots in the first instance, and after a year shifted into

iS-in. pots early in autumn, and plunged in some loose or even
very slightly fermenting material. The soil of the pots should
be protected from suow-showers and cold rains. Occasionally
trees have been taken up in autumn with balls, potted and
forced in the following spring; but those which have been
established a year in the pots are to be preferred. Such only as
are well furnished with blossom-buds should be selected. The
trees should be removed to the forcing house in the beginning
of December, if fruit be required very early in the season. During
the first and second weeks it may be kept nearly close; but, as
vegetation advances, air becomes absolutely necessary during
the day, and even at night when the weather will permit. If
forcing is commenced about the middle or third week of December,
the fruit ought to be ripe by about the end of March. After the
fruit is gathered, the trees should be duly supplied with water
at the root, and the foliage kept well syringed till the wood is
mature. (See also FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING.)

CHERRYVALE, a city of Montgomery county, Kansas, U.S.A.,
about 140 m. S.S.E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 2104; (1900)
3472, including 180 negroes; (1905, stats census) 5089; (1910)
4304. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Sania Fe, and the
main line and a branch (of which it is a terminus) of the St Louis
& San Francisco railways. It is in a farming district and in the
Kansas natural-gas and oil-field, and has large zinc smelters, an
oil refinery, and various manufactures, including vitrified brick,
flour, glass, cement and ploughs. Cherryvale was laid out in
1871 by the Kansas City, Lawrence & South Kansas Railway
Company (later absorbed by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6).
The mam part of the town was destroyed by fire ia 1873, but
was soon rebuilt, and in 1880 Cherryvale became a city of the
third and afterwards of the second class. Natural gas, which
is used as a factory fuel and for street and domestic lighting,
was found here in 1889, and oil several years later.

CHERRY VALLEY, a village of Otsego county, New York,
U.S.A., in a township of the same name, 68 m. N.W. of Albany.
Pop. (1890) 685; (1900) 772; (1905) 746; (1910)792; of the
township (1910) 1706. It is served by the Delaware &
Hudson railway. Cherry Valley is in the centre of a rich farming
and dairying region, has a chair factory, and is a summer resort
with sulphur and lithia springs. It was the scene of a terrible
massacre during the War of Independence. The village was
attacked on the nth of November 1778 by Walter Butler
(d. 1781) and Joseph Brant with a force of 800 Indians and Tories,
who killed about 50 men, women and children, sacked and
burned most of the houses, and carried off more than 70 prisoners,
who were subjected to the greatest cruelties and privations,
many of them dying or being tomahawked before the Canadian
settlements were reached. Cherry Valley was incorporated
in 1812.

CHERSIPHRON, a Cretan architect, the traditional builder
(with his son Metagenes) of the great Ionic temple of Artemis
at Ephesus set up by the Greeks in the 6th century. Some
remains of this temple were found by J. T. Wood and brought
to the British Museum. In connexion with the pillars, which
are adorned with archaic reliefs, a fragmentary inscription has
been found, recording that they were presented by King Croesus,
as indeed Herodotus informs us. This temple was burned on
the day on which Alexander the Great was born.

CHERSO, an island in the Adriatic Sea, off the east coast
of Istria, from which it is separated by the channel of Farasina.
Pop. (1900) 8274. It is situated in the Gulf of Quarnero, and is
connected with the island of Lussin, lying on the S.W. by a
turn bridge over the small channel of Ossero, and with the
island of Veglia, lying on the E. by the Canale di Mezzo. These
three are the principal islands of the Quarnero group, and form
together the administrative district of Lussin in the Austrian
crownland of Istria. Cherso is an elongated island about 40 m.
long, i \ to 7 m. wide, and has an area of 150 sq. m. It is traversed
by a range of mountains, which attain in the peak of Syss an
altitude of 2090 ft. and form natural terraces, planted with vines
and olive trees, specially in the middle and southern parts of
the island. The northern part is covered with bushes of laurel

86

CHERSONESE— CHERUBIM

and mastic, but there are scarcely any large trees. There is a
scarcity of springs, and the bouses are generally furnished with
cisterns for rain water. In the centre of the island is an interesting
lake called the Vrana or Crow's Lake, situated at an altitude of
40 ft. above the level of the sea, 3$ m. long, i m. wide and 184
ft. deep. This lake is in all probability fed by subterranean
sources. The chief town of the island is Cherso, situated on
the west coast. It possesses a good harbour and is provided
with a shipwright's wharf.

CHERSONESE, CHERSONESUS, or CHERRONESUS (Gr. xv0'05!
dry, and vrjtros, island), a word equivalent to " peninsula."
In ancient geography the Chersonesus Thracica, Chersonesus
Taurica or Scythica, and Chersonesus Cimbrica correspond to
the peninsulas of the Dardanelles, the Crimea and Jutland; and
the Golden Chersonese is usually identified with the peninsula
of Malacca. The Tauric Chersonese was further distinguished
as the Great, in contrast to the Heracleotic or Little Chersonese
at its S.W. corner, where Sevastopol now stands.

The Tauric Chersonese1 (from and century A.D. called
Cherson) was a Dorian colony of Heraclea in Bithynia, founded
in the 5th century B.C. in the Crimea about 2 m. S. of the
modern Sevastopol. After defending itself against the kingdom
of Bosporus (<?.?'.), and the native Scythians and Tauri, and even
extending its power over the west coast of the peninsula, it
was compelled to call in the aid of Mithradates VI. and hy>
general Diophantus, c. no B.C., and submitted to the Pontic
dynasty. On regaining a nominal independence, it came more
or less under the Roman suzerainty. In the latter part of the
ist century A.D., and again in the succeeding century, it received
a Roman garrison and suffered much interference in its internal
affairs. In the time of Constantine, in return for assistance
against the Bosporans and the native tribes, it regained its
autonomy and received special privileges. It must, however,
have been subject to the Byzantine authorities, as inscriptions
testify to restorations of its walls by Byzantine officials. Under
Theophilus the central government sent out a governor to take
the place of the elected magistrate. Even so it seems to have
preserved a measure of self-government and may be said to
have been the last of the Greek city states. Its ruin was brought
about by the commercial rivalry of the Genoese, who forbade
the Greeks to trade there and diverted its commerce to Caffa
and Sudak. Previous to this it had been the main emporium
of Byzantine commerce upon the N. coast of the Euxine.
Through it went the communications of the empire with the
Petchenegs and other native tribes, and more especially with
the Russians. The commerce of Cherson is guaranteed in the
early treaties between the Greeks and Russians, and it was in
Cherson, according to Ps. Nestor's chronicle, that Vladimir was
baptized in 988 after he had captured the city. The constitution
of the city was at first democratic under Damiorgi, a senate and
a general assembly. Latterly it appears to have become aristo-
cratic, and most of the power was concentrated in the hands of
the first archon or Proteuon, who in time was superseded by
the strategus sent out from Byzantium. Its most interesting
political document is the form of oath sworn to by all the citizens
in the 3rd century B.C.

The remains of the city occupy a space about two-thirds of a
mile long by half a mile broad. They are enclosed by a Byzantine
wall. Foundations and considerable remains of a Greek wall
going back to the 4th century B.C. have been found beneath
this in the eastern or original part of the site. Many Byzantine
churches, both cruciform and basilican, have been excavated.
The latter survived here into the I3th century when they had
long been extinct in other Greek-speaking lands. The churches
were adorned with frescoes, wall and floor mosaics, some well
preserved, and marble carvings similar to work found at Ravenna.
The fact that the site has not been inhabited since the I4th
century makes it important for our knowledge of Byzantine
life. The city was used by the Romans as a place of banishment :
St Clement of Rome was exiled hither and first preached the

1 In Pliny " Heraclea Chersonesus," probably owing to a confusion
with the name of the mother city.

Gospel; another exile was Justinian II., who is said to have
destroyed the city in revenge. We have a considerable series
of coins from the 3rd century B.C. to about A.D. 200, and also
some of Byzantine date.

See B. Koehne, Beitr&ge zur Geschichte von Cherronesus in Taurien
(St Petersburg, 1848) ; art. " Chersonesos " (20) by C. G. Brandis in
Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopiidie, vol. iii. 221; A. A. Bobrinskoj,
Chersonesus Taurica (St Petersburg, 1905) (Russian); V. V. Laty-
shev, Inscrr. Orae Septentr. Ponti Euxini,\o\s. i. and iv. Reports of ex-
cavations appear in the Compte rendu of the Imperial Archaeological
Commission of St Petersburg from 1888 and in its Bulletin. See
E. H. Minns, Scythians and Greeks (Cambridge, 1907). (E. H. M.)

CHERTSEY, a market town in the Chertsey parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 22 m. W.S.W. from London by
the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 12,762. It is pleasantly situated on the right bank of
the Thames, which is crossed by a bridge of seven arches, built
of Purbeck stone in 1785. The parish church, rebuilt in 1808,
contains a tablet to Charles James Fox, who resided at St
Anne's Hill in the vicinity, and another to Lawrence Tomson, a
translator of the New Testament in the I7th century. Hardly
any remains are left of a great Benedictine abbey, whose buildings
at one time included an area of 4 acres. They fell into almost
complete decay in the I7th century, and a "fair house" was
erected out of the ruins by Sir Nicholas Carew of Beddington.
The ground-plan can be traced; the fish-ponds are complete;
and carved stones, coffins and encaustic tiles of a peculiar
manufacture are frequently exhumed. Among the abbots the
most famous was John de Rutherwyk, who was appointed in
1307, and continued, till his death in 1346, to carry on a great
system of alteration and extension, which almost made the abbey
a new building. The house in which the poet Cowley spent the
last years of his life remains, and the chamber in which he
died is preserved unaltered. The town is the centre of a large
residential district. Its principal trade is in produce for the
London markets.

The first religious settlement in Surrey, a Benedictine abbey,
was founded in 666 at Chertsey (Cerotesei, Certesey), the manor
of which belonged to the abbot until 1 539, since when it has been
a possession of the crown. In the reign of Edward the Confessor
Chertsey was a large village and was made the head of Godley
hundred. The increase of copyhold under Abbot John de
Rutherwyk led to discontent, the tenants in 1381 rising and
burning the rolls. Chertsey owed its importance primarily to
the abbey, but partly to its geographical position. Ferries over
the Redewynd were subjects of royal grant in 1340 and 1399;
the abbot built a new bridge over the Bourne in 1333, and
wholly maintained the bridge over the Thames when it replaced
the i4_th century ferry. In 1410 the king gave permission to
build a bridge over the Redewynd. As the centre of an agri-
cultural district the markets of Chertsey were important and are
still held. Three days' fairs were granted to the abbots in 1129
for the feast of St Peter ad Vincula by Henry III. for Holy Rood
day; in 1282 for Ascension day; and a market on Mondays
was obtained in 1282. In 1590 there were many poor, for whose
relief Elizabeth gave a fair for a day in Lent and a market on
Thursdays. These fairs still survive.

See Lucy Wheeler, Chertsey Abbey (London, 1905); Victoria
County History, Surrey.

CHERUBIM, the Hebrew plural of "cherub" (kgrOb),
imaginary winged animal figures of a sacred character, referred
to in the description of Solomon's temple (i Kings vi. 23-35,
vii. 29, viii. 6, 7), and also in that of the ark of the tabernack
(Ex. xxv. 18-22, xxvi. i, 31, xxxvii. 7-9). The cherub-images,
where such occur, represent to the imagination the supernatural
bearers of Yahweh's throne or chariot, or the guardians of His
abode; the cherub-carvings at least symbolize His presence,
and communicate some degree of His sanctity. In Gen. iii. 24
the cherubim are the guards of Paradise; Ezek. xxviii. 14, 16
cannot be mentioned here, the text being corrupt. We also find
(i Sam. iv. 4; 2 Sam. vi. 2) as a divine title " that sitteth upon
the cherubim"; here it is doubted whether the cherubim are
the material ones in the temple, or those which faith assumes and

CHERUBINI

87

the artist tries to represent — the supernatural steeds upon which
Yahweh issues forth to interfere in human affairs. In a poetic
theophany (Ps. xviii. 10) we find " upon a cherub " parallel to
"upon the wings of the wind" (cp. Isa. xix. i; Ps. civ. 3).
One naturally infers from this that the " cherub " was sometimes
viewed as a bird. For the clouds, mythologically, are birds.
" The Algonkins say that birds always make the winds, that they
create the waterspouts, and that the clouds are the spreading
and agitation of their wings." " The Sioux say that the thunder
is the sound of the cloud-bird flapping his wings." If so, Ps. xviii.
10 is a solitary trace of the archaic view of the cherub. The
bird, however, was probably a mythic, extra-natural bird. At
any rate the cherub was suggested by and represents the storm-
cloud, just as the sword in Gen. iii. 24 corresponds to the lightning.
In Ezek. i. the four visionary creatures are expressly connected
with a storm-wind, and a bright cloud (ver. 4). Elsewhere
(xli. 18) the cherub has two faces (a man's and a bird's), but
in i. 10 and x. 14 each cherub has four faces, a view tastefully
simplified in the Johannine Apocalypse (Rev. iv. 7).

It is best, however, to separate Ezekiel from other writers,
since he belongs to what may be called a great mythological
revival. Probably his cherubim are a modification of older
ones, which may well have been of a more sober type. His own
accounts, as we have seen, vary. Probably the cherub has
passed through several phases. There was a mythic bird-cherub,
and then perhaps a winged animal-form, analogous to the winged
figures of bulls and lions with human faces which guarded
Babylonian and Assyrian temples and palaces. Another analogy
is furnished by the winged genii represented as fertilizing the
sacred tree — the date-palm (Tylor); here the body is human,
though the face is sometimes that of an eagle. It is perhaps even
more noteworthy that figures thought to be cherubs have been
found at Zenjirli, within the ancient North Syrian kingdom of
Ya'di (see Jeremias, Das Alte Testament im Lichte des Allen
Orients, pp. 350 f.); we may combine this with the fact that one
of the great gods of this kingdom was called Rakab'el or Rekub'el
(also perhaps Rakab or Rekub). A Sabaean (S. Arabian)
name Karab'el also exists. The kerubim might perhaps be
symbolic representatives of the god Rakab'el or Rekub'el,
probably equivalent to Hadad, whose sacred animal was the bull.
That the figures symbolic of Rakab or Hadad were compounded
or amalgamated by the Israelites with those symbolic of Nergal
(the lion-god) and Ninib (the eagle-god), is not surprising.

See further " Cherubim," in Ency. Bib. and Hast. D.B.; Cheyne,
Genesis; Tylor, Proc. Sac. Bibl. Arch. xii. 383 ff. ; Zimmern, Die
Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, pp. 529 f., 631 f. ; Dibelius,
Die Lade Jahves (1906), pp. 72-86. (T. K. C.)

CHERUBINI, MARIA LUIGI CARLO ZENOBIO SALVATORE

(1760-1842), Italian musical composer, was born at Florence
on the I4th of September 1760, and died on the isth of March
1842 in Paris. His father was accompanist (Maestro al Cembalo)
at the Pergola theatre. Cherubini himself, in the preface of his
autograph catalogue of his own works, states, " I began to learn
music at six and composition at nine, the former from my father,
the latter from Bartolomeo and Alessandro Felici, and, after
their death, from Bizzarri and J Castrucci." By the time he
was sixteen he had composed a great deal of church music, and
in 1777 he went to Bologna, where for four years he studied under
Sarti. This deservedly famous master well earned the gratitude
which afterwards impelled Cherubini to place one of his double
choruses by the side of his own Et Vitam Venturi as the crown
of his Treatise on Counterpoint and Fugue, though the juxta-
position is disastrous for Sarti. But besides grounding Cherubini
in the church music for which he had early shown so special a
bent, Sarti also trained him in dramatic composition; some-
times, like the great masters of painting, entrusting his pupil
with minor parts of his own works. From 1780 onwards for the
next fourteen years dramatic music occupied Cherubini almost
entirely. His first complete opera, Quinto Fabio, was produced
in 1780, and was followed in 1782 by Armida, Adriano in Siria,
and other works. Between 1782 and 1784 the successful pro-
duction of five operas in four different towns must have secured

Cherubini a dignified position amongst his Italian contemporaries;
and in 1784 he was invited to London to produce two works for
the Italian opera there, one of which, La Finta Frincipessa, was
favourably received, while the other, Giulio Sabino, was, accord-
ing to a contemporary witness, " murdered " by the critics.

In 1786 he left London for Paris, which became his home after
a visit to Turin in 1787-1788 on the occasion of the production
there of his Ifigenia in Aulide. With Cherubini, as with some
other composers first trained in a school where the singer reigned
supreme, the influence of the French dramatic sensibility proved
decisive, and his first French opera, Dtmophon (1788), though
not a popular success, already marks a departure from the
Italian style, which Cherubini still cultivated in the pieces he
introduced into the works of Anfossi, Paisiello and Cimarosa,
produced by him as director of the Italian opera in Paris (estab-
lished in 1789). As in Paris Gluck realized his highest ambitions,
and even Rossini awoke to a final effort of something like dra-
matic life in Guittaume Tell, so in Paris Cherubini became a
great composer. If his melodic invention had been as warm as
Gluck's, his immensely superior technique in every branch of
the art would have made him one of the greatest composers that
ever lived. But his personal character shows in quaint exaggera-
tion the same asceticism that in less sour and more negative
form deprives even his finest music of the glow of that lofty
inspiration that fears nothing.

With Lodoiska (1791) the series of Cherubini's masterpieces
begins, and by the production of Medee (1797) his reputation was
firmly established. The success of this sombre classical tragedy,
which shows Cherubini's genius in its full power, is an honour to
the Paris public. If Cherubini had known how to combine his
high ideals with an urbane tolerance of the opinions of persons of
inferior taste, the severity of his music would not have prevented
his attaining the height of prosperity. But Napoleon Bonaparte
irritated him by an enthusiasm for the kind of Italian music
against which his whole career, from the time he became Sarti's
pupil, was a protest. When Cherubini said to Napoleon, " Citoyen
General, I perceive that you love only that music which does not
prevent you thinking of your politics," he may perhaps have been
as firmly convinced of his own conciliatory manner as he was
when many years afterwards he " spared the feelings " of a
musical candidate by " delicately " telling him that he had " a
beautiful voice and great musical intelligence, but was too ugly for
a public singer." Napoleon seems to have disliked opposition in
music as in other matters, and the academic offices held by
Cherubini under him were for many years far below his deserts.
But though Napoleon saw no reason to conceal his dislike of
Cherubini, his appointment of Lesueur in 1804 as his chapel-
master must not be taken as an evidence of his hostility. Lesueur
was not a great genius, but, although recommended for the post
by the retiring chapelmaster, Paesiello (one of Napoleon's
Italian favourites), he was a very meritorious and earnest
Frenchman whom the appointment saved from starvation.
Cherubini's creative genius was never more brilliant than at this
period, as the wonderful two-act ballet, Anacreon, shows; but
his temper and spirits were not improved by a series of dis-
appointments which culminated in the collapse of his prospects of
congenial success at Vienna, where he went in 1805 in compliance
with an invitation to compose an opera for the Imperial theatre.
Here he produced, under the title of Der Wassertrager, the great
work which, on its first production on the 7th of January 1801
(26 Nivdse, An 8) as Les Deux JournSes, had thrilled Paris with the
accents of a humanity restored to health and peace. It was
by this time an established favourite in Austria. On the 2$th
of February Cherubini produced Faniska, but the war between
Austria and France had broken out immediately after his
arrival, and public interest in artistic matters was checked by
the bombardment and capitulation of Vienna. Though the
meeting between Cherubim and the victorious Napoleon was
not very friendly, he was called upon to direct the music at
Napoleon's soirees at Schonbrunn. But this had not been his
object in coming to Vienna, and he soon returned to a retired
and gloomy life in Paris.

CHERUBINI

His stay at Vienna is memorable for his intercourse with
Beethoven, who had a profound admiration for him which he
could neither realize nor reciprocate. It is too much to expect
that the mighty genius of Beethoven, which broke through all
rules in vindication of the principles underlying them, would
be comprehensible to a mind like Cherubini's, in which, while
the creative faculties were finely developed, the critical faculty
was atrophied and its place supplied by a mere disciplinary
code inadequate even as a basis for the analysis of his own
works. On the other hand, it would be impossible to exaggerate
the influence Les Deux Journees had on the lighter parts of
Beethoven's Fidelia^ Cherubini's librettist was also the author
of the libretto from which Fidelia was adapted, and Cherubini's
score was a constant object of Beethoven's study, not only
before the production of the first version of Fidelia as Leonore,
but also throughout Beethoven's life. Cherubini's record of
his impressions of Beethoven as a man is contained in the
single phrase, " II 6tait toujours brusque," which at least shows
a fine freedom from self-consciousness on the part of the man
whose only remark on being told of the death of Brod, the famous
oboist, was, " Ah, he hadn't much tone " (" Ah, petit son ").
Of the overture to Leonore Cherubini only remarked that he
could not tell what key it was in, and of Beethoven's later
style he observed, " It makes me sneeze." Beethoven's brusque-
ness, notorious as it was, did not prevent him from assuring
Cherubini that he considered him the greatest composer of the
age and that he loved him and honoured him. In 1806 Haydn
had just sent out his pathetic " visiting card " announcing that
he was past work; Weber was still sowing wild oats, and Schubert
was only nine years old. We need not, then, be surprised at
Beethoven's judgment. And though we must regret that
Cherubini's disposition prevented him from understanding
Beethoven, it would be by no means true to say that he was
uninfluenced at least by the sheer grandeur of the scale which
Beethoven had by that time established as the permanent
standard for musical art. Grandeur of proportion was, in fact,
eminently characteristic of both composers, and the colossal
structure of such a movement as the duet Perfides ennemis in
MM.ee is almost inconceivable without the example of Beethoven's
C minor trio, op. i, No. 3, published two years before it; while
the cavatina Eterno iddio in Faniska is not only worthy of
Beethoven but surprisingly like him in style.

After Cherubini's disappointing visit to Vienna he divided
his time between teaching at the conservatoire and cutting up
playing-cards into figures and landscapes, which he framed and
placed round the walls of his study. Not until 1809 was he
aroused from this morbid indolence. He was staying in retire-
ment at the country seat of the prince de Chimay, and his
friends begged him to write some music for the consecration of
a church there. After persistent refusals he suddenly surprised
them with a mass in F for three-part chorus and orchestra.
With this work the period of his great church music may be said
to begin; although it was by no means the end of his career
as an opera writer, which, in fact, lasted as late as his seventy-
third year. This third period is also marked by some not un-
important instrumental compositions. An early event in the
annals of the Philharmonic Society was his invitation to London
in 1815 to produce a symphony, an overture and a vocal piece.
The symphony (hi D) was afterwards arranged with a new slow
movement as the string quartet in C (1829), a fact which, taken
in connexion with the large scale of the work, illustrates Cheru-
bini's deficient sense of style in chamber music. Nevertheless all
the six string quartets written between 1814 and 1837 are
interesting works performed with success at the present day,
though the last three, discovered hi 1889, are less satisfactory
than the earlier ones. The requiem hi C minor (1817) caused
Beethoven to declare that if he himself ever wrote a requiem
Cherubini's would be his model.

At the eleventh hour Cherubini received recognition from
Napoleon, who, during the Hundred Days, made him chevalier of
the Legion of Honour. Then, with the restoration of the Bour-
bons, the very fact that Cherubini had not been persona grata

with Napoleon brought him honour and emoluments. He
was appointed, jointly with Lesueur, as composer and conductor
to the Chapel Royal, and in 1822 he obtained the permanent
directorship of the conservatoire. This brought him into con-
tact, for the most part unfriendly, with all the most talented
musicians of the younger generation. It is improbable that
Berlioz would have been an easy subject for the wisest and
kindest of spiritual guides; but no influence, repellent or
attractive, could have been more disastrous for that passionate,
quick-witted and yet eminently puzzle-headed mixture of
Philistine and genius, than the crabbed old martinet whose
regulations forbade the students access to Gluck's scores in the
library, and whose only theory of art (as distinguished from his
practice) is accurately formulated in the following passage from
Berlioz's Grande Traitt de I' instrumentation et d' orchestration:
" It was no use for the modern composer to say, ' But do just
listen! See how smoothly this is introduced, how well motived,
how deftly connected with the context, and how splendid it
sounds 1' He was answered, 'That is not the point. This
modulation is forbidden; therefore it must hot be made.' "
The lack of really educative teaching, and the actual injustice
for which Cherubini's disciplinary methods were answerable,
did much to weaken Berlioz's at best ill-balanced artistic sense,
and it is highly probable that, but for the kindliness and com-
parative wisdom of his composition master, Lesueur, he would
have broken down from sheer lack of any influence which could
command the respect of an excitable youth starving hi the
pursuit of a fine art against the violent opposition of his family.
Only when Mendelssohn, at the age of seventeen, visited Paris
in 1825, did Cberubini startle every one by praising a young
composer to his face.

In 1833 Cherubini produced his last work for the stage, AH
Baba, adapted (with new and noisy features which excited
Mendelssohn's astonished disgust) from a manuscript opera,
Koukourgi, written forty years earlier. It is thus, perhaps, not
a fair illustration of the vigour of his old age; but the requiem
in D minor (for male voices), written in 1836, is one of his greatest
works, and, though not actually his last composition, is a worthy
close to the long career of an artist of high ideals who, while
neither by birth nor temperament a Frenchman, must yet be
counted with a still greater foreigner, Gluck, as the glory of
French classical music. In this he has no parallel except his
friend and contemporary, Mehul, to whom he dedicated Medie,
and who dedicated to him the beautiful Ossianic one-act opera
Uthal. The direct results of his teaching at the conservatoire
were the steady, though not as yet unhealthy, decline of French
opera into a lighter style, under the amiable and modest Boieldieu
and the irresponsible and witty Auber; for, as we have seen,
Cherubini was quite incapable of making his ideals intelligible
by any means more personal than his music; and the crude
grammatical rules which he mistook for the eternal principles
of his own and of all music had not the smallest use as a safeguard
against vulgarity and pretentiousness.

Lest the passage above quoted from Berlioz should be suspected
of bias or irrelevance, we cite a few phrases from Cherubini's
Treatise on Counterpoint and Fugue, of which, though the letter-
press is by his favourite pupil, Halevy, the musical examples
and doctrine are beyond suspicion his own. Concerning the
16th-century idiom, incorrectly but generally known as the
" changing note " (an idiom which to any musical scholar is as
natural as " attraction of the relative " is to a Greek scholar),
Cherubini remarks, " No tradition gives us any reason why the
classics thus faultily deviated from the rule." Again, he dis-
cusses the use of " suspensions " in a series of chords which
without them would contain consecutive fifths, and after making
all the observations necessary for the rational conclusion that
the question whether the fifths are successfully disguised or not
depends upon the beauty and force of the suspensions, he merely
remarks that " The opinion of the classics appears to me
erroneous, notwithstanding that custom has sanctioned it, for,
on the principle that the discord is a mere suspension of the
chord, it fhould not affect the nature of the chord. But since

CHERUEL — CHESHIRE

89

the classics have pronounced judgment we must of course
submit." In the whole treatise not one example is given from
Palestrina or any other master who handled as a living language
what are now the forms of contrapuntal discipline. As a dead
language Cherubini brought counterpoint up to date by abandon-
ing the church modes; but in true severity of principle, as
in educational stimulus, his treatise shows a deplorable falling
off from the standard set a hundred years before in Fux's Gradus
ad Parnassum with its delightful dialogues between master and
pupil and its continual appeal to artistic experience. Whatever
may have been Cherubini's success in imparting facility and
certainty to his light-hearted pupils who established 19th-century
French opera as a refuge from the terrors of serious art, there
can be no doubt that his career as a teacher did more harm than
good. In it the punishment drill of an incompetent schoolmaster
was invested with the authority of a great composer, and by it
the false antithesis between the " classical " and the " romantic "
was erected into a barrier which many critics still find an insuper-
able obstacle to the understanding of the classical spirit. And
yet as a composer Cherubini was no pseudo-classic but a really
great artist, whose purity of style, except at rare moments, just
failed to express the ideals he never lost sight of, because in his
love of those ideals there was too much fear.

His principal works are summarized by Fetis as thirty-two operas,
twenty-nine church compositions, four cantatas and several instru-
mental pieces, besides the treatise on counterpoint and fugue.

Good modern full scores of the two Requiems and of Les Deux
Journees (the latter unfortunately without the dialogue, which,
however, is accessible in its fairly good German translation in the
Reclam Bibliothek), and also of ten opera overtures, are current in
the Peters edition. Vocal scores of some of the other operas are not
difficult to get. The great Credo is in the Peters edition, but is
becoming scarce. The string quartets are in Payne's Miniature
Scores. It is very desirable that the operas, from Demophon onwards,
should be republished in full score.

See also E. Bellasis, Cherubini (1874) ; and an article with personal
reminiscences by the composer Ferdinand Hiller, in Macmillan's
Magazine (1875). A complete catalogue of his compositions (1773-
1841) was edited by Bottee du Toulmon. (D. F. T.)

CH&RUEL, PIERRE ADOLPHE (1800-1891), French historian,
was born at Rouen on the I7th of January 1809. He. was
educated at the Ecole Normale Superieure, and became a fellow
(agrege) in 1830. His early studies were devoted to his native
town. His Histoire de Rouen sous la domination anglaise au
XV' sti.de (1840) and Histoire de Rouen pendant Vepoque com-
munale, 1150-1382 (Rouen, 1843-1844), are meritorious pro-
ductions for a time when the archives were neither inventoried
nor classified, and contain useful documents previously un-
published. His theses for the degree of doctor, De I'adminis-
tration de Louis XIV d'apres les Memoir es inedits d'Olivier
d'Ormesson and De Maria Stuarta et Henrico III. (1849), led
him to the study of general history. The former was expanded
afterwards under the title Histoire de I' administration monarchique
en France depuis Vavenemsnt de Philippe- Auguste jusqu'd. la
mart de Louis XIV (1855), and in 1855 he also published his
Dictionnaire historique des institutions, mceurs et coutumes de
la France, of which many editions have appeared. These works
may still be consulted for the I7th century, the period upon
which Cheruel concentrated all his scientific activity. He edited
successively the Journal d'Olivier Lefevre d'Ormesson (1860-1862) ,
interesting for the history of the parlement of Paris during the
minority of Louis XIV.; Leltres du cardinal Mazarin pendant
son ministere (6 vols., 1870-1891), continued by the vicomte
G. d'Avenel; and Memoires du due de Saint-Simon, published
for the first time according to the original MSS. (2 editions,
1856-1858 and 1878-1881). To Saint-Simon also he devoted
two critical studies, which are acute but not definitive: Saint-
Simon considere comme historien de Louis XIV (1865) and
Notice sur la vie et sur les memoires du due de Saint-Simon (1876).
The latter may be considered as an introduction to the famous
Memoires. Among his later writings may be mentioned the
Histoire de la France pendant la minorite de Louis XIV (4 vols.,
1880) and Histoire de la France sous le ministere de Mazarin
(3 vols., 1882-1883). These two works are valuable for abund-
ance of facts, precision of details, and clear and intelligent

arrangement, but are characterized by a slightly frigid style.
In their compilation Che'ruel used a fair number of unpublished
documents. To the student of the second half of the 1 7th century
in France the works of Ch6ruel are a mine of information. He
died in Paris on the ist of May 1891.

CHERUSCI, an ancient German tribe occupying the basin
of the Weser to the north of the Chatti. Together with the
other tribes of western Germany they submitted to the Romans
in 11-9 B.C., but in A.D. 9 Arminius, one of their princes, rose in
revolt, and defeated and slew the Roman general Quintilius
Varus with his whole army. Germanicus Caesar made several
unsuccessful attempts to bring them into subjection again. By
the end of the ist century the prestige of the Cherusci had
declined through unsuccessful warfare with the Chatti. Their
territory was eventually occupied by the Saxons.

Tacitus, Annals, \. 2, II, 12, 13; Germania, 36; Strabo, p. 291 f.;
E. Devrient, in Neue Jahrb.f. d. klass. Alter. (1900), p. 517.

CHESELDEN, WILLIAM (1688-1752), English surgeon, was
born at Somerby, Leicestershire, on the ipth of October 1688.
He studied anatomy in London under William Cowper (1666-
1709), and in 1713 published his Anatomy of the Human Body,
which achieved great popularity and went through thirteen
editions. In 1718 he was appointed an assistant surgeon at
St Thomas's hospital (London), becoming full surgeon in the
following year, and he was also chosen one of the surgeons to
St George's hospital on its foundation in 1733. He retired from
St Thomas's in 1738, and died at Bath on the loth of April
1752. Cheselden is famous for his " lateral operation for the
stone," which he first performed in 1727. He also effected a
great advance in ophthalmic surgery by his operation of iridec-
tomy, described in 1728, for the treatment of certain forms of
blindness by the production of an " artificial pupil." He at-
tended Sir Isaac Newton in his last illness, and was an intimate
friend of Alexander Pope and of Sir Hans Sloane.

CHESHAM, a market town in the Aylesbury parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, 26 m. W.N.W. of London
by the Metropolitan railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
7245. It is pleasantly situated in the narrow valley of the river
Chess, closely flanked by low wooded hills. The church of St
Mary is cruciform and mainly Perpendicular. Some ancient
frescoes and numerous monuments are preserved. All sorts of
small dairy utensils, chairs, malt-shovels, &c., are made of
beech, the growth of which forms a feature of the surrounding
country. Shoemaking is also carried on. In Waterside hamlet,
adjoining the town, are flour-mills, duck farms, and some of the
extensive watercress beds for which the Chess is noted, as it is
also for its trout-fishing.

CHESHIRE, a north-western county of England, bounded N.
by Lancashire, N.E. by Yorkshire and Derbyshire, S.E. by
Staffordshire, S. by Shropshire, W. by Denbighshire and Flint,
and N.W. by the Irish Sea. Its area is 1027-8 sq. m. The
coast-line is formed by the estuaries of the Dee and the Mersey,
which are separated by the low rectangular peninsula of Wirral.
The estuary of the Dee is dry at low tide on the Cheshire shore,
but that of the Mersey bears upon its banks the ports of Liverpool
(in Lancashire) and Birkenhead (on the Wirral shore). The
Dee forms a great part of the county boundary with Denbigh-
shire and Flint, and the Mersey the boundary along the whole
of the northern side. The principal river within the county is
the Weaver, which crosses it with a north-westerly course, and,
being joined by the Dane at Northwich, discharges into the
estuary of the Mersey south of Runcorn. The surface of Cheshire
is mostly low and gently undulating or flat; but the broken
line of the Peckforton hills, seldom exceeding 600 ft. in height,
runs north and south flanking the valley of the Weaver on the
west. A low narrow gap in these hills is traversed by the small
river Gowy, which rises to the east but has the greater part of
its course to the west of them. Commanding this gap on the
west, the Norman castle of Beeston stands on an isolated
eminence. The northern part of the hills coincides approxi-
mately with the district still called Delamere Forest, formerly
a chase of the earls of Chester, and finally disforested in 1812.

9o

CHESHIRE

In certain sequestered parts the forest has not wholly lost its
ancient character. On the east Cheshire includes the western
face of the broad belt of high land which embraces the Peak
district of Derbyshire; these hills rise sharply to the east of
Congleton, Macclesfield and Hyde, reaching a height of about
1800 ft. within Cheshire. Distributed over the county, but
principally in the eastern half, are many small lakes or meres,
such as Combermere, Tatton, Rostherne, Tabley, Doddington,
Marbury and Mere, and it was a common practice among the
gentry of the county to build their mansions on the banks of
these waters. The meres form one of the most picturesque
features of the county.

Geology. — With the exception of a small area of Carboniferous
rocks on the eastern border, and a small patch of Lower Lias near
Audlem, the whole country is occupied by Triassic strata. The
great central plain is covered by red and mottled Keuper Marls.
From these marls salt is obtained; there are many beds of rock-
salt, mostly thin ; two are much thicker than the others, being from
75 ft. to over 100 ft. thick. Thin beds and veins of gypsum are
common in the marls. The striking features of the Peckforton Hills
are due to the repeated faulting of the Lower Keuper Sandstone,
which lies upon beds of Bunter Sandstone. Besides forming this
well-marked ridge, the Lower Keuper Sandstones or " Waterstones "
form several ridges north-west of Macclesfield and appear along
most of the northern borders of the county and in the neighbourhood
of New Brighton and Birkenhead. The Lower Keuper Sandstone is
quarried near the last-named place, also at Storeton, Delamere and
Manley. This is a good building stone and an important water-
bearing stratum; it is often ripple-marked, and bears the footprints
of the Cheirotherium. At Alderley Edge ores of copper, lead and
cobalt are found. West of the Peckforton ridge, Bunter Sandstones
and pebble beds extend to the border. They also form low foothills
between Cheadle and Macclesfield. They fringe the northern bound-
ary and appear on the south-eastern boundary as a narrow strip
of hilly ground near Woore. The oldest rock exposed in the county
is the small faulted anticline of Carboniferous limestone at Astbury,
followed in regular succession eastward by the shale, and thin
limestones and sandstones of the Pendleside series. These rocks
extend from Congleton Edge to near Macclesfield, where the outcrop
bends sharply eastward and runs up the Goyt valley. Some hard
quartzites in the Pendleside series, known locally as " Crowstones,"
have contributed to the formation of the high Bosley Min and neigh-
bouring hills. East of Bosley Min, on either side or the Goyt valley,
are the Millstone Grits and Shales, forming the elevated moorland
tracts. Cloud Hill, a striking feature near Congleton, is capped by
the " Third Grit," one of the Millstone Grit series. From Maccles-
field northward through Stockport is a narrow tongue of Lower and
Middle Coal-Measures — an extension of the Lancashire coalfield.
Coal is mined at Neston in the Wirral peninsula from beneath the
Trias; it is a connecting link between the Lancashire and Flintshire
coalfields. Glacial drift is thickly spread over all the lower ground ;
laminated red clays, stiff clay with northern erratics and lenticular
sand masses with occasional gravels, are the common types. At
Crewe the drift is over 400 ft. thick. Patches of Drift sand, with
marine shells, occur on the high ground east of Macclesfield at an
elevation of 1250 ft.

Agriculture and Industries. — The climate is temperate and
rather damp; the soil is varied and irregular, but a large pro-
portion is a thin-skinned clay. More than four-fifths of the total
area is under cultivation. The crop of wheat is comparatively
insignificant; but a large quantity of oats is grown, and a great
proportion of the cultivated land is in permanent pasture. The
vicinity of such populous centres as Liverpool and Manchester, as
well as the several large towns within the county, makes cattle
and dairy-farming profitable. Cheese of excellent quality is
produced, the name of the county being given to a particular
brand (see DAIRY). Potatoes are by far the most important
green crop. Fruit-growing is carried on in some parts, especially
the cultivation of stone fruit and, among these, damsons; while
the strawberry beds near Farndon and Holt are celebrated. In
the first half of the ipth century the condition of agriculture
in Cheshire was notoriously backward; and in 1865-1866 the
county suffered with especial severity from a visitation of cattle
plague. The total loss of stock amounted to more than 66,000
head, and it was necessary to obtain from the Treasury a loan of
£270,000 on the security of the county rate, for purposes of
relief and compensation. The cheese-making industry naturally
received a severe blow, yet to agriculture at large an ultimate
good resulted as the possibility and even the necessity of new
methods were borne in upon the farmers.

The industries of the county are various and important. The
manufacture of cotton goods extends from its seat in Lancashire
into Cheshire, at the town of Stockport and elsewhere in the
north-east. Macclesfield and Congleton are centres of silk
manufacture. At Crewe are situated the great workshops of the
London & North-Western railway company, the institution of
which actually brought the town into being. Another instance of
the modern creation of a town by an individual industrial
corporation is seen in Port Sunlight on the Mersey, where the
soap-works of Messrs Lever are situated. On the Mersey there
are shipbuilding yards, and machinery and iron works. Other
important manufactures are those of tools, chemicals, clothing
and hats, and there are printing, bleaching and dye works, and
metal foundries. Much sandstone is quarried, but the mineral
wealth of the county lies in coal and salt. The second is a
specially important product. Some rock-salt is obtained at
Northwich and Winsford, but most of the salt is extracted from
brine both here and at Lawton, Wheelock and Middlewich. At
Northwich and other places in the locality curious accidents
frequently occur owing to the sinking of the soil after the brine is
pumped out; walls crack and collapse, and houses are seen
leaning far out of the perpendicular. A little copper and lead
are found.

Communications. — The county is well served with railways.
The main line of the London & North-Western railway, passing
north from Crewe to Warrington in Lancashire, serves no large
town, but from Crewe branches diverge fanwise to Manchester,
Chester, North Wales and Shrewsbury. The Great Western
railway, with a line coming northward from Wrexham, obtains
access through Cheshire to Liverpool and Manchester. These two
companies jointly work the Birkenhead railway from Chester
to Birkenhead. The heart of the county is traversed by the
Cheshire Lines, serving the salt district, and reaching Chester
from Manchester by way of Delamere Forest. In the east the
Midland and Great Central systems enter the county, and the
North Staffordshire line serves Macclesfield. The Manchester,
South Junction & Altrincham and the Wirral railways are small
systems serving the localities indicated by their names. The
river Weaver is locked as far up as Winsford, and the transport of
salt is thus expedited. The profits of the navigation, which was
originally undertaken in 1720 by a few Cheshire squires, belong
to the county, and are paid annually to the relief of the county
rates. In the salt district through which the Weaver passes
subsidence of the land has resulted in the formation of lakes of
considerable extent, which act as reservoirs to supply the
navigation. There are further means of inland navigation by the
Grand Trunk, Shropshire Union and other canals, and many
small steamers are in use. The Manchester Ship Canal passes
through a section of north Cheshire, being entered from the
estuary of the Mersey by locks near Eastham, and following its
southern shore up to Runcorn, after which it takes a more direct
course than the river.

Population and Administration. — The ancient county, which is
a county palatine, has an area of 657,783 acres, with a population
in 1891 of 730,058 and in 1901 of 815,099. Cheshire has been
described as a suburb of Liverpool, Manchester and the Potteries
of Staffordshire, and many of those whose business lies in these
centres have colonized such districts as Bowdon, Alderley, Sale
and Marple near Manchester, the Wirral, and Alsager on the
Staffordshire border, until these localities have come to resemble
the richer suburban districts of London. On the short seacoast of
the Wirral are found the popular resorts of New Brighton and
Hoylake. This movement and importance of its industries have
given the county a vast increase of population in modern times.
In 1871 the population was 561,201; from 1801 until that year it
had increased 191 %. The area of the administrative county is
654,825 acres. The county contains 7 hundreds. The municipal
boroughs are Birkenhead (pop. 110,915), Chester (38,309),
Congleton (10,707), Crewe (42,074), Dukinfield (18,929), Hyde
(32,766), Macclesfield (34,624), Stalybridge (27,673), Stockport
(92,832). Chester,thecountytown,isacity,countyofacity, and
county borough, and Birkenhead and Stockport are county

CHESHIRE

boroughs. The other urban districts with their populations are
as follows: —

Alderley Edge (a)
Alsager
Altrincham (a) ...
Ashton-upon-Mersey (o) .
Bollington (a) .
Bpwdon (a) ....
Bredbury and Romiley (o)
Bromborough (ft) ...
Buglawton (Congleton)
Cheadle and Gatley (a) .
Compstall (o) . . .
Ellesmere Port and Whitby (ft)
Hale (a)

2,856

2,597
16,831

5.563
5.245
2,788
7,087
1,891
1,452
7,916

875
4,082

4,562

Hoylake and West Kirby (ft) .
Knutsford (a) ....
Lower Bebington (ft)
Lymm (a)
Marple (a)
Middlewich ....
Mottram-in-Longdendale (o) .
Nantwich
Neston and Parkgate (6)
Northwich
Runcorn
Sale (o)
Sandbach

10,911
5.172
8,398
4.707
5,595
4,669
3,128
7,722

4,154
17,611
16,491
12,088
5,558

Handforth (a) .
Hazel Grove and Bramhall (a)
Higher Bebington (ft)
Hollingworth (o)
Hoole (Chester)

911

7.934
1,540
2,447
5,341

Tarporley
Wallasey (6) ....
Wilmslow (o)
Winsford
Yeardsley-cum-Whaley (o)

2,644
53,579
7.36i
10,382
1,487

Of the townships in this table, those marked (o) are within a radius
of about 15 m. from Manchester (Knutsford being taken as the
limit), while those marked (ft) are in the Wirral. The localities of
densest population are thus clearly illustrated.

The county is in the North Wales and Chester circuit, and
assizes are held at Chester. It has one court of quarter sessions,
and is divided into fourteen petty sessional divisions. The
boroughs already named, excepting Dukinfield, have separate
commissions of the peace, and Birkenhead and Chester have
separate courts of quarter sessions. There are 464 civil parishes.
Cheshire is almost wholly in the diocese of Chester, but small
parts are in those of Manchester, St Asaph or Lichfield. There
are 268 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part
within the county. There are eight parliamentary divisions,
namely, Macclesfield, Crewe, Eddisbury, Wirral, Knutsford,
Altrincham, Hyde and Northwich, each returning one member;
the county also includes the parliamentary borough of Birkenhead
returning one member, and parts of the borough of Stockport,
which returns two members, and of Ashton-under-Lyne, Chester,
Stalybridge, and Warrington, which return one member
each.

History. — The earliest recorded historical fact relating to the
district which is now Cheshire is the capture of Chester and
destruction of the native Britons by the Northumbrian king
^Ethelfrith about 614. After a period of incessant strife between
the Britons and their Saxon invaders the district was subjugated
by Ecgbert in 830 and incorporated in the kingdom of Mercia.
During the gth century ^Ethelwulf held his parliament at Chester,
and received the homage of his tributary kings from Berwick to
Kent, and in the loth century ^Ethelflffid rebuilt the city, and
erected fortresses at Eddisbury and Runcorn. Edward the
Elder garrisoned Thelwall and strengthened the passages of the
Mersey and the Irwell. On the splitting up of Mercia in the
loth century the dependent districts along the Dee were made a
shire for the fortress of Chester. The shire is first mentioned in
the Abingdon Chronicle, which relates that in 980 Cheshire was
plundered by a fleet of Northmen. At the time of the Domesday
Survey the county was divided into twelve hundreds, exclusive
of the six hundreds between the Ribble and the Mersey, now
included in Lancashire, but then a part of Cheshire. These
divisions have suffered great modification, both in extent and
in name, and of the seven modern hundreds Bucklow alone
retains its Domesday appellation. The hundreds of Atiscross
and Exestan have been transferred to the counties of Flint and
Denbigh, with the exception of a few townships now in the
hundred of Broxton. The prolonged resistance of Cheshire to
the Conqueror was punished by ruthless harrying and sweeping
confiscations of property, and no Englishman retained estates
of importance after the Conquest. In order that the shire
might be relieved of all obligations beyond the ever-pressing
necessity of defending its borders against the inroads of hostile
neighbours, it was constituted a county palatine which the earl
of Chester " held as freely by his sword as the king held England
by his crown." The county had its independent parliament

consisting of the barons and clergy, and courts, and all lands
except those of the bishop were held of the earl. The court of
exchequer was presided over by a chamberlain, a
vice-chamberlain, and a baron of the exchequer.
It was principally a court of revenue, but prob-
ably a court of justice also, before that of the
justiciary was established, and had besides the
functions of a chancery court, with an exclusive
jurisdiction in equity. Other officers of the
palatinate were the constable, high-steward and
the Serjeants of the peace and of the forests.
The abbots of St Werburgh and Combermere
and all the eight barons held courts, in any of
which cases of capital felony might be tried.

During the I2th and i3th centuries the county
was impoverished by the constant inroads of the
Welsh. In 1264 the castle and city of Chester
were granted to Simon de Montfort, and in 1267
the treaty of Shrewsbury procured a short interval of peace.
Richard II., in return for the loyal support furnished him by
the county, made it a principality, but the act was revoked in
the next reign. In 1403 Cheshire was the headquarters of
Hotspur, who roused the people by telling them that Richard
II. was still living. At the beginning of the Wars of the Roses
Margaret collected a body of supporters from among the Cheshire
gentry, and Lancastrian risings occurred as late as 1464. At
the time of the Civil War feeling was so equally divided that
an attempt was made to form an association for preserving
internal peace. In 1643, however, Chester was made the head-
quarters of the royalist forces, while Nantwich was garrisoned
for the parliament, and the county became the scene of con-
stant skirmishes until the surrender of Chester in 1646 put an
end to the struggle.

From the number of great families with which it has been
associated Chester has been named " the mother and nurse of
English gentility." Of the eight baronies of the earldom none
survives, but the title of that of Kinderton was bestowed in 1762
on George Venables-Vernon, son of Anne, sister of Peter Venables,
last baron of Kinderton, from whom the present Lord Vernon
of Kinderton is descended. Other great Domesday proprietors
were William FitzNigel, baron of Halton, ancestor of the Lacys;
Hugh de Mara, baron of Montalt, ancestor of the Ardens;
Ranulph, ancestor of the Mainwarings; and Hamo de Massey.
The Davenports, Leighs and Warburtons trace their descent
back to the I2th century, and the Grosvenors are descended
from a nephew of Hugh Lupus.

In the reign of Henry VIII. the distinctive privileges of
Cheshire as a county palatine were considerably abridged. The
right of sanctuary attached to the city of Chester was abolished;
justices of the peace were appointed as in other parts of the
kingdom, and in 1 542 it was enacted that in future two knights
for the shire and two burgesses for the city of Chester should be
returned to parliament. After the Reform Act of 1832 the
county returned four members from two divisions, and Maccles-
field and Stockport returned two members each. Birkenhead
secured representation in 1859. From 1868 until the Redistribu-
tion Act of 1885 the county returned six members from three
divisions.

From earliest times the staple products of Cheshire have been
salt and cheese. The salt-pits of Nantwich, Middlewich and
Northwich were in active operation at the time of Edward the
Confessor, and at that date the mills and fisheries on the Dee
also furnished a valuable source of revenue. Twelfth century
writers refer to the excellence of Cheshire cheese, and at the
time of the Civil War three hundred tons at £33 per ton were
ordered in one year for the troops in Scotland. The trades of
tanners, skinners and glove-makers existed at the time of
the Conquest, and the export trade in wool in the I3th and
i4th centuries was considerable. The first bed of rock-salt
was discovered in 1670. Weaving and wool-combing were
introduced in 1674.

Antiquities. — The main interest in the architecture of the

CHESHUNT— CHESNEY, C. C.

county lies in the direction of domestic buildings rather than
ecclesiastical. Old half-timbered houses are common in almost
every part of the county; many of these add to the picturesque-
ness of the streets in the older towns, as in the case of the famous
Rows in Chester, while in the country many ancient manor-
houses remain as farm-houses. Among the finest examples
are Bramhall Hall, between Stockport and Macclesfield, and
Moreton Old Hall, near Congleton (see HOUSE, Plate IV., fig. 13).
The first, occupying three sides of a quadrangle (formerly
completed by a fourth side), dates from the I3th and i4th
centuries, and contains a splendid panelled hall and other rooms.
Of Moreton Hall, which is moated, only three sides similarly
remain; its date is of the i6th century. Other buildings of the
Elizabethan period are not infrequent, such as Brereton and
Dorfold Halls, while more modern mansions, set in fine estates,
are numerous. Crewe Hall is a modern building on an ancient
site, and Vale Royal near Winsford incorporates fragments of a
Cistercian monastery founded in 1277. A noteworthy instance
of the half-timbered style applied to an ecclesiastical building
is found in the church of Lower Peover near Knutsford, of which
only the tower is of stone. The church dates from the I3th
century, and was carefully restored in 1852. Cheshire has no
monastic remains of importance, save those attached to the
cathedral of Chester, nor are its village churches as a rule of
special interest. There is, however, a fine late Perpendicular
church (with earlier portions) at Astbury near Congleton, and
of this style and the Decorated the churches of Bunbury and
Malpas may be noticed as good illustrations. In Chester, besides
the cathedral, there is the massive Norman church of St John;
and St Michael's church and the Rivers chapel at Macclesfield
are noteworthy. No more remarkable religious monuments
remain in the county than the two sculptured Saxon crosses in
the market-place at Sandbach. Ruins of two Norman castles
exist in Beeston and Halton.

AUTHORITIES. — Sir John Dpddridge, History of the Ancient and
Modern State of the Principality of Wales, Duchy of Cornwall, and
Earldom of Chester (London, 1630; 2nd ed., 1714); D. King, The
Vale-Royall of England, or the County Palatine of Cheshire Illustrated,
4 parts (London, 1656) ; D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. ii.
pt. ii. (London, 1810) ; J. H. Hanshall, History of the County Palatine
of Chester (Chester, 1817-1823); J. O. Halliwell, Palatine Anthology
(London, 1850) ; G. Ormerod, History of the County Palatine and
City of Chester (London, 1819; new ed., London, 1875-1882);
J. P. Earwaker, East Cheshire (2 vols., London, 1877) ; R. Wilbraham,
Glossary (London, 1820; 2nd ed., London, 1826); and Glossary
founded on Wilbraham by E. Leigh (London, 1877); J. Croston,
Historic Sites of Cheshire (Manchester, 1883) ; and County Families of
Cheshire (Manchester, 1887) ; W. E. A. Axon, Cheshire Gleanings
(Manchester, 1884) ; Holland, Glossary of Words used in the County
of Cheshire (London, 1884-1886) ; N. G. Philips, Views of Old Halls
in Cheshire (London, 1893) ; Victoria County History, Cheshire.
See also various volumes of the Chetham Society and of the Record
Society of Manchester, as well as the Proceedings of the Cheshire
Antiquarian Society, and Cheshire Notes and Queries.

CHESHUNT, an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, on the Lea, 14 m. N. of
London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 9620;
(1901) 12,292. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular and
has been enlarged in modern times. A college was founded,
for the education of young men to the ministry of the Connexion,
by Selina countess of Huntingdon in 1768 at Trevecca-isaf near
Talgarth, Brecknockshire. In 1792 it was moved to Cheshunt,
and became known as Cheshunt College. In 1904, as it was
felt that the college was unable properly to carry on its work
under existing conditions, it was proposed to amalgamate it
with Hackney College, but the Board of Education refused to
sanction any arrangement which would set aside the require-
ments of the deed of foundation, namely that the officers and
students of Cheshunt College should subscribe the fifteen articles
appended to the deed, and should take certain other obligations.
In 1905 it was decided by the board to reorganize the college
and remove it to Cambridge.

Nursery and market gardening, largely under glass, brick-
making and saw-mills are the chief industries of Cheshunt.
Roman coins and other remains have been found at this place,
and an urn appears built into the wall of an inn. A Romano-

British village or small town is indicated. There was a Bene-
dictine nunnery here in the i3th century. Of several interesting
mansions in the vicinity one, the Great House, belonged to
Cardinal Wolsey, and a former Pengelly House was the residence
of Richard Cromwell the Protector after his resignation. Theo-
balds Park was built in the i8th century, but the original
mansion was acquired by William Cecil, Lord Burghley, in
1561; being taken in 1607 by James I. from Robert Cecil, first
earl of Salisbury, in exchange for Hatfield House. James died
here in 1625, and Charles I. set out from here for Nottingham in
1642 at the outset of the Civil War. One of the entrances to
Theobalds Park is the old Temple Bar, removed from Fleet
Street, London, in 1878.

CHESIL BANK (A.S. ceosol, pebble bank), a remarkable
beach of shingle on the coast of Dorsetshire, England. It is
separated from the mainland for 8 m. by an inlet called the Fleet,
famous for its swannery, and continues in all for 1 8 m. south-
eastward from Abbotsbury, terminating at the so-called Isle
of Portland. The height of the bank at the Portland end is
35 ft. above spring-tide level, and its breadth 200 yds. The
greater height at this end accords with the general movement
of shingle along this coast from west to east; and for the same
reason the pebbles of the bank decrease in size from i to 3 in.
in diameter at Portland to the size of peas at the western end,
where the breadth is only 170 yds.

CHESNELONG, PIERRE CHARLES (1820-1894), French
politician, was born at Orthez in the department of the Basses-
Pyrenees, on the I4th of April 1820. In 1848 he proclaimed
himself a Republican; but after the establishment of the Second
Empire he changed his views, and in 1865 was returned to the
chamber as the official candidate for his native place. He at
once became conspicuous, both for his eloquence and for his
uncompromising clericalism, especially in urging the necessity
for maintaining the temporal power of the papacy. In 1869 he
was again returned, and, devoting himself with exceptional
ability to financial questions, was in 1870 appointed to report
the budget. During and after the war, for which he voted, he
retired for a while into private life; but in 1872 he was again
elected deputy, this time as a Legitimist, and took his seat
among the extreme Right. He was the soul of the reactionary
opposition that led to the fall of Thiers; and in 1873 it was he
who, with Lucien Brun, carried to the comte de Chambord the
proposals of the chambers. Through some misunderstanding,
he reported on his return that the count had accepted all the
terms offered, including the retention of the tricolour flag; and
the count published a formal denial. Chesnelong now devoted
himself to the establishment of Catholic universities and to the
formation of Catholic working-men's clubs. In 1876 he was
again returned for Orthez, but was unseated, and then beaten
by the republican candidate. On the 24th of November, how-
ever, he was elected to a seat in the senate, where he continued
his vigorous polemic against the progressive attempts of the
republican government to secularize the educational system of
France until his death in 1894.

CHESNEY, CHARLES CORNWALLIS (1826-1876), British
soldier and military writer, the third son of Charles Cornwallis
Chesney, captain on the retired list of the Bengal Artillery, and
nephew of General F. R. Chesney, was born in Co. Down, Ireland,
on the 29th of September 1826. Educated at Blundell's school,
Tiverton, and afterwards at the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, he obtained his first commission as second lieutenant
of engineers in 1845, passing out of the academy at the head of
his term. His early service was spent in the ordinary course
of regimental duty at home and abroad, and he was stationed
in New Zealand during the Crimean War. Among the various
reforms in the British military system which followed from that
war was the impetus given to military education; and in 1858
Captain Chesney was appointed professor of military history
at Sandhurst. In 1864 he succeeded Colonel (afterwards Sir
Edward) Hamley in the corresponding chair at the Staff College.
The writings of these two brilliant officers had a great influence
not only at home, but on the continent and in America. Chesney's

CHESNEY, F. R.— CHESS

93

first published work (1863) was an account of the Civil War in
Virginia, which went through several editions. But the work
which attained the greatest reputation was his Waterloo Lectures
(1868), prepared from the notes of lectures orally delivered at
the Staff College. Up to that time the English literature on the
Waterloo campaign, although voluminous, was made up of
personal reminiscences or of formal records, useful materials
for history rather than history itself; and the French accounts
had mainly taken the form of fiction. In Chesney's lucid and
vigorous account of the momentous struggle, while it illustrates
both the strategy and tactics which culminated in the final
catastrophe, the mistakes committed by Napoleon are laid bare,
and for the first time an English writer is found to point out that
the dispositions of Wellington were far from faultless. And in
the Waterloo Lectures the Prussians are for the first time credited
by an English pen with their proper share in the victory. The
work attracted much attention abroad as well as at home, and
French and German translations were published.

Chesney was for many years a constant contributor to the
newspaper press and to periodic literature, devoting himself
for the most part to the critical treatment of military operations,
and professional subjects generally. Some of his essays on
military biography, contributed mainly to the Edinburgh Review,
were afterwards published separately (1874). In 1868 he was
appointed a member of the royal commission on military educa-
tion, under the presidency first of Earl De Grey and afterwards
of Lord Dufferin, to whose recommendations were due the
improved organization of the military colleges, and the develop-
ment of military education in the principal military stations
of the British army. In 1871, on the conclusion of the Franco-
German War, he was sent on a special mission to France and
Germany, and furnished to the government a series of valuable
reports on the different siege operations which had been carried
out during the war, especially the two sieges of Paris. These
reports were published in a large volume, which was issued
confidentially. Never seeking regimental or staff preferment,
Colonel Chesney never obtained any, but he held at the time of
his death a unique position in the army, altogether apart from
and above his actual place in it. He was consulted by officers
of all grades on professional matters, and few have done more
to raise the intellectual standard of the British officer. Con-
stantly engaged in literary pursuits, he was nevertheless laborious
and exemplary in the discharge of his public duties, while
managing also to devote a large part of his time to charitable
and religious offices. He was abstemious to a fault; and,
overwork of mind and body telling at last on a frail constitution,
he died after a short illness on the igth of March 1876. He had
become lieutenant-colonel in 1873, and at tne time °f his death
he was commanding Royal Engineer of the London district.
He was buried at Sandhurst.

CHESNEY, FRANCIS RAWDON (1789-1872), British general
arid explorer, was the son of Captain Alexander Chesney, an
Irishman of Scottish descent who, having emigrated to South
Carolina in 1772, did brilliant service under Lord Rawdon
(afterwards marquess of Hastings) in the War of Independence,
and subsequently received an appointment as coast officer at
Annalong, Co. Down, Ireland. There F. R. Chesney was born
on the i6th of March 1789. Lord Rawdon gave the boy a cadet-
ship at Woolwich, and he was gazetted to the Royal Artillery
in 1805. But though he rose to be lieutenant-general and
colonel-commandant of the i4th brigade Royal Artillery (1864),
and general in 1868, Chesney's memory lives not for his military
record, but for his connexion with the Suez Canal, and with the
exploration of the Euphrates valley, which started with his being
sent out to Constantinople in the course of his military duties
in 1829, and his making a tour of inspection in Egypt and Syria.
His report in 1830 on the feasibility of making the Suez Canal
was the original basis of Lesseps' great undertaking (in 1869
Lesseps greeted him in Paris as the "father" of the canal);
and in 1831 he introduced to the home government the idea of
opening a new overland route to India, by a daring and ad-
venturous journey (for the Arabs \v ^re hostile and he was ignorant

of the language) along the Euphrates valley from Anah to the
Persian Gulf. Returning home, Colonel Chesney (as he then
was) busied himself to get support for the latter project, to
which the East India Company's board was favourable; and
in 1835 he was sent out in command of a small expedition, for
which parliament voted £20,000, in order to test the navigability
of the Euphrates. After encountering immense difficulties, from
the opposition of the Egyptian pasha, and from the need of
transporting two steamers (one of which was lost) in sections
from the Mediterranean over the hilly country to the river,
they successfully arrived by water at Bushire in the summer of
1836, and proved Chesney's view to be a practicable one. In
the middle of 1837 he returned to England, and was given the
Royal Geographical Society's gold medal, having meanwhile
been to India to consult the authorities there; but the preparation
of his two volumes on the expedition (published in 1850) was
interrupted by his being ordered out in 1843 to command the
artillery at Hong Kong. In 1847 his period of service was
completed, and he went home to Ireland, to a life of retirement;
but both in 1856 and again in 1862 he went out to the East to
take a part in further surveys and negotiations for the Euphrates
valley railway scheme, which, however, the government would
not take up, in spite of a favourable report from the House of
Commons committee in 1871. In 1868 he published a further
volume of narrative on his Euphrates expedition. He died on
the 3Oth of January 1872.

His Life, edited by Stanley Lane Poole, appeared in 1885.

CHESNEY, SIR GEORGE TOMKYNS (1830-1895), English
general, brother of Colonel C. C. Chesney, was born at Tiverton,
Devonshire, on the 3oth of April 1830. Educated at Blundell's
school, Tiverton, and at Addiscombe, he entered the Bengal
Engineers as second lieutenant in 1848. He was employed for
some years in the public works department and, on the outbreak
of the Indian Mutiny in 1857, joined the Ambala column, was
field engineer at the battle of Badli-ke-serai, brigade-major of
engineers throughout the siege of Delhi, and was severely
wounded in the assault (medal and clasp and a brevet majority).
In 1860 he was appointed head of a new department in connexion
with the public works accounts. His work on Indian Polity
(i868),dealingwith the administration of tbeseveraldepartments
of the Indian government, attracted wide attention and remains
a permanent text-book. The originator of the Royal Indian
Civil Engineering College at Cooper's Hill, Staines, he was also
its first president (1871-1880). In 1871 he contributed to
Blackwood's Magazine, " The Battle of Dorking," a vivid
account of a supposed invasion of England by the Germans
after their victory over France. This was republished in many
editions and translations, and produced a profound impression.
He was promoted lieutenant-colonel, 1869; colonel, 1877;
major-general, 1886; lieutenant-general, 1887; colonel-com-
mandant of Royal Engineers, 1890; and general, 1892. From
1881 to 1886 he was secretary to the military department of
the government of India, and was made a C.S.I, and a C.I.E.
From 1886 to 1892, as military member of the governor-general's
council, he carried out many much-needed military reforms.
He was made a C.B. at the jubilee of 1887, and a K.C.B. on
leaving India in 1892. In that year he was returned to parlia-
ment, in the Conservative interest, as member for Oxford, and
was chairman of the committee of service members of the House
of Commons until his death on the 3ist of March 1895. He wrote
some novels, The Dilemma, The Private Secretary, The Lesters,
&c., and was a frequent contributor to periodical literature.

CHESS, once known as " checker," a game played with certain
" pieces " on a special " board " described below. It takes its
name from the Persian word shah, a king, the name of one of the
pieces or men used in the game. Chess is the most cosmopolitan
of all games, invented in the East (see History, below), intro-
duced into the West and now domiciled in every part of the
world. As a mere pastime chess is easily learnt, and a very
moderate amount of study enables a man to become a fair player,
iut the higher ranges of chess-skill are only attained by persistent
.abour. The real proficient or " master " not merely must know

94

CHESS

BLACK.

the subtle variations in which the game abounds, but must be able
to apply his knowledge in the face of the enemy and to call to his
aid, as occasion demands, all that he has of foresight, brilliancy
and resource, both in attack and in defence. Two chess players
fighting over the board may fitly be compared to two famous
generals encountering each other on the battlefield, the strategy
and the tactics being not dissimilar in spirit.

The Board, Pieces and Moves. — The chessboard is divided
(see accompanying diagrams) into sixty-four chequered squares.
In diagram i, the pieces, or chess-men, are arranged for the
beginning of a game, while diagram 2 shows the denomination of
the squares according to the English and German systems of
notation. Under diagram i are the names of the various "pieces "
— each side, White or Black, having a King, a Queen, two Rooks
(or Castles), two Knights, and two Bishops. The eight men in
front are called Pawns. At the beginning of the game the queen
always stands upon a square of her own colour. The board is so
set that each player has a white square at the right hand end of
the row nearest to him. The rook, knight and bishop on the right
of the king are known as King's rook, King's knight, and King's
bishop; the other three as Queen's rook, Queen's knight, and
Queen's bishop.

Briefly described, the powers of the various pieces and of the
pawns are as follows.

The king may move in any direction, only one square at a time,
except in castling. Two kings can never be on adjacent squares.

The queen moves in any direc-
tion square or diagonal, whether
forward or backward. There is
no limit to her range over vacant
squares; an opponent she may
take; a piece of her own colour
stops her. She is the most power-
ful piece on the board, for her
action is a union of those of the
rook and bishop. The rooks (from
the Indian rukh and Persian rokh,
meaning a soldier or warrior)
move in straight lines — forward
or backward — but they cannot

wmit. ^ move diagonally. Their range is

DIAGRAM i. — Showing the ... , 6 * . . , 6 ...
arrangement of the pieces at llke the queen's, unlimited, With
the commencement of a game, the same exceptions.

The bishops move diagonally

in any direction whether backward or forward. They have
an unlimited range, with the same exceptions.

The knights' moves are of an absolutely different kind. They
move from one corner of any rectangle of three squares by two to
the opposite corner; thus, in diagram 3, the white knight can
move to the square occupied by the black one, and vice versa, or a
knight could move from C to D, or D to C. The move may be
made in any direction. It is no obstacle to the knight's move if
squares A and B are occupied. It will be perceived that the
knight always moves to a square of a different colour.

The king, queen, rooks and bishops may capture any foeman
which stands anywhere within their respective ranges; and the
knights can capture the adverse men which stand upon the
squares to which they can leap. The piece which takes occupies
the square of the piece which is taken, the latter being removed
from the board. The king cannot capture any man which is
protected by another man.

The moves and capturing powers of the pawns are as follows: —
Each pawn for his first move may advance either one or two
squares straight forward, but afterwards one square only, and
this whether upon starting he exercised his privilege of moving
two squares or not. A pawn can never move backwards. He can
capture only diagonally — one square to his right or left front. A
pawn moves like a rook, captures like a bishop, but only one
square at a time. When a pawn arrives at an eighth square,
viz. at the extreme limit of the board, he may, at the option of
his owner, be exchanged for any other piece, so that a player
may, e.g., have two or more queens on the board at once.

Bp. Q. K. Dp. Kt.
WHITE.

"Check and Checkmate." The king can never be captured, but
when any piece or pawn attacks him, he is said to be " in check,"
and the fact of his being so attacked should be announced by the

BLACK.
abcdefgh

d e f g h

WHITE.

DIAGRAM 2. — Showing English and German Methods of Notation.

adverse player saying " check," whereupon the king must move
from the square he occupies, or be screened from check by the
interposition of one of his own men, or the attacking piece must
be captured. If, however, when the king is in check, none of
these things can be done, it is " checkmate " (Persian, shah mat,
the king is dead), known generally as " mate," whereupon the
game terminates, the player whose king has been thus check-
mated being the loser. When the adversary has only his king
left, it is very easy to checkmate him with only a queen and
king, or only a rook and king. The problem is less easy with
king and two bishops, and still less easy with king, knight and
bishop, in which case the opposing king has to be driven into a
corner square whose colour corresponds with the bishop's, mate
being given with the bishop. A king and two knights cannot
mate. To mate with king and rook the opposing king must be
driven on to one of the four side files and kept there with the
rook on the next file, till it is held by the other king, when the
rook mates.

The pawn gives check in the same way as he captures, viz.
diagonally. One king cannot give check to another, nor may a
king be moved into check.

" Check by discovery " is given when a player, by moving one
of his pieces, checks with another of them. "Double check"
means attacking the king at once with two
pieces — one of the pieces in this case giving
check by discovery.

" Perpetual check " occurs when one player,
seeing that he cannot win the game, finds the
men so placed that he can give check ad
infinitum, while his adversary cannot possibly
avoid it. The game is then drawn. A game is
also drawn " if, before touching a man, the K . , ,
player whose turn it is to play, claims that the KmSht s move,
game be treated as drawn, and proves that the existing position
existed, in the game and at the commencement of his turn of play,
twice at least before the present turn."

" Stalemate." When a king is not in check, but his owner has
no move left save such as would place the king in check, it is
" stalemate," and the game is drawn.

" Castling." This is a special move permitted to the king once
only in the game. It is performed in combination with either
rook, the king being moved two squares laterally, while the rook
towards which he is moved 'which must not have previously

CHESS

95

moved from its square) is placed next him on the other side; the
king must be touched first. The king cannot castle after having
been once moved, nor when any piece stands between him and
the rook, nor if he is in check, nor when he has to cross a square
commanded by an adverse piece or pawn, nor into check. It will
be perceived that after castling with the king's rook the latter
will occupy the KB square, while the king stands on the KKt
square, and if with the queen's rook, the latter will occupy the
queen's square while the king stands on the QB square.

" Taking en passant." This is a privilege possessed by any
of the pawns under the following circumstances: — If a pawn,
say of the white colour, stands upon a fifth square, say upon K.5
counting from the white side, and a black pawn moves from Qa
or KB 2 to Q4 or KB4 counting from the black side, the white
pawn can take the black pawn en passant. For the purposes of
such capture the latter is dealt with as though he had only moved
to Q3 or KB3, and the white pawn taking him diagonally then
occupies the square the captured pawn would have reached had
he moved but one square. The capture can be made only
on the move immediately succeeding that of the pawn to be
captured.

" Drawn Game." This arises from a stalemate (noticed
above), or from either player not having sufficient force where-
with to effect checkmate, as when there are only two kings
left on the board, or king and bishop against king, or king with
one knight, or two knights against king, or from perpetual
check. One of the players can call upon the other to give check-
mate in fifty moves, the result of failure being that the game is
drawn. But, if a pawn is moved, or a piece is captured, the
counting mus* begin again.

A " minor piece " means either a knight or a bishop. " Winning
the exchange " signifies capturing a rook in exchange for a
minor piece. A " passed pawn " is one that has no adverse
pawn either in front or on either of the adjoining files. A
" file "• is simply a line of squares extending vertically from
one end of the board to the other. An " open file " is one on
which no piece or pawn of either colour is standing. A pawn
or piece is en prise when one of the enemy's men can capture it.
" Gambit " is a word derived from the Ital. gambetlo, a tripping
up of the heels; it is a term used to signify an opening in which
a pawn or piece is sacrificed at the opening of a game to obtain
an attack. An " opening," or debut, is a certain set method
of commencing the game. When a player can only make one
legal move, that move is called a " forced move."

Value of the Pieces. — The relative worth of the chess-men
cannot be definitely stated on account of the increase or decrease
of their powers according to the position of the game and the
pieces, but taking the pawn as the unit the following will be
an estimate near enough for practical purposes: — pawn i,
bishop3-2S, knight 3-25, rook s.queeng-so. Three minor pieces
may mere often than not be advantageously exchanged for the
queen. The knight is generally stronger than the bishop in the
end game, but two bishops are usually stronger than two knights,
more especially in open positions.

Laws. — The laws of chess differ, although not very materially,
in different countries. Various steps have been taken, but as
yet without success, to secure the adoption of a universal code.
In competitions among English players the particular laws to
be observed are specially agreed upon, — the regulations most
generally adopted being those laid down at length in Staunton's
Chess Praxis, or the modification of the Praxis laws issued in
the name of the British Chess Association in_i862.

First Move and Odds. — To decide who moves first, one player
conceals a white pawn in one hand and a black pawn in the
other, his adversary not seeing in which hand the different pawns
are put. The other holds out his hands with the pawns concealed,
and his adversary touches one. If that contains the white pawn,
he takes the white men and moves first. If he draws the black
pawn his adversary has the first move, since white, by convention,
always plays first. Subsequently the first move is taken alter-
nately. If one player, by way of odds, " gives " his adversary
a pawn or piece, that piece is removed before play begins. If

the odds are " pawn and move," or " pawn and two," a black
pawn, namely, the king's bishop's pawn, is removed and white
plays one move, or any two moves in succession. " Pawn and
two " is generally considered to be slightly less in point of odds
than to give a knight or a bishop; to give a knight and a bishop
is to give rather more than a rook; a rook and bishop less than
a queen; two rooks rather more than a queen. The odds of
" the marked pawn" can only be given to a much weaker player.
A pawn, generally KB's pawn, is marked with a cap of paper.
If the pawn is captured its owner loses the game; he can also
lose by being checkmated in the usual way, but he cannot give
mate to his adversary with any man except the marked pawn,
which may not be moved to an eighth square and exchanged
for a piece.

Rules. — If a player touch one of his men he must move it,
unless he saysfadoube (I adjust), or words of a similar meaning,
to the effect that he was only setting it straight on its square.
If he cannot legally move a touched piece, he must move his
king, if he can, but may not castle; if not, there is no penalty.
He must say j'adoube before touching his piece. If a player
touch an opponent's piece, he must take it, if he can: if not,
move his king. If he can do neither, no penalty. A move is
completed and cannot be taken back, as soon as a player, having
moved a piece, has taken his hand off it. If a player is called
upon to mate under the fifty-move rule, " fifty moves " means
fifty moves and the forty-nine replies to them. A pawn that
reaches an eighth square must be exchanged for some other piece,
the move not being complete until this is done; a second king
cannot be selected.

Modes of Notation. — The English and German methods of
describing the moves made in a game are different. According to
the English method each player counts from his own side of
the board, and the moves are denoted by the names of the files
and the numbers of the squares. Thus when a player for his
first move advances the king's pawn two squares, it is described
as follows: — " i. P- K4." The following moves, with the aid
of diagram 2, will enable the reader to understand the principles
of the British notation. The symbol X is used to express
" takes "; a dash - to express " to."

White. Black.

1. P-K4 i.

2. KKt-KBs 2.

(i.e. King's Knight to the
third square of the King's
Bishop's file)

3. KB-QB4 3.

(King's Bishop to the fourth
square of the Queen's
Bishop's file)

4. P-QB3 4. KKt-KB3

5. P-Q4 5. P takes P (or PXP)

(King's pawn takes White's

eueen's pawn)
-QKtS (ch., i.e. check)
(Queen's Bishop's pawn
takes pawn : no other pawn
has a pawn en prise)

It is now usual to express the notation as concisely as possible;
thus, the third moves of White and Black would be given as
3. B - 64, because it is clear that only the fourth square of the
queen's bishop's file is intended.

The French names for the pieces are, King, Roi; Queen, Dame;
Rook, Tour; Knight, Cavalier; Pawn, Pion; for Bishop the
French substitute Fou, a jester. Chess is Les £checs.

The German notation employs the alphabetical characters
a, b, c, d, e, f, g and h, proceeding from left to right, and the
numerals i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, running upwards, these being
always calculated from the white side of the board (see diagram
2). Thus the White Queen's Rook's square is 01, the White
Queen's square is di; the Black Queen's square, d8; the
White King's square, ei; the Black King's square, e8, and so
with the other pieces and squares. The German names of the
pieces are as follows: — King, Konig; Queen, Dame; Rook,
Turm; Bishop, Lttufer; Knight, Springer; Pawn, Bauer;
Chess, Schach.

P-K4

QKt-QB3

(i.e. Queen's Knight to the
third square of the Queen's
Bishop's file)

KB-QB4

96

CHESS

The initials only of the pieces are given, the pawns (.Bauern)
being understood. The Germans use the following signs in their
notation, viz.:— for " check " (f); " checkmate " (J); " takes "
(:); " castles on king's side " (o-o); "castles on queen's side "
(o-o-o); for " best move " a note of admiration (I); for " weak
move " a note of interrogation ( ?). The opening moves just given
in the English will now be given in the German notation: —

White.

1. 62-64

2. S gi-f3

3.

4.

5.
6.

gi-t
Lfi-c

C2— C3

Black.

1. e;-es

2. Sb8-c6
3- Lf8-cs
4. Sg8

5-
6.

-cs
-f6!

In both notations the moves are often given in a tabular form,
thus:—

I. p_KT i. - _ 1 > the moves above the line being White's
and below the line Black s. •

Illustrative Games. — The text-books should be consulted by
students who wish to improve their game. The following are
some of the leading openings: —

9.
10.

II.

I.

2.

3-
4-
5-
6.

I:

9-
10.
ii.

White.

P-K4

KKt-B3

B-B4

P-B3

B-Q2

QKtXB

PXP

Q-Kt3

Castles (K's side)

Giuoco PIANO.

i.

2.

3-
4-
5-
6.

8.

9-
10.
ii.

White.

P-K4

KKt-B3

B-Kts

B-R4

E=8J

Castles

R-Ksq

BXKt

KtXP

Kt-QB3

Even game.
RUY LOPEZ.

Even game.

i.
2.
3-

4-

t

8.

9-
10.
ii.

Black.
P-K4
QKt-B3
B-B4
Kt-KB3
PXP

B-Kts (ch)
BXB (ch)

P-Q4
KKtXP
QKt-K2
Castles

Black.
P-K4
QKt -83

Kt-B3

PXP

Kt-Ks

B-K2

Kt-B4

QPXB

Castles

P-KB3

GAMBIT.

Black.

1. P-K4

2. QKt -B3
3- PXP

B-B4

SCOTCH
White.

1. P-K4

2. KKt-Bs

4! B-Q?H

5- P-B3 5- Kt-B3
6. PXP

The position here arrived at is the same as in the Giuoco Piano
opening above.

EVANS GAMBIT.

White. Black.

1. P-K4 i. P-K4

2. KKt-B3 2. QKt -83
3- B-B4 3. B-B4

4. P-QKt4 4. BXKtP

5- P-B3 5- B-B4

6. P-Q4 6. PXP

7. Castles 7.

8. PXP 8.

White has for its ninth move three approved continuations, viz.
B-Kt2, P-Qs, and Kt-B3. To take one of them:—

P-Q5 9- Kt-R4

B-Kt2 10. Kt-K2

B-Q3 ii. Castles

Kt-B3 12. Kt-Kt3

Kt-K2 13. " —

14.

_sq 15.

9-

10.
ii.

12.
13-
14-

16. QR-B sq 16. R-Kt sq

This game may be considered about even.

B-B2

I.
2.
3.

4.

5-
6.

7-
8.
9-

10.

ii.

5-
6.

8.

9.
10.
ii.
12.

KING'S KNIGHT'S GAMBIT (PROPER).

White. Black.

P-KA i. P-K4

P-KB4 2. PXP

KKt-B3 3. P-KKt4

B-B4 4. B-Kt2

Castles 5. P-Q3

P-Q4 6. P-RT13

P-B3 7. Kt-K2
Black has the advantage.

ALLGAIER-KIESERITZKI GAMBIT.

White. Black.

P-K4 i. P-K4

P-KB4 2. PXP

Kt-KB3 3. P-KKt4

P-KR4 4. P-Kt5

Kt-K5 5. KKt-%3

6-64 6. P-Q4

PXP 7. B-Kt2

P-Q4 8. Castles

BXP 9. KtXP

BXKt 10. QXB

Castles ii. P — QB4
Black has the better game.

White.

KING'S BISHOP'S GAMBIT.

P-KB4

15.

K-Bsq
KKt-B3

P-KR4
Kt-B3
K — Kt sq
Kt-Ks
PXB

1$ "> •

Q-Kt2

4
5.
6.
7.

9

White.

1. P-K4

2. P-KB4

3. KKt-B3

4. 8-84
5- Kt-Ks

6. K-B sq

7. P— Q4

8. Kt— QB3

9. Kt-Q3
10. KXP

n. Kt-KB4

12. B-K3

13. QKt-Qs '
H- P-B3

Black.

1. P-K4

2. PXP

3- P-Q4
Q-R5 (ch)
P-KKt4

-R4
-Kt2

8. P-KR3

9. Kt-K2

10. P-Kts

11. BXKt

12. QXKP

13. P-B6

14. Q-Kt6 (ch)

Drawn game.

SALVIO GAMBIT.

Black.

1. P-K4

2. PXP

3. P-KKt4

4- P-Kts

5- Q-Rs(ch)

6. Kt-KR3

7. P-B6
8- P-Q3

9. PXP (ch)

10. B-Kt2

11. Kt-B3

12. Castles

13- QrQsq

White has a slight advantage.
Muzio GAMBIT.

P-K4 P-l
l- P-K4 2- PXi

£84 KKt-B3 6-84

P 3- P-KKt4 * P-Kt5

White.

Black.

5. Castles

5- PXKt

6. QXP

7. P-KS

6. Q-B3
7- QXP

8. P-Q3
9. B-Q2

8. B-R3
9. Kt-K2

10. Kt-B3
n. QR-K sq

10. QKt -63
ii. Q-KB4

12. R-K4

12. Castles

13- QBXP

13. B-Kt2

14. Q-K2
15. BXBP

14. P-Q4
15 Q-Kt4

16. P-KR4

16. Q-Kt3

17. KtXP

17. KtXKt

18. BXKt

18. 8-64

19. QR-KB4

19- B-K3

20. BXB

20. PXB

21. R-K4

21. RXR (ch)

22. KXR

22. R-B sq (ch)

23. K-Kt sq

23. Kt-Qs

And Black

has the better game.

CHESS

97

QUEEN'S GAMBIT.

QUEEN'S GAMBIT DECLINED.

White. Black.

White. Black. White. Black.

i. P— Q4 i. P— Q4

W. Steinitz. Dr E. Lasker. W. Steinitz. Dr E. Lasker.

2. P-QB4 2. PXP
3- P-K3 3- P-K4
4. BXP 4- PXP

I. P-Q4 P-Q4
2. P-QBA P-Rj
3. Kt-QB3 Kt-KB3

21. Kt-B3 Kt-Qs
22. QXP KtXB (ch)
23. PxKt R-Ktsq

6. Kt-KB3 6! Kt-KB3

4. B-B4 B-K2
5. P-K3 Castles

24. QXP R-Kt3
25. Q-BA RXP

7. Ca-tles 7. Castles

6. R-B sq P-B4

26. P-KR4 B-R2

8. P-KR3 8. P-KR3

7. QPXP BXP

27. B — K4 Q — Q3

9. Kt-QB3 9. P-QB3

8. PXP PXP

28. P-B4 Q-Q2

The game is about equal, though White has a somewhat freer

9. Kt-B3 Kt-B3

29. B — Kt2 Q — Kts

position.
The following is a selection of noteworthy games played by

io- B-Q3 P-Qs
n. PXP KtXP
12. Castles B-KKts

30. Q-Q3 Kt-B4
31. Kt-K4 B-K6
32. R-B3 RXB

great masters: —

13. Kt-QKts BXKt

33. KXR KtXP(ch)

KING'S BISHOP'S GAMBIT.

14. P-B Kt-K3
15. B-K5 Kt-R4

34. K-R2 KtXR (ch)
35. K-Kt2 Kt-Rs (ch)

White. Black.

16. K-Rsq Q-Kt4

36. K-R2 Kt-B4

Anderssen. Kieseritzki.

17. B-Kt3 QR-Q sq

37- R-QKtsq P-R4

I. P-KA I..P-K4
2. P-K&4 2. PXP

18. Q-B2 Q-RS
19. QR-Qsq 1 -Bsq

38. R-KtS R-Rsq
39. P-R3 RXP

3- 6-64 3. Q-RS (ch)
4. K-B sq 4. P-QKt4
5. BXKtP 5. Kt-KB3
6. Kt-KB3 6. Q-R3
7- P-Q3 7- Kt-R4

20. Q-Kt3 P-R3 Resigns.

This game was played in the St Petersburg tournament, 1895, a
fine specimen of Lasker's style. The final attack, beginning with
21. with Kt-Qs, furnishes a gem of an ending.

8. Kt-R4 8. Q-Kt4
9- Kt-B5 9. P-QB3
10. P-KKt4 io. Kt-B3

RICE C
White. Black.

AMBIT.

White. Black.

ii. R-Kt sq n. PXB

Professor Major

Professor Major

12. P-KR4 12. Q-Kt3

Rice. Hanham.

Rice. Hanham.

13- P-R5 13- Q-Kt4

I. P-KA P-K4

IS- Q-R3 Kt-B7

14. Q-B3 14. Kt-Ktsq

2. P-KRi PXP

16. RXB (ch) B-K3

IS- BXP 15- Q-B3
16. Kt-B3 16. 8-84

3. Kt-KB3 P-KKt4
4. P-KR4 P-Kts

17- K-B sq Q-R8(ch)
18. Kt-Ktsq Kt-R6

17. Kt-Qs 17- QXKtP

5. Kt-K5 Kt-KB3

19. PXKt P-B6

18. B-Q6 18. QXR (ch)

6. 8-64 P-Q4

20. B- Kt5 Q-Kt7(ch)

19. K-K2 19. BXR

7. PXP B-Q3

21. K-Ksq P-B7(ch)

20. P-Ks 20. Kt-QR3

8. Castles BXKt

22. K-Q2 P-B8 = Kt

White mates in three moves.

9. R-K sq Q-K2

(ch)

io. P-B3 P-Kt6

23- K-Q3 K-Q2

PHILIDOR'S DEFENCE.

ii. P-Q4 Kt-Kts

24. PXB (ch) K-B2

White. Black.

12. Kt-Q2 QXP

25- Q-K7 (ch) K-Kt3

Barnes. Morphy.

15. Kt-B3 Q-R3
14. Q-R4(ch)P-B3

26. Q-Q8 (ch) RXQ
27. BXQ and mates

i. P — K4 i. P — K4

2 Kt — KB* 2 P— Oi

The Rice Gambit (so called after its inventor, Prof. Isaac L. Rice

*• 1 vL iVUJ ^. 1 )<O

3- P-Q4 3- P-KB4

4. PXKP 4. BPXP

5. Kt-Kts 5. P-QA
6 P — K6 6 B — 064

of New York), whether right or not, is only possible if Black plays
7. B-Q3. Paulsen's 7. B-Kt2 is better, and avoids unnecessary
complications. 8. P-Q4 is the usual move. Leaving the knight
en prise, followed by 9. R-Ksq, constitutes the Rice Gambit.

7- Kt-B7 7. Q-63
8. B-K3 8. P-Qs
9. B — KKtS 9' Q — 64

The interesting points in the game are that White subjects himself
to a most violent attack with impunity, for in the end Black could
not save the game by 22. P-B8 claiming a second queen with a

io. KtXR "" io. QXB

discovered check, nor by claiming a knight with double check, as

ii. 8-84 ii. Kt-QB3

it is equally harmless to White.

12. Kt-B7 12. QXP
13. R-B sq 13. Kt-Bt

Giuoco PIANO.

114. P-KB3 14. Kt-QKtS

White. Black.

White. Black.

15. Kt-QR3 15. BXP

Steinitz. Bardeleben.

Steinitz. Bardeleben.

16. BXB 16. Kt-Q6 (ch)

i. P-K4 P-K4

14. R-Ksq. P-KB3

17- QxKt 17. PXQ

18. Castles 18. BXKt

2. Kt-KB3 Kt-QB3
3. 6-84 B-BA

IS- Q-K2 Q-Q2
16. QR-B sq P-83

19. B-Kt3 19. P-Q7 (ch)

4. P-B3 Kt-B3

17- P-Qs PXP

20. K — Kt sq 20. 8 — 84

5. P-Q4 PXP

18. Kt-Q4 K-B2

21. Kt-Ks 21. K-Bsq
22. Kt-Q3 22. R-K sq
23. KtXB 23. QXR

6. PXP B-KtS (ch)
7. Kt-B3 P-Q4
8. PXP KKtXP

19. Kt-K6 KR-QBsq
20. Q-Kt4 P-KK13
21. Kt-Kts(ch) K-Ksq

And White resigns.

9. Castles B-K3
io. B-KKts B-K2

22. RXKt (ch) K-Bsq
23. R-B7 (ch) K-Kt sq

BISHOP'S GAMBIT.
White. Black. White. Black.

II. BXKt QBXB
12. KtXB QXKt
13. BXB KtXB

24. R-Kt7 (ch) K-Rsq
25. RXP (ch) Resigns.

Charousek. Tchigorin. Charousek. Tchigorin.
i. P-K4 P-K4 13. QXP (ch) K-K2
2. P-KB4 PXP 14. KtXP KtXKt
3. 8-84 Kt-QB3 15. BXKt P-R3
4. P-Q4 Kt-B3 16. Kt-B3 6-85
5. P-Ks P-Q4 17. P-K6 R-B sq

As a matter of fact, Bardeleben left the board here, and lost the
game by letting his clock run out the time-limit; but Steinitz,
who remained at the board, demonstrated afterwards the following
variation leading to a forced win : —

White. Black. . White. Black.

6. B-Kt3 B-KtS 18. 8-87 PXP

Steinitz. Bardeleben.

Steinitz. Bardeleben.

7- Q-Q3 Kt-KR4 19. BXQ(ch) RXB
8. Kt-KR3 Kt-Kts 20. Q-Kt7 (ch) R-Q2
9- Q-QB3 Kt-R3 21. R-B7 (ch) KXR
io. Castles B-K7 22. QXR (ch) B-K2
II. B-R4(ch)P-B3 23. R-Ksq R-Ksq

25 K-Kt sq

31. Q-Kt8 (ch) K-K2
32. Q-B7 (ch) K-Qsq
33- Q-B8 (ch) Q-K sq
34- Kt-B7 (ch) K-Q2
35- Q — Q6 mate.

26. R-Kt7 (ch) K-Rsq
27. Q-R4 (ch) KXR
28. Q-R7 (ch) K-B sq
29. Q-R8 (ch) K-K2

12. BXP(ch) PXB 24. P-QKt3 Resigns.

30. Q-Kt? (ch) K-Ksq

This pretty game was played in the tie match for first prize at

This game was awarded the prize for " brilliancy " at the Hastings

the Budapest tournament, 1896.

tournament, 1895.

vi. 4

98

CHESS

RUY LOPEZ.

White.
Halprin.

1. P-Ki

2. Kt-KB3

3. B-Kts

4. Castles

5. P-Q4

6. PXP

7. P-QR4

8. P-K6

9. PXKt

10. Kt-B3

11. Kt-Kts

12. Q-RS
13- BXB

Black.
Pillsbury.
P-K4
Kt-QB3
Kt-B3
KtXP

White.
Halprin.
14. P-Kt6

15- Kt-Q§

16. KRrK sq (ch) K-B sq

Black.
Pillsbury.
BPXP
PXKt

17. R-R3

18. RXKt

19. R-B3(ch)

20. B-R6

21. BXP

22. R-Kt3 (ch)

23. R-B3 (ch)

24. R-Kt3(ch)

25. R-B3(ch)

Draw.

Kt-K4

PXR

K-Ktsq

Q-K2

KXB

K-Bsq

K-Kt2

K-Bsq

K-Ktsq

KtXB

P-Q3

PXP

Kt-K2

Kt-Kt3

B-K2

BXKt

Q-Q2

This brilliant game, played at the Munich tournament, 1900,
would be unique had the combinations occurred spontaneously in
the game. As a matter of fact, however, the whole variation had
been elaborated by Maroczy and Halprin previously, on the chance
of Pillsbury adopting the defence in the text. The real merit
belongs to Pillsbury, who had to find the correct defence to an
attack which Halprin had committed to memory and simply had to
be careful to make the moves in regular order.

SICILIAN DEFENCE.

White. Black.

White. Black.

Pillsbury. Mieses.

Pillsbury. Mieses.

i. P-K4 P-QB4
2. Kt-KBs P-K3

16. PXP Kt-Qs
17. BXR KXB

3. P-Q4 PXP

18. R-R2 B-Ks

4. KtXP Kt-KB3

19. R-Q2 R-Ks,

5. Kt-QB3 Kt-B3

20. Castles B-Kt6

6. KKt-Kts B-KtS

21. Q-Ktsq B-Q4

7. P-QR3 BXKt(ch)

22. B-Qsq BXP

8. KtXB P-Q4

23. KXB Q-Kt4(ch)

9. PXP PXP

24. K-Rsq QXR

10. B-KKt5 Castles

25. B-Kt4 Q-Bs

n. B-K2 P-Qs

26. R-Kt sq P-B4

12. Kt-K4 Q-R4 (ch)

27. B-Rs Kt-B6

13. P-Kt4 Q-K4

28. BXKt QXB (ch)

14. KtXKt (ch) PXKt
15. B-R6 P-Q6

29. R-K12 R-K?
30. Q-QBsq QXQP

Drawn eventually.

This brilliant game occurred at the Paris tournament, 1900.

EVANS GAMBIT.

White. Black.

White. Black.

Anderssen. Dufresne.

Anderssen. Dufresne.

i. P-K4 P-K4

13. Q-R4 B-Kts

2. Kt-KB3 Kt-QB3

14. QKt-Q2 B-Kt2

3. 6-64 6-64

15. Kt — K4 Q — 84

4. P-QKt4 BXP

16. BXP Q-R4

5. P-B3 B-R4

17. Kt-B6 (ch) PXKt

6. P-Q4 PXP

18. PXP R-Ktsq

7. Castles P-Q6

19. QR-Qsq QXKt

g. O — Kt3 Q — 83

20. RXKt (ch) KtXR

9. P-Ks Q-Kt3

21. QXP (ch) KXQ

10. R-Ksq KKt-K2

22. B-Bs(ch) K-Ksq

11. B-Rs P-Kt4
12. QXP R-QKtsq

23. B — Q7 (ch) K moves
24. B X Kt mate.

This game is most remarkable and brilliant. The coup de repos
of 19. QR — Q sq is the key-move to the brilliant final combination,

the depth and subtlety of which have never been equalled, except

perhaps in the following game between Zukertort and Blackburne: —

ENGLISH OPENING.

White. Black.

White. Black.

Zukertort. Blackburne.

Zukertort. Blackburne.

I. P-QB4 P-Ks
2. P-K3 Kt-KB3
3. Kt-KB3 P-QKts

18. P-K4 , QR = QBsq
19. P-Ks Kt-Ksq
20. P-B4 P-Kts

4. B-K2 B-Kt2

21. R-Ks P-B4

5. Castles P — Q4

22. PXPe. p. KtXP

6. P-Q4 B-Q3

23. P-Bs Kt-Ks

7. Kt — 83 Castles

24. BXKt PXB

8. P-QKts QKt-Q2

25. PxKtP R-B7

9. B-Kt2 Q-K2

26. PXP(ch) K-Rsq

10. Kt-QKts Kt-Ks
ii. KtXB PXKt
12. Kt-Q2 'QKt-Bs
13. P-Bs KtXKt

27- P-Q5dis. (ch) P-K4
28. Q-Kt4 QR-B4
29. R-B8(ch) KXP
30. QXP(ch) K-Kt2

14. QXKt PXP

31. BXP(ch) KXR

15. BXP P-Q4

32. B-Kt7(ch) K-Ktsq

16. B-Qs KR-Bsq
17. QR-Ksq R-B2

33- QXQ Resigns.

This game, played in the London tournament, 1883, is one of the

most remarkable productions of modern times, neither surpassed

nor indeed equalled hitherto.

End Games. — A game of chess consists of three branches — the ^
opening, the middle and the end game. The openings have
been analysed and are to be acquired by the study of the books
on the subject. The middle game can only be acquired practically.
The combinations being inexhaustible in their variety, individual
ingenuity has its full scope. Those endowed with a fertile
imagination will evolve plans and combinations leading to
favourable issues. The less endowed player, however, is not left
quite defenceless; he has necessarily to adopt a different system,
namely, to try to find a weak point in the arrangement of his
opponent's forces and concentrate his attack on that weak spot.
As a matter of fact, in a contest between players of equal strength,
finding the weak point in the opponent's armour is the only
possible plan, and this may be said to be the fundamental
principle of the modern school. In the good old days the battles
were mostly fought in the neighbourhood of the king, each side
striving for a checkmate. Nowadays the battle may be fought
anywhere. It is quite immaterial where the advantage is gained
be it ever so slight. Correct continuation will necessarily increase
it, and the opponent may be compelled to surrender in the end
game without being checkmated, or a position may be reached
when the enemies, in consequence of the continual fight, are so
reduced that the kings themselves have to take the field — the
end game. The end game, therefore, requires a special study.
It has its special laws and the value of the pieces undergoes a
considerable change. The kings leave their passive r61e and
become attacking forces. The pawns increase in value, whilst
that of the pieces may diminish in certain cases. Two knights,
for instance, without pawns, become valueless, as no checkmate
can be effected with them. In the majority of cases the players
must be guided by general principles, as the standard examples
do not meet all cases.

The handbooks as a rule give asprinklingof elementary endings,
such as to checkmate with queen, rook, bishop and knight,
two bishops, and pawn endings pure and simple, as well as pawns
in connexion with pieces in various forms. Towards the' end of
the ipth century a valuable work on end games was published
in England by the late B. Horwitz; thus for the first time a
theoretical classification of the art was given. This was followed
by a more comprehensive work by Professor J. Berger of Gratz,
which was translated a few years later by the late Mr Freeborough.

A few specimens of the less accessible positions are given
below : —

Position from a Game played by the late J. G. Campbell in 1863.

BLACK.

Obviously White has to lose the
game, not being able to prevent the.
pawns from queening. By a re-
markably ingenious device White
averts the loss of the game by
stalemating himself as follows: —

i. B-Q2, P-Kt7; 2. B-Rs,
P-Kt8 = Q; 3. P-Kt4 stale-
mate.

Position by Sarratt, 1808.
BLACK.

WHITE.

White wins as follows : —

i. P-Kt6, RPXP; 2. P-B6,
P(Kt2)XP; 3. P-R6 and wins
by queening the pawn. If
I. ... BPXP then 2. P-R6,
KtPXP; 3- P — B6 and queens
the pawn.

WHITE.

CHESS

99

Problems. — A chess problem ' has been described as " merely
a position supposed to have occurred in a game of chess, being
none other than the critical point where your antagonist announces
checkmate in a given number of moves, no matter what defence
you play," but the above description conveys no idea of the

Position by B. Horwitz.
BLACK.

As a rule the game should be
drawn. Supposing by a series of
checks White were to compel Black
to abandon the pawn, he would
move K-R8; QXP and Black is
stale-mate. Therefore the ingenious
way to win is: —

I. K-B4, P-B8=Q ch; K-
Kt3 and wins. Or; I . . . . K —
R8 (threatening P — B8 = Kt); then
2. Q— Q2 preliminary to K — Kt3

now wins.

WHITE.

Position by B. Horwitz.

BLACK-

Without Black's pawn White
could only draw. The pawn being
on the board, White wins as
follows : —

i. Kt-B4, K-Kt sq; ~2.
Kt (B4)-K3, K-R sq; 3.
K - Kt4, K - Kt sq; 4. K - RS,
K-Rsq; 5. Kt-BA, K-Kt sq;
6.3 Kt (B4)-Q2, K-R sq; 7.
Kt - Kt3 ch, K-Kt sq; 8.
Kt-B3 mate.

Position by B. Horwitz.
BLACK.

WHITE.

White wins with two pieces against
one — a rare occurrence.

i. Kt-K6, B-R3; 2. B-Q4
ch, K-R2; 3. 8-83, B moves
anywhere not en prise; 4. B — Kt7
and Kt mates.

Position by 0. Schubert.

BLACK.

WHITE.

White wins as follows : —

i. P-Kts, Kt-Kts; 2. K-Bs,
Kt-K6; 3. B-K6, Kt-B8; 4.
BXP, Kt-Q7 ch; 5. K-Kt4,
KtXP; 6. P-Kt6, Kt-B3, ch;
7. K-Kt5, P-K5; 8. KXKt,
P-K6; 9. 8-84, KXB; 10.
P-Kt7, P-K7; u. P-Kt8 = Q
ch, and wins by the simple process
of a series of checks so timed that
the king may approach systematic-
ally. The fine points in this instruc-
tive ending are the two bishop's
moves, 3. B — K6, and 9. 8 — 84,
the latter move enabling White to
queen the pawn with a check.

degree to which problem-composing has become a specialized
study. Owing its inception, doubtless, to the practice of recording
critical phases from actual play, the art of problem composition
has so grown in favour as to earn the title of the " poetry " of
the game.

1 The earliest known problem is ascribed to an Arabian caliph of
the gth century. The first known collection is in a manuscript (in
the British Museum) of King Alphonso of Castile, dated 1250; it
contains 103 problems. The collection of Nicolas of Lombardy,
dated 1300, comprises 192 problems.

WHITE.

A good chess problem exemplifies chess strategy idealized and
concentrated. In examples of actual play there will necessarily
remain on the board pieces immaterial to the issue (checkmate),
whereas in problems the composer employs only indispensable
force so as to focus attention on the idea, avoiding all material
Position by F. Amelung.

BLACK.

WHITE.

White with the inferior position
saves the game as follows : —

i. P-R6, PXP; 2. K-B3 dis.
ch, K moves; 3. R — R2, or Kt2 ch,
KXR; 4. K-Kt2 and draw, as
Black has to give up the rook, and
the RP cannot be queened, the Black
bishop having no power on the
White diagonal. Extremely subtle.

Position by B. Horwitz.
BLACK.

The main idea being to checkmate
with the bishop, this is accomplished
thus:— i. B-K4 ch, K-IU; 2.
QXR, QXQ; 3- K-B7, Q-B sq
ch; 4. KXQ, BXP;

BXP; 6. B-Kt6mate.

5. K-B7,

Position by A. Troilzky.

BLACK.

WHITE.

White wins as follows : —

i. P-R8=Q, R-Kt7 ch; 2.
K-Kts, RXQ; 3. Kt-Q7 ch,
K-Kt2; 4. P-B6 ch, K-R2;
5- QPXKt, R-R sq; 6. Kt-Bj

^

WHITE.

ch,KXKt;7. PXR = Ktmate.

Position by Hoffer.
BLACK.

A position from actual play.
White plays i. R — 85 threatening
to win a piece. Black replies with
the powerful Kt — Kt5, threatening
two mates, and finally White (Mr
Hoffer) finds an ingenious sacrifice
of the Queen — the saving clause.

The following are the moves: —

i. R-Bs, Kt-Kts; 2. Q-Kt8
ch, K-Kt3; 3. Q-K6 ch, K-R2;
4. Q — Kt8 ch, and drawn by per-
petual check, as Black cannot cap-
ture the Queen with K or R without
losing the game.

WHITE.

which would tend to " obscure the issue." Hence the first
object in a problem is to extract the maximum of finesse with a
sparing use of the pieces, but " economy of force " must be
combined with " purity of the mate." A very common mistake,
until comparatively recent years, was that of appraising the
" economy " of a position according to the slenderness of the
force used, but economy is not a question of absolute values. The
true criterion is the ratio of the force employed to the skill
demanded. The earliest composers strove to give their produc-
tions every appearance of real play, and indeed their compositions

100

CHESS

partook of the nature of ingenious end-games, in which it was
usual to give Black a predominance of force, and to leave the
White king in apparent jeopardy. From this predicament he
was extricated by a series of checking moves, usually involving
a number of brilliant sacrifices. The number of moves was
rarely less than five. In the course of time the solutions were
reduced to shorter limits and the beauty of quiet (non-checking)
moves began to make itself felt. The early transition school, as
it has been called, was the first to recognize the importance of
economy, i.e. the representation of the main strategic point
without any extraneous force. The mode of illustrating
single-theme problems, often of depth and beauty, was being
constantly improved, and the problems of C. Bayer, R. Willmers,
S. Loyd, J. G. Campbell, F. Healey, " J. B." of Bridport, and W.
Grimshaw are, of their kind, unsurpassed. In the year 1845 the
" Indian " problem attracted much notice, and in 1861 appeared
Healey's famous " Bristol " problem. To this period must be
ascribed the discovery of most of those clever ideas which have
been turned to such good account by the later school. In an
article written in 1899 F. M. Teed mentions the fact that his
incomplete collection of " Indians " totalled over three hundred.

In 1870 or thereabouts, the later transition period, a more
general tendency was manifest to illustrate two or more finished
ideas in a single problem with strict regard to purity and economy,
the theory of the art received greater attention than before and
the essays of C. Schwede, Kohtz and Kockelkorn, Lehner and
Gelbfuss, helped to codify hitherto unwritten rules of taste. The
last quarter of the igth century, and its last decade especially,
saw a marked advance in technique, until it became a common
thing to find as much deep and quiet play embodied in a single
first-class problem as in three or four of the old-time problems,
and hence arose the practice of blending several distinct ideas in.
one elaborate whole.

In the composition of " two-movers " it is customary to allow
greater elasticity and a less rigorous application of the principles
of purity and economy. By this means a greater superficial
complexity is attained; but the Teutonic and Bohemian schools,
and even English and American two-move specialists, recognize
that complexity, if it involves the sacrifice of first principles, is
liable to abuse. The blind master, A. F. Mackenzie of Jamaica,
however, with a few others (notably T. Taverner, W. Gleave,
H. and E. Bcttman and P. F. Blake) have won some of their
greatest successes with problems which, under stricter ruling,
would not be allowed.

Bohemian (Czech) composers have long stood unrivalled as
exponents of that blending of ideas which is the distinguishing
trait of the later problem. Such is their skill in construction
that it is rare to find in a problem of the Bohemian school fewer
than three or four lines of play which, in economy and purity,
are unimpeachable. Amongst the earliest composers of this
class Anton Konig, the founder of the school, Makovky, Drtina,
Palct and Pilnacek deserve to be honourably mentioned, but it
was not until the starting of a chess column in the weekly journal
Svetozor that the merits of the new school were fully asserted. It
was in 1871 that Jan Dobrusky contributed his first composition
to that paper: he was followed by G. Chocholous, C. Kondelik,
Pospisil, Dr Mazel, Kviciala, KesI, Tuzar, Musil and J. Kotrc;
and later still, Havel, Traxler and Z. Mach were no unworthy
followers of Dobrusky.

The faculty for blending variations is not without " the defects
of its qualities," and consequently among the less able composers
a certain tendency to repeat combinations of similar companion
ideas is discernible at times, while the danger that facile con-
struction might usurp the place of originality and strategy was
already apparent to Chocholous when, in an article on the
classification of chess problems (Deutsche Schachzeitung, 1890), he
warned the younger practitioners of the Bohemian school against
what has been dubbed by H. Von Gottschall Varianten-leierei,
or " the grinding out of variations." When this one reservation
is made few will be inclined to dispute the pre-eminence
of the Bohemian school. To some tastes, however, a greater
appeal is made by the deeper play of the older German school,

the quaint fancy of the American composer Samuel Loyd, or the
severity and freedom from " duals " which mark the English
composers.

The idea of holding a problem competition open to the world
was first mooted in connexion with the chess congress of 1851,
but it was in 1854 that a tourney (confined to British composers)
was first held. Since then a number of important problem
tournaments have been held.

History of Chess.

The origin of chess is lost in obscurity. Its invention has been
variously ascribed to the Greeks, Romans, Babylonians, Scythians,
Egyptians, Jews, Persians, Chinese, Hindus, Arabians, Arau-
canians, Castilians, Irish and Welsh. Some have endeavoured
to fix upon particular individuals as the originators of the game;
amongst others upon Japheth, Shem, King Solomon, the wife of
Ravan, king of Ceylon, the philosopher Xerxes, the Greek chieftain
Palamedes, Hermes, Aristotle, the brothers Lydo and Tyrrhene,
Semiramis, Zenobia, Attalus (d. c. 200 B.C.), the mandarin Han-
sing, the Brahman Sissa and Shatrenscha, stated to be a celebrated
Persian astronomer. Many of these ascriptions are fabulous,
others rest upon little authority, and some of them proceed from
easily traceable errors, as where the Roman games of Ludus
Latruncidorum and Lttdus Calculorum, the Welsh recreation of
Tawlbwrdd (throw-board) and the ancient Irish pastime of
FithcheaU are assumed to be identical with chess; so far as the
Romans and Welsh are concerned, the contrary can be proved,
while from what little is known of the Irish game it appears not
to have been a sedentary game at all. The claims 'of the Chinese
were advocated in a letter addressed by Mr Eyles Irwin in 1793
to the earl Charlemont. This paper was published in the Trans-
actions of the Roy all risk Academy, and its purport was that chess,
called in the Chinese tongue chong-ki (the " royal game ") was
invented in the reign of Kao-Tsu, otherwise Lin-Pang, then king,
but afterwards emperor of Kiang-Nang, by a mandarin named
Han-sing, who was in command of an army invading the Shen-Si
country, and who wanted to amuse his soldiers when in winter
quarters. This invasion of the Shen-Si country by Han-Sing took
place about 174 B.C. Capt. Hiram Cox states that the game is
called by the Chinese choke-choo-hong ki, " the play of the science
of war." (See also a paper published by the Hon. Daines
Barrington in the gth vol. of the Archoeologia.) Mr N. Bland,
M.R.A.S., in his Persian Chess (London, 1850), endeavours to
prove that the Persians were the inventors of chess, and maintains
that the game, born in Persia, found a home in India, whence
after a series of ages it was brought back to its birthplace. The
view, however, which has obtained the most credence, is that
which attributes the origin of chess to the Hindus. Dr Thomas
Hyde of Oxford, writing in 1694 (De Ludis Orienlalibus) , seems
to have been the first to propound this theory, but he appears to
have been ignorant of the game itself, and the Sanskrit records
were not accessible in his time. About 1783-1789 Sir William
Jones, in an essay published in the 2nd vol. of Asiatic Researches,
argued that Hindustan was the cradle of chess, the game having
been known there from time immemorial by the name of chatur-
anga, that is, the four angas, or members of an army, which are
said in the Amarakosha to be elephants, horses, chariots and foot
soldiers. As applicable to real armies, the term chaturanga is fre-
quently used by the epic poets of India. Sir William Jones's essay
is substantially a translation of the Bhawishya Purana, in which
is given a description of a four-handed game of chess played with
dice. A pundit named Rhadhakant informed him that this was
mentioned in the oldest law books, and also that it was invented
by the wife of Ravan, king of Lanka (Ceylon), in the second age
of the world in order to amuse that monarch while Rama was
besieging his metropolis. This account claims for chess an
existence of 4000 or 5000 years. Sir William, however, grounds
his opinions as to the Hindu origin of chess upon the testimony of
the Persians and not upon the above manuscript, while he con-
siders the game described therein to be more modern than the
Persian game. Though sure that the latter came from India and
was invented there, he admits that he could not find any account

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101

of it in the classical writings of the Brahmans. He lays it down
that chess, under the Sanskrit name chaturanga, was exported from
India into Persia in the 6th century of our era; that by a natural
corruption the old Persians changed the name into chatrang, but
when their country was soon afterwards taken possession of by the
Arabs, who had neither the initial nor final letter of the word in
their alphabet, they altered it further into shatranj, which name
found its way presently into modern Persian and ultimately into
the dialects of India.

Capt. Hiram Cox, in a letter upon Burmese chess, written in
1799 and published in the 7th vol. of Asiatic Researches, refers to
the above essay, and considers the four-handed game described
in the Sanskrit manuscript to be the most ancient form of chess,
the Burmese and Persian games being second and third in order
of precedence. Later, in the nth and 24th vols. of the Archaeo-
logia, Mr Francis Douce and Sir Frederick Madden expressed
themselves in favour of the views held by Hyde and his followers.

In ProfessorDuncanForbes'sfiTi5/or3'o/CAew(i86o)Capt. Cox's
views, as founded upon Sir William Jones's Sanskrit manuscript,
are upheld and are developed into an elaborate theory. Professor
Forbes holds that the four-handed game of chaturanga described
in the Bhawishya Pur ana was the primeval form of chess; that
it was invented by a people whose language was Sanskrit (the
Hindus) ; and that it was known and practised in India from a
time lost in the depths of a remote antiquity, but for a period the
duration of which may have been from 3000 to 4000 years before
the 6th century of the Christian era. He endeavours to show, but
adduces no proof, how the four armies commanded by four kings
in Sir William Jones's manuscript became converted into two
opposing armies, and how two of the kings were reduced to a
subordinate position, and became " monitors " or " counsellors,"
one standing by the side of the White and the other of the Black
king, these counsellors being thefarzins from which we derive our
" queens." Among other points he argues, apparently with justice,
that chaturanga was evidently the root of shatranj, the latter word
being a mere exotic in the language of the inhabitants of Persia.

Van der Linde, in his exhaustive work, Geschichte und Litteratur
des Schachspiels (Berlin, 1874), has much to say of the origin-
theories, nearly all of which he treats as so many myths. He
agrees with those who consider that the Persians received the
game from the Hindus; but the elaborate chaturanga theories
of Forbes receive but scant mercy. Van der Linde argues that
chaturanga is always used by the old Indian poets of an army
and never of a game, that all Sanskrit scholars are agreed that
chess is not mentioned in really ancient Hindu records; that the
Puranas generally, though formerly considered to be extremely
old, are held in the light of modern research to reach no farther
back than the loth century — while the copies of the Bhawishya
Purana in the British Museum and the Berlin Library do not
contain the extract relied upon by Forbes, though it is to be found
in the Raghunandana, which was translated by Weber in 1872,
and is stated by Btihler to date from the i6th century. The
outcome of van der Linde's studies appears to be that chess cer-
tainly existed in Hindustan in the 8th century, and that probably
that country is the land of its birth. He inclines to the idea that
the game originated among the Buddhists, whose religion was
prevalent in India from the 3rd to the pth century. According to
their ideas, war and the slaying of one's fellow-men, for any pur-
poses whatever, is criminal, and the punishment of the warrior
in the next world will be much worse than that of the simple •
murderer; hence chess was invented as a substitute for war. In
opposition to Forbes, therefore, and in agreement with Sir William
Jones, vari der Linde takes the view that the four-handed game of
the original manuscript is a comparatively modern adaptation of
the Hindu chess, and he altogether denies that there is any proof
that any form of the game has the antiquity attributed to it.
Internal evidence certainly seems to contradict the theory that
Sir William Jones's manuscript is very ancient testimony; for it
mentions two great sages, Vyasa and Gotama, the former as
teaching chaturanga to Prince Yudhishthira, and the other as
giving an opinion upon certain principles of the game; but this
could not well be, seeing that it was played with dice, and that all

games of hazard were positively forbidden by Manu. It would
appear also that Indian manuscripts are not absolutely trust-
worthy as evidence of the antiquity of their contents; for the
climate has the effect of destroying such writings in a period of 300
or 400 years. They must, therefore, be recopied from time to time
and in this way later interpolations may easily creep in.

Von der Lasa, who had, in an article prefixed to the Hand-
buck in 1864, accepted Forties's views, withdrew his support in
a review of the work just noticed, published in the September
and November numbers of the Deutsche Schachzeitung, 1874, and
expressed his adherence to the opinions of van der Linde.

Altogether, therefore, we find the best authorities agreeing that
chess existed in India before it is known to have been played
anywhere else. In this supposition they are strengthened by the
names of the game and of some of the pieces. Shatranj, as Forbes
has pointed out, is a foreign word among thePersians and Arabians,
whereas its natural derivation from the termchaturanga is obvious.
Again al-fil, the Arabic name of the bishop, means the elephant,
otherwise alephhind, the Indian ox. Our earliest authority on
chess is Masudi, an Arabic author who wrote about A.D. 950.
According to him, shatranj had existed long before his time; and
though he may speak not only for his own generation but for a
couple of centuries before, that will give to chess an existence of
over a thousand years.

Early and Medieval Times. — The dimness which shrouds the
origin of chess naturally obscures also its early history. We
have seen that chess crossed over from India into Persia, and
became known in the latter country by the name of shatranj.
Some have understood that word to mean " the play of the
king "; but undoubtedly Sir William Jones's derivation carries
with it the most plausibility. How and when the game was
introduced into Persia we have no means of knowing. The
Persian poet Firdusi, in his historical poem, the Shahnama,
gives an account of the introduction of shatranj into Persia
in the reign of Chosroes I. Anushirwan, to whom came am-
bassadors from the sovereign of Hind (India), with a chess-
board and men asking him to solve the secrets of the game, if
he could, or pay tribute. Chosroes I. was the contemporary
of Justinian, and reigned in the 6th century A.D. Professor
Forbes seems to think that this poem may be looked upon as
an authentic history. This appears, however, to be somewhat
dangerous, especially as Firdusi lived some 450 years after the
supposed event took place; but since other Persian and Arabian
writers state that shatranj came into Persia from India, there
appears to be a consensus of opinion that may be considered to
settle the question. Thus we have the game passing from the
Hindus to the Persians and thence to the Arabians, after the
capture of Persia by the Caliphs in the 7th century, and from
them, directly or indirectly, to various parts of Europe, at a
time which cannot be definitely fixed, but either in or before the
nth century. That the source of the European game is Arabic
is clear enough, not merely from the words " check " and " mate,"
which are evidently from Shah mat (" the king is dead "), but
also from the names of some of the pieces. There are various
chess legends having reference to the 7th and 8th centuries, but
these may be neglected as historically useless; and equally use-
less appear the many oriental and occidental romances which
revolve around those two great central figures, Harun al-Rashid
and Charlemagne. There is no proof that either of them knew
anything of chess or, so far as the latter is concerned, that it had
been introduced into Europe in his time. True, there is an
account given in Gustavus Selenus, taken from various old
chronicles, as to the son of Prince Okar or Otkar of Bavaria
having been killed by a blow on the temple, struck by a son of
Pippin after a game of chess; and there is another well-known
tradition as to the magnificent chess-board and set of men said to
have been sent over as a present by the empress Irene to Charle-
magne. But both tales are not less mythical than the romance
which relates how the great Prankish monarch lost his kingdom
over a game of chess to Guerin de Montglave; for van der Linde
shows that there was no Bavarian prince of the name of Okar or
Otkar at the period alluded to, and as ruthlessly shatters the

IO2

CHESS

tradition about Irene's chessmen. With respect to Harun al-
Rashid, among the various stories told which connect him with
chess, there is one that at first sight may seem entitled to some
degree of credit. In the annals of the Moslems by Abulfeda (Abu'l
Fida), there is given a copy of a letter stated to be " From
Nicephorus, emperor of the Romans, to Harun, sovereign of
the Arabs," which (using Professor Forbes's translation) after
the usual compliments runs thus: — " The empress (Irene) into
whose place I have succeeded, looked upon you as a Rukh and
herself as a mere Pawn; therefore she submitted to pay you a
tribute more than the double of which she ought to have exacted
from you. All this has been owing to female weakness and
timidity. Now, however, I insist that you, immediately on
reading this letter, repay to me all the sums of money you ever
received from her. If you hesitate, the sword shall settle our
accounts." Harun 's reply, written on the back of the Byzantine
emperor's letter, was terse and to the point. " In the name of
God the merciful and gracious. From Harun, the commander
of the faithful, to the Roman dog Nicephorus. I have read thine
epistle, thou son of an infidel mother; my answer to it thou
shall see, not hear." Harun was as good as his word, for he
marched immediately as far as Heraclea, devastating the Roman
territories with fire and sword, and soon compelled Nicephorus
to sue for peace. Now the points which give authority to this
narrative and the alleged correspondence are that the relations
which they assume between Irene and Nicephorus on the one
hand and the warlike caliph on the other are confirmed by the
history of those times, while, also, the straightforward brevity
of Harun's reply commends itself as what one might expect
from his soldier-like character. Still, the fact must be remem-
bered that Abulfeda lived about five centuries after the time to
which he refers. Perhaps we may assume that it is not improb-
able that the correspondence is genuine; but that the words
rukh and pawn may have been substituted for other terms of
comparison originally used.

As to how chess was introduced into western and central
Europe nothing is really known. The Spaniards very likely
received it from their Moslem conquerors, the Italians not
improbably from the Byzantines, and in either case it would pass
northwards to France, going on thence to Scandinavia and
England. Some say that chess was introduced into Europe at
the time of the Crusades, the theory being that the Christian
warriors learned to play it at Constantinople. This is nega-
tived by a curious epistle of St Peter Damian, cardinal bishop
of Ostia, to Pope Alexander II., written about A.D. 1061, which,
assuming its authenticity, shows that chess was known in Italy
before the date of the first crusade. The cardinal, as it seems,
had imposed a penance upon a bishop whom he had found
diverting himself at chess; and in his letter to the pope he
repeats the language he had held to the erring prelate, viz.
" Was it right, I say, and consistent with thy duty, to sport away
thy evenings amidst the vanity of chess, and defile the hand
which offers up the body of the Lord, and the tongue that
mediates between God and man, with the pollution of a sacri-
legious game ? " Following up the same idea that statutes of the
church of Elna, in the 3rd vol. of the Councils of Spain, say,
" Clerks playing at dic,e or chess shall be ipso facto excommuni-
cated." Eudes de Sully, bishop of Paris under Philip Augustus,
is stated in the Ordonn. des Rois de France to have forbidden
clerics to play the game, and according to the Hist. Eccles. of
Fleury, St Louis, king of France, imposed a fine on all who
should play it. Ecclesiastical authorities, however, seemed to
have differed among themselves upon the question whether
chess was or was not a lawful game according to the canons, and
Peirino (De Proelat. chap, i) holds that it was permissible for
ecclesiastics to play thereat. Among those who have taken
an unfavourable view of the game may be mentioned John Huss,
who, when in prison, deplored his having played at chess, whereby
he had lost time and run the risk of being subject to violent
passions. Among authentic records of the game may be quoted
the Alexiad of the princess Anna Comnena, in which she relates
how her father, the emperor Alexius, used to divert his mind

from the cares of state by playing at chess with his relatives.
This emperor died in 1118.

Concerning chess in England there is the usual confusion
between legend and truth. Snorre Sturleson relates that as
Canute was playing at chess with Earl Ulf, a quarrel arose, which
resulted in the upsetting of the board by the latter, with the
further consequence of his being murdered in church a few days
afterwards by Canute's orders. Carlyle, in The Early Kings of
Norway, repeats this tale, but van der Linde treats it as a myth.
The Ramsey Chronicle relates how bishop Utheric, coming to
Canute at night upon urgent business, found the monarch and
his courtiers amusing themselves at dice and chess. There is
nothing intrinsically improbable in this last narrative; but
Canute died about 1035, and the date, therefore, is suspiciously
early. Moreover, allowance must be made for the ease with
which chroniclers described other games as chess. William the
Conqueror, Henry I., John and Edward I. are variously stated
to have played at chess. It is generally supposed that the
English court of exchequer took its name from the cloth, figured
with squares like a chess-board, which covered the table in it
(see EXCHEQUER). An old writer says that at the coronation
of Richard I. in 1189, six earls and barons carried a chess-board
with the royal insignia to represent the exchequer court. Accord-
ing to Edmonson's Heraldry, twenty-six English families bore
chess rooks in their coats of arms.

As regards the individual pieces, the king seems to have had
the same move as at present; but it is said he could formerly be
captured. His " castling " privilege is a European invention;
but he formerly leaped two and even three squares, and also to
his Kt 2nd. Castling dates no farther back than the first half of
the 1 6th century. The queen has suffered curious changes in
name, sex and power. In shalranj the piece was called farz or
fin (also farzan, farzin and farzi), signifying a " counsellor,"
" minister " or " general." This was latinized into farzia or
fercia. The French slightly altered the latter form into fierce,
fierge, and as some say, merge, which, if true, might explain its
becoming a female. Another and much more probable account
has it that whereas formerly a pawn on reaching an eighth square
became a farzin, and not any other piece, which promotion was
of the same kind as at draughts (in French, dames), so she became
a dame or queen as in the latter game, and thence dama, donna,
&c. There are old Latin manuscripts in which the terms ferzia
and regina are used indifferently. The queen formerly moved
only one square diagonally and was consequently the weakest
piece on the board. The immense power she now possesses
seems to have been conferred upon her so late as about the middle
of the isth century. It will be noticed that under the old
system the queens could never meet each other, for they operated
on diagonals of different colours. The bishop's scope of action
was also very limited formerly; he could only move two squares
diagonally, and had no power over the intermediate square,
which he could leap over whether it was occupied or not. This
limitation of their powers prevailed in Europe until the i^th
century. This piece, according to Forbes, was called among the
Persians pil, an elephant, but the Arabs, not having the letter
p in their alphabet, wrote it fil, or with their definite article
al-fil, whence alphilus, alfinus, aliferc, the latter being the word
used by the Italians; while the French perhaps get their fol
and/ow from the same source. The pawns formerly could move
only one square at starting; their powers in this respect were
increased about the early part of the i6th century. It was
customary for them on arriving at an eighth square to be ex-
changed only for a farzin (queen), and not any other piece;
the rooks (so called from the Indian rukh and Persian roth,
meaning " a soldier ") and the knights appear to have always
had the same powers as at present. As to the chessboards, they
were formerly uncol cured, and it is not until the i3th century
that we hear of checkered boards being used in Europe.

Development in Play. — The change of shatranj into modern
chess took place most probably first in France, and thence made
its way into Spain early in the isth century, where the new game
was called Axedrez de la dama, being also adopted by the Italians

CHESS

103

under the name of scacci alia rabiosa. The time of the first im-
portant writer on modern chess, the Spaniard Ruy Lopez deSegura
(1561), is also the period when the latest improvement, castling,
was introduced, for his book (Libra de la invention liberal y arte
del juego del Axedrez), though treating of it as already in use,
also gives the old mode of play, which allowed the king a leap
of two or three squares. Shortly afterwards the old shatranj
disappears altogether. Lopez was the first who merits the name
of chess analyst. At this time flourished the flower of the Spanish
and Italian schools of chess — the former represented by Lopez,
Ceron, Santa Maria, Busnardo and Avalos; the latter by
Giovanni Leonardo da Cutri (il Puttino) and Paolo Boi (il
Syracusano). In the years 1562-1575 both Italian masters
visited Spain and defeated their Spanish antagonists. During
the whole I7th century we find but one worthy to be mentioned,
Giacchino Greco (il Calabrese).. The middle o{ the i8th century
inaugurates a new era in chess. The leading man of this time
was Francois Andre Danican Philidor. He was born in 1726
and was trained by M. de Kermur, Sire de Legal, the star of
the Cafe de la Regence in Paris, which has been the centre of
French chess ever since the commencement of the i8th century.
In 1747 Philidor visited England, and defeated the Arabian
player, Phillip Stamma, by 8 games to i and i draw. In 1749
' he published his Analyse des echccs, a book which went through
more editions and was more translated than any other work
upon the game. During more than half a century Philidor
travelled much, but never went to Italy, the only country where
he could have found opponents of first-rate skill. Italy was
represented in Philidor's time by Ercole del Rio, Lolli and
Ponziani. Their style was less sound than that of Philidor,
but certainly a much finer and in principle a better one. As
an analyst the Frenchman was in many points refuted by
Ercole del Rio (" the anonymous Modenese "). Blindfold
chess-play, already exhibited in the nth century by Arabian
and Persian experts, was taken up afresh by Philidor, who
played on many occasions three games simultaneously without
sight of board or men. These exhibitions were given in London,
at the Chess Club in St James's Street, and Philidor died in that
city in 1795. As eminent players of this period must be men-
tioned Count Ph. J. van Zuylen van Nyevelt (1743-1826),
and the German player, J. Allgaier (1763-1823). after whom a
well-known brilliant variation of the King's Gambit is named.
Philidor was succeeded by Alexandre Louis Honore .Lebreton
Deschapelles (1780-1847), who was also a famous whist player.
The only player who is known to have fought Deschapelles not
unsuccessfully on even terms is John Cochrane. He also lost
a match (1821) to W. Lewis, to whom he conceded the odds of
" pawn and move," the Englishman winning one and drawing the
two others. Deschapelles' greatest pupil, and the strongest player
France ever possessed, was Louis Charles Mahe de la Bourdonnais,
who was born in 1797 and died in 1840. His most memorable
achievement was his contest with the English champion,
Alexander Macdonnell, the French player winning in the pro-
portion of three to two.

The English school of chess began about the beginning of the
igth century, and Sarratt was its first leader. He flourished from
1808 to 1821, and was followed by his great pupil, W. Lewis,
who will be principally remembered for his writings. His
literary career belongs to the period from 1818 to 1848 and he
died in 1869. A. Macdonnell (1798-1835) has been already
mentioned. To the same period belong also Captain Evans,
the inventor of the celebrated " Evans Gambit " (1828), who
died at a very advanced age in 1873; Perigal, who participated
in the correspondence matches against Edinburgh and Paris;
George Walker, for thirty years chess editor of Bell's Life in
London; and John Cochrane, who met every strong player from
Deschapelles downwards. In the same period Germany possessed
but one good player, J. Mendheim of Berlin. The fifth decade
of the 1 9th century is marked by the fact that the leadership
passed from the French school to the English. After the death
of la Bourdonnais, Fournie de Saint-Amant became the leading
player in France; he visited England in the early part of 1843,

and successfully met the best English players, including Howard
Staunton (?.».); but the latter soon took his revenge, for in
November and December 1843 a great match between Staunton
and Saint-Amant took place in Paris, the English champion
winning by 1 1 games to 6 with 4 draws. During the succeeding
eight years Staunton maintained his reputation by defeating
Popert, Horwitz and Harrwitz. Staunton was defeated by
Anderssen at the London tournament in 1851, and this con-
cluded his match-playing career. Among the contemporaries of
Staunton may be mentioned Henry Thomas Buckle, author
of the History of Civilization, who defeated Kieseritzki, Anderssen
and Lowenthal.

In the ten years 1830-1840 a new school arose in Berlin, the
seven leaders of which have been called " The Pleiades." These
were Bledow (1795-1846), Bilguer (1815-1840), Hanstein (1810-
1850), Mayet (1810-1868), Schorn (1802-1850), B. Horwitz
(b. 1809) and von Heydebrandt und der Lasa, once German
ambassador at Copenhagen. As belonging to the same period
must be mentioned the three Hungarian players, Grimm, Szen
and J. Lowenthal.

Among the great masters since the middle of the igth century
Paul Morphy (1837-1884), an American, has seldom been sur-
passed as a chess player. His career was short but brilliant.
Born in New Orleans in 1837, he was taught chess by his father
when only ten years of age, and in two years' time became a strong
player. When not quite thirteen he played three games with
Lowenthal, and won two of them, the other being drawn. He
was twenty years of age when he competed in the New York
congress of 1857, where he won the first prize. In 1858^6 visited
England, and there defeated Boden, Medley, Mongredien, Owen,
Bird and others. He also beat Lowenthal by 9 games to 3
and 2 drawn. Jn the same year he played a match at Paris with
Harrwitz, winning by 5 to 2 and i drawn; and later on he
obtained a victory over Anderssen. On two or three occasions
he played blindfold against eight strong players simultaneously,
each time with great success. He returned to America in 1859
and continued to play, but with decreasing interest in the game,
until 1866. He died in 1884.

Wilhelm Steinitz (b. 1836) took the sixth prize at the London
congress of 1862. He defeated Blackburne in a match by

7 to i and 2 drawn. In 1866 he beat Anderssen in a match by

8 games to 6. In 1868 he carried off the first prize in the British
Chess Association handicap, and in 1872 in the London grand
tourney, also defeating Zukertort in a match by 7 games to i
and 4 drawn. In 1873 he carried off the first prize at the Vienna
congress; and in 1876 he defeated Blackburne, winning 7 games
right off. In 1872-1874, in conjunction with W. N. Potter,
he conducted and won a telegraphic correspondence match for
London against Vienna. In Philidor's age it was considered
almost incredible that he should be able to play three simultaneous
games without seeing board or men, but Paulsen, Blackburne
and Zukertort often played 10 or 12 such games, while as many
as 14 and 15 have been so played.

In 1876 England was in the van of the world's chess army.
English-born players then were Boden, Burn, Macdonnell, Bird,
Blackburne and Potter; whilst among naturalized English
players were Lowenthal, Steinitz, Zukertort, who died in 1888,
and Horwitz. This illustrious contingent was reinforced in
1878 by Mason, an Irish-American, who came over for the
Paris tournament? by Gunsberg, a Hungarian; and later by
Teichmann, who also made England his home. English chess
flourished under the leadership of these masters, the chief prizes
in- tournaments being consistently carried off by the English
representatives.

To gauge the progress made by the game since about 1875
it will suffice to give the following statistics. In London Simpson's
Divan was formerly the chief resort of chess players; the
St George's Chess Club was the principal chess club in the West
End, and the City of London Chess Club in the east. About
a hundred or more clubs are now scattered all over the city.
Formerly only the British Chess Association existed; after its
dissolution the now defunct Counties' Chess Association took

IO4

CHESS

its place, and this was superseded by the re-establishment by
Mr Hoffer of the British Chess Association, which again fell
into abeyance after having organized three international tourna-
ments— London, 1886; Bradford, 1888; and Manchester, 1890
— and four national tournaments. There were various reasons
why the British Chess Association ceased to exercise its functions,
one being that minor associations did not feel inclined to merge
their identity in a central association. The London League
was established, besides the Northern Chess Union, the Southern
Counties' Chess Union, the Midland Counties' Union, the Kent
County Association; and there are associations in Surrey,
Sussex, Essex, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Somerset-
shire, Cambridgeshire, Herefordshire, Leicestershire, North-
amptonshire, Staffordshire, Worcestershire and Lancashire.
All these associations are supported by the affiliated chess clubs
of the respective counties. Scotland (which has its own associa-
tion), Wales and Ireland have also numerous clubs.

Still, England did not produce one new eminent player between
1875 and 1905. First-class chess remained in the hands of the
veterans Burn, Blackburne, Mason and Bird. The old amateurs
passed away, their place being taken by a new generation of
powerful amateurs, so well equipped that Great Britain could
hold its own in an amateur contest against the combined forces
of Germany, Austria, Holland and Russia. The terms master
and amateur are not used in any invidious sense, but simply
as designating, in the former case, first-class players, and in the
latter, those just on the borderland of highest excellence. The
professional element as it existed in the heydey of Simpson's
Divan almost disappeared, the reason being the increased number
of chess clubs, where enthusiasts and students might indulge
in their favourite pastime to their heart's content, tournaments
with attractive prizes being arranged during the season. The
former occupation of the masters vanished in consequence; the
few who remained depended upon the passing visitors from the
provinces who were eager to test their strength by the standard
of the master. Blackburne visited the provinces annually,
keeping the interest in first-class chess alive by his simultaneous
play and his extraordinary skill as a blindfold player — unsur-
passed until the advent of Harry Nelson Pillsbury (1872-1906),
the leading American master since Morphy.

Germany has produced great chess players in Tarrasch,
E. Lasker, Lipke, Fritz, Bardeleben, Walbrodt and Mieses,
besides a goodly number of amateurs. Austria produced
Max Weiss, Schlechter, Marco and Hruby, to say nothing of
such fine players as the Fleissigs, Dr Mertner, Dr Kaufmann,
Fahndrich, Jacques Schwarz and others. Hungary was worthily
represented by Maroczy, Makovetz and Brody, Maroczy being
the best after Charousek's death. Russia, having lost Jaenisch,
Petroff and Schumoff, discovered Tchigorin, Janowsky.
Schiffers, Alapin, Winawer and Taubenhaus. France showed
'a decline for many years, having only the veteran M. Arnous
de Riviere and the naturalized M. Rosenthal left, followed by
Goetz and two good amateurs, MM. Didier and Billecard.
Italy had only Signer Salvioli, although Signer Reggio came to
the fore. Holland had a fair number of players equal to the
English amateurs, but no master since the promising young
van Lennep died.

The first modern International Chess Tournament held in
London in 1851 was the forerunner of various similar contests
of which the following is a complete table: — •

Tournaments.

1851. London. I Anderssen, 2 Wyvill, 3 Williams.
1857. Manchester, i Lowenthal, 2 Anderssen.

1857. New York. I Morphy, 2 L. Paulsen.

1858. Birmingham. I Lowenthal, 2 Falkbeer.

1860. Cambridge, i Kolisch, 2 Stanley.

1861. Bristol, i L. Paulsen, 2 Boden.

1862. London, i Anderssen, 2 L. Paulsen, 3 Owen.

1865. Dublin. I Steinitz, 2 MacDonnell.

1866. Redcar. De Vere.

1866. English Championship Cup. De Vere.

1866. British Chess Association, i Steinitz, 2 Green.

1867. Paris. I Kolisch, 2 Winawer, 3 Steinitz.

1867. Dundee, i Neumann, 2 Steinitz, 3 De Vere and MacDonnell.

1868. English Championship Cup. i Blackburne, 2 De Vere.
1868. British Chess Association Handicap. I Steinitz, 2 Wisker,

3 Blackburne.
1870. Baden-Baden, i Anderssen, 2 Steinitz, 3 Blackburne and

Neumann.

1870. English Championship Cup. i Wisker, 2 Burn.
1870-1871. City of London Handicap. I Potter, 2 De Vere.
1871-1872. City of London Handicap, i Steinitz, 2 Keats.
1872. London. I Steinitz, 2 Blackburne, 3 ZuUertort.

1872. English Championship Cup. I Wisker (becoming permanent

holder of the cup), 2 De Vere.

1873. Vienna, i Steinitz, 2 Blackburne, 3 Anderssen.
1876. London. I Blackburne, 2 Zukertort, 3 Potter.

1878. Paris, i Zukertort, 2 Winawer (after a tie with Zukertort),
3 Blackburne.

1880. Wiesbaden. I, 2, and 3, a tie between Blackburne, Englisch

and A. Schwarz.

1 88 1. Berlin. I Blackburne, 2 Zukertort, 3 Tchigorin and Winawer.

Tchigorin made his first public appearance in this contest.

1882. Vienna. I Steinitz and Winawer, 3 Mason.

1883. London, i Zukertort, 2 Steinitz, 3 Blackburne.

1883. Nuremberg, i Winawer, 2 Blackburne, 3 Mason. This
tournament is a milestone in modern chess history. The
prizes being comparatively small, it was thought that it
necessarily must be a failure, the munificently endowed
London tournament having just been completed. But,
strange to say, whilst in London fourteen players competed,
there were nineteen entries in Nuremberg. Winawer, not
placed in the former, won the first prize in the latter.

1885. Hamburg. I Gunsberg; the next prizes were divided by
Blackburne, Mason, Englisch, Tarrasch and Weiss.

1885. Hereford. I Blackburne, 2 and 3 Bird and Schallopp.

1886. London, i Blackburne, 2 Burn, 3 Gunsberg and Taubenhaus.

1886. Nottingham, i Burn, 2 Schallopp, 3 Gunsberg and Zukertort.

1887. Frankfort. I Mackenzie, 2 Blackburne and Weiss.

1888. Bradford, i Gunsberg, 2 Mackenzie, 3 Mason and Bardeleben.

1889. New York, i Tchigorin and Weiss, 3 Gunsberg.

1889. Breslau. i Tarrasch, 2 Burn, 3 Weiss.

1890. Amsterdam, i Burn, 2 Lasker, 3 Mason. There were only

nine competitors, Lasker unexpectedly losing to van Vlk-t

by a trap.

1890. Manchester, i Tarrasch, 2 Blackburne, 3 Bird and Mackenzie.
1892. Dresden, i Tarrasch, 2 Makovetz and Porges. Blackburne

received a special prize.

1894. Leipzig. I Tarrasch, 2 Lipke and Teichmann.

1895. Hastings, i Pillsbury, 2 Tchigorin, 3 Lasker. This tourna-

ment is historical for the first appearance of Pillsbury, the
American champion, and Maroczy, the Hungarian champion.

1896. Nuremberg. I Lasker, 2 Maroczy, 3 Pillsbury and Tarrasch.

1896. Budapest. I Tchigorin, 2 Charousek, 3 Pillsbury.

1897. Berlin. I Charousek, 2 Walbrodt, 3 Blackburne. Englisch

had to abandon the tournament and return to Vienna ill.
He never recovered and died a few weeks later.

1898. Vienna. I Tarrasch, 2 Pillsbury, 3 Janowsky. Tarrasch

achieved a remarkable victory in this important tournament.
Pillsbury's chances were better than his, but he managed
to run him neck and neck and beat him in the tie match
which followed.

1898. Cologne, i Burn, 2 Charousek, Cohn and Tchigorin.

1899. London. I Lasker, 2 Janowsky, Maroczy and Pillsbury.

Janowsky sacrificed the second prize by trying to win a
game against Steinitz when with an easy draw in hand he
could have secured the second place for himself alone.

1900. Munich. Tie between Maroczy, Pillsbury and Schlechter for

three chief prizes.

1900. Paris. I Lasker, 2 Pillsbury, 3 Maroczy and Marshall.

1901. Monte Carlo, i Janowsky, 2 Schlechter, 3 Scheve and

Tchigorin. A novel rule was introduced at this tournament,
viz. the first drawn game to count j to each player, to be
replayed, and in case of a draw again to count J each, and
in case of win J to the winner. Theoretically this seems
logical, but in practice it did not work well.

1902. Monte Carlo. I Pillsbury and Maroczy, 3 Janowsky.

1902. Hanover. I Janowsky, 2 Pillsbury, 3 Atkins.

1903. Monte Carlo. I Tarrasch, 2 Maroczy, 3 Pillsbury.

1904. Monte Carlo. I Maroczy, 2 Schlechter, 3 Marshall.

1904. Cambridge Springs. I Marshall, 2 Lasker and Janowsky.

1905. Ostend. I Maroczy, 2 Tarrasch and Janowsky.

1905. Scheveningen. I Marshall, 2 Leussen, 3 Spielmann.

1906. Stockholm. I Schlechter and Bernstein, 3 Mieses.
1906. Ostend. I Schlechter, 2 Maroczy, 3 Rubenstein.

1906. Nuremberg, i Marshall, 2 Duras, 3 Schlechter and Fleisch-

mann.

1907. Vienna, i Mieses, 2 Duras, 3 Maroczy and Vidmare.
1907. Ostend. i Bernstein and Rubenstein, 3 Mieses.

1907. Ostend. i Tarrasch, 2 Schlechter, 3 Janowsky and Marshall.
1907. Carlsbad.- I Rubenstein, 2 Maroczy, 3 Niemzowitch and
Leonhardt.

In the absence of any recognized authority to confer the title

CHESS

105

of chess champion of the world, it has usually been appropriated
by the most successful competitor in tournaments. On this
ground Tarrasch claimed the title in 1907, although Lasker, who
had twice beaten Steinitz, the previous champion, in champion-
ship matches, in addition to such masters as Bird, Blackburne,
Mieses and Marshall, was well qualified to assume it. Accord-
ingly in arranging the programme for the tournament at Ostend
in 1907 it was agreed that the winner of this contest should
receive the title of tournament champion, and should play a
match with Lasker for the championship of the world. Tarrasch
having proved successful at Ostend, the match between him
and Lasker was played at Munich in September 1908, and re-
sulted in the victory of Lasker by 8 games to 3 and 5 draws.

Chess has developed various schools of play from time to time.
The theory of the game, however, did not advance in proportion
to the enormous strides in its popularity. Formerly the theory
of play had been enriched by such enthusiasts as Dr Max Lange,
Louis Paulsen, Professor Anderssen, Neumann, Dr Suhle,
Falkbeer, Kieseritzki, Howard Staunton, Dr Zukertort, W. N.
Potter and Steinitz, foremost amongst them being Louis Paulsen.
The openings were thoroughly overhauled, new variations dis-
covered and tested in practical play over the board. These
arc now things of the past. The masters who find flaws in old
variations and discover new ones bring them to light only in
matches or tournaments, as new discoveries have now a market
value and may gain prizes in matches or tournaments. The
old " romantic " school consequently became extinct, and the
eliminating process resulted in the retention of a small repertoire
only, sufficient for practical purposes in important contests.
Gambits and kindred openings containing elements of chance
were avoided, and the whole stock which a first-class player
requires is a thorough knowledge of the " Ruy Lopez," the
" Queen's Pawn Openings," and the " French " and " Sicilian
Defences " — openings which contain the least element of chance.
The rfpertoire being restricted it necessarily follows that the
scope for grand combinations is also diminished and only
strategy or position play remains. The "romantic" school
invariably aimed at an attack on the king's position at any cost;
nowadays the struggle is to obtain a minute advantage, and the
whole plan consists in finding or creating a weak spot in the
opponent's arrangement of forces; such is the theory of the
modern school, conceived and advocated by Steinitz. But it is
a curious fact that Steinitz founded the modern school rather
late in life. He felt his powers of combination waning, and being
the world's champion and eager to retain that title, he started
the new theory. This novel departure revolutionized chess
entirely. The attacking and combination style was sacrificed
to a sound, sober and dry method; but Steinitz, strange to say,
was not even the best exponent of his own theory, this position
falling to younger players, Siegbert Tarrasch, Schlechter, Amos
Burn and Emanuel Lasker. Pillsbury and Janowsky adhered
to both styles, the former in a high degree, and so did Zukertort
and Charousek; Tchigorin being a free-lance with a style of his
own. The old charm of the game disappeared — in match and
tournament play at least — and beauty was sacrificed to exact
calculation and 'to scoring points. This is to be regretted, for
the most beautiful games still occur when a player resorts to
the gambits. One of the finest games in the Hastings tourna-
ment was played by Tchigorin against Pillsbury, and this was
a " King's Gambit Declined." Charousek won a " Bishop's
Gambit" against Dr Lasker in the Nuremberg tournament;
and some brilliant games occur in the " Queen's Gambit De-
clined," if either White or Black sacrifices the KP. Another
reason why gambits should be adopted by players in tourna-
ments is that competitors would necessarily be readily prepared
for the regulation openings, so that the gambits might take them
by surprise. After all, the new school is a natural consequence
of the progress of the game. Paulsen, Anderssen and Tchigorin
devoted a lifetime to the Evans Gambit, volumes of analyses
were written on it, and then Lasker revives an obsolete defence,
and the Evans Gambit disappears! Zukertort achieved a great
success with " i. Kt to KB3 " in the London tournament, 1883,

and this, or the kindred " i. P to Q4 " opening, has since become
the trusty weapon in serious encounters. Lasker wrote Common
Sense in Chess, and gave the best defences of the Ruy Lopez (a
certain form of it); but the " common sense " was demolished
in the Paris and Nuremberg tournaments, and old forms of that
remarkable opening have to be refurbished. These instances will
suffice to show the reason for the cautious style of modern times.
The Moltkes have replaced the Napoleons.

The old versatility of style could be revived if club tournaments
were organized differently. The players might be compelled
to adopt one single opening only in a two-round contest, each
player thus having attack and defence in turn. The next season
another opening would form the programme, and so on. Even
in international tournaments this condition might be imposed;
the theory would be enriched; full scope would be given to
power of combination and ingenuity; whilst the game would be
more interesting.

There are still amateurs who devote their energies to the
theory of the game; but so long as innovations or new dis-
coveries are not tested by masters in serious games, they are of
no value. Steinitz used to keep a number of new discoveries
ready to be produced in masters' contests, the result being that
his novelties were regularly demolished when it came to a
practical test. The mistake was that he did not try his novelties
over the board with an opponent of equal strength, instead of
trusting to his own judgment alone.

The British Chess Federation was instituted in 1904, its
first congress being held at Hastings in that year, when_a British
championship, a ladies' championship and a first-class amateur
tournament were played. These competitions have been con-
tinued annually at the congresses of the federation, with the
following results: —

British Championship.

1904. Hastings, i H. E. Atkins and W. E. Napier, 3 J. H. Blaek-

burne. •

1905. Southport. i H. E. Atkins, 2 G. E. H. Bellingham and

J. H. Blackburne.

1906. Shrewsbury. I H. E. Atkins, 2 R. P. Michell, 3 G. E. Wain-

wright.

1907. Crystal Palace, i H. E. Atkins, 2 J. H. Blackburne, R. P.

Michell, E. G. Sergeant and G. E. Wainwright.

Ladies' Championship.

1904. Hastings. I Miss Finn, 2 Mrs Anderson and Mrs Herring.

1905. Southport. i Miss Finn. 2 Mrs Anderson and Mrs Houlding.

1906. Shrewsbury, i Mrs Herring, 2 Mrs Anderson, 3 Miss Ellisand

Mrs Houlding.

1907. Crystal Palace. I Mrs Herring and Mrs Houlding, 3 Mrs

Anderson.

First Class Amateur Tournament.

Section A. i VV. H. Gunston, 2 H. F. Cheshire

and F. Brown.
Section B. i G. E. Wainwright and C. H.

Sherrard, 3 W. P. M'Bean.
Section.A. i Dr Holmes, 2 J. Mortimer, 3 H. G.

Cole and J. E. Purry.
Section B. i F. E. Hamond, 2 F. Brown. T. J.

Kelly and C. H. Wallwork.
1906. Shrewsbury, i G. Shories, J. F. Allcock, P. W. Fairweather
and E. D. Palmer.

In 1896 and following years matches between representative
players of Great Britain and the United States respectively
were played by cable, with the following results: —

1896. America

1897. Great Britain

1898. Great Britain

1899. America

1900. America

1901. Drawn

1902. America

1903. America

1907. Great Britain

1908. America

1909. Great Britain

Since 1899 cable matches have also been played annually
between representatives of English and American universities;
of the first six three were won by England, the remaining three

1904. Hastings

1905. Southport

won by 4! games to 3:

5*

.4

5*

6

4

6

4

sl

4:

4

5i

4

6J

6

4

io6

CHEST

being drawn. In England chess matches have been played
annually since 1873 between the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge, seven players on each side. Up to 1907 Oxford
won eleven matches, Cambridge twenty-one, and three were
drawn.

LITERATURE OF THE GAME. — The first known writer on chess was
Jacobus de Cessolis (Jacopo Dacciesole), whose main object, how-
ever, though he gives the moves, &c., was to teach morals rather
than chess. He was a Dominican friar, and his treatise, Solatium
Liidi Scacchorum, scilicet, Libellus de Moribus Hominum et Officiis
Nobilium, was written before the year 1200. It was afterwards
translated into French, and in the year 1/174 Caxton, under the title
of The Game and Playe of Chesse, printed an English translation of
the French version.

In 1490 we have the Gottinger Handschrift, a work containing nine
different openings and fifty problems. Theauthorof this manuscript
is not known. Then comes Vicent, a Spanish writer, whose book
bears date 1495. Only the title-page has been preserved, the rest
of the work having been lost in the first Carlist war. Of Lucena,
another Spanish author who wrote in or about 1497, we are better
informed. His treatise, Repetition des Amores y Arte de Axedres,
comprises various practical chess matters, including 150 positions,
illustrated by 160 well-executed woodcuts. Various of these
positions are identical with those in the Gottinger Handschrift. In
the i6th century works upon the game were written by Damiano,
Ruy Lopez and Horatio Gianutio della Mantia; in the I7th century
by Salvio, Polerio, Gustavus Selenus, Carrera, Greco, Fr. Antonio
and the authors of the Traite de Lausanne; in the i8th century by
Berlin, Stamma, Ercole del Rio, Lolli, Cozio, Philidor, Ponziam,
Stein, van Nyevelt, Allgaier and Peter Pratt; in the loth century
by J. F. W. Koch and C. F. Koch, Sarratt, John Cochrane, Wm.
Lewis, Silberschmidt, Ghulam Kassim and James Cochrane, George
Walker, A. MacDonnell, Jaenisch, Petroff, von Bilguer, von der
Lasa, Staunton, Kling and Horwitz, Bledow, Dubois, Kieseritzki,
Max Lange, Lowenthal, Dufresne, Neumann, Suhle, Zukertort, Preti
and others.

English chess owes much to W. Lewis and George Walker. But
to Howard Staunton must be ascribed the most important share in
creating the later popularity which the game achieved in England.
Staunton's first work, The Chess Player's Handbook, was published
in 1847, and again (revised) in 1848. For want of further adequate
revision many of its variations a*e now out of date; but taking the
handbook as it was when issued, very high praise must be bestowed
upon the author. His other works are: The Chess Player's Text-
Book and The Chess Player's Companion (1849) (the latter being a
collection of his own games), the Chess Praxis (1860), republished in
1903, his posthumous work, Chess Theory and Practice, edited by
R. B. Wormald (1876), and various smaller treatises. The laws of the
game as laid down in the Praxis formed the basis of the rules adopted
by the British Chess Association in 1862. Besides editing The
Chess Player's Chronicle and The Chess World, he was the chess
editor of The Illustrated London News from 1844 till his death in
1874.

Among continental chess authorities von Heydebrandt und der
Lasa (more usually known by his second title) stood pre-eminent.
The German Handbuch was completed in 1843 by von Bilguer, who
died before the first edition was completed. The second, third, fourth
and fifth editions (the last published in 1874) were edited and revised
by von der Lasa.

Among the more important modern works the following may
be mentioned: Vasquez, El Ajedrez de memoria; La Odisea de
Pablo Morphy (Havana, 1893); Bauer, Schachlexikon (Leipzig,
1893) ; Jean Dufresne, Kleines Lehrbuch des Schachspiels (6th ed.,
Leipzig, 1893); E. Freeborough and Rev. C. E. Ranken, Chess
Openings, Ancient and Modern; Arnelung, Baltische Schachblatter ,
Sfc. (Berlin, 1893) ; Bachman, Geistreiche Schachpartien (containing
a number of brilliant games) (Ansbach, 1893-1899); E. H. Bird,
Chess History and Reminiscences (London, 1893); The Steinitz-
Lasker Match (1894); Chess Novelties (1895); Max Lange, Paul
Morphy (1894); C. Bardeleben and J. Mieses, Lehrbuch des
Schachspiels (very useful) ; Jas. Mason, The Principles of Chess in
Theory and Practice (1894) ; The Art of Chess (1895) ; Social Chess
(Horace Cox, London); Dr Tarrasch, Dreihundert Schachpartien
(Leipzig, 1895); Dr Eugen V. Schmidt, Systematische Anordung von.
Schacherdffnungen (Veit & Co., Leipzig, 1895) ; Numa Preti, ABC
des echecs (Paris, 1895) ; C. Salvioli, Teoria generate del giuoco degli
Scacchi (Livorno, 1895); W. Steinitz, Modern Chess Instructor (New
York, 1895) ; L. Hoffer, Chess (Routledge) ; E. Freeborough, Select
Chess End-Games (London, 1895); Euclid, The Chess Ending King
and Queen against King and Rook (London, 1895); Tassilo von
Heydebrandt und der Lasa, Leitfaden des Schachspiels and Zur
Geschichte und Literatur des Schachspiels (Leipzig, 1897) ; Dr. Lasker,
Common Sense in Chess (London, 1896); Oscar Cordel, Neuester
Leitfaden des Schachspiels (Berlin, 1896); and a vast number of
other publications.

Further, The London Tournament Book (1883); Twelve Tourna-
ment Books of the German Chess Association (Veit & Co., Leipzig);
The Hastings Tournament Book (London, 1896); The Vienna

Tournament Book, by Halprin and Marco (1900); The Nuremberg
Tournament Book, by Dr Tarrasch; The Book of the London
Congress, by L. Hoffer (Longman, 1899); The Pans Tournament
Book (Paris, 1900), by Rosenthal, &c.

The following are some of the best works in English on chess
problems: — " I. B." of Bridport, Chess Strategy (1865); F. Healey,
A Collection 0/200 Chess Problems (1866); English Chess Problems,
edited by James and W. T. Pierce (1876); H. J. C. Andrews, E. N.
Frankenstein, B. G. Laws, and C. Planck, The Chess Problem Text-
Book (1887); A. F. Mackenzie, Chess: its Poetry and its Prose
(Jamaica, 1887); J. A. Miles, Chess Stars (self-mates), (1888);
James Rayner, Chess Problems (1890); B. G. Laws, The Two-Move
Chess Problem (1890); The Chess Bouquet, compiled by F. R.
Gittins (1897); Mr and Mrs T. B. Rowland, The Problem Art (2nd
ed., 1898); E. B. Cook, T. Henery and C. A. Gilberg, American
Chess-Nuts (1868); Samuel Loyd, Chess Strategy (1878); W. H.
Lyons, Chess-Nut Burrs and how to open them (1886) ; C. A. Gilberg,
Crumbs from the Chess Board (1890); Canadian Chess Problems,
edited by C. F. Stubbs (1890) ; W. Pulitzer, Chess Harmonies (1894) ;
G. E. Carpenter (N. Preti of Paris), 200 Chess Problems (1900).

CHEST (Gr. Kio-rri, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, cest, &c.), a large
box of wood or metal with a hinged lid. The term is also used
of a variety of kinds of receptacle; and in anatomy is transferred
to the portion of the body covered by the ribs and breastbone
(see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). In the more ordinary meaning
chests are, next to the chair and the bed, the most ancient articles
of domestic furniture. The chest was the common receptacle
for clothes and valuables, and was the direct ancestor of the
" chest of drawers," which was formed by enlarging the chest
and cutting up the front. It was also frequently used as a seat.
Indeed, in its origin it took in great measure the place of the
chair, which, although familiar enough to the ancients, had
become a luxury in the days when the chest was already an
almost, universal possession. The chief use of chests was as
wardrobes, but they were also often employed for the storing of
valuables. In the early middle ages the rich possessed them in
profusion, used them as portmanteaux, and carried them about
from castle to castle. These portable receptacles were often
covered with leather and emblazoned with heraldic designs.
As houses gradually became less sparsely furnished, chests and
beds and other movables were allowed to remain stationary,
and the chest lost its covered top, and took the shape in which we
best know it — that of an oblong box standing upon raised feet.
As a rule it was made of oak, but it was sometimes of chestnut
or other hard wood.

There are, properly speaking, three types of chest — the
domestic, the ecclesiastical and the strong box or coffer. Old
domestic chests still exist in great number and some variety,
but the proportion of those earlier than the latter part of the
Tudor period is very small; most of them are Jacobean in date.
Very frequently they were made to contain the store of house-
linen which a bride took to her husband upon her marriage.
In the 1 7th century Boulle and his imitators glorified the marriage-
coffer until it became a gorgeous casket, almost indeed a sarco-
phagus, inlaid with ivory and ebony and precious woods, and
enriched with ormolu, supported upon a stand of equal magnifi-
cence. The Italian marriage-chests (cassone) were also of a
richness which was never attempted in England. The main
characteristics of English domestic chests (which not infrequently
are carved with names and dates) are panelled fronts and ends,
the feet being formed from prolongations of the " stiles " or side
posts. There were, however, exceptions, and a certain number
of 17th-century chests have separate feet, either circular or
shaped after the indications of a somewhat later style. There
is usually a strong architectural feeling about the chest, the front
being divided into panels, which are plain in the more ordinary
examples, and richly carved in the choicer ones. The plinth
and frieze are often of well-defined guilloche work, or are carved
with arabesques or conventionalized flowers. Architectural
detail, especially the detail of wainscoting, has indeed been
followed with considerable fidelity, many of the earlier chests
being carved in the linenfold pattern, while the Jacobean
examples are often mere reproductions of the pilastered and
recessed oaken mantelpieces of the period. Occasionally a
chest is seen which is inlaid with coloured woods, or with

CHESTER, EARLS OF— CHESTER

107

geometrical parquetry. Perhaps the most elaborate type of
English parquetry chest is that named after the vanished Palace
of Nonesuch. Such pieces are, however, rarely met with. The
entire front of this type is covered with a representation of the
palace in coloured woods. Another class ofthest is incised, some-
times rather roughly, but often with considerable geometrical
skill. The more ordinary variety has been of great value to the
forger of antique furniture, who has used its carved panels for
conversion into cupboards and other pieces, the history of
which is not easily unravelled by the amateur who collects old
oak without knowing much about it. Towards the end of the
1 7th century chests were often made of walnut, pr even of exotic
woods such as cedar and cypress, and were sometimes clamped
with large and ornamental brass bands and hinges. The chests
of the i8th century were much larger than those of the preceding
period, and as often as not "were furnished with two drawers at
the bottom — an arrangement but rarely seen in those of the i7th
century — while they were often fitted with a small internal box
fixed across one end for ready access to small articles. The chest
was not infrequently unpanelled and unornamented, and in the
latter period of its history this became the ruling type. It will
not have been forgotten that it was in an old oak chest that the
real or mythical heroine of the pathetic ballad of " The Mistletoe
Bough " concealed herself, to her undoing.

Ecclesiastical chests appear to have been used almost entirely
as receptacles for vestments and church plate, and those which
survive are still often employed for the preservation of parish
documents. A considerable variety of these interesting and
often exceedingly elaborate chests are still left in English
churches. They are usually of considerable size, and of a length
disproportionate to their depth. This no doubt was to facilitate
the storage of vestments. Most of them are of great antiquity.
Many go back to the I4th century, and here and there they are
even earlier, as in the case of the coffer in Stoke d'Abernon
church, Surrey, which is unquestionably 13th-century work.
One of the most remarkable of these early examples is in Newport
church, Essex. It is one of the extremely rare painted coffers
of the I3th century, the front carved with an upper row of shields,
from which the heraldic painting has disappeared, and a lower
row of roundels. Between is a belt of open tracery, probably of
pewter, and the inside of the lid is decorated with oil paintings
representing the Crucifixion, the Virgin Mary, St Peter, St John
and St Paul. The well-known " jewel chest " in St Mary's,
Oxford, is one of the earliest examples of i4th century work.
Many of these ecclesiastical chests are carved with architectural
motives — traceried windows most frequently, but occasionally
with the linenfold pattern. There is a whole class of chests
known as " tilting coffers," carved with representations of
tournaments or feats of arms, and sometimes with a grotesque
admixture of chivalric figures and mythical monsters. Only
five or six examples of this type are known still to exist in
England, and two of them are now in the Victoria and Albert
Museum. It is not certain that even these few are of English origin
— indeed, very many of the chests and coffers of the i6th and 1 7th
centuries are of foreign make. They were imported into England
chiefly from Flanders, and were subsequently carved by native
artisans, as was the case with other common pieces of furniture
of those periods. The huche or " hutch " was a rough type of
household chest.

The word " coffer " is properly applied to a chest which was
intended for the safe keeping of valuables. As a rule the coffer
is much more massive in construction than the domestic chest;
it is clamped by iron bands, sometimes contains secret receptacles
opening with a concealed spring, and is often furnished with an
elaborate and complex lock, which occupies the whole of the
underside of the lid. Pieces of this type are sometimes described
as Spanish chests, from the belief that they were taken from
ships belonging to the Armada. It is impossible to say that this
may not sometimes have been the case, but these strong boxes
are frequently of English origin, although the mechanism of the
locks may have been due to the subtle skill of foreign locksmiths.

typical example of the treasure chest is that which belonged

to Sir Thomas Bodley, and is preserved in the Bodleian library at
Oxford. The locks of this description of chest are of steel, and
are sometimes richly damascened. It was for being implicated
in the breaking open and robbing of just such a chest as this,
to which the College de Navarre had confided coin to the value of
500 ecus, that Francois Villon was hanged on the gibbet of
Montfaucon.

CHESTER, EARLS OF. The important palatine earldom of
Chester was first held by a certain Fleming named Ghcrbod
(fl. 1070), and then by Hugh of Avranches (d. 1101), a son of
Richard, viscount of Avranches. Hugh, who was probably one
of William the Conqueror's companions, was made earl of Chester
in 1071; he had special privileges in his earldom, and he held
land in twenty counties. He was called Le Gros on account of
his great bulk and Lupus on account of his ferocity. However,
he regarded St Anselm as his friend, and he showed the customary
liberality to religious houses. His life was mainly spent in
fighting the Welsh and in Normandy, and he died on the 27th
of July 1101. Hugh's only son Richard, who was childless,
was drowned in the White Ship in November 1 1 20. Among sub-
sequent holders were Ralph, or Randulph, de Gernon (d. 1153),
who took a prominent part in the civil wars of the reign of
Stephen, fighting first on one side and then on the other; and
his son Hugh de Kevelioc (1147-1181), who shared in the rising
against Henry II. in 1173. But perhaps the most celebrated of
the early earls was .Ralph, Ranulf, or Randulph, de Blundevill
(c. 1172-1232), who succeeded his father Hugh de Kevelioc as
earl in 1181, and was created earl of Lincoln in 1217. Ranulf
married Constance, widow of Henry II. 's son, Geoffrey of Brittany,
and is sometimes called duke of Brittany and earl of Richmond.
He fought in Wales, was on the side of John during his struggle
with the barons over Magna Carta, and was one of this king's
executors; he also fought for the young king Henry III. against
the French invaders and their allies. In 1 2 18 he went on crusade
to the Holy Land and took part in the capture of Damietta;
then returning to England he died at Wallingford in October
1 232. After speaking of Ranulf's unique position in the kingdom,
which " fitted him for the part of a leader of opposition to royal
or ministerial tyranny," Stubbs sums up his character in these
words: "On more than one occasion he refused his consent to
taxation which he deemed unjust; his jealousy of Hubert (de
Burgh), although it led him to join the foreign party in 1223,
did not prevent him from more than once interposing to prevent
his overthrow. He was, moreover, almost the last relic of the
great feudal aristocracy of the Conquest." Although twice
married he left no children, and his immense possessions passed
to his four sisters. The earl's memory remained green for a long
time, and in the Vision of Piers Plowman his name is linked with
that of Robin Hood. In November 1 23 2 the earldom of Chester
was granted to his nephew John the Scot, earl of Huntingdon
(c. 1207-1237), and in 1246, nine years after John had died
childless, it was annexed to the English crown " lest so fair a
dominion should be divided among women."

In 1 2 54 Prince Edward, afterwards King Edward I. , was created
earl of Chester, and since this date the earldom has always been
held by the heirs apparent to the Engh'sh crown with the single
exception of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester. Since 1399
the earls of Chester have been also princes of Wales, although
the act of Richard II. (1398), which created Chester into a prin-
cipality to be held by the king's eldest son, was revoked by
Henry IV.

CHESTER, an episcopal city and county of a city, municipal,
county and parliamentary borough, and the county town of
Cheshire, England, 179 m. N.W. of London. Pop. (1901) 38,309.
It lies in a low plain on the Dee, principally on the north (right)
bank, 6 m. above the embouchure of the river into its wide,
shallow estuary. It is an important railway centre, the principal
lines serving it being the London & North-Western, Great
Western, Cheshire Lines and Great Central. The city is divided
into four principal blocks by the four principal streets — North-
gate Street, Eastgate Street, Bridge Street and Watergate Street,
which radiate at right angles from the Cross, and terminate in

io8

CHESTER

the four gates. These four streets exhibit in what are called
" the Rows " a characteristic feature of the city. Their origin
is a mystery, and has given rise to much controversy. In East-
gate Street, Bridge Street and Watergate Street, the Rows
exist on each side of the street throughout the greater part of
its length, and may be described as continuous galleries open
to the street, over and under which the houses lining the streets
project, and which are formed as it were out of the front first-
floor of the houses, approached by flights of steps from the
roadway. The Rows are flagged or boarded under foot and ceiled
above, thus forming a covered way, standing in the same relation
to the shops, which are at their back, as the foot pavement
does in other towns. In Northgate Street, on the other hand,
the Row on the west side is formed as it were out of the ground
floor of the houses, having cellars beneath, while on the east side
the Row is formed at the same elevation as in the other three
principal streets. In these streets are' several examples of old
timbered houses and some good modern imitations of them, —
all combining to give a picturesque and individual character
to the city. Among the most interesting of the ancient houses are
Derby House, bearing the date 1591, Bishop Lloyd's house, and
God's Providence House in Watergate Street, and the Bear and
Billet in Lower Bridge Street; the three last date from the i7th
century. There is also a chamber with stone groined roof of the
1 4th century in the basement of a house in Eastgate Street, and
another of a similar character in Watergate Street. A mortuary
chapel of the early part of the i3th century exists in the basement
of a house in Bridge Street.

Chester is the only city in England that still possesses its walls
perfect in their entire circuit of 2 m. The gateways have all been
rebuilt at various dates; the north and east gates on the site of
the Roman gates. The Grosvenor bridge, a single span of stone
200 ft. in length, said to be the largest save one in Europe,
carries the road to Wrexham and Shrewsbury over the Dee on the
south-west; while the old bridge of seven arches is interesting
on account of its antiquity and picturesqueness. The castle,
with the exception of " Caesar's Tower," and a round tower with
adjacent buildings, in the upper ward, was taken down towards
the end of the i8th century, and replaced by a gateway, barracks,
county hall, gaol and assize courts.

The cathedral church of Christ and the Virgin Mary, which
stands towards the north of the city within the walls, rose on the
site of a church of extreme antiquity. It appears that the
dedication of this church was altered, perhaps in the reign of
Athelstan, from St. Peter and St Paul to St Werburgh and
St Oswald, St Werburgh being a niece of St Etheldreda of Ely.
In 1093 Hugh Lupus, earl of Chester, richly endowed the founda-
tion as a Benedictine monastery. The bishops of Mercia had
apparently a seat at Chester, but the city had ceased to be epis-
copal, until in 1075 Peter, bishop of Lichfield, removed his seat
thence to Chester, having for his cathedral the collegiate church
of St John. The seat of the see, however, was quickly removed
again to Coventry (1102), but Cheshire continued subject to
Lichfield until in 1541 Chester was erected into a bishopric by
Henry VIII., the church of the dissolved abbey of St Werburgh
becoming the cathedral. The diocese covers nearly the whole
of Cheshire, with very small portions of Lancashire and Stafford-
shire. The cathedral does not rank among the most splendid
English churches, but possesses certain details of the highest
interest, and gains in beauty from the tones of its red sandstone
walls and the picturesque close in which it stands. It is cruciform
with a central tower 127 ft. high. The south transept is larger
than the north. The nave is short (145 ft.), being of six bays;
the southern arcade is Decorated, while the northern, which
differs in detail, is of uncertain date. The basement of the north-
western tower — all that remains of it, now used as a baptistery —
is Norman, and formed part of Hugh Lupus' church; and the
fabric of the north wall is also of this period. The north transept
also retains Norman work, and its size shows the original plan,
as the existence of the conventual buildings to the north probably
rendered its extension undesirable. The south transept has
aisles, with Decorated and Perpendicular windows. The fine

organ stands on a screen across the north transept; but some
of its pipes are upon the choir screen, both screens being the
work of Sir Gilbert Scott. The 'style of the choir is transitional
from Early English to Decorated, and its length is 125 ft. It
is a fine example, and its beauty is enhanced by the magnificent
series of ancient carved wooden stalls unsurpassed in England.
The Lady Chapel, east'of the choir, is of rich Early English
workmanship. Of the conventual buildings the cloisters are
Perpendicular. The chapter-house, entered by a beautiful
vestibule from the east cloister, and lined with cases containing
the chapter library, is Early English (c. 1240). The refectory,
adjoining the north cloister, is of the same period, with Perpen-
dicular insertions; it has been curtailed in size, but retains its
beautiful Early English lector's pulpit. An early Norman
chamber, with massive pillars and vaulting, adjoins the west
cloister, and may be the substructure of the abbot's house. The
abbey gateway is of the i4th century.

Within the walls there are several churches of ancient founda-
tion; thus St Peter's is said to occupy the site of a church erected
by ^Ethelfiaed, queen of Mercia, and St Mary's dates from
the 1 2th century. None, however, is of any special interest;
but the church of St John, outside the walls, which as already
stated became the cathedral in 1075, is a massive early Norman
structure, with later additions, and, especially as regards the
exterior, considerably restored in modern times. Its fine tower
fell in 1 88 1. It was a collegiate church until 1547, and there are
some remains of the adjoining buildings. Among numerous
modern churches there may be mentioned St Mary's without the
walls, built in 1887 by the duke of Westminster, of red sandstone,
with a fine spire and peal of bells.

Among the chief secular buildings, the town hall replaced in
1869 the old exchange, which had been burnt down in 1862.
The Grosvenor Museum and School of Art, the foundation of
which was suggested by Charles Kingsley the novelist, when
canon of Chester cathedral, contains many local antiquities,
along with a fine collection of the fauna of Cheshire and the
neighbourhood. The King's school was founded by Henry VIII.
(1541), who provided that twenty-four poor scholars should be
taught free of cost. It was reorganized as a public school in
1873, and possesses twelve king's scholarships tenable in the
school, and close scholarships tenable at the universities. Among
other schools may be mentioned the blue-coat school (1700),
the Queen's school for girls (1878), the girls' school attached to
the Roman Catholic convent, and the diocesan training college
for schoolmasters. For recreation provision is made by the New
Grosvenor Park, presented to the city in 1867 by the marquess
of Westminster; Handbridge Park, opened in 1892; and the
Roodee, a level tract by the river at the base of the city wall,
appropriated as a race-course. An annual race-meeting is held
in May and attended by thousands. The chief event is the race
for the Chester Cup, which dates from 1540, when a silver bell
was given as the prize by the Saddlers' Company. Pleasure
vessels ply on the Dee in summer, and an annual regatta is held,
at which all the principal northern rowing-clubs are generally
represented. The town gains in prosperity from its large number
of visitors. The principal industries are carried on without the
walls, where there are lead, shot and paint works, leather and
tobacco factories, and iron foundries. The trade gilds number
twenty-four. There is a considerable amount of shipping on the
Dee, the navigation having been much improved in modern
times. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The
municipal council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30
councillors. Area, 2862 acres.

History. — Setting aside the numerous legends with regard to
the existence of a British city on the site now occupied by
Chester, the earliest authentic information relating to its history
is furnished by the works of Ptolemy and Antoninus. As the
Roman station of Deva it was probably founded about A.D. 48
by Ostorius Scapula, and from its advantageous position, both
as the key to communication with Ireland and as a bulwark
against the hostile tribes of the north, it became a military and
commercial centre of considerable importance. In A.D. 78-79

CHESTER— CHESTERFIELD, LORD

109

nui

-

it was the winter-quarters of Agricola, and later became illustrious
as the permanent headquarters of Legio XX. Valeria Victrix.
Many inscriptions and remains of the Roman military occupation
have been found, and the north and east walls stand in great
part on Roman foundations. The Saxon form of the name
was Leganceaster. About 614 the city was captured and
destroyed by ^Ethelfrith, and henceforth lay in ruins until
/Ethelflaed in 907 rebuilt the walls, restored the monastery of St
'erburgh, and made the city " nigh two such as it was before."
the reign of jEthelstan a mint was set up at Chester, and in
73 it was the scene of Edgar's truimph when, it is said, he was
wed on the Dee by six subject kings. Chester opposed a deter-
ined resistance to the Conqueror, and did not finally surrender
ntil 1070. On the erection of Cheshire to a county palatine
after the Conquest, Chester became the seat of government of the
palatine earls. The Domesday account of the city includes a
description of the Saxon laws under which it had been governed
in the time of Edward the Confessor. All the land, except the
bishop's borough, was held of the earl, and assessed at fifty
hides. There were seven mint-masters and twelve magistrates,
and the city paid a fee-farm rent of £45. It had been much
devastated since the time of Edward the Confessor, and the
umber of houses reduced by 205.

The earliest extant charter, granted by Henry II. in 1160,
ipowered the burgesses to trade with Durham as freely as they
had done in the reign of Henry I. From this date a large collec-
tion of charters enumerates privileges granted by successive earls
and later sovereigns. One from Ralph or Ranulf de Blundevill,
granted between 1190 and 1211, confirms to the citizens a gild
merchant and all liberties and free customs, and three from
John protect their privilege of trading with Ireland. Edward I.
empowered the citizens to elect coroners and to hold courts of
justice, and granted them the fee-farm of the city at a yearly
rent of £100. In the i4th century Chester began to lose its
standing as a port through the gradual silting up of the estuary
of the Dee, and the city was further impoverished by the inroads
of the Welsh and by the necessity of rebuilding the Dee bridge,
which had been swept away by an unusually high tide. In con-
sideration of these misfortunes Richard II. remitted part of the
fee-farm. Continued misfortunes led to a further reduction of
the farm to £50 for a term of fifty years by Henry VI., who also
made a grant for the completion of a new Dee bridge. Henry
VII. reduced the fee-farm to £20, and in 1506 granted to the
citizens what is known as " the Great Charter." This charter
constituted the city a county by itself, and incorporated the
governing body under the style of a mayor, twenty-four aldermen
and forty common councilmen; it also instituted two sheriffs,
two coroners and a recorder, and the mayor, the ex-mayors
and the recorder were appointed justices of the peace. This
charter was confirmed by James I. and Charles II. A charter of
George IH. in 1804 instituted the office of deputy-mayor. The
charter of Hugh Lupus to the abbey of St Werburgh includes
a grant of the tolls of the fair at the feast of St Werburgh
for three days, and a subsequent charter from Ranulf
de Blundevill (i2th century) licensed the abbot and monks
to hold their fairs and markets before the abbey gates. A
charter of John the Scot, earl of Chester, mentions fairs at the
feasts of the Nativity of St John Baptist and St Michael. For
many centuries the rights claimed by the abbot in connexion
with the fairs gave rise to constant friction with the civic
authorities, which lasted until, in the reign of Henry VIII.,
it was decreed that the right of holding fairs was vested ex-
clusively in the citizens. Charles II. in 1685 granted a cattle-
fair to be held on the first Thursday in February.

In 1553 Chester first returned two members to parliament,
having hitherto been represented solely in the parliament of
the palatinate. By the Redistribution Act of 1885 the representa-
tion was reduced to one member. The trades of tanners, skinners
and glove-makers existed at the time of the Conquest, and the
importation of marten skins is mentioned in Domesday. In
the I4th century the woollen trade was considerable, and in 1674
weavers and wool-combers were introduced into Chester from

Norwich. The restoration of the channel of the Dee opened
up a flourishing trade in Irish linen, which in 1786 was at its
height, but from that date gradually diminished.

See Victoria County History, Cheshire; R. H. Morris, Chester in
the Plantagenet and Tudor Reigns (Chester, 1894); Joseph Heming-
way, History of the City of Chester (2 vols., Chester, 1831).

CHESTER, a city of Delaware county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
on the Delaware river, about 13 m. S.W. of Philadelphia. Pop.
(1890) 20,226; (1900) 33,988, of whom 5074 were foreign-born
and 4403 were negroes; (U. S. census, 1910) 38,537. It is served
by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Philadelphia & Reading
railways, by the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington division
of the Pennsylvania system, and by steamboat lines. Chester has
several interesting buildings dating from early in the i8th century
—among them the city hall (1724), one of the oldest public
buildings in the United States, and the house (1683) occupied
for a time by William Penn. It is the seat of the Pennsylvania
Military College (1862); and on the border of Chester, in the
boiough of Upland (pop. in 1900, 2131), is the Crozer Theological
Seminary (Baptist), which was incorporated in 1867, opened in
1868, and named after John P. Crozer (1793-1866), by whose
family it was founded. Chester has a large shipbuilding industry,
and manufactories of cotton and worsted goods, iron and
steel, the steel-casting industry being especially important, and
large quantities of wrought iron and steel pipes being manu-
factured. Dye-stuffs and leather also are manufactured. The
value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $16,644,842.
Chester is the oldest town in Pennsylvania. It was settled by
the Swedes about 1645, was called Upland and was the seat of the
Swedish courts until 1682, when William Penn, soon after his
landing at a spot in the town now marked by a memorial stone,
gave it its present name. The first provincial assembly was
convened here in December of the same year. After the battle
of Brandywine in the War of Independence, Washington re-
treated to Chester, and in the " Washington House," still
standing, wrote his account of the battle. Soon afterwards
Chester was occupied by the British. In 1701 it was incorporated
as a borough; in 1795 and again in 1850 it received a new
borough charter; and in 1866 it was chartered as a city. For
a long time it was chiefly a small fishing settlement, its population
as late as 1820 being only 657; but after the introduction of
large manufacturing interests in 1850, when its population was
only 1667, its growth was rapid.

See H. G. Ashmead, Historical Sketch of Chester (Chester, 1883).
CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER STANHOPE, 4TH EARL
OF (1694-1773), son of Philip Stanhope, third earl (1673-
1726), and Elizabeth Savile, daughter of George Savile, marquess
of Halifax, was born in London on the 22nd of September 1694;
Philip, the first earl (1584-1656), son of Sir John Stanhope of
Shelford, was a royalist who in 1616 was created Baron Stanlfope
of Shelford, and in 1628 earl of Chesterfield; and his grandson
the 2nd earl (1633-1714) was grandfather of the 4th earl. De-
prived at an early age of his mother, the care of the boy devolved
upon his grandmother, the marchioness of Halifax, a lady of
culture and connexion, whose house was frequented by the
most distinguished Whigs of the epoch. He soon began to
prove himself possessed of that systematic spirit of conduct
and effort which appeared so much in' his life and character.
His education, begun under a private tutor, was continued
(1712) at Trinity Hall, Cambridge; here he remained little
more than a year and seems to have read hard, and to have
acquired a considerable knowledge of ancient and modern
languages. The great orators of all times were a special object
of study with him, and he describes his boyish pedantry pleas-
antly enough, but by no means without a touch of self-satisfac-
tion in the memory. His university training was supplemented
(1714) by a continental tour, untrammelled by a governor;
at the Hague his ambition for the applause awarded to adventure
made a gamester of him, and at Paris he began, from the same
motive, that worship of the conventional Venus, the serious
inculcation of which has earned for him the largest and most
unenviable part of his reputation.

no

CHESTERFIELD, LORD

The death of Anne and the accession of George I. opened up
a career for him and brought him back to England. His relative
James Stanhope (afterwards first Earl Stanhope), the king's
favourite minister, procured for him the place of gentleman of
the bedchamber to the prince of Wales. In 1715 he entered
the House of Commons as Lord Stanhope of Shelford and
member for St Germans, and when the impeachment of James,
duke of Ormonde, came before the House, he used the occasion
(Sth of August 1715) to put to prool his old rhetorical studies.
His maiden speech was youthfully fluent and dogmatic; but
on its conclusion the orator was reminded with many compli-
ments, by an honourable member, that he wanted six weeks of
his majority, and consequently that he was amenable to a fine
of £500 for speaking in the House. Lord Stanhope quitted the
Commons with a low bow and started for the continent. From
Paris he rendered the government important service by gathering
and transmitting information respecting the Jacobite plot;
and in 1716 he returned to England, resumed his seat, and took
frequent part in the debates. In that year came the quarrel
between the king and the heir apparent. Stanhope, whose
politic instinct obliged him to worship the rising rather than the
setting sun. remained faithful to the prince, though he was too
cautious to break entirely with the king's party. He was on
friendly terms with the prince's mistress,Henrietta Howard,after-
wards countess of Suffolk. He maintained a correspondence with
this lady which won for him the hatred of the princess of Wales
(afterwards Queen Caroline). In 1723 a vote for the government
got him the place of captain of the Gentlemen Pensioners. In
January 1725, on the revival of the Bath, the red riband was
offered to him, but was declined.

In 1726 his father died, and Lord Stanhope became earl of
Chesterfield. He took his seat in the Upper House, and his
oratory, never effective in the Commons by reason of its want
of force and excess of finish, at once became a power. In 1728
Chesterfield was sent to the Hague as ambassador. In this place
his tact and temper, his dexterity and discrimination, enabled
him to do good service, and he was rewarded with Walpole's
friendship, a Garter and the place of lord high steward. In 1732
there was born to him, by a certain Mile du Bouchet, the son,
Philip Stanhope, for whose advice and instruction were after-
wards written the famous Letters. He negotiated the second
treaty of Vienna in 1731, and in the next year, being somewhat
broken in health and fortune, he resigned his embassy and re-
turned to England.

A few months' rest enabled him to resume his seat in the Lords,
of which he was one of the acknowledged leaders. He supported
the ministry, but his allegiance was not the blind fealty Walpole
exacted of his followers. The Excise Bill, the great premier's
favourite measure, was vehemently opposed by him in the Lords,
and by his three brothers in the Commons. Walpole bent before
the storm and abandoned the measure; but Chesterfield was
summarily dismissed from his stewardship. For the next two
years he led the opposition in the Upper House, leaving no stone
unturned to effect Walpole's downfall. In 1741 he signed the
protest for Walpole's dismissal and went abroad on account of
his health. He visited Voltaire at Brussels and spent some
time in Paris, where he associated with the younger Crebillon,
Fontenelle and Montesquieu. In 1742 Walpole fell, and Carteret
was his real, though not his nominal successor. Although
Walpole's administration had been overthrown largely by
Chesterfield's efforts the new ministry did not count Chesterfield
either in its ranks or among its supporters. He remained in
opposition, distinguishing himself by the courtly bitterness of his
attacks on George II., who learned to hate him violently. In
1743 a new journal, Old England; or, the Constitutional Journal
appeared. For this paper Chesterfield wrote under the name of
" Jeffrey Broadbottom." A number of pamphlets, in some of
which Chesterfield had the help of Edmund Waller, followed.
His energetic campaign against George II. and his government
won the gratitude of the dowager duchess of Marlborough, who
left him £20,000 as a mark of her appreciation. In 1744 the king
was compelled to abandon Carteret, and the coalition or " Broad

Bottom" party, led by Chesterfield and Pitt, came into office.
In the troublous state of European politics the earl's conduct
and experience were more useful abroad than at home, and he
was sent to the Hague as ambassador a second time. The object
of his mission was to persuade the Dutch to join in the War of the
Austrian Succession and to arrange the details of their assistance.
The success of his mission was complete; and on his return a
few weeks afterwards he received the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland
— a place he had long coveted.

Short as it was, Chesterfield's Irish administration was of great
service to his country, and is unquestionably that part of his
political life which does him most honour. To have conceived
and carried out a policy which, with certain reservations, Burke
himself might have originated and owned, is indeed no small
title to regard. The earl showed himself finely capable in practice
as in theory, vigorous and tolerant, a man to be feared and a
leader to be followed; he took the government entirely into his
own hands, repressed the jobbery traditional to the office,
established schools and manufactures, and at once conciliated
and kept in check the Orange and Roman Catholic factions.
In 1746, however, he had to exchange the lord-lieutenancy for
the place of secretary of state. With a curious respect for those
theories his familiarity with the secret social history of France had
caused him to entertain, he hoped and attempted to retain a
hold over the king through the influence of Lady Yarmouth,
though the futility of such means had already been demonstrated
to him by his relations with Queen Caroline's "ma bonne Howard."
The influence of Newcastle and Sandwich, however, was too
strong for him; he was thwarted and over-reached; and in
1 748 he resigned the seals, and returned to cards and his books
with the admirable composure which was one of his most striking
characteristics. He declined any knowledge of the Apology for
a late Resignation, in a Letter from an English Gentleman to his
Friend at The Hague, which ran through four editions in 1748,
but there is little doubt that he was, at least in part, the
author.

The dukedom offered him by George II., whose ill-will his
fine tact had overcome, was refused. He continued for some
years to attend the Upper House, and to take part in its proceed-
ings. In 1751, seconded by Lord Macclesfield, president of the
Royal Society, and Bradley, the eminent mathematician, he
distinguished himself greatly in the debates on the calendar, and
succeeded in making the new style a fact. Deafness, however,
was gradually affecting him, and he withdrew little by little
from society and the practice of politics. In 1755 occurred
the famous dispute with Johnson over the dedication to the
English Dictionary. In 1747 Johnson sent Chesterfield, who was
then secretary of state, a prospectus of his Dictionary, which
was acknowledged by a subscription of £10. Chesterfield appar-
ently took no further interest in the enterprise, and the book
was about to appear, when he wrote two papers in the World in
praise of it. It was said that Johnson was kept waiting in the
anteroom when he called while Gibber was admitted. In any
case the doctor had expected more help from a professed patron
of literature, and wrote the earl the famous letter in defence
of men of letters. Chesterfield's " respectable Hottentot," now
identified with George, Lord Lyttelton, was long supposed,
though on slender grounds, to be a portrait of Johnson. During
the twenty years of life that followed this episode, Chesterfield
wrote and read a great deal, but went little into society.

In 1768 died Philip Stanhope, the child of so many hopes.
The constant care bestowed by his father on his education
resulted in an honourable but not particularly distinguished
career for young Stanhope. His death was an overwhelming
grief to Chesterfield, and the discovery that he had long been
married to a lady of humble origin must have been galling in the
extreme to his father after his careful instruction in worldly
wisdom. Chesterfield, who had no children by his wife, Melusina
von Schulemberg, illegitimate daughter of George I., whom
he married in 1733, adopted his godson, a distant cousin, named
Philip Stanhope (1755-1815), as heir to the title and estates.
His famous jest (which even Johnson allowed to have merit) —

CHESTERFIELD— CHESTERTON, G. K.

in

" Tyrawley and I have been dead these two years, but we don't
choose to have it known " — is the best description possible of his
humour and condition during the latter part of this period of
decline. To the deafness was added blindness, but his memory
and his fine manners only left him with life; his last words
(" Give Dayrolles a chair ") prove that he had neither forgotten
his friend nor the way to receive him. He died on the 24th of
March 1773.

Chesterfield was selfish, calculating and contemptuous; he
was not naturally generous, and he practised dissimulation till
it became part of his nature. In spite of his brilliant talents
and of the admirable training he received, his life, on the whole,
cannot be pronounced a success. His anxiety and the pains he
took to become an orator have been already noticed, and Horace
Walpole, who had heard all the great orators, preferred a speech
of Chesterfield's to any other; yet the earl's eloquence is not to be
compared with that of Pitt. Samuel Johnson, who was not
perhaps the best judge in the world, pronounced his manners to
have been" exquisitely elegant "; yet as a courtier he was utterly
worsted by Robert Walpole, whose manners were anything but
refined, and even by Newcastle. He desired to be known as a
protector of letters and literary men; and his want of heart or
head over the Dictionary dedication, though explained and ex-
cused by Croker, none the less inspired the famous change in a
famous line — " Toil, envy, want, the patron, and the jail. "
His published writings have had with posterity a very indifferent
success; his literary reputation rests on a volume of letters never
designed to appear in print. The son for whom he worked
so hard and thought so deeply failed especially where his father
had most desired he should succeed.

As a politician and statesman, Chesterfield's fame rests on his
short but brilliant administration of Ireland. As an author he
was a clever essayist and epigrammatist. But he stands or falls
by the Letters to his Son, first published by Stanhope's widow
in 1774, and the Letters to his Godson (1890). The Letters are
brilliantly written — full of elegant wisdom, of keen wit, of
admirable portrait-painting, of exquisite observation and deduc-
tion. Against the charge of an undue insistence on the external
graces of manner Chesterfield has been adequately defended by
Lord Stanhope (History, iii. 34). Against the often iterated
accusation of immorality, it should be remembered that the
Letters reflected the morality of the age, and that their author
only systematized and reduced to writing the principles of
conduct by which, deliberately or unconsciously, the best and
the worst of his contemporaries were governed.

The earldom of Chesterfield passed at his death to his godson,
already mentioned, as 5th earl, and so to the latter's son and
grandson. On the death of the latter unmarried in 1871, it
passed in succession to two collateral heirs, the 8th and gth
earls, and so in 1887 to the latter's son as loth earl.

See Chesterfield's Miscellaneous Works (London, 1777, 2 vols. 4to) ;
Letters to his Son, &c., edited by Lord Mahon (London, 1845-1853,
5 vols.); and Letters to his Godson (1890) (edited by the earl of
Carnarvon). There are also editions of the first series of letters
by J. Bradshaw (3 vols., 1892) and Mr C. Strachey (2 vols., 1901).
In 1893 a biography, including numerous letters first published from
the Newcastle Papers, was issued by Mr W. Ernst; and in 1907
appeared an elaborate Life by W. H. Craig. (A. D.)

CHESTERFIELD, a market town and municipal borough in
the Chesterfield parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England,
24 m. N. by E. of Derby, on the Midland and the Great Central
railways. Pop. (1891) 22,009; (1901) 27,185. It lies at the
junction of two streams, the Rother and Hipper, in a populous
industrial district. It is irregularly built, with narrow streets,
but has a spacious market-place. The church of St Mary and All
Saints is a large and beautiful cruciform building principally of
the Decorated period. Its central tower carries a remarkable
twisted spire of wood covered with lead, 230 ft. high; the dis-
tortion has evidently taken place through the use of unseasoned
timber and consequent warping of the woodwork. The church,
which contains numerous interesting monuments, possesses also
the unusual feature of an apsidal Decorated chapel. There is an
example of flamboyant tracery in one of the windows. Among

public buildings, the Stephenson memorial hall (1879) , containing
a free library, art and science class-rooms, a theatre and the
rooms of the Chesterfield Institute, commemorates George
Stephenson, the engineer, who resided at Tapton House, close
to Chesterfield, in his later life; he died here in 1848, and was
buried in Trinity church. Chesterfield grammar school was
founded hi 1574. The industries of the town include manu-
factures of cotton, silk, earthenware, machinery and tobacco,
with brass and iron founding; while slate and stone arc quarried,
and there are coal, iron and lead mines in the neighbourhood.
The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 1216 acres. In the immediate neighbourhood of Chester-
field on the west is the urban district of Brampton and Walton
(pop. 2698), to the south-east is Hasland (7427), and to the
north-east Brimington (4569).

In spite of the Roman origin suggested by its name, so few
remains have been found here that it is doubtful whether Chester-
field was a Roman station. Chesterfield (Cestrefeld) owes its
present name to the Saxons. It is mentioned in Domesday only
as a bailiwick of Newbold belonging to the king, and granted to
William Peverell. In 1204 John gave the manor to William
Bruere and granted to the town all the privileges of a free
borough which were enjoyed by Nottingham and Derby; but
before this it seems to have had prescriptive borough rights.
Later charters were granted by various sovereigns, and it was
incorporated by Elizabeth in 1598 under the style of a mayor,
6 brethren and 1 2 capital burgesses. This charter was confirmed
by Charles II. (1662), and the town was so governed till the
Municipal Act 1835 appointed a mayor, 3 aldermen and 12
councillors. In 1204 John granted two weekly markets, on
Tuesday and Saturday, and an annual fair of eight days at the
feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross (Sept. 14). This fair,
which is still held, and another on Palm Tuesday, are mentioned
in the Quo Warranto roll of 1330. The Tuesday market has long
been discontinued. That Chesterfield was early a thriving centre
is shown by the charter of John Lord Wake, lord of the manor,
granting a gild merchant to the town. In 1 266 the town was the
scene of a battle between the royal forces and the barons, when
Robert de Ferrers, earl of Derby, was taken prisoner. In 1586
there was a terrible visitation of the plague; and the parlia-
mentarian forces were overthrown here in the Civil War. With
the development of cotton and silk industries the town has
increased enormously, and is now second in importance only to
Derby among the towns of the county. There is no record
that it ever returned representatives to parliament.

See Stephen Glover, History and Gazetteer of the County of Derby
(Derby, 1831-1833); J. Pym Yeatman, Records of the Borough of
Chesterfield (Chesterfield and Sheffield, 1884) ; Thomas Ford, History
of Chesterfield (London, 1839).

CHESTER-LE-STREET, a town in the Chester-le-Street
parliamentary division of Durham, England, near the river
Wear, 6 m. N. of the city of Durham on the North-Eastern
railway. Pop. (1901) 11,753. The parish church of St Mary
and St Cuthbert is an interesting building, formerly collegiate,
with a tower 156 ft. high, and a remarkable series of monumental
tombs of the Lumley family, collected here from Durham
cathedral and various ruined monasteries, and in some cases
remade. About i m. along the river is Lumley Castle, the seat
of the earl of Scarborough, and about 2 m. north lies Lambton
Castle, the residence of the earl of Durham, built in 1797 on the
site of the old House of Harraton. Collieries and iron-works
employ the industrial population. Chester-le-Street is a place of
considerable antiquity. It lies on a branch of the Roman north
road, on which it was a station, but the name is not known.
Under the name of Cunecaslre it was made the seat of a bishop
in 882, and continued to be the head of the diocese till the
Danish invasion of 995. During that time the church was the
repository of the shrine of St Cuthbert, which was then removed
to Durham.

CHESTERTON, GILBERT KEITH (1874- ), English
journalist and author, who came of a family of estate-agents,
was born in London on the 29th of May 1874. He was educated

112

CHESTERTON— CHESTNUT

at St Paul's school, which he left in 1891 with the idea of studying
art. But his natural bent was literary, and he devoted himself
mainly to cultivating that means of expression, both in prose
and verse; he did occasional reviewing, and had some experience
in a publisher's office. In 1900, having already produced a
volume of clever poems, The Wild Knight, he definitely took to
journalism as a career, and became a regular contributor of signed
articles to the Liberal journals, the Speaker and Daily News.
He established himself from the first as a writer with a distinct
personality, combative to a swashbuckling degree, uncon-
ventional and dogmatic; and the republication of much of his
work in a series of volumes (e.g. Twelve Types, Heretics, Ortho-
doxy), characterized by much acuteness of criticism, a pungent
style, and the capacity of laying down the law with unflagging
impetuosity and humour, enhanced his reputation. His powers
as a writer are best shown in his studies of Browning (in the
" English Men of Letters " series) and of Dickens; but these
were only rather more ambitious essays among a medley of
characteristic utterances, ranging from fiction (including The
Napoleon oj Notting-hill) to fugitive verse, and from artistic
criticism to discussions of ethics and religion. The interest
excited by his work and views was indicated and analysed in an
anonymous volume (G. K. Chesterton: a Criticism) published
in 1908.

CHESTERTON, an urban district in the Chesterton parlia-
mentary division of Cambridgeshire, England, ij m. N. from
Cambridge station, on the north bank of the Cam. Pop. (1901)
9591. The church of St Andrew is Decorated and Perpendicular,
retaining ancient woodwork and remains of fresco painting.
Along the river are several boat-houses erected by the Cambridge
University Boat Club. Boat-building and tile manufacture are
local industries.

CHESTNUT (nux Castanea), the common name given to two
sorts of trees and their fruit, (i) the so-called " horse-chestnut,"
and (2) the sweet or " Spanish " chestnut.

(i) The common horse-chestnut, Aesculus Hippocastanum
(Ger. Rosskastanie; Fr. marronnier d' Inde), has been stated to
be a native of Tibet, and to have been brought thence to England
in 1550; it is now, however, thought to be indigenous in the
mountains of northern Greece, where it occurs wild at 3000 to
4000 ft. above sea-level. Matthiolus, who attributes the origin
of the name of the tree to the use of the nuts by the inhabitants
of Constantinople for the relief of short-windedness and cough
in horses, remarks that no ancient writer appears to have made
mention of the horse-chestnut. Clusius (Rariorum plantarum
hist. i. p. 8, 1601) describes it as a vegetable curiosity, of
which in 1588 he had left in Vienna a living specimen, but of
which he had not yet seen either the flowers or recent fruit.
The dry fruit, he says, had frequently been brought from Con-
stantinople into Europe.

The tree grows rapidly; it flourishes best in a sandy, somewhat
moist loam, and attains a height of 50 to 60 or more ft., assuming
a pyramidal outline. Its boughs are strong and spreading.
The buds, conspicuous for their size, are protected by a coat of a
glutinous substance, which is impervious to water; in spring
this melts, and the bud-scales are then cast off. The leaves are
composed of seven radiating leaflets (long-wedge-shaped) ; when
young they are downy and drooping. From the early date of
its leafing year by year, a horse-chestnut in the Tuileries is known
as the " Marronnier du 20 mars." The flowers of the horse-
chestnut, which are white dashed with red and yellow, appear in
May, and sometimes, but quite exceptionally, again in autumn;
they form a handsome erect panicle, but comparatively few of
them afford mature fruit. The fruit is ripe in or shortly before
the first week in October, when it falls to the ground, and the
three-valved thorny capsule divides, disclosing the brown and at
first beautifully glossy seeds, the so-called nuts, having a resem-
blance to sweet chestnuts, and commonly three or else two in
.number. For propagation of the tree, the seeds may be sown
either when fresh, or, if preserved in sand or earth, in spring.
Drying by exposure to the air for a month has been found to
prevent their germination. Rooks are wont to remove the nuts

from the tree just before they fall, and to disperse them in various
directions. The tree is rarely planted in mixed plantations
where profit is an object; it interferes with its neighbours and
occupies too much room. It is generally introduced near man-
sion-houses for ornament and shade, and the celebrated avenues
at Richmond and Bushey Park in England are objects of great
beauty at the time of flowering.

The bark of the horse-chestnut contains a greenish oil, resin, a
yellow body, a tannin, CxHMOn, existing likewise in the seeds
and various parts of the tree, and decomposable into phloroglucin
and aesciglyoxalic acid, C7H6O3, also aesctdetin hydrate, and the
crystalline fluorescent compound aesculin, of the formulaCaH24O1t
(Rochleder and Schwarz), with which occurs a similar substance
fraxin, the paviin of Sir G. G. Stokes (Q. J. Chem. Soc. xi. 17,
1859; xii. 126, 1860), who suggests that its presence may perhaps
account for the discrepancies in the analyses of aesculin given by
different authors. From the seeds have been obtained starch
(about 14%), gum, mucilage, a non-drying oil, phosphoric acid,
salts of calcium, saponin, by boiling which with dilute hydro-
chloric or sulphuric acid aesculic acid is obtained, quercitrin,
present also in the fully developed leaves, aescigenin, CnHxOz,
and aesculetin, QHeOi, which is procurable also, but in small
quantity only, from the bark. Friedrich Rochleder has described
as constituent principles of the cotyledons aphrodaescin,
a bitter glucoside, argyraescin, C^^O^, aescinic acid,
and queraescitrin, CuHUeOa, found also in the leaves. To prepare
pure starch from the seeds, Flandin (Compt. rend, xxvii. 391,
1848; xxviii. 138, 1849) recommends kneading them, when
peeled and bruised, in an aqueous solution of j-J^ to ^ff of their
weight of sodium carbonate. E. Staffel (Ann. d. Chem. u.
Pharm. Ixxvi., 1850, p. 379) after drying found, in spring and
autumn respectively, 10-9 and 3-38% of ash in the wood, 8-68
and 6- 57 in the bark, and 7-68 and 7-52 in the leaves of the horse-
chestnut. The ash of the unripe fruit contains 58-77, that of the
ripe kernel 61-74, and that of the green shell 75-91% of potash
(E. Wolff).

The wood of the horse-chestnut is soft, and serves only for
the making of water-pipes, for turner's work and common
carpentry, as a source of charcoal for gunpowder, and as fuel.
Newly cut it weighs 60 K>, and dry 35 Ib per cub. ft. approxi-
mately. The bark has been employed for dyeing yellow and for
tanning, and was formerly in popular repute as a febrifuge and
tonic. The powder of the dried nuts was at one time prescribed
as a sternutatory (to encourage sneezing) in the Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia. It is stated to form with alum-water a size or
cement highly offensive to vermin, and with two parts of wheaten
flour the material for a strong bookbinder's paste. Infusion of
horse-chestnuts is found to expel worms from soil, and soon to
kill them if they are left in it. The nuts furthermore have been
applied to the manufacture of an oil for burning, cosmetic
preparations and starch, and in Switzerland, France and Ireland,
when rasped on ground, to the bleaching of flax, hemp, silk and
wool. In Geneva horse-chestnuts are largely consumed by
grazing stock, a single sheep receiving 2 ft. crushed morning and
evening. Given to cows in moderate quantity, they have been
found to enhance both the yield and flavour of milk. Deer
readily eat them, and, after a preliminary steeping in lime-water,
pigs also. For poultry they should be used boiled, and mixed
with other nourishment. The fallen leaves are relished by sheep
and deer, and afford a good litter for flocks and herds.

One variety of the horse-chestnut has variegated leaves, and
another double flowers. Darwin observed that A e. Pavia, the red
buckeye of North America, shows a special tendency, under
unfavourable conditions, to be double-blossomed. The seeds of
this species are used to stupefy fish. The scarlet-flowered horse-
chestnut, Ae. rubicunda, is a handsome tree, less in height and
having a rounder head than the common form; it is a native of
North America. Another species, possessing flowers with the
lower petals white with a red tinge, and the upper yellow and red
with a white border, and fruit unarmed, is Ae. indica, a native of
the western Himalayas. Among the North American species are
the foetid or Ohio buckeye, Ae. glabra, and Ae. flava, the sweet

CHETTLE— CHEVALIER

buckeye. Ae. calif arnica, when full-grown and in flower, is a
beautiful tree, but its leaves often fall before midsummer.

(2) The Spanish or sweet chestnut, Castanea saliva (natural
order, Fagaceae), is a stately and magnificent tree, native of the
countries bordering on the Mediterranean, but also ripening its
fruit in sheltered situations as far north as Scotland. It lives
very long, and attains a large size, spreading its branches widely.
It has large glossy lanceolate leaves with a toothed margin. The
flowers, which appear in early summer, are in pendulous, slender
yellowish catkins, which bear a number of stamina te flowers with
a few pistillate flowers at the base. The staminate contain 8 to 20
stamens which produce an enormous amount of dusty yellow
pollen, some of which gets carried by wind to the protruding
stigmas of the pistillate flowers. The latter are borne three
together, invested by a cupule of four green bracts, which, as the
fruit matures, grow to form the tough green prickly envelope
surrounding the group of generally three nuts. The largest
known chestnut tree is the famous Castagno di cento cavalli, or the
chestnut of a hundred horses, on the slopes of Mount Etna, a tree
which, when measured about 1780 by Count Borch, was found to
have a circumference of 190 ft. The timber bears a striking
resemblance to that of the oak, which has been mistaken for
chestnut; but it may be distinguished by the numerous fine
medullary rays. Unlike oak, the wood is more valuable while
young than old. When not more than fifty years old it forms
durable posts for fences and gates; but at that age it often begins
to deteriorate, having ring-shakes and central hollows. In a
young state, when the stems are not^bove 2 in. in diameter at the
ground, the chestnut is found to make durable hoops for casks and
props for vines; and of a larger size it makes good hop-poles.

Chestnuts (the fruit of the tree) are extensively imported into
Great Britain, and are eaten roasted or boiled, and mashed or
otherwise as a vegetable. In a raw state they have a sweet taste,
but are difficult of digestion. The trees are very abundant in the
south of Europe, and chestnuts bulk largely in the food resources
of the poor in Spain, Italy, Switzerland and Germany. In Italy
the kernels are ground into meal, and used for thickening soups,
and even for bread-making. In North America the fruits of an
allied species, C. americana, are eaten both raw and cooked.

CHETTLE, HENRY (is64?-i6o7?), English dramatist and
miscellaneous writer, was the sen of Robert Chettle, a London
dyer. He was apprenticed in 1577 to a stationer, and in 1591
became a partner with William Hoskins and John Danter. In
1592 he published Robert Greene's Groatsiuorth of Wit. In the
preface to his Kind Herts Dreame (end of 1592) he found it
necessary to disavow any share in that pamphlet, and incidentally
he apologized to three persons (one of them commonly identified
with Shakespeare) who had been abused in it. Piers Plainnes
Seaven Veres Prentiship, the story of a fictitious apprenticeship in
Crete and Thrace, appeared in 1595. As early as 1598 Francis
Meres includes him in his Palladis Tamia as one of the " best for
comedy," and between that year and 1603 he wrote or
collaborated in some forty-nine pieces. He seems to have been
generally in debt, judging from numerous entries in Henslowe's
diary of advances for various purposes, on one occasion (i7th of
January 1599) to pay his expenses in the Marshalsea prison, on
another (7th of March 1603) to get his play out of pawn. Of
the thirteen plays usually attributed to Chettle's sole authorship
only one was printed. This was The Tragedy of Hoffmann: or a
Revenge for a Father (played 1602; printed 1631), a share in
which Mr Fleay assigns to Thomas Heywood. It has been
suggested that this piece was put forward as a rival to Shake-
speare's Hamlet. Among the plays in which Chettle had a share
is catalogued The Danish Tragedy, which was probably either
identical with Hoffmann or another version of the same story.
The Pleasant Comedie of Patient Grissill (1599), in which he
collaborated with Thomas Dekker and William Haughton, was
reprinted by the Shakespeare Society in 1841. It contains the
lyric " Art thou poor, yet hast thou golden slumbers," which is
probably Dekker's. In November 1599 Chettle receives ten
shillings for mending the first part of " Robin Hood," i.e. The
Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntingdon, by Anthony Munday;

and in the second part, which followed soon after and was printed
in 1601, The Death of Robert, Earle of Huntingdon, he collaborated
with Munday. Both plays are printed in Dodsley's Select
Collection of Old English Plays (ed. W. C. Hazlitt, vol. viii.). In
1603 Chettle published England's Mourning Garment, in which are
included some verses alluding to the chief poets of the time. His
death took place before the appearance of Dekker!s Knight's
Conjurer in 1607, for he is there mentioned as a recent arrival in
limbo.

Hoffmann was edited by H. B(arrett) L(ennard) (1852) and by
Richard Ackermann (Bamberg, 1894).

CHEVALIER, ALBERT (1861- ), English comedian, began
a connexion with the stage while still a child. In 1877 he was
engaged as an actor under the Bancrofts in London, and for some
years played " legitimate " parts at the Court theatre and
elsewhere. In 1891, however, he began a successful music-hall
career as a singer of coster songs of his own invention, a new type
in which he had an immediate success, both in England and
America. He subsequently organized an entertainment of his
own, with sketches and songs, with which he went on tour, estab-
lishing a wide popularity as an original artist in his special line.

CHEVALIER, MICHEL (1806-1879), French economist, was
born at Limoges on the I3th of January 1806. In his early
manhood, while employed as an engineer, he became a convert to
the theories of Saint Simon; these he ardently advocated in the
Globe, the organ of the Saint Simonians, which he edited until his
arrest in 1832 on a charge of outraging public morality by its
publication. He was sentenced to a year's imprisonment, but was
released in six months through the intervention of Thiers, who
sent him on a special mission to the United States to study the
question of land and water transport. In 1836 he published, in
two volumes, the letters he wrote from America to the Journal
des debats. These attracted so much attention that he was sent
in the same year on an economic mission to England, which
resulted in his publication (in 1838) of Des inter ets materiels de la
France. The success of this made his position secure, and in 1840
he was appointed professor of political economy in the College de
France. He sat for a short time (1845-1846) as a member of the
Chamber of Deputies, but lost his seat owing to his enthusiastic
adoption of the principles of free trade. Under Napoleon III. he
was restored to the position of which the revolution of 1848 had
temporarily deprived him. In 1850 he became a member of the
Institute, and in the following year published an important work
in favour of free trade, under the title of Examen du systetne
commercial connu sous le nom de systcme protecteur. His chief
public triumph was the important part he played in bringing
about the conclusion of the commercial treaty between France
and Great Britain in 1860. Previously to this he had served, in
1855, upon the commission for organizing the Exhibition of 1855,
and his services there led to his forming one of the French jury of
awards in the London Exhibition of 1862. He was created a
member of the Senate in 1860, and continued for some years to
take an active part in its discussions. He retired from public life
in 1870, but was unceasingly industrious with his pen. He
became grand officer of the Legion of Honour in 1861, and during
the later years of his life received from many quarters public
recognition 6f his eminence as a political economist. He died at
his chateau near Montpellier (Herault) on the z8th of November
1879. Many of his works have been translated into English and
other languages. Besides those already mentioned the more
important are: C ours d'economie politique (1842-1850); Essaisde
politique industrielle (1843); De la baisse probable d'or (1859,
translated into English by Cobden, On the Probable Fall of the
Value of Gold, Manchester, 1859); L' Expedition du Mexique
(1862); Introduction aux rapports du jury international (1868).

CHEVALIER, ULYSSE (1841- ), French bibliographer,
was born at Rambouillet on the 24th of February 1841. He
published a great number of documents, relating to the history of
Dauphin6, e.g. the cartularies of the church and the town of Die
(1868), of the abbey of St Andr6 le-Bas at Vienne (1869), of the
abbey of Notre Dame at Bonnevaux in the diocese of Vienne
(1889), of the abbey of St Chaffre at Le Monestier (1884), the

CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE— CHEVIOT HILLS

inventories and several collections of archives of the dauphins of
Viennais, and a Bibliotheque liturgique in six volumes (1893-1897),
the third and fourth volumes of which constitute the Reperlorium
hymnologicum, containing more than 20,000 articles. But his
principal work is the Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen
Age. The first part, Bio-bibliographie (1877-1886; and ed., 1905),
contains the names of all the historical personages alive between
the years i and 1500 who are mentioned in printed books,
together with the precise indication of all the places where they
are mentioned. The second part, Topo-biblio graphic (1894-
1903), contains not only the names of places mentioned in books
on the history of the middle ages, but, in a general way, every-
thing not included in the Bio-bibliographie. The Repertoire as a
whole contains an enormous mass of useful information, and is one
of the most important bibliographical monuments ever devoted to
the study of medieval history. Though a Catholic priest and
professor of history at the Catholic university of Lyons, the Abbe
(afterwards Canon) Chevalier knew how to maintain an inde-
pendent critical attitude even in religious questions. In the
controversy on the authenticity of the Holy Shroud (sudario) at
Turin, he worked in the true scientific spirit by tracing back the
history of that piece of stuff, which was undoubtedly used as a
shroud, but which was not produced before the I4th century and
is probably no older (See Le Saint Suaire de Lirey-ChambSry-
Turin et les defenseurs de son authenticite). Similarly, in Notre
Dame de Lorette; ftude critique sur I' authenticite de la Santa Casa
(1906), he dissipated by the aid of authentic documents the
legend which had embellished and falsified the primitive history
of that sanctuary.

CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE (French for " Friesland horses";
the Dutch Vriesse ruyters, " Frisian horsemen," and German
Spanische Reiler, " Spanish horsemen "), a military obstacle,
originating apparently in the Dutch War of Independence, and
used to close the breach of a fortress, streets, &c. It was formerly
often used in field operations as a defence against cavalry; hence
the name, as the Dutch were weak in the mounted arm and had
therefore to check the enemy's cavalry by an artificial obstacle.
Chevauxrde-frise consist of beams in which are fixed a number of
spears, sword-blades, &c., with the points projecting outwards on
all sides.

CHEVERUS, JEAN LOUIS ANNE MAGDELEINE LEFEBVRE
DE (1768-1836), French ecclesiastic, was born on the z8th of
January 1768, in Mayenne, France, where his father was general
civil judge and lieutenant of police. He studied at the college of
Mayenne, received the tonsure when twelve, became prior of
Torbechet while still little more than a child, thence derived
sufficient income for his education, entered the College of Louis le
Grand in 1781, and after completing his theological studies at the
Seminary of St Magloire, was ordained deacon in October 1790,
and priest by special dispensation on the i8th of December. He
was immediately made canon of the cathedral of Le Mans and
began to act as vicar to his uncle in Mayenne, who died in 1792.
Owing to the progress of the Revolution he emigrated in 1792 to
England, and thence in 1 796 to America, settling in Boston, Mass.
His interest had been aroused by Frangois Antoine Matignon, a
former professor at Orleans, now in charge under Bishop John
Carroll of all the Catholic churches and missions in New England.
Cheverus, although at first appointed to an Indian mission in
Maine, remained in Boston for nearly a year, and returned thither
after several months in the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy
missions and visits to scattered Catholic families along the way.
During the epidemic of yellow fever in 1798 he won great praise
and respect for his courage and charity; and his preaching was
listened to by many Protestants — indeed the subscriptions for the
Church of the Holy Cross which he founded in 1803 were largely
from non-Catholics. In 1808 the papal brief was issued making
Boston a bishopric, suffragan to Baltimore, and Cheverus its
bishop. He was consecrated on All Saints' day in 1810, at St
Peter's, Baltimore, by Archbishop Carroll. On the death of the
latter his assistant bishop, Neale, urged the appointment of
Cheverus as assistant to himself; Cheverus refused and warmly
asserted his desire to remain in Boston ; but, much broken by the

death of Matignon in 1818 and with impaired health, he soon
found it necessary to leave the seat of his bishopric. In 1823,
Louis XVIII. having insisted on his return to France, Cheverus
became bishop of Montauban, where his tolerance captivated the
Protestant clergy and laymen of the city. He was made arch-
bishop of Bordeaux in 1826; and on the ist of February 1836, in
accordance with the wish of Louis Philippe, he was made a
cardinal. He died in Bordeaux on the igth of July 1836. To
Cheverus, more than to any other, is due the position that Boston
now holds in the Roman Catholic Church of America, as well as
the general growth of that church in New England. His character
was essentially lovable: the Jews of Bordeaux and Protestants
everywhere delighted to honour him.

See the rather extravagant biography by J. Huen-Dubourg, Vie
du cardinal de Cheverus (Bordeaux, 1838; English version by E.
Stewart, Boston, 1839).

CHEVET, the term employed in French architecture to
distinguish the apsidal end of a church, in which the apses or
chapels radiate round the choir aisle. The two earliest examples
(nth and i2th century) are found in the churches of St Hilaire,
Poitiers, and Notre Dame-du-Port, Clermont, where there are
four apses. A more usual number is five, and the central apse,
being of larger dimensions, becomes the Lady chapel. This was
the case in Westminster Abbey, where Henry III. introduced the
chevet into England; Henry VII. 's chapel is built on the site cf
the original Lady chapel, which must have been of exceptional
size, as it extended the whole length of the present structure. In
Solignac, Fonlevrault and Paray-le-Monial there are only three,
in these cases sufficiently distant one from the other to allow of a
window between. The usual number in all the great cathedrals
of the i3th century, as in Bourges, Chartres, Reims, Troyes,
Tours, Bayeux, Antwerp and Bruges, is five. In Beauvais,
Amiens and Cologne there are seven apsidal chapels, and in
Clairvaux nine radiating but rectangular chapels. In the I4th
and 1 5th centuries the central apse was increased in size and
dedicated to the Virgin Mary, as in St Ouen at Rouen.

CHEVIOT HILLS, a range forming about 35 m. of the border
between England and Scotland. The boundary generally
follows the line of greatest elevation, but as the slope is more
gradual southward and northward the larger part of the range is
in Northumberland, England, and the lesser in Roxburghshire,
Scotland. The axis runs from N.E. to S.W., with a northward
tendency at the eastern end, where the ridge culminates in the
Cheviot, 2676 ft. Its chief elevations from this point south-
westward fall abruptly to 2034 ft. in Windygate Hill, and then
more gradually to about 1600 ft. above the pass, followed by a
high road from Redesdale. Beyond this are Carter Fell (1815)
and Peel Fell (1964), after which two lines of lesser elevation
branch westward and southward to enclose Liddesdale. The
hills are finely grouped, of conical and high-arched forms, and
generally grass-covered. Their flanks are scored with deep
narrow glens in every direction, carrying the headwaters of the
Till, Coquet and North Tyne on the south, and tributaries of the
Tweed on the north. The range is famous for a valuable breed of
sheep, which find abundant pasture on jts smooth declivities.
In earlier days it was the scene of many episodes of border
warfare, and its name is inseparably associated with the ballad of
Chevy Chase. The main route into Scotland from England lies
along the low coastal belt east of the Till; the Till itself provided
another, and Redesdale a third. There are numerous ruins of
castles and " peel towers " or forts on the English side in this
district.

Geology. — The rocks entering into the geological structure of the
Cheviots belong to the Silurian, Old Red Sandstone and Carbonifer-
ous systems. The oldest strata, which are of Upper Silurian age,
form inliers that have been exposed by the denudation of the
younger palaeozoic rocks. One of these which occurs high up on
the slopes of the Cheviots is drained by the Kale Water and the
river Coquet and is covered towards the north by the Old Red
Sandstone volcanic series and on the south by Carboniferous strata.
Another area is traversed by the Jed Water and the Edgerston
Burn and is surrounded by rocks of Old Red Sandstone age. The
strata consist of greywackes, flags and shales with seams and rone*
of graptolite shale which yield fossils sparingly.

CHEVREUL— CHEYENNE

On the upturned and denuded edges of the Silurian strata a great
pile of contemporaneous volcanic rocks of Lower Old Red Sand-
stone age rests unconformably, which consists chiefly of lavas with
thin partings of tuff. A striking feature is the absence of coarse
sediments, thus indicating prolonged volcanic activity. They cover
an area of about 230 sq. m. in the eastern part of the Cheviots and
rise to a height of 2676 ft. above the sea. . The lavas comprise dark
pitchstone, resembling that at Kirk Yetholm, and pprphyritic and
amygdaloidal andesites and basalts. This volcanic platform is
pierced by a mass of granite about 20 sq. m. in extent, which forms
the highest peak in the Cheviot range. It has been described by
Dr Teall as an augite-biotite-granite having strong affinities with
the augite-bearing granitites of Laveline and Oberbriick in the
Vosges. Both the granite and the surrounding lavas are traversed
by dykes and sills of intermediate and acid types represented by
mica-porphyrites and quartz-felsites.

On their north-west margin the Lower Old Red volcanic rocks
are covered unconformably by the upper division of that system
composed of red sandstones and conglomerates, which, when followed
westwards, rest directly on the Silurian platform. Towards the
south and east the volcanic pile is overlaid by Carboniferous strata,
thus indicating a prolonged interval of denudation.

On the northern slopes of the western part of the Cheviots the
representatives of the Cementstone group of the Carboniferous
system come to the surface, where they consist of shales, clays,
mudstones, sandstones with cementstones and occasional bands of
marine limestone. These are followed in normal order by the Fell
Sandstone group, comprising a succession of sandstones with inter-
calations of red and green clays and impure cementstone bands.
They form the higher part of the Larriston Fells and are traceable
eastwards to Peel Fell, where there is evidence of successive land sur-
faces in the form of dirt beds. They are succeeded by the Lewis-
burn coal-bearing group, which represents the Scremerston coals.

CHEVREUL, MICHEL EUGENE (1786-1889), French chemist,
was born, on the 3ist of August 1786, at Angers, where his father
was a physician. At about the age of seventeen he went to Paris
and entered L. N. Vauquelin's chemical laboratory, afterwards
becoming his assistant at the natural history museum in the
Jardin des Plantes. In 1813 he was appointed professor of
chemistry at the Lycee Charlemagne, and subsequently under-
took the directorship of the Gobelins tapestry works, where he
carried out his researches on colour contrasts (De la loi du
contraste simultane des couleurs, 1839). In 1826 he became a
member of the Academy of Sciences, and in the same year was
elected a foreign member of the Royal Society of London, whose
Copley medal he was awarded in 1857. He succeeded his master,
Vauquelin, as professor of organic chemistry at the natural
history museum in 1830, and thirty-three years later assumed its
directorship also; this he relinquished in 1879, though he still
retained his professorship. In 1886 the completion of his
hundredth year was celebrated with public rejoicings; and after
his death, which occurred in Paris on the gth of April 1889, he was
honoured with a public funeral. In 1901 a statue was erected to
his memory in the museum with which he was connected for so
many years. His scientific work covered a wide range, but his
name is best known for the classical researches he carried out on
animal fats, published in 1823 (Recherches sur les corps gras
d'origine animate). These enabled him to elucidate the true
nature of soap; he was also able to discover the composition of
stearin and olein, and to isolate stearic and oleic acid's, the names
of which were invented by him. This work led to important
improvements in the processes of candle-manufacture. Chevreul
was a determined enemy of charlatanism in every form, and a
complete sceptic as to the " scientific " psychical research or
spiritualism which had begun in his time (see his De la baguette
divinatoire, et des tables tournantes, 1864).

CHEVRON (Fr. from chevre, a goat), in architecture, the beams
or rafters in the roofs of a building, meeting in an angle with a
fancied resemblance to the horns of a butting goat ; in heraldry
a bent bar on a shield, used also as a distinguishing badge of
rank on the sleeves of non-commissioned officers in most armies
and navies and by police and other organized bodies wearing
uniform, and as a mark of good conduct in the army and navy.
Chevron is also an architectural term for an inflected ornament,
called also " zig-zag," found largely in romanesque architecture
in France, England and Sicily. It is one of the most common
decorations found in the voussoirs of the Norman arch, and
was employed also on shafts, as in the cloisters of Monreale near

Palermo, those of St Paul outside Rome, and many churches in
Germany. Its earliest appearance was in the tomb of Agamemnon
at Mycenae, where the shafts flanking the entrance doorway
have nine decorative chevron bands; in this case there is no
doubt it was derived from the metal casing of the early wood
columns.

CHEVROTAIN, a name taken from the French to designate the
various representatives of the mammalian ungulate family
Tragulidae. These tiny animals, commonly known as mouse-
deer, are in no wise nearly related to the true deer, but constitute
by themselves a special section of artiodactyle ungulates known
as Tragulina, for the characteristics of which see ARTIODACTYLA.
The typical genus Tragulus, which is Asiatic, contains the smallest
representatives of the family, the animals having more of
the general aspects and habits of some rodents, such as the
agoutis, than of other ruminants. The longest-known species are
T. javanicus, T. napu, T. kanchil, T. stanleyanus and T. memmina ;
but a number of other forms, best regarded for the most part as
races, have been named. Of those mentioned, the first four are
from the Malay Peninsula or the islands of the Indo-Malay
Archipelago, the last from Ceylon and India. Kanchil and napu

African Water Chevrotain (Dorcatherium aquaticum).

(or napoh) are the Malay names of the species with those specific
titles. The second genus, Dorcatherium (or Hyomoschus), is
African, and distinguished chiefly by the feet being stouter and
shorter, the outer toes better developed, and the two middle
metacarpals not welded together. Its dental formula (as that of
Tragulus) is i.$, c. \, p.$, »zj = 34. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6,
S. 5, Ca. 12-13. The only existing species, D. aquaticum (fig.), in
type is rather larger than any of the Asiatic chevrotains, which
it otherwise much resembles, but is said to frequent the banks of
streams, and have much the habits of pigs. It is of a rich brown
colour, with back and sides spotted and striped with white; and
it is evidently the survivor of an ancient form, as remains of a
species only differing in size (D. crassum) have been found in the
Miocene deposits of France. For long this species was sup-
posed to be restricted to West Africa, but it has recently been
obtained in East Central Africa, where it is represented by a
local race. (R. L.*)

CHEYENNE (Sioux for " of alien speech"), a tribe of North
American Indians of Algonquian stock. They formerly lived on
the Cheyenne river, North Dakota. Driven west by the Dakotas,
they were found by early explorers at the eastern base of the
Black Hills, South Dakota. Part of them later moved south
and allied themselves with the Arapahoes. Their whole history
has been one of war with their red and white neighbours. They
are a powerful athletic race, mentally superior to the average
American Indian. They are divided into eleven subdivisions and

n6

CHEYENNE— CHHINDWARA

formerly had a council of chiefs. They number some 3000,
and are divided into northern and southern Cheyennes; the
former being on a reservation in Montana, the latter in Oklahoma.
In 1878-79 a band of the former revolted, and some seventy-five
of them were killed.

See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907); also
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.

CHEYENNE, the chief city and capital of Wyoming, U.S.A.,
and county-seat of Laramie county, on Crow Creek, about 106 m.
N. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 11,690; (1900) 14,087, of whom 1691
were foreign-born; (1905) 13,656; (1910) 11,320. It is served by
the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the
Colorado & Southern railways. It is situated near the southern
boundary of the state, on the high plains near the E. foot of the
Laramie range, at an altitude of 6050 ft.; the surrounding
country is given up to mining (lignite and iron), grazing and
dry-farming. Among the principal buildings are the capitol,
modelled after the National Capitol at Washington; the United
States government building, the Soldiers' and Sailors' Home, the
Union Pacific dep6t, the high school, the Carnegie library, St
Mary's cathedral (Roman Catholic), the Convent of the Holy
Child Jesus, the Masonic Temple and the Elks' clubhouse. The
city has two parks, and is connected by a boulevard with Fort
D. A. Russell, an important United States military post, 4 m.
north of the city, established in 1867 and named in honour of
Major-General. David Allen Russell (1820-1864) of tne Union
army, who was killed at Opequan, Virginia. The industrial
prosperity of Cheyenne is largely due to the extensive railway
shops of the Union Pacific situated here; but the city is also an
important cattle market and has stock-yards. In 1905 the value
of the city's factory products ($924,697) was almost one-fourth
the total value of the factory products of the state. Cheyenne,
settled in 1867, when the Union Pacific reached here, was named
from the Cheyenne Indians. It was chosen as the site for the
capital of the territory in 1869, and was incorporated in the
same year.

CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY (1841- ), English divine and
Biblical critic, was born in London, and educated at Merchant
Taylors' School and Oxford. Subsequently he studied German
theological methods at Gottingen. He was ordained in 1864, and
held a fellowship at Balliol College, Oxford, 1868-1882. During
the earlier part of this period he stood alone in the university as
a teacher of the main conclusions of modern Old Testament
criticism. In 1881 he was presented to the rectory of Tendring,
in Essex, and in 1884 he was made a member of the Old Testa-
ment revision company. He resigned the living of Tendring in
1885 on his appointment to the Oriel professorship, which carried
with it a canonry at Rochester. In 1889 he delivered the
Bampton lectures at Oxford. In 1908 he resigned his professor-
ship. He consistently urged in his writings the necessity of a
broad and comprehensive study of the Scriptures in the light of
literary, historical and scientific considerations. His publications
include commentaries on the Prophets and Hagiographa, and
lectures and addresses on theological subjects. He was a joint
editor of the Encyclopaedia Biblica (London, 1899-1903), a work
embodying the more advanced conclusions of English biblical
criticism. In the introduction to his Origin of the Psalter (London,
1891) he gave an account of his development as a critical
scholar.

CHEZY, ANTOINE LEONARD DE (1773-1832), French
orientalist, was born at Neuilly on the isth of January 1773.
His father, Antoine de Chezy (1718-1798), was an engineer
who finally became director of the Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees.
The son was intended for his father's profession; but in 1799 he
obtained a post in the oriental department of the national library.
About 1803 he began the study of Sanskrit, though he possessed
neither grammar nor dictionary, and by great labour he obtained
sufficient knowledge of the language to be able to compose in it
verses said to possess great elegance. He was the first professor of
Sanskrit appointed in the College de France (1815), a chevalier of
the Legion of Honour, and a member of the Academic des
Inscriptions. He died in 1832. Among his works were Medjouin

et Leila (1807), from the Persian; Yadjanadatta Badha (1814)
and La Reconnaissance de Sacountala (1830), from the Sanskrit;
L'Anlhologie trotique d'Amrou (1831), published under the
pseudonym d'Apudy.

See the Memoires of the Academic des Inscriptions (new series,
vol. xii.), where there is a notice of Chezy by Silvestre de Sacy.

CHHATARPUR, a native state in the Bundelkhand agency of
Central India. Area, 1118 sq. m.; pop. (1001) 156,139; esti-
mated revenue, £16,000. The chief, whose hereditary title is
raja, is a Rajput of the Ponwar clan, whose ancestor dispossessed
the descendant of Chhatar Sal, the founder of Bundelkhand
independence, towards the end of the i8th century. The state
was guaranteed to Kunwar Suni Singh Ponwar in 1806. In 1854
it would have lapsed to the British government for want of
direct heirs, but was conferred on Jagat Raj as a special act of
grace. The town of CHHATARPUR, which is named after Chhatar
Sal, and contains his cenotaph, is 70 m. by road S.W. of Banda.
Pop. (1901) 10,029. There are manufactures of paper and coarse
cutlery, and a high school. The state also contains the British
cantonment of Nowgong.

CHHATTISGARH, a division of the Central Provinces of India,
comprising a British division (21,240 sq. m.) and two small
feudatory states, Raigarh (1486 sq. m.) and Sarangarh (540 sq.
m.). In 1905 the five Oriya states of Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur,
Patna and Kalahandi were transferred from the Central Pro-
vinces to Bengal. Chhattisgarh, or " the thirty-six forts," is a
low-lying plain, enclosed on every side by hills and forests,
while a rocky barrier shuts it off from the Nagpur plain on the
west. Two great rivers, the Nerbudda and Sone, take their rise at
the side of the Amarkantak hill in the north-west corner of the
division, the Nerbudda flowing nearly due west to the Bombay
coast, the Sone ultimately falling into the Ganges in Lower
Bengal. Protected on both sides by ranges of hills, the district
was, until late years, the least known portion of the most obscure
division of India, but recently it has been opened up by the
Bengal-Nagpur railway, and has developed into a great grain-
producing country. Its population is almost pure Hindu, except
in the two great tracts of hill and forest, where the aboriginal
tribes retired before the Aryan invasion. It remained com-
paratively unaffected either by the Oriya immigration on the
east, or by the later influx of Mahrattas on the west. For though
the Mahrattas conquered and governed the country for a period,
they did not take possession of the land. In 1901 the population
of the two remaining feudatory states was 125,281, Raigarh
having 86,543 an(l Sarangarh 38,738. Much of the soil is still
covered with forest, but it includes fertile rice land.

The British division of Chhattisgarh comprises the three
districts of Drug (created in 1906), Raipur and Bilaspur. In 1905
the district of Sambalpur, together with the five feudatory states,
was transferred to Bengal. In 1901 the population of the
reduced area was 2,642,983.

CHHINDWARA, a town and district of British India, in the
Nerbudda division of the Central Provinces. The site of the town
is 2 200 ft. above sea-level, and is surrounded by ranges of low
hills. The European station extends for nearly 2 m. and is well
wooded. It is considered very healthy, and forms a resort for
European visitors from Nagpur and Kampti during the hot
weather.

The area of the DISTRICT OF CHHINDWARA is 4631 sq. m. It
has two natural subdivisions — the hill country above the slopes of
the Satpura mountains, called the Balaghat, and a tract of low
land to the south called the Zerghat. The high tableland of the
Balaghat lies for the most part upon the great basaltic formation
which stretches across the Satpuras as far east as Jubbulpore.
The country consists of a regular succession of hills and fertile
valleys, formed by the small ranges which cross its surface east and
west. The average height of the uplands is 2500 ft., but there
are many points of greater elevation. The appearance of the
Zerghat below the hills is generally open and undulating. The
country is intersected by several streams, of which the Kanhan is
the most considerable. Near the hills and along the streams are
strips and patches of jungle; the villages are usually surrounded

CHIABRERA— CHIAPAS

117

with picturesque groves of tamarind, mango and other shade-
giving trees. In the hill-country the climate is temperate and
healthy. In the cold season ice is frequently seen in the small
tanks at an elevation of about 2000 ft. Until May the hot wind is
little felt, while during the rains the weather is cool and agreeable.
The average annual rainfall amounts to 36 in. Pop. (1901)
407,927. There are manufactures of cotton cloth and brass-
ware. Coal in this neighbourhood began to be worked after the
opening of a branch of the Bengal-Nagpur railway to Chhindwara
and the coalfields to the north in 1905.

Chhindwara formed part of the dominions of the ancient Gond
dynasty of Chhindwara and Nagpur, whose seat was at Deogarh
until, in the i8th century, it was removed by Chand Sultan', son of
Bakht Buland (founder of the short-lived greatness of the
dynasty, and of the city of Nagpur) to Nagpur (see GONDWANA
and NAGPUR).

CHIABRERA, GABRIELLO (1552-1637), Italian poet, some--
times called the Italian Pindar, was of patrician descent, and was
born at Savona, ?, little town in the domain of the Genoese
republic, twenty-eight years after the birth of Ronsard, with
whom he has far more in common than with the great Greek
whose echo he sought to make himself. As he has told in the
pleasant fragment of autobiography prefixed to his works, in
which, like Caesar, he speaks of himself in the third person, he
was a posthumous child; he went to Rome at the age of nine
years, under the care of his uncle Giovanni. There he read with
a private tutor, suffered severely from two fevers in succession,
and was sent at last, for the sake of society, to the Jesuits'
College, where he remained till his twentieth year, studying
philosophy, as he says, " piu per trattenimento che per appren-
dere," — rather for occupation than for learning's sake. Losing
his uncle about this time, Chiabrera returned to Savona, " again
to see his own and be seen by them." In a little while, however,
he returned to Rome, and entered the household of a cardinal,
where he remained for several years, frequenting the society of
Paulus Manutius and of Sperone Speroni, the dramatist and
critic of Tasso, and attending the lectures and hearing the con-
versation of Mureto. His revenge of an insult offered him
obliged him to betake himself once more to Savona, where, to
amuse himself, he read poetry, and particularly Greek. The
poets of his choice were Pindar and Anacreon, and these he
studied till it grew to be his ambition to reproduce in his own
tongue their rhythms and structures, and so to enrich his country
with a new form of verse — in his own words, " like his country-
man, Columbus, to find a new world or drown." His reputation
was made at once; but he seldom quitted Savona, though often
invited to do so, saving for journeys of pleasure, in which he
greatly delighted, and for occasional visits to the courts of princes
whither he was often summoned, for his verse's sake, and in his
capacity as a dramatist. At the ripe age of fifty he took to
himself a wife, one Lelia Pavese, by whom he had no children.
After a simple and blameless life, during which he produced
a vast quantity of verse — epic, tragic, pastoral, lyrical and
satirical — he died in 1637, at the patriarchal age of eighty-five.
An epitaph was written for him in elegant Latin by Urban VIII. ;
but on his tombstone are graven two quaint Italian hexameters
of his own, in which the gazer is warned from the poet's own
example not to prefer Parnassus to Calvary.

A maker of odes in all their elaborate pomp of strophe and
antistrophe, a master of new -and complex rhythms, a coiner
of ambitious words and composite epithets, an employer of
audacious transpositions and inversions, and the inventor of a
new system of poetic diction, — it is not surprising that Chiabrera
should have been compared with Ronsard. Both were destined
to suffer eclipse as great and sudden as had been their glory.
Ronsard was succeeded by Malherbe and by P'rench literature,
properly so-called; Chiabrera was the last of the great Italians,
and after him literature languished till the second renaissance
under Manzoni. Chiabrera, however, was a man of merit, apart
from that of the mere innovator. Setting aside his epics and
dramas (one of the latter received the honours of translaticn at
the hands of Nicolas Chretien, a sort of scenic du Bartas), much

of his work remains yet readable and pleasant. His grand
Pindarics are dull, it is true, but some of his Canzonelte, like the
anacreontics of Ronsard, are exceedingly elegant and graceful.
His autobiographical sketch is also extremely interesting. The
simple old poet, with his adoration of Greek (when a thing
pleased him greatly he was wont to talk of it as " Greek Verse "),
his delight in journeys and sight-seeing, his dislike for literary
talk save with intimates and equals, his vanities and vengeances,
his pride in the memory of favours bestowed on him by popes
and princes, his " infmita maraviglia " over Virgil's versification
and metaphor, his fondness for masculine rhymes and blank
verse, his quiet Christianity, is a figure deserving perhaps of
more study than is likely to be bestowed on that " new world "
of art which it was his glory to fancy his own, by discovery and
by conquest.

The best editions of Chiabrera are those of Rome (1718, 3 vols.
8vo) ; of Venice (1731, 4 vols. 8vo) ; of Leghorn (1781, 5 vols. iamo) ;
and of Milan (1807, 3 vols. 8vo). These only contain his lyric work ;
all the rest he wrote has been long forgotten.

CHIANA (anc. Clanis), a river of Tuscany, which rises in the
Apennines S. of Arezzo, runs through the valley of Chiusi, and
after receiving the Paglia just below Orvieto, falls into the Tiber
after a course of 60 m. In Roman times its waters ran entirely
into the Tiber. It often caused considerable floods in the valley
of Clusium (Chiusi) which were noticeable even in Rome itself,
and in A.D. 15 it was proposed to divert part of its waters into
the Arnus, a project which was abandoned owing to the opposi-
tion of the Florentines (Tac. Ann. i. 76, 79). In the middle
ages the whole of its valley from Arezzo to Chiusi was an un-
inhabitable swamp; but at the end of the i8th century the
engineer Count Fossombroni took the matter in hand, and
moved the watershed some 25 m. farther south, so that its waters
now flow partly into the Arno and partly into the Tiber.

CHIAPAS, a Pacific coast state of southern Mexico on the
Guatemalan frontier, bounded by the states of Tabasco on the
N. and Vera Cruz and Oaxaca on the W. Pop. (1895) 318,730;
(1900) 360,799, a large proportion of which are Indians;
area, 27,222 sq. m. largely forested. The Sierra Madre crosses
the southern part of the state parallel with the coast, separating
the low, humid, forested districts on the frontier of Tabasco
from the hot, drier, coastal plain on the Pacific. The mountain
region includes a plateau of great fertility and temperate climate,
which is one of the best parts of Mexico and contains the larger
part of the population of the state. But isolation and lack of
transportation facilities have retarded its development. The
extension of the Pan-American railway across the state, from
San Geronimo, on the Tehuan tepee National line, to the Guate-
malan frontier, is calculated to improve the industrial and social
conditions of the people. The principal industries are agriculture,
which is very backward, stock-raising, timber-cutting, fruit-
farming and salt-making. Coffee-planting is a new industry
on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre at elevations of 2000 to
4000 ft., and has met with considerable success. Rubber
plantations have also been laid out, principally by American
companies, the Castilloa elastica doing well. The exports include
cattle, hides, coffee, rubber, fruit and salt. The mineral resources
include gold, silver, copper and petroleum, but no mines were in
operation in 1906. The capital, Tuxtla Gutierrez (pop. 9395
in 1900), is on the plateau, 3^ m. from the Rio Sabinas, and 138
m. N.E. of the Pacific port of Tonala. The former capital,
San Cristobal (pop. about 5000 in 1895), about 40 m. E. of
Tuxtla, is an interesting old town and the seat of the bishopric
of Chiapas, founded in 1525 and made famous through its
associations with Las Casas. Tapachula (pop. in 1895, 6775),
the capital of the department of Soconusco, 18 m. from the
Guatemalan frontier, is a rising commercial town of the new
coffee district. It is 24 m. inland from the small port of San
Benito, is 559 ft. above sea-level, and has a healthy climate.
Other prominent towns with their populations in 1895, are
Comitan, or Comitlan (9316), on the Rio Grijalva about 40 m.
S.E. of San Cristobal, and chiefly distinguished for its fine
church and convent dedicated .to San Domingo; Pichucalco

n8

CHIAROSCURO— CHICAGO

(8549), Tenejapa (7936), San Antonio (6715), Cintalape (6455),
La Concordia (6291), San Carlos (5977), and Ococingo (5667).

CHIAROSCURO (from the Jtal. chiaro, light or brightness, and
oscuro, darkness or shade), the disposition of light and shade
in a painting; the term is applied to an early method of printing
wood-engravings from several blocks, and also to a picture in
black and white, or brown and white only.

CHIAVARI, a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of
Genoa, 24 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Genoa. Pop. (1901)
10,397 (town), 12,689 (commune). It is situated near the mouth
of the Entella, in the centre of a fertile plain surrounded by
mountains except on the S.W., where it comes down to the sea.
Its buildings are mostly modern, but it has a ruined castle of
1147. It has an active trade in agricultural products, and
manufactures lace, light wicker-seated bentwood chairs, silk, &c.

CHIAVENNA (anc. Clavenna), a town of Lombardy, Italy,
in the province of Sondrio, 17 m. by rail N. of Colico which lies
at the N. end of the lake of Como. Pop. (1901) town 3140,
commune 4732. It is well situated on the right bank of the
Mera. at the mouth of the Val Bregaglia, through which the road
to the Maloja Pass and the Engadine runs to the east. This
line was partly followed by a Roman road, which at Casaccia,
just below the last ascent to the Maloja Pass, diverged to the
N. by the Septimer Pass, joining the Julier route to Coire (anc.
Curia) at Stalla. The Spliigen route, which was also used by
the Romans, runs N. from Chiavenna to Coire: the modern
road was constructed by the Austrians in 1810-1821. Chiavenna
is crowned by a ruined castle, once an important strategic point,
and the seat of the counts who ruled the valley from the time
of the Goths till 1194, when the district was handed over to the
bishops of Coire. In the i4th century the Visconti, having
become masters of the Valtellina, bought the " county " (contado
or contea) of Chiavenna from the bishop of Coire; but it was
taken by the canton of the Grisons in 1525, and the castle
dismantled. In 1797 Chiavenna became part of the Cisalpine
republic, and thenceforward followed the fortunes of Lombardy.
The church of S. Lorenzo is baroque in style, but its baptistery
contains a font of 1206 with reliefs. Chiavenna has cotton
factories and breweries, and is a depot for the wine of the district.

CHIBOUQUE, or CHIBOUK (the Fr. form of the Turk, chibiik,
literally a stick), a long pipe, often ornamented with' precious
stones, smoked by the Turks.

CHIC (a French word, either a shortened form of chicane,
or derived from the Ger. Schick, tact or skill), a term properly
used, in French artistic slang, of a work of art possessing brilliant
but superficial technical ability, or of one executed without
reference to a model or study of nature. The use of the word
in French dates from the reign of Louis XIV. and then denoted
a lawyer who was master of " chicane." " Chic," in general use,
now connotes "smartness," in dress, speech, &c.

CHICACOLE, a town of British India in the Ganjam district
of Madras, situated on the right bank of the river Languliya,
here crossed by a bridge, 4 m. from the sea. Pop. (1901) 18,196.
Under Mahommedan rule it was the capital of one of theNorthern
Circars, and afterwards of a British district. Several old mosques
remain. The town was famous for its muslins, but the industry
is now decayed. The roadstead and lighthouse of Calingapatam
are about 16 m. to the north, and the East Coast railway has a
station 9 m. inland.

CHICAGO, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat of Cook
county, Illinois, U.S.A., the second city of the United States in
population, commerce and manufactures; pop. (1900) 1,698,575;
and (1910) 2,185,283. It is situated at the south-west corner
of Lake Michigan (lat. 41° 50', long. 87° 38' W.), about
913 m. distant by railway from New York, 912 m. from New
Orleans, 2265 m. from Los Angeles, and 2330 m. from Seattle.
The climate is very changeable and is much affected by the
lake; changes of more than thirty degrees in temperature
within 24 hours are not at all rare, and changes of twenty are
common. The city is the greatest railway centre of the United
States, and was for several decades practically the only commer-
cial outlet of the great agricultural region of the northern Missis-

sippi Valley. Trunk lines reach E. to Montreal, Boston, New
York, Philadelphia, Baltimore (the nearest point on the Atlantic
coast, 854 m.); S. to Charleston, Savannah, Florida, Mobile,
New Orleans, Port Arthur and Galveston; W. to the Pacific
at Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle and Vancouver, and to
most of these by a variety of routes. In 1905 about 14% of
the world's railway mileage centred in Chicago.

With its suburbs Chicago stretches along the shore of Lake
Michigan about 4o m. (the city proper 26.5), and the city in
1910 had a total area of 191.4 sq. m.1 It spreads loosely and
irregularly backward from the lake over a shallow alluvial
basin, which is rimmed to the W. by a low moraine water-parting2
that separates the drainage of the lake from thatof theMississippi
Valley. The city site has been built up out of the " Lake Chicago "
of glacial times, which exceeded in size Lake Michigan. Three
lakes — Calumet, 3122 acres; Hyde; and part of Wolf— with a
water-surface of some 4100 acres, lie within the municipal
limits. The original elevation of what is now the business
heart of the city was only about 7 ft. above the lake, but the
level was greatly raised — in some places more than 10 ft. — over
a large area, between 1855 and 1860. The West Side, especially
in the north-west near Humboldt Park, is much higher (extreme
75 ft.). A narrow inlet from the lake, the Chicago river, runs
W. from its shore about a mile, dividing then into a north and
a south branch, which run respectively to the N.W. and the S.W.,
thus cutting the city into three divisions known as the North,
the West and the South " Sides," which are united by three
car-tunnels beneath the river as well as by the bridges across it.*
The river no longer empties into Lake Michigan since the com-
pletion of the drainage canal. Its commercial importance is
very great: indeed it is probably the most important non-tidal
stream of its length in the world, or if it be regarded as a harbour,
one of the greatest; the tonnage of its yearly commerce far
exceeds that of the Suez Canal and almost equals the tonnage
of the foreign trade (the domestic excluded) of the Thames or
the Mersey. The increase in size of the newer freighters that
ply on the Great Lakes4 has proved one serious difficulty, and
the bridges and the river tunnels, which hinder the deeper
cutting of the channel, are others. The improvement of the
outer harbour by the national government was begun in 1833.
Great breakwaters protect the river mouth from the silting shore
currents of the lake and afford secure shelter in an outer road-
stead from its storms, and there is a smaller inner-basin (about
450 acres, 16 ft. depth) as well. But the river itself which has
about 15 m. of navigable channel, in part lined wiih docks, is
the most important part of the harbour. Its channel has been
repeatedly deepened, and in recent years — especially since 1896,
after its control as a navigable stream passed (1890) to the
federal government— widened and straightened by the removal
of jutting building constructions along its shores. Grain elevators
of enormous size, coal yards, lumber yards and grimy warehouses
or factories crowd close upon it. The shipping facilities on the
river are not so good in some ways, however, as on the Calumet
in southeastern (or South) Chicago, whither there has been a
strong movement of manufactures and heavy commerce.

The plan of the city is in general " regular," i.e. rigidly rect-
angular, and the streets are in general wide. The evenness
of the plain has saved Chicago from most of the vast expense
incurred by some American cities (notably Boston and San
Francisco) in the extension or levelling of their sites and the
removal of obstructions unfavourable to their development.
The business district is concentrated in a small area of the South
Side, just below the main river and between the south branch
and the lake. A number of the railway terminals, almost all
the great wholesale and retail houses, the leading hotels and

1 In 1889 the total area (land and water) was increased from 43-8
to 169-9 so,- m. ; in 1890 the land area was 163-49 S(J- m-

2 About 15 ft. in elevation; hence the possibility of the drainage
canal.

1 Among the last are many swing and " jack-knife " bridges,
bascules, and a lift-bridge that can be lifted bodily 155 ft. above the
channel. Steam, compressed air and electricity are used as power.

4 By 1900 almost all -were being built of a length exceeding 400 ft.

CHICAGO

119

public buildings are crowded within an area of about 1-5 sq. m.
The congestion of the streets — considerably lessened since the
freight-subways have reduced the amount of heavy trucking —
is proportionately great, and their din and crush is characteristic
of the city. The residential districts, on the other hand, are
unevenly and loosely spread; many areas well within the city
are only sparsely settled. A belt of " bad lands " — occupied
by factories, shanties, &c. — partially surrounds the best business
district. The smoke resulting from the use of soft coal has given
a drab and dingy colour- tone to the buildings. The low and
even relief of the site and the long vistas of the streets do not
lend themselves to the picturesque; yet this quality may be
claimed for the high and broken skyline, varied colour, massive-
ness, bustle and impressive commercialism of the business
district. Chicago is generally credited with being the original
home of the steel-frame " sky-scraper," x though there are now
higher buildings elsewhere in America. The unstable soil of
sand, clay and boulders that underlies the city is unfavourable
to tall constructions, and necessitates extraordinary attention
to foundations. The bed-rock lies, on an average, 50 ft. below
the level of the lake (in places more than a hundred). To the
rock the foundations are often sunk in caissons, the buildings
resting on monster columns of concrete and steel.2 In other cases
great " pads " of the same materials, resting or " floating " upon
the clay, sustain ar?d distribute the weight of the building.
The small extent of the business quarter adds to the effect of its
tall structures. The Auditorium (1889; cost, $37500,000), a huge
building containing a hotel and a theatre (5000 seats), is one of
the most massive commercial structures of the country. The
Masonic Temple (cost, $3,000,000) is the tallest in the city
(302 ft.). In 1909 there were some 475 structures ten or more
storeys high. Not a few are noteworthy, whether for size — as
the Monadnock office building of 16 storeys, with some 6000
occupants, and the new Northwestern Railway station; or for
the luxury of their interior fijUings — as the La Salle, Blackstone
and Sherman hotels; or for boldness and originality in the treat-
ment of the ' teel-frame type; or for association with the city's life
— as the Fine Arts building, given over to varied purposes of
public amusement and artistic or intellectual improvement, or
the Railway Exchange (cased in tiles), the University Club, the
Chamber of Commerce and the Board of Trade; and many
others are handsome and dignified examples of architecture.
The Marquette building, consistently and handsomely decorated
with works of art, is one of the finest office-buildings in the
country. There are a number of enormous retail stores. The
largest, and one of the finest in the world, is that of Marshall
Field. The wholesale establishment cf the same firm is the
work of H. H. Richardson, considered one of his best, and one
of the most admirable examples among American commercial
buildings. The city hall and county court house (cost, $4, 500,000)
is an enormous double building in a free French Renaissance
style, with columned facades. The new Federal building
(finished in 1905; cost, $4,750,000) is a massive edifice (a low
rectangle surmounted by a higher inner cross and crowned with
a dome). The public library (1893-1897, $2, 125,000), constructed
of -dark granite and limestone, with rich interior decorations
of varied frescoes, mosaics, ornamental bronze and iron-work,
and mottoes, is one of the handsomest libraries of the country.
The Chicago Art Institute (1892-1893 ; Italian Renaissance), the
Chicago Orchestra building (1904), and the Commercial National
•Bank, are also noteworthy. The finest residence streets are the
Lake Shore Drive of the North Side and the " boulevards " —
broad parkways that connect the parks of the city — of which
Michigan Avenue, Drexel and Grand are the finest. The city's

1 The highest value ever paid in Chicago for land actually sold, up
to 1901, was $250 per sq. ft. (1892); a few rental contracts have
been based upon an assumed higher value. A municipal ordinance
placing the extreme construction at 150 ft. was repealed in 1002.

'This is true of all the new large buildings. The "old post
office, completed in 1880 at a cost of $5,375,opo, was practically a
crumbling ruin within fifteen years ; its foundations were inadequate.
Years were spent in sinking the foundation of the new Federal
building that replaced the old.

environs are not of particular beauty, but there are bluffs on
the lake to the north, and woods to the south-west, and a fair
variety of pretty hill and plain; and though the Calumet and
Chicago rivers have been given over to commerce, the valley
of the Desplaines will be preserved in the park system. On the
South Side are the Union Stockyards, established in 1865, by far
the largest in the world. They cover about 500 acres, have
about 45 m. of feeding and watering troughs, and can accom-
modate at one time more than 400,000 hogs, cattle, sheep and
horses.

Public Works and Communications. — Local transit is provided
for by the suburban service of the steam railways, e'.evated
electric roads, and a system of electric surface cars. Two great
public works demand notice: the water system and the drainage
canal. Water is pumped from Lake Michigan through several
tunnels connecting with " cribs " located from 2 to 5 m. from
shore. The " cribs " are heavy structures of timber and iron
loaded with stone and enclosing the in-take cylinders, which
join with the tunnels well below the bottom of the lake. The
first tunnel was completed in 1867. The capacity of the tunnels
was estimated in 1900 by two very competent authorities at
528 and 615 million gallons daily, respectively. The average
daily supply in 1909 was 475,000,000 gallons; there were then
16-6 m. of tunnels below the lake. The wastes of the city —
street washings, building sewage, the offal of slaughter-houses,
and wastes of distilleries and rendering houses — were originally
turned into the lake, but before 1870 it was discovered that the
range of impurity extended already a mile into the lake, half-way
to the water " crib," and it became evident that the lake could
not be indefinitely contaminated. The Illinois and Michigan
Canal, for which the right of way was granted in 1821 and which
was built in 1836-1841 and 1845-1848, and opened in 1848
(cost, $6, 557,681), was once thought to have solved the difficulty;
it is connected with the main (southern) branch of the Chicago
river, 5 m. from its mouth, with the Illinois river at La Salle,
the head of steamer navigation on the Illinois river, and is the
natural successor in the evolution of transportation of the old
Chicago portage, £ m. in length, between the Chicago river and
the headwaters of the Kankakee ; it was so deepened as to draw
water out from the lake, whose waters thus flowed toward the
Gulf of Mexico. It is about 96 m. long, 40-42 ft. wide, and
4-7 ft. deep, but proved inadequate for the disposal of sewage.
A solution of the problem was imperative by 1876, but almost
all the wastes of the city continued nevertheless to be poured into
the lake. In 1890 a sanitary district, including part of the city
and certain suburban areas to be affected, was organized, and
preparations made for building a greater canal that should do
effectively the work it was once thought the old canal could do.
The new drainage canal, one of the greatest sanitary works of
the world, constructed between 1892 and 1900 under the control
of the trustees of the Sanitary District of Chicago (cost up to
1 90ij $35,448,291), joins the south branch of the Chicago with the
Desplaines river, and so with the Illinois and Mississippi, and is
28-5 m. long,3 of which ism. were cut through rock; it is 22 ft.
deep and has a minimum width of 164 ft. The canal, or sewer,
is flushed with water from Lake Michigan, and its waters are
pure within a flow of 150 m.4 Its capacity, which was not at
first fully utilized, is 600,000 cub. ft. per minute, sufficient
entirely to renew the water of the Chicago river daily. A system
of intercepting sewers to withdraw drainage into the lake was
begun in 1898; and the construction of a canal to drain the
Calumet region was begun in 1910. The Illinois and Michigan
canal is used by small craft, and the new drainage canal also may
be used for shipping in view of the Federal government's im-
provements of the rivers connecting it with the Mississippi for
the construction of a ship-canal for large vessels. The canal
also made possible the development (begun in 1903) of enormous

* Total excavation, 42,397,904 cub. yds. ; of solid rock, 12,265.000.

4 It has been conclusively proved that the Illinois is purer than
the Mississippi at their junction. The undiluted sewage of the old
canal drove the fish from the river, but they have come back since
the opening of the new canal.

120

CHICAGO

hydraulic power for the use of the city. The Illinois and Michigan
Canal has been supplemented by the Illinois and Mississippi
Canal, commonly known as " the Hennepin," from its starting
at the great bend of the Illinois river ij m. above Hennepin,
not far below La Salle; the first appropriation for it was made
in 1890, and work was begun in 1892 and completed in October
1907. Its course from Hennepin is by the Bureau Creek valley
to the mouth of Queen river on the Rock river, thence by the
Rock river and a canal around its rapids at Milan to its mouth
at Rock Island on the Mississippi river. This barge canal is
80 ft. wide at water-line, 52 ft. wide at the bottom, and 7 ft. deep.
Its main feeder is the Rock river, dammed by a dam nearly
1500 ft. long between Sterling and Rock Falls, Illinois, where
the opening of the canal was celebrated on the 24th of October
1907.

Beginning with 1892 steam railways began the elevation
(or depression) of their main tracks, of which there were in 1904
some 838 m. within the city. Another great improvement was
begun in 1901 by a private telephone company. This is an
elaborate system of freight subways, more than 65 m. of which,
underlying the entire business district, had beenconstructedbefore
1909. It is the only subway system in the world that seeks to
clear the streets by the lessening of trucking, in place of devoting
itself to the transportation of passengers. Direct connexion is
made with the freight stations of all railways and the basements
of important business buildings, and coal, building materials,
ashes and garbage, railway luggage, heavy mail and other kinds
of heavy freight are expeditiously removed and delivered.
Telegraph and telephone wires are carried through the tunnel,
and can be readily repaired. The subway was opened for partial
operation in 1905.*

Parks. — The park system may be said to have been begun in
1869, and in 1870 aggregated 1887 acres. Chicago then acquired
the name of " The Garden City," which still clings to her. But
many other cities have later passed her (until in 1904, though
the second largest of the country, she ranked only thirty-second
in her holdings of park area per capita among American cities
of 100,000 population). In 1908 the acreage of the municipal
parks was 3179 acres, and there were 61-4 m. of boulevards.
After 1900 another period of ambitious development began.
The improvement of old and the creation of new " internal "
parks, i.e. within the cordon of those older parks and boulevards
that once girdled the city but have been surrounded in its later
growth; the creation of a huge metropolitan ring — similar to
that of Boston but vaster (35,000 acres) — of lake bluffs, hills,
meadows, forests and river valley; and a great increase of
" neighbourhood parks " in the poor districts, are included in
the new undertakings. The neighbourhood park, usually
located near a school, is almost all-inclusive in its provision for
all comers, from babyhood to maturity, and is open all day.
There are sand gardens and wading ponds and swings and day
nurseries, gymnasiums, athletic fields, swimming pools and
baths, reading-rooms — generally with branches of the city library
—lunch counters, civic club rooms, frequent music, assembly
halls for theatricals, lectures, concerts, or meetings, penny savings
banks, and in the winter skating ponds. These social centres
have practically all been created since about 1895. There are
also municipal baths on the lake front and elsewhere. The older
parks include several of great size and beauty. Lincoln Park
(area 552 acres), on the lake shore of the North Side, has been
much enlarged by an addition reclaimed from the lake. It has
fine monuments, conservatories, the only zoological garden in
the city, and the collections of the Academy of Sciences. A
breakwater carriage drive connects with a boulevard to Fort
Sheridan (27 m.) up the lake. Jackson Park (542 acres), on the
lake shore of the South Side, was the main site of the World's

1 The cut was almost entirely through firm clay. It was estimated
(1905) that the total freight handled weekly in the business district
was nearly 500,000 tons, "and the subway was designed to handle
this amount when completed. The tunnels are 12-75X14 and
7-5X6 ft., all concrete. The cars are drawn by trolley wire loco-
motives on a track of 2 ft. gauge.

Columbian Exposition of 1893, and contains the Field Columbian
Museum, occupying the art building of the exposition. It is
joined with Washington Park (371 acres) by the Midway Plais-
ance, a wide boulevard, intended to be converted into a
magnificent sunken water-course connecting the lagoons of the
two parks with Lake Michigan. Along the Midway are the grey-
stone buildings of the University of Chicago, and of its
(Blaine) School of Education. On the West Side are three fine
parks — Douglas, Garfield (with a fine conservatory), and Hum-
boldt, which has a remarkable rose garden (respectively 182,
187 and 206 acres), and in the extreme South Side several others,
including Calumet (66 acres), by the lake side, and Marquette
(322 acres). Jackson Boulevard, Western Avenue Boulevard
and Marshall Boulevard join the South and the West Park
systems. Neither New York nor Boston has preserved as has
Chicago the beauty of its water front. The shore of the North
Side is quite free, and beginning a short distance above the river
is skirted for almost 30 m. by the Lake Shore Drive, Lincoln
Park and the Sheridan Drive. The shore of the South Side
is occupied by railway tracks, but they have been sunk and the
shore otherwise improved. In addition to Calumet and Jackson
parks there was another just below the river, Lake Park, which
has since been included in Grant Park, mostly reclaimed from
the water. Here are the public library anjj the building of the
Art Institute (opened in 1893); the park had also been pro-
posed as the site of a new building for the Field Museum of
Natural History. The park and boulevards along the lake in
1905 stretched 10-78 m., within the city limits, or almost half
the total frontage.2 The inner " boulevards " are broad parked
ways, 150 to 300 ft. wide, joining the parks; Chicago was the
first American city to adopt this system.

Art. — Among the monuments erected in public places are a
Columbus by D. C. French and a bronze replica of French's
equestrian statue of Washington in Paris; statues of John A.
Logan and Abraham Lincoln by St Gaudens; monuments
commemorating the Haymarket riot and the Fort Dearborn
massacres; statues of General Grant, Stephen A. Douglas,
La Salle, Schiller, Humboldt, Beethoven and Linnaeus. There
is also a memorial to G. B. Armstrong (1822-1871), a citizen of
Chicago, who founded the railway mail service of the United
States. A city art commission approves all works of art before
they become the property of the city, and at the request of the
mayor acts in various ways for the city's aesthetic betterment.
The Architectural Club labours for the same end. A Municipal
Art League (organized in 1899) has done good work in arousing
civic pride; it has undertaken, among other things, campaigns
against bill-board advertisements,3 and against the smoke
nuisance.

The Art Institute of Chicago contains valuable collections
of paintings, reproductions of bronzes and sculpture, architec-
tural casts, and other objects of art. Connected with it is the
largest and most comprehensive art school of the county —
including newspaper illustration and a normal school for the
training of teachers of drawing in the public schools. The
institute was incorporated in 1879, though its beginnings go
back to 1866, while the school dates from 1878. The courses
in architecture are given with the co-operation of the Armour
Institute of Technology. There are also a number of notable
private art collections in the city. In 1894 the Chicago Public
School Art Society was founded to secure the placing of good
works of art in the public schools. Picture collections are alscr
exchanged among the neighbourhood-park homes.

Music in Chicago owes much to the German element of the
population. Especially noteworthy among musical organizations

2 The Illinois Central enters the business centre by tracks laid
along the lake shore. Certain rights as to reclaiming land were
granted it in 1852, but the railway extended its claims indefinitely
to whatever land it might reclaim. In 1883 began a great legal
struggle to determine the respective rights of the United States, the
state of Illinois, Chicago, and the Illinois Central in the reclaimed
lands and the submerged lands adjacent. The outcome was favour-
able to the city.

3 There were 50 m. of them in 1904.

CHICAGO

121

are the Apollo Musical Club (187.-) and The Theodore Thomas
orchestra, which has disputed with the Boston Orchestra the
claim to artistic primacy in the United States. Its leader from its
organization in 1891 until his death in 1905 was Theodore Thomas,
who had long been identified with summer orchestral concerts
in the city. In 1904 a fund was gathered by public subscription
to erect a handsome building and endow the orchestra.

The Field Museum of Natural History, established (1894)
largely by Marshall Field, is mainly devoted to anthropol-
ogy and natural history. The nucleus of its great collection
was formed by various exhibits of the Columbian Exposition
which were presented to it. Its collections of American ethnology,
of exceptional richness and value, are constantly augmented by
research expeditions. In addition to an original endowment
of $1,000,000, Mr Field bequeathed to the museum $8,000,000,
to be utilized in part for the new building which is being erected
in Jackson Park.

Libraries. — At the head of the libraries of the city stands the
public library1 (established 1872; opened 1874), supported by
taxation, which on the ist of June 1910 had 402,848
volumes, and in the year 1910 circulated 1,805,012 volumes.
In 1889 John Crerar (1827-1889), a wealthy manufacturer of
railroad supplies, left to the city for the endowment of a non-
circulating library funds which in 1907 were estimated to
amount to $3,400,000. The library was incorporated in 1894
and was opened in 1 897 ; in February 1 908 it had 2 1 6,000 volumes
and 60,000 pamphlets. It occupies a floor in the Marshall Field
Building on Wabash Avenue. Another reference library was
established (opened in 1887) with a bequest (1868) of Walter
L. Newberry. It has a rich endowment, and in February 1908
had 191,644 volumes and 43,644 pamphlets. By a plan of
co-operation each of these three libraries devotes itself primarily
to special fields: the John Crerar is best for the natural, physical
and social sciences; the Newberry is particularly strong in
history, music, medicine, rare books and fine editions; the
public library covers the whole range of general literature.
The library of the University of Chicago contained in 1908 some
450,000 titles. Among other collections are those of the Chicago
Historical Society (1856; about 150,000 titles in 1908), the
Athenaeum (1871); the Law Institute and Library (1857),
which in 1908 had about 46,500 volumes; the Art Institute,
the Field Museum of Natural History, the Academy of Sciences
(1857) and the libraries of various schools.

Universities and Colleges. — There are three universities situated
wholly or in part in the city. The leading institution is the
University of Chicago (see CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF). The pro-
fessional department of North-Western University is in Chicago,
while its academic department is in the suburb of Evanston.
North-Western University was organized in 1851 and is under
Methodist Episcopal control. Its students in 1908 (exclusive
of pupils in " co-operating " theological schools) numbered
3850; the best equipped departments are those of dentistry,
medicine and pharmacy. There are two Roman Catholic col-
leges in Chicago: Loyola University (chartered in 1870), with a
department of law, called Lincoln College (1908), and a medical
department; and St. Stanislaus College (1870). The College of
Physicians and Surgeons is the medical department of the Uni-
versity of Illinois, at Champaign-Urbana. Theological schools
independent of the universities include the McCormick Theo-
logical Seminary (Presbyterian) ; the Chicago Theological Sem-
inary (Congregational, opened 1858, and including German,
Danish-Norwegian and Swedish Institutes) ; the Western Epis-
copal Theological Seminary; a German Lutheran theological sem-
inary, and an Evangelical Lutheran theological seminary. There
are a number of independent medical schools and schools of
dentistry and veterinary surgery. The Lewis Institute (bequest
1 877, opened 1896), designed to give a practical education to
boys and girls at a nominal cost, and the Armour Institute of

1 Thomas Hughes was a leader in gathering English gifts for such
a library immediately after the " great fire." A nucleus of 10,500
volumes — 7000 from England and 3500 from other countries,
especially Germany— was thus secured.

Technology, one of the best technical schools of the country,
provide technical education and are well endowed. The
Armour Institute was founded in 1892 by Philip D. Armour,
and was opened in 1 893 . It comprises the College of Engineering,
including, besides the usual departments, a department of
chemical engineering and a department of fire protection
engineering, a department of " commercial tests," and the
Armour Scientific Academy (preparatory). In 1907 the Institute
had 1869 students. The Chicago Academy of Science (1857) has
a handsome building and museum collections in Lincoln Paik.

The leading daily newspapers are the Record-Herald, Evening
Post, News (evening) and Journal (evening), all Independent;
the Inter-Ocean and Tribune, Republican; and the Evening
American and Examiner, both Democratic. There are several
journals in German, Bohemian, Polish, Swedish, No wegian and
Danish. Many trade papers are published in the city, which is
also a centre for much of the religious publishing of the Middle
West. Chicago's position in the labour world has made it the
home of several socialist and anarchistic periodicals.

Industry and Commerce. — Chicago's situation at the head of
the most south-western of the Great Lakes has given it great
importance in trade and industry. The development of its
extraordinary railway facilities was a recognition of its supreme
advantages as the easiest outlet for the products of the Middle
West, on whose wealth its prosperity is founded. The growth
of its trade has been marvellous. The last years of the igth
century showed, however, an inevitable loss to Chicago in the
growth of Duluth, Kansas City and other rivals in strategic
situations. In particular, the struggle of the North and South
railway lines in the Mississippi Valley to divert to ports on the
Gulf of Mexico grain and other freight caused great losses to
Chicago. An enormous increase in the cereal trade of Phila-
delphia, Baltimore, Newport News and Norfolk was partly
due to the traffic eastward over lines S. of Chicago. The traffic
of the routes through Duluth and Canada does not, indeed,
represent in the main actual losses, for the traffic is largely a
new growth; but there has been nevertheless a considerable
drain to these routes from American territory once tributary
to Chicago. Altogether the competition of the Gulf roads and the
lines running S.W. from Duluth had largely excluded Chicago
by 1899 (according to her Board of Trade) from the grain trade
W. of the Missouri river, and in conjunction with southerly E.
and W. routes had made serious inroads upon trade E. of that
river. Its facilities for receiving and distributing remain never-
theless unequalled, and it still practically monopolizes the
traffic between the northern Atlantic seaboard and the West.
New York alone, among American cities, has a greater trade.
Chicago is the greatest railway centre, the greatest grain market,
the greatest live-stock market and meat-packing centre, and
the greatest lumbe- market of the world. The clearings of her
associated banks amounted to $13,781,843,612 in the year 1909.
The wholesale trade was estimated in 1875 at $293,900,000 and
in 1905 at $1,781,000,000. The average annual grain receipts
(including flour in wheat equivalent) in the five years 1900-1904
amounted to 265,500,000 bu. (12,902,310 in 1854; 72,369,194
in 1875), and the shipments to 209, 86z,966bu. The first shipment
of wheat was of 78 bu. in 1838. The grain elevators are among
the sights of Chicago. They are enormous storehouses into
which the grain is elevated from ships and cars, sorted into
grades and reloaded for shipment; all the work is done by
machinery. Their capacity in 1904 was 65,140,000 bu.? In
the same quinquennial period, 1900-1904, the average yearly
receipts of lumber aggregated 1,807,066,000 ft.,3 and of shingles,
410,711 thousand; of cattle, 3,078.734; of hogs, 8,334,004; of
sheep, 3,338,291; of butter, 239,696,921 ft; the exports of
hides, 167,442,077 Ib; of dressed beef, 1,126,995,490 Ib; of

* In 1900-1904 the average freight rate per bushel of wheat to
New York was $0-04998 by the all-water; $0-10554 by the all-rail
route. In 1859 it cost $0-1575 to send a bushel of corn to Buffalo
by water; in 1890, $0-019.

' It has been above 1,000,000,000 ft. since 1870, and has in some
years risen to 2,000,000,000.

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CHICAGO

lard, 410,688,319 Ib; of pork, 191,371 bbl.; of other hog
products, 690,503,394 Ib. The combined tonnage in and out
averaged 14,135,406 tons.1 There is a large direct trade with
Europe, mainly in goods that come in bond by rail from Atlantic
ports. In 1007 the value of Chicago's imports was $27,058,662,
and of its exports, $5,643,302.

The value of manufactures (from establishments under the
"factory system") in 1900 was $797,879,141, 71-2% of all
those of Illinois, and in 1905 was $955,036,277, 67-7% of all
those of the state; in both these years Chicago was second only
to New York City. Wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing
(not including many by-products), valued at $256,527,949
(32-2% of the city's total) in 1900 and at $269,581,486 (28-2%
of the total) in 1905, are the most important of the city's
industries; in 1905 the product value in Chicago was 29-5%
of that for the slaughtering and meat-packing of the entire
United States. Other important manufactures are foundry and
machine shop products, $44,561,071 in 1900, and $51,774,695
in 1905; and other iron and steel products, $35,058,700 in 1900
and $27,074,307 in 1905; clothing ($58,093,572 in 1900, and
$64,913,481 in 1905); cars and other railway construction,
$28,369,956 in 1900 and $36,080,210 in 1905; malt liquors
($14,956,865 in 1900, and $16,983,421 in 1905), and furniture
($12,344,510 in 1900 and $17,488,257 in 1905). The Illinois
Steel Company has the largest rolling mills in the world. The
McCormick Harvesting Machine Company is the largest concern
in the world manufacturing agricultural implements. Pullman
in southern Chicago, in the sparsely settled outskirts of the city,
is a model little " labour town," planned and constructed with
regard for both appearances and conveniences by the Pullman
Palace Car Company, which has its works here. The town
consists mainly of workmen's cottages. Most of the population
are dependent upon the car works. The Pullman Company
owns and operates dining and sleeping cars on practically all the
railways of the country. In addition to its own cars it builds
ordinary passenger and freight cars on contract.

Meat-packing is the greatest local industry and is that for
which Chicago is. best known. In the enormous stock-yards
from two-thirds to four-fifths of the cattle and hogs received are
killed, and sent out in various forms of prepared meats and by-
products (lard, fertilizers, glue, butterine, soap, candles, &c).2
This industry is remarkable for the extraordinary division of
labour in its processes. In the preparation of a bullock more than
thirty specialties are involved, and some twenty different rates of
pay. This system enabled the packing companies, until checked
by the development of labour unions, to save money not only by
paying low wages for .crude labour and high for skilled, but to
develop wonderful expertness in every line, and so " speed up "
the workmen to a remarkable pace.3 No more interesting field
can be found for the study of the qualities of foreign races. The
introduction of the refrigerator railway car in the 'seventies
of the igth century, making possible the distant marketing of
dressed meats, enormously increased the business. The workmen
of the yards were organized in a national union of meat packers in
1897, and all the different classes of workmen have their separate
organizations, formed mainly between 1900 and 1902. The
number of women employed more than doubled in the decade
1891-1900, constituting probably about 9% of the total in the
latter year.

Administration. — Chicago is governed under a general city-
charter law of Illinois of 1870, accepted by the city in 1875. In
November 1904 the people of Illinois adopted a constitutional
amendment authorizing the legislature of the state to provide a

1 This is for the entire Chicago customs district, including Wau-
kegan and Michigan City.

1 The number of hogs packed yearly averaged 7,255,245 in 1900-
1904; the cattle packed, 1,955,765; the sheep shipped (partly live),
616,476 (one-fifth those received).

'e.g. in the most skilled labour, the speed was increased 87-5%
from 1884-1894. In 1905 a gang of 230 men would dispose of 105
animals hourly; equivalent to 131 minutes for one man in taking
the animal from pen to refrigerator; the average wage was $0-21
per hour (highest 0-50) and the average cost per bullock, $0-46.

complete new system of local government for Chicago, but the old
system continued and is here described, the new charter, from
which so much had been hoped, being rejected by the voters of
the city by an overwhelming majority in September 1907. A
common council chosen by wards and renewed in half each year
controls the budget, police, liquor licences, city contracts and the
granting of franchises; it also confirms appointments made by
the mayor and by a vote of two-thirds may pass legislation over
his veto. The mayor, chosen for four years, is the executive
head of the city, and has large power of appointment and removal,
limited by a civil service law, under which he must submit
reasons for removals, while two-thirds of the council may prevent
them. On the other hand the mayor can veto separate items in
the council's budget. The administrative departments are
generally headed by single commissioners; but those of elections,
education and the public library are exceptions. The council
was once all important, but as early as the charter of 1851 it began
to lose power to the mayor, whose directive and executive powers
have steadily increased, beginning first in the financial depart-
ment. Administration was once performed entirely by boards
as in other American cities: every specific problem or demand for
municipal activity was met by an appeal to the state legislature
for special legislation and the creation of a board. The substitu-
tion of single commissioners began in 1876. The state constitu-
tion of 1870 forbade special legislation, prescribed a general city
charter law and forbade special amendatory acts for Chicago.
This stopped grave abuses, but because a large part of the state
has not been interested in Chicago's special needs and demands
for betterment it also saddled upon the city an organization
which in 1901 remained practically the same as in 1870, when
Chicago was an overgrown town of 300,000 inhabitants. Chicago
was the only large city of the state, and a charter generalized
from village experience was unsuitable for it. The parts of Cook
county outside the city have also been very jealous of forwarding
its reorganization, important features of which must be either
the complete absorption of the county or at least the reconstitu-
tion of the county government,4 which the constitution left
unchanged, and which, with the city's growth, has caused clash
of interests and authority. Nor is this dual government — though
the city has above nine-tenths of the population and pays nine-
tenths of the taxes of the county — the only anomaly. Illinois
has had since 1848 a modified New England " township " local-
government system, and various townships have been absorbed
by Chicago, yet they all retained till after 1900 their political
structure and some of their functions. There are three park com-
missions, two appointed by the governor and one by circuit court
judges, created for different parts of the old city, differently
constituted and all independent of the city; their jurisdiction
was not enlarged as the city grew, so large portions remained free
of charges for parks and boulevards. A special park commission
now supplements them and lessens this anomaly though increasing
administrative diversity. A sanitary and drainage district, not
larger than the city area but quite different from it, was created
in 1886 (present form 1890) to carry through the drainage canal.
The school board has been nominally separate from and almost
independent of the city government in power since 1857. The
courts of law are courts of the state of Illinois, but a certain
number of justices of the peace are designated by the mayor to
act as police magistrates. The initiative and referendum in local
matters has been made possible under a state law, and has
been several times exercised in important questions.. Financial
arrangements have been loose and inefficient. Independent
taxing power has been lavishly granted. State, county, city,
three park boards, the school board, the public library board, the
drainage board, and as late as 1903 ten townships,5 exercised
this sovereign right within the municipal area. Tax assessment

* Cook county is Republican in politics generally, the rural dis-
tricts being so strongly so as often to overbalance the normal Demo-
cratic plurality in Chicago. Thus another ground of jealousy is
found in the distribution of county offices.

' An amendment of 1004 provided that the legislature should
enact the consolidation of the townships with the city in matters of
taxation, but no further steps had been taken to the end of 1907.

CHICAGO

123

valuations have been excessively irregular (e.g. the " equalized "
value for 1875 was $55,000,000 greater than that for 1892), and
apparently very low. The average assessment valuation for the
years from 1904 to 1908 was $438,729,897 (403-28 millions in 1904,
and 477-19 millions in 1908), and in 1907 the highest taxing rate
was 8%. The bonded debt in 1908 was $25,157,400, about half
of it old ($11,362,726 in 1870; 4-5 millions contracted to aid
the World's Fair of 1893). In the early years following 1900 the
city paid more than half of its income on police; this expenditure,
per capita of population, was not high (in 1901 Boston $5-03,
New York $3-21, Chicago $2-19), and the results were not
exactly efficient. The difficulty is that the city is poor and can
pay only for strict necessities. Its poverty is due mainly to state
laws. The taxation limit on property is i % on the cash value,
thus compelling special dependence upon all sorts of indirect
taxes; the debt limit is 5% on the assessed valuation. Since
1900 relief has been given by state law in some matters, such as
for the park system. The water system has been operated by the
city since 1851, and has been financially very successful from the
beginning: rates are far lower than in the other great cities of the
country, and a handsome net revenue accrues to the treasury.1
A municipal electric-lighting plant (1887), which was paid for
gradually out of the general tax levy and was not built by the
sale of bonds, gave excellent results in the city service. The city,
like the state, has power to regulate the price of gas sold by
private companies. The elevation of the railway tracks within
the city was begun in 1892; at the close of 1908 the railway
companies had accepted ordinances of the City Council for the
elevation of 192-77 m. of main tracks and 947-91 m. of all tracks,
and the construction of 724 subways, at an estimated cost of
$65,000,000; at that time the railway companies had completed
the elevation of 133-83 m. of main tracks and 776 m. of all
tracks, and had constructed 567 subways, at a total expense of
$52,500,000. The system of intercepting sewers begun in 1898 to
complete the service of the drainage canal has been constructed
with the profits of the water system.

In addition to the movement for a new charter to remove the
anomalies and ease the difficulties already referred to, two great
problems have been in the forefront in recent years: the lessening
of municipal corruption and the control of local transit agencies.

The traction question may be said to have begun in 1865,
in which year, and again in 1883, public opinion was bitterly
aroused against an attempt of the traction companies to secure
a ninety-nine year extension of franchises. Following 1883 all
lines were consolidated and enormously over-capitalized (in
1005 about $150,000,000 of stocks and bonds on a 6% basis,
two-thirds of which rested only on the franchise). In 1895-1897
bold attempts to secure a 5o-year extension of franchises were
defeated by Governor John P. Altgeld (1847-1902), by the
formation of a Municipal Voters' League, and by a representative
committee of 100 sent from Chicago to attend the legislature
at Springfield. The transit service of the city had for years been
antiquated and inadequate. At the mayor's elections in 1897,
1899, 1901 and 1903 the victory lay with the opponents of the
companies, and in 1905 the successful party stood for immediate
municipal acquisition of all roads. Meanwhile, under the state
referendum act, the city in 1902 voted overwhelmingly for
municipal ownership and operation (142,826 to 27,990); the
legislature in 1903 by the Mueller law gave the city the requisite
powers; the people accepted the law, again declared for muni-
cipal ownership, and for temporary compulsion of adequate
service, and against granting any franchise to any company,
by four additional votes similarly conclusive. At last, after
tedious negotiations, a definite agreement was reached in 1906
assuring an early acquisition of all roads by the city. The
issue of bonds for municipal railways was, however, declared
unconstitutional that year; and at the municipal elections of
1907 there was a complete reversal of policy; a large majority
voted this time against municipal ownership in favour of
leaving the working of the street railways in private hands,
and strengthening the powers of municipal control.

1 The net revenue per million gallons in 1890-1899 was $35-04.

The active campaign for the improvement of municipal service
and politics may be said to have begun in 1896. A civil service
system was inaugurated in 1895. The salaries of the councilmen
were raised with good effect. Numerous reform associations
were started to rouse public opinion, such as the Citizens' Associa-
tion of Chicago, organized in 1874, the Civic Federation (1894),
the Municipal Voters' League (1896), the Legislative Voters'
League (1901), the Municipal Lecture Association (1002), the
Referendum League of Illinois (1901), the Civil Service Reform
Association of Chicago, the Civil Service Reform Association of
Illinois (1902), the Merchants' Club, the City Club (1903), the
Law and Order League (1904), Society of Social Hygiene (1906),
and many of the women's clubs took an active part. They stood
for the real enforcement of the laws, sanitation, pure food, public
health, the improvement of the schools and the widening of their
social influence, and (here especially the women's clubs) aesthetic,
social and moral progress. The Merchants' Club reformed the
city's book-keeping, and secured the establishment (1899)
of the first state pawnbrokers' society. The Civic Federation
demonstrated (1896) that it could clean the central streets for
slightly over half what the city was paying (the city has since
saved the difference) ; it originated the movement for vacation
schools and other educational advances, and started the Com-
mittee of One Hundred (1897), from which sprang various other
reform clubs. The Municipal Voters' League investigated and
published the records of candidates for the city council, and
recommended their election or defeat as the case may be. More-
over, a " Municipal Museum " was organized in 1905, mainly
supported by private aid, but in part by the board of education,
in order to collect and make educational use of materials illustrat-
ing municipal administration and conditions, physical and social.

Education atid Charily. — The school board is appointed by
the mayor. Since 1904 a merit system has been applied in the
advancement of teachers; civil service rules cover the rest of
the employees. Kindergartens were maintained without legal
sanction in connexion with the public schools for several years,
and for more than twenty-five years as private schools, before
their legal establishment as a part of the system in 1899. Free
evening schools, very practical in their courses, are utilized
mainly by foreigners. Vacation schools were begun in 1896.
So far as possible the school buildings are kept open for school,
lectures and entertainments, serving thus as wholesome social
centres; and a more adequate use is made of the large invest-
ment (in 1908 about $44,500,000) which they represent. In all
the public schools manual training, household arts and economy,
and commercial studies are a regular part of the curriculum.
A department of scientific pedagogy and child study (1900)
seeks to secure a development of the school system in harmony
with the results of scientific study of children (the combination
of hand and brain training, the use of audito-visual methods,
an elastic curriculum during the adolescent period, &c.). The
expenditure for all purposes by the city in 1903 for every dollar
expended for schools was only $1-713; a ratio paralleled in only
a few cities of the country.

Hospitals, infirmaries, dispensaries, asylums, shelters and
homes for the defective, destitute, orphaned, aged, erring,
friendless and incurably diseased; various relief societies,
and associations that sift the good from the bad among the
mendicant, the economically inefficient, and the viciously
pauper, represent the charity work of the city. Among public
institutions are the Cook County hospital (situated in the
" Medical District " of the West Side, where various hospitals
and schools are gathered near together), asylum and poor house.
Since 1883 a Lincoln Park Sanitarium has been maintained for
infants and small children during warm weather. Two legal-aid
societies, the Chicago Bureau of Justice (1888) and the Protective
Agency for Women and Children, collect small wage claims and
otherwise aid the poor or helpless. The most important charit-
able societies of the city are the United Charities of Chicago
(1909), the United Hebrew Charities (1857), and the Associated
Jewish Charities (1900). The first is the union of the Relief
and Aid Society (1857) and the Bureau of Charities (1894),

124

CHICAGO

and tries to prevent overlapping of efforts and to weed out fraud.
Following the gradual development of New York state laws on
behalf of children was enacted the Illinois Juvenile Court Law,
which came into force on the ist of July 1899 and was largely
the result of Chicago's interest in juvenile reform. Much
philanthropic work centres in the West Side with its hetero-
geneous population. A famous institution is Hull House, a social
settlement of women, which aims to be a social, charitable, and
educational neighbourhood centre. It was established in 1889
by Miss Jane Addams, who became the head-worker, and Miss
Ellen Gates Starr. It includes an art building, a free kinder-
garten, a fine gymnasium, a creche, and a diet kitchen; and
supports classes, lectures and concerts. It has had a very great
influence throughout the United States. The Armour mission
(1886) for the poor is organized with similar breadth of scope.

Population. — Of the total population in 1900 not less than
34-6% were foreign-born; the number of persons either born
abroad, or born in the United States of foreign parentage (i.e.
father or both parents foreign), was 77-4% of the population,
and in the total number of males of voting age the foreign-born
predominated (s,V4%). Of the latter category 68-2% were
already citizens by naturalization. 3-9% of the inhabitants
of ten years of age or upward were illiterate (unable to write),
while the percentage of foreign-born whites was 8-2% (93-9%
of illiterate males of voting age). Germans, Irish, Poles, Swedes
and Bohemians made up respectively 29-1, 12-6, 8-6, 8-3 and
6-2% of the foreign-born population. It was estimated in 1903
by a very competent authority that above 500,000 persons
spoke German, 12 5,000 Polish, ioo,oooSwedish,9o,oooBohemian,
50,000 Norwegian, 50,000 Yiddish, 35,000 Dutch, 25,000 Italian,
20,000 Danish, 17,000 French and 12,000 Irish (Celtic), and
that each of fourteen foreign languages was spoken by more than
10,000 people : " Newspapers appear regularly in 10 languages, and
church-services may be heard in about 20 languages. Chicago
is the second largest Bohemian city of the world, the third
Swedish, the fourth Norwegian, the fifth Polish, the fifth German
(New York being the fourth) . In all there are some 40 languages
spoken by ... over one million " persons.1 The death-rate
of Chicago is the lowest of the great cities of the country.
Births are but slightly in excess of deaths, so that the growth
of the city is almost wholly from immigration. The death-rate
is the lowest of the great cities of the country (16-2 in 1900;
New York, 20-4; Boston, 20-1, &c.).

The growth of Chicago has been remarkable even for American
cities. Any resident of four-score years living in 1000 had seen
it grow from a settlement of fourteen houses, a frontier military
post among the Indians, to a great metropolis, fifth in size among
the cities of the world. In 1828 what is now the business centre
was fenced in as a pasture; in 1831 the Chicago mail was
deposited in a dry-goods box; the tax-levy of 1834 was $48-90,
and a well that constituted the city water-works was sunk at
a cost of $95.50; in 1843 hogs were barred from the town
streets. Such facts impress upon one, as nothing else can, the
marvellously rapid growth of the city. In 1830 with a population
of less than 100, in 1840 with 4479, the increase by percentages in
succeeding decades was as follows: 507-3, 264-6, 173-6, 68-3,
118-6 and 54-4; an increase equivalent to 8-6% annually,
compounded. Such a continuous " boom " no other American
city has ever known.

History. — The river Chicago (an Indian name of uncertain
meaning, but possibly from Ojibwa she-kag-ong, " wild onion
place ") was visited by Joliet and Marquette in 1673, anc^ later
by La Salle and others. It became a portage route of some
importance, used by the French in passing to the lower Illinois
country. In 1804 the United States established here Fort
Dearborn. In 1812, during the Indian War of Tecumseh, the
garrison and settlers, who had abandoned the fort and were re-
treating toward safety, were attacked and overpowered by the
savages at a point now well within the city. The fort was re-
established and fitfully occupied until its final abandonment

1 Prof. C. D. Buck in Decennial Publications of the University of
Chicago (1903, vol. 6).

in 1837. When Cook county was organized in 1831, Chicago,
then a tiny village, became the seat of justice. It became a
town in 1833 and a city in 1837. By that time Chicago wa&
confident of its future. The federal government had begun the
improvement of the harbour, and the state had started the
Illinois and Michigan canal. There was a federal land-office also,
and the land speculator and town promoter had opened a chapter
of history more picturesque, albeit sordid, than in any of the
old French days. The giant growth of the lake trade had drawn
attention before railway connexion was secure with the East in
1852, making progress even more rapid thereafter. During the
Civil War a large prison-camp for Confederate prisoners, Camp
Douglas, was maintained at Chicago. In 1870 the city had
306,605 inhabitants and was already a commercial centre of
immense importance.

In 1871 it suffered a terrible calamity. On the 8th of October
a fire broke out near the lumber district on the West Side.
Two-thirds of the city's buildings were wood, and the summer
had been excessively dry, while to make conditions worse a
high and veering wind fanned the flames. The conflagration
leaped the river to the South and finally to the North Side,
burned over an area of 3$ sq. m., destroyed 17,450 buildings
and property valued at $i96,ooo,ooo,2 and rendered almost
100,000 people homeless; 250 lost their lives. The flames
actually travelled 2\ m. in an air-line within 65 hours.
Thousands of persons, fleeing before the flames and fire-brands,
sought refuge on the shore and even in the waters of the lake.
Robbery, pillage, extortion, orgies and crime added to the
general horror. In the South Side the fire was checked on the
9th by the use of gunpowder; in the North (where the water-
works were early destroyed) it had extended almost to the
prairie wheijrainfall finally ended its ravages, after about twenty-
seven hours of destruction. With the exception of the San
Francisco fire of 1906 this was the greatest fire of modern times.
A vast system of relief was organized and received generous aid
from all parts of the world. The money contributions from the
United States and abroad were $4,996,782; of this foreign
countries contributed nearly $1,000,000 (England half of this).
These funds, which were over and above gifts of food, clothing
and supplies, were made to last till the close of 1876. Out of
them temporary homes were provided for nearly 40,000 people;
barracks and better houses were erected, workmen were supplied
with tools, and women with sewing-machines; the sick were
cared for and the dead buried; and the poorer classes of Chicago
were probably never so comfortable as during the first two or
three years after the fire. The rebuilding of the city was accom-
plished with wonderful rapidity. Work was begun before the
cinders were cold. The business district was largely rebuilt
within a year, and within three there were hardly scars of the
calamity. Wood was barred from a large area (and subsequently
from the entire city), and a new Chicago of brick and stone,
larger, finer and wealthier, had taken the place of the old.
Business and population showed no set-back in their progress.
The solidity and permanence of this prosperity were confirmed
during the financial panic of 1873, when Chicago banks alone,
among those of the large cities of the country, continued steadily
to pay out current funds.

In its later history certain special factors stand out, apart
from continued commercial progress.

Chicago has been a storm centre of labour troubles, some of
them of a specially spectacular character. There were great
strikes in the packing industry in 1886, 1894 and 1904. But
more noteworthy are the railway strike of 1894 and the unsuccess-
ful teamsters' strike of 1905. The former began in the works
of the Pullman Car Company, and its leader was Eugene Victor
Debs (b. 1855). When the contentions of the Pullman employees
were taken up by the American Railway Union the strike
immediately extended to tremendous proportions. Union men

2 There was an insurance of $88,634,122 on the losses, of which
about a half was recovered. F. L. Olmsted estimated that one-third
of the roof surface and one-half the cubic contents of the city's
buildings were destroyed.

CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF

throughout the country refused to handle Pullman cars, and
since Pullman cars are almost invariably attached to mail
trains the transportation of the United States mail was thus ob-
structed. Chicago, as the greatest railwaycentre of the country
and the home of the strike, was naturally the seat of the most
serious complications. There was much rioting and destruction
of property, and the railway service was completely disorganized.
President Cleveland, on the ground of preventing obstruction of
the mail service, and of . protecting other federal interests,
ordered a small number of federal troop* to Chicago. Those
interests were, he contended, menaced by " domestic violence "
evidently beyond the control of the state power. Governor
Altgeld denied the inability of the state to deal with the diffi-
culty, and entered a strong protest against Federal interference;
but he himself did nothing to put down the disorder. Federal
troops entered the state, and almost immediately the strike
collapsed. The high officials of the Railway Union, for ignoring
a court injunction restraining them from interfering with the
movement of the mails, were imprisoned for long terms for
contempt of court.

Out of a strike in the McCormick works in 1886 there sprang
another famous incident in Chicago's history. The " inter-
national " anarchists of Chicago had been organized in "groups "
about two years earlier, and were very active. They were ad-
vocating a " general strike " for an eight-hour day, and the tense
excitement among the labourers of the city, owing to the
McCormick strike, induced unusually ultra utterances. There
was a riot at the McCormick works on the 3rd of May, in which
several men were killed by the police. An anarchist meeting
was called for the next day at the Haymarket, a square in
Randolph Street, and when the authorities judged that the
speeches were too revolutionary to be allowed to continue, the
police undertook to disperse the meeting. A bomb was thrown,
and many policemen were injured, seven fatally. No person
could be proved to have thrown the bomb, or to have been directly
implicated in its throwing; but on the ground that they were
morally conspirators and accomplices in the killing, because they
had repeatedly and publicly advocated such acts against the
servants of government, seven anarchists were condemned to
death. An application to the United States Supreme Court
for a writ of error was unanimously refused.1

The four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America
was commemorated by a World's Columbian Exposition held
at Chicago. The site was in Jackson Park and the adjoining
Midway, and included 686 acres, of which 188 were covered by
buildings. On the 2ist of October 1892 — corresponding to the
1 2th of October 1492, o.S. — the grounds were formally dedicated,
and on the following ist of May opened to the public, continuing
open for six months. The number of paid admissions was
21,500,000; of total admissions 27,539,521. The buildings,
planned by a commission of architects — among whom John W.
Root and Daniel H. Burnham of Chicago were responsible for
the general scheme — formed a collection of remarkable beauty,
to which the grounds, planned by F. L. Olmsted, intersected
by lagoons and bordered by the lake, lent an appropriate setting.
The entire cost of the fair is variously estimated at from 33 to
43 million dollars, according to the inclusiveness of the estimate;
the local cost may be put at $28,151,169. Of this Chicago gave
about 105 millions, in addition to a preparatory house-cleafcing
that cost 3^ millions; and finally a very small dividend was
paid to stockholders. The whole undertaking, carried through
with remarkable enterprise, was an artistic and educational
triumph of the first order.

Owing to its position Chicago has long been a favourite con-

1 Four were hanged, I committed suicide, 2 had their death
sentence commuted to life-imprisonment, the eighth was sentenced

to imprisonment for 15 years. 981 men were panelled in selecting
the jury. Governor J. P. Altgeld in 1893 pardoned the three in
prison on the ground that the jury was " packed " and consequently
incompetent, that no evidence connected the prisoners with the
crime, and that the presiding judge was prejudiced. See an article
by Judge J. E. Gary, who presided at the trial, in the Century
Magazine (April 1893).

125

vention city. Lincoln (1860), Grant (1868), Garfield (1880),
Cleveland (1884 and 1892), Harrison (1888), Roosevelt (1004),
and Taft (1008) were all nominated here for president; and in
addition not a few candidates who were unsuccessful. A national
peace jubilee was held here in 1898.

AUTHORITIES. — See the annual reports of city officials, board of
trade, park commissions, sanitary board, &c. ; A. T. Andreas,
history of Chicago (Chicago, 3 vols., 1884-1886); R. Blanchard,
discovery and Conquest of the North- West with the History of Chicago
'Chicago, 2 vols., 1898-1903) ; J. Kirkland, Story of Chicago (Chicago,
1892) ; issues of the Fergus Historical Series (1876, ff.) ; T. J. Riley,
A Study of the Higher Life of Chicago (Chicago University, doctoral
dissertation, 1905) ; S. E. Sparling, Municipal History and Present
Organization of the City of Chicago (University of Wisconsin, doctoral
dissertation, Madison, 1898). Periodical literature contains a vast
amount of information on Chicago's progress and conditions that is
elsewhere unobtainable; exact references may be obtained in
Poole's Index to Periodical Literature.

CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OP, one of the great educational
institutions of the United States, established under Baptist
auspices in the city of Chicago, and opened in 1892.* Though
the president and two-thirds of the trustees are always Baptists,
the university is non-sectarian except as regards its divinity
school. An immense ambition and the extraordinary organizing
ability shown by its first president, William R. Harper, deter-
mined and characterized the remarkable growth of the univer-
sity's first decade of activity. The grounds include about 140
acres. Of these about 60 acres — given in part by Marshall
Field and laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted — border the
Midway Plaisance, connecting Washington and Jackson parks.
On these grounds the main part of the university stands. The '
buildings are mostly of grey limestone, in Gothic style, and
grouped in quadrangles. The Mitchell tower is a shortened
reproduction of Magdalen tower, Oxford, and the University
Commons, Hutchinson Hall, is a duplicate of Christ Church hall,
Oxford. Dormitories accommodate about a fifth of the students.
The quadrangles include clubs, dining halls, dormitories, gym-
nasiums, assembly halls, recitation halls, laboratories and
libraries. In the first college year, 1892-1893, there were 698
students; in that of 1007-1908 there were 5038,' of whom 2186
were women. There are faculties of arts, literature, science,
divinity,4 medicine (organized in 1901), law (1902), education,
and commerce and administration. The astronomical depart-
ment, the Yerkes Observatory, is located on William's Bay,
Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, about 65 m. from Chicago. It has the
largest refracting telescope in the world (clear aperture 40 in.,
focal length about 61 ft.). The Chicago Institute, founded and
endowed by Mrs Anita McCormick Elaine as an independent
normal school, became a part of the university in 1901. The
school of education, as a whole, brings under university influence
hundreds of children from kindergarten age upwards to young
manhood and womanhood, apart from the university classes
proper. Chicago was the second university of the country .
to give its pedagogical department such scope in the union
of theory and practice. The nucleus of the library (450,000
volumes in 1908) was purchased in Berlin soon after the univer-
sity's organization, in one great collection of 175,000 volumes.
Scholarly research has been fostered in every possible way, and
the university press has been active in the publication of various
departmental series and the following periodicals: — Biblical
World, American Journal of Theology, American Journal of
Semitic Languages and Literatures, American Journal of Sociology,
Journal of Political Economy, Modern Philology, Classical
Philology, Classical Journal, Journal of Geology, Astrophysical
Journal, Botanical Gazette, Elementary School Teacher and
School Review. The courses in the College of Commerce and

2 A small Baptist college of the same name— established in 1855
on land given by S. A. Douglas — went out of existence in 1886.

* If, however, the total is reckoned on the basis of nine months,
of residence the figure for 1907-1908 would be 3202.

4 The Divinity School has a graduate department and three under-
graduate departments, doing work in English, in Danish and Nor-
wegian, and in Swedish. Allied with the Divinity School of the
University is the " Disciples' Divinity House " (1894), a theological
school of the Disciples of Christ.

126

CHICANE— CHICHELEY

Administration link the university closely with practical life.
In extension work the university has been active from the
beginning, instruction being given not only by lectures but by
correspondence (a novel and unique feature among American
universities); in the decade 1892-1902, 1715 persons were
prepared by the latter method for matriculation in the university
(n-6% of the total number of matriculants in the decade).
Extension lectures were given in twenty-two states. At Chicago
the work of the university is continuous throughout the year:
the " summer quarter " is not as in other American schools a
supplement to the teaching year, but an integral part; and it
attracts the teachers of the middle western states and of the
south. In the work of the first two years, known together as
the Junior College, men and women are in the main given separate
instruction; but in the Senior College years unrestricted co-
education prevails. Students are mainly controlled by self-
government in small groups (" the house system "). Relations
with " affiliated " (private) colleges and academies and " co-
operating " (public) high-schools also present interesting features.

The value of the property of the university in 1908 was about
$25,578,000. Up to the 3oth of June 1908 it had received from
gifts actually paid $29,651,849, of which $22,712,631 were given
by John D. Rockefeller.1 The value of buildings in 1008 was
$4,508,202, of grounds $4,406,191, and of productive funds
$14,186,235. Upon the death of President Harper, Harry Pratt
Judson (b. 1849), then head professor of political science and
dean of the faculties of arts, became acting president, and on
the zoth of January 1907 he was elected president.

See the Decennial Publications of the University (since 1903), es-
pecially vol. i. for details of history and administration.

CHICANE, the pettifogging subterfuge and delay of sharp
law-practitioners, also any deliberate attempt to gain unfair
advantage by petty tricks. A more common English form of
the word is " chicanery." " Chicane " is technically used also
as a term in the game of bridge for the points a player may score
if he holds no trumps. The word is French, derived either from
chaugan, Persian for the stick used in the game of " polo," still
played on foot and called chicane in Languedoc (the military use
of Meaner, to take advantage of slight variations in ground,
suits this derivation), or from chic, meaning little or petty, from
the Spanish ckico, small, which appears in the phrase "chic d
chic," little by little.

CHICHELEY, HENRY (1364-1443), English archbishop,
founder of All Souls College, Oxford, was born at Higham Ferrers,
Northamptonshire, in 1363 or 1364. Chicheley told the pope in
1443, in asking leave to retire from the archbishopric, that he
was in his eightieth year. He was the third and youngest son
of Thomas Chicheley, who appears in 1368 in still extant town
records of Higham Ferrers as a suitor in the mayor's court, and
in 1381-1382, and again in 1384-1385, was mayor: in fact, for a
dozen years he and Henry Barton, school master of Higham
Ferrers grammar school, and one Richard Brabazon, filled the
mayoralty in turns. His occupation does not appear; but his
eldest son, William, is on the earliest extant list (1373) of the
Grocers' Company, London. On the 9th of June 1405 Chicheley
was admitted, in succession to his father, to a burgage in Higham
Ferrers. His mother, Agnes Pincheon, is said to have been of
gentle birth. There is therefore no foundation in fact for the
silly story (copied into the Diet. Nat. Biog. from a local historian,

'The words "founded by John D. Rockefeller" follow the title
of the university on all its letterheads and official documents.
Mr Rockefeller would not allow his name to be a part of the title,
nor has he permitted the designation of any building by his name.
President Harper was selected by him to organize the university,
and it was his will that the president and two-thirds of the trustees
should be " always " Baptists. President Harper more than once
stated most categorically that contrary to prevalent beliefs no donor
of funds to the university " has ever (1902) by a single word or act
indicated his dissatisfaction with the instruction given to students
in the university, or with the public expression of opinion made by
any officer of the university ; and certainly so far as the public
press reveals, no other university of the country has had so many
professors who have in various lines, including economics, expressed
radical views in public.

J. Cole, Wellingborough, 1838) that Henry Chicheley was picked
up by William of Wykeham when he was a poor ploughboy
" eating his scanty meal off his mother's lap," whatever that
means. The story was unknown to Arthur Duck, fellow of All
Souls, who wrote Chicheley's life in 1617. It is only the usual
attempt, as in the cases of Whittington, Wolsey and Gresham,
to exaggerate the rise of a successful man. The first recorded
appearance of Henry Chicheley himself is at New College, Oxford,
as Checheley, eighth among the undergraduate fellows, in July
1387, in the earliest extant hall-book, which contains weekly
lists of those dining in Hall. It is clear from Chicheley's position
in the list, with eleven fellows and eight scholars, or probationer-
fellows, below him, that this entry does not mark his first appear-
ance in the college, which had been going on since 1375 at least,
and was chartered in 1379. He must have come from Winchester
College in one of the earliest batches of scholars from that college,
the sole feeder of New College, not from St John Baptist College,
Winchester, as guessed by Dr William Hunt in the Diet. Nat.
Biog. (and repeated in Mr Grant Robertson's History of All
Soids College) to cover the mistaken supposition that St Mary's
College was not founded till 1393. St Mary's College was in
fact formally founded in 1382, and the school had been going on
since 1373 (A. F. Leach, History of Winchester College), while no
such college as St John's College at Winchester ever existed.

Chicheley appears in the Hall-books of New College up to the
year 1392/93, when he was a B.A. and was absent for ten weeks
from about the 6th of December to the 6th of March, presumably
for the purpose of his ordination as a sub-deacon, which was
performed by the bishop of Deny, acting as suffragan to the
bishop of London. He was then already beneficed, receiving a
royal ratification of his estate as parson of Llanvarchell in the
diocese of St Asaph on the 2oth of March 1391/92 (Co/. Pat.
Rolls) . In the Hall-book, marked 1393/94, but really for 1394/95,
Chicheley's name does not appear. He had then left Oxford
and gone up to London to practise as an advocate in the prin-
cipal ecclesiastical court, the court of arches. His rise was
rapid. Already on the 8th of February 1395/96 he was on a
commission with several knights and clerks to hear an appeal
in a case of John Mollon, Esquire v. John Shawe, citizen of London,
from Sir John Cheyne.kt., sitting for the constable of England in
a court of chivalry. Like other ecclesiastical lawyers and civil
servants of the day, he was paid with ecclesiastical preferments."
On the i3th of April 1396 he obtained ratification of the parson-
age of St Stephen's, Walbrook, presented on the 3oth of March
by the abbot of Colchester, no doubt through his brother Robert,
who restored the church and increased its endowment. In 1397
he was made archdeacon of Dorset by Richard Mitford, bishop
of Salisbury, but litigation was still going on about it in the papal
court till the 27th of June 1399, when the pope extinguished the
suit, imposing perpetual silence on Nicholas Bubwith, master of
the rolls, his opponent. In the first year of Henry IV. Chicheley
was parson of Sherston, Wiltshire, and prebendary of Nantgwyly
in the college of Abergwilly, North Wales; on the 23rd of Feb-
ruary 1401/2, now called doctor of laws, he was pardoned for
bringing in, and allowed to use, a bull of the pope " providing "
him to the chancellorship of Salisbury cathedral, and canon-
ries in the nuns' churches of Shaftesbury and Wilton in that
diocese; and on the 9th of January 1402/3 he was archdeacon
of Salisbury. This year his brother Robert was senior sheriff of
London. On the 7th of May 1404, Pope Boniface IX. provided
him to a prebend at Lincoln, notwithstanding he already held
prebends at Salisbury, Lichfield, St Martin's-le-Grand and
Abergwyly, and the living of Brington. On the 9th of January
1405 he found time to attend a court at Higham Ferrers and be
admitted to a burgage there. In July 1405 Chicheley began a
diplomatic career by a mission to the new Roman pope Innocent
VII., who was professing his desire to end the schism in the
papacy by resignation, if his French rival at Avignon would do
likewise. Next year, on the 5th of October 1406, he was sent
with Sir John Cheyne to Paris to arrange a lasting peace and
the marriage of Prince Henry with the French princess Marie,
which was frustrated by her becoming a nun at Poissy next year.

CHICHELEY

127

In 1406 renewed efforts were made to stop the schism, and
Chicheley was one of the envoys sent to the new pope Gregory
XII. Here he utilized his opportunities. On the 3 ist of August
1407 Guy Mone (he is always so spelt and not Mohun, and was
probably from one of the Hampshire Meons; there was a John
Mone of Havant admitted a Winchester scholar in 1397), bishop
of St David's, died, and on the I2th of October 1407 Chicheley
was by the pope provided to the bishopric of St David's. Another
bull the same day gave him the right to hold all his benefices
with the bishopric.

At Siena in July 1408 he and Sir John Cheyne, as English
envoys, were received by Gregory XII. with special honour,
and Bishop Repingdon of Lincoln, ex-Wycliffite, was one of the
new batch of cardinals created on the i8th of September 1408,
most of Gregory's cardinals having deserted him. These,
together with Benedict's revolting cardinals, summoned a general
council at Pisa. In November 1408 Chicheley was back at
Westminster, when Henry IV. received the cardinal archbishop
of Bordeaux and determined to support the cardinals at Pisa
against both popes. In January 1409 Chicheley was named with
Bishop Hallum of Salisbury and the prior of Canterbury to
represent the Southern Convocation at the council, which opened
on the 2$th of March 1409, arriving on the 24th of April.
Obedience was withdrawn from both the existing popes, and
on the 26th of June a new pope elected instead of them.
Chicheley and the other envoys were received on their return
as saviours of the world; though the result was summed up by
a contemporary as trischism instead of schism, and the Church
as giving three husbands instead of two. Chicheley now became
the subject of a leading case, the court of king's bench deciding,
after arguments reheard in three successive terms, that he could
not hold his previous benefices with the bishopric, and that, spite
of the maxim Papa poles! omnia, a papal bull could not supersede
the law of the land ( Year-book ii. H. iv. 37, 59, 79). Accordingly
he had to resign livings and canonries wholesale (April 28, 1410).
As, however, he had obtained a bull (August 20, 1409) enabling
him to appoint his successors to the vacated preferments,
including his nephew William, though still an undergraduate
and not in orders, to the chancellorship of Salisbury, and a
prebend at Lichfield, he did not go empty away. In May 1410
he went again on an embassy to France; on the nth of
September 1411 he headed a mission to discuss Henry V.'s
marriage with a daughter of the duke of Burgundy; and he was
again there in November. In the interval Chicheley found time
to visit his diocese for the first time and be enthroned at St
David's on the nth of May 1411. He was with the English
force under the earl of Arundel which accompanied the duke of
Burgundy to Paris in October 1411 and there defeated the
Armagnacs, an exploit which revealed to England the weakness
of the French. On the 3oth of November 1411 Chicheley, with
two other bishops and three earls and the prince of Wales, knelt
to the king to receive public thanks for their administration.
That he was in high favour with Henry V. is shown by his being
sent with the earl of Warwick to France in July 1413 to conclude
peace. Immediately after the death of archbishop Arundel he
was nominated by the king to the archbishopric, elected on the
4th of March, translated by papal bull on the 28th of April, and
received the pall without going to Rome for it on the 24th
of July.

These dates are important as they help to save Chicheley from
the charge, versified by Shakespeare (Henry V. act i. sc. 2) .
from Hall's Chronicle, of having tempted Henry V. into the
conquest of France for the sake of diverting parliament from
the disendowment of the Church. There is no contemporary
authority for the charge ,which seems to appear first in Redman's
rhetorical history of Henry V., written in 1540 with an eye
to the political situation at that time. As a matter of fact, the
parliament at Leicester, in which the speeches were supposed
to have been made, began on the 3oth of April 1414 before
Chicheley was archbishop. The rolls of parliament show that he
was not present in the parliament at all. Moreover parliament
was so far from pressing disendowment that on the petition of

the Commons it passed a savage act against the heresies " com-
monly called Lollardry " which " aimed at the destruction of
the king and all temporal estates," making Lollards felons and
ordering every justice of the peace to hunt down their schools,
conventicles, congregations and confederacies.

In his capacity of archbishop, Chicheley remained what he
had always been chiefly, the lawyer and diplomatist. He was
present at the siege of Rouen, and the king committed to him
personally the negotiations for the surrender of the city in
January 1419 and for the marriage of Katherine. He crowned
Katherine at Westminster (2oth. February 1421), and on the 6th
of December baptized her child Henry VI. He was of course a
persecutor of heretics. No one could have attained or kept the
position of archbishop at the time without being so. So he
presided at the trial of John Claydon, Skinner and citizen of
London, who after five years' imprisonment at various times
had made public abjuration before the late archbishop, Arundel,
but now was found in possession of a book in English called
The Lanterne of Light, which contained the heinous heresy that
the principal cause of the persecution of Christians was the
illegal retention by priests of the goods of this world, and that
archbishops and bishops were the special seats of antichrist.
As a relapsed heretic, he was " left to the secular arm " by
Chicheley. On the ist of July 1416 Chicheley directed a half-
yearly inquisition by archdeacons to hunt out heretics. On the
1 2th of February 1420 proceedings were begun before him
against William Taylor, priest, who had been for fourteen years
excommunicated for heresy, and was now degraded and burnt
for saying that prayers ought not to be addressed to saints,
but only to God. A striking contrast was exhibited In October
1424, when a Stamford friar, John Russell, who had preached
that any religious potest concumbere cum muliere and not mortally
sin, was sentenced only to retract his doctrine. Further persecu-
tions of a whole batch of Lollards took place in 1428. The records
of convocation in Chicheley's time are a curious mixture of
persecutions for heresy, which largely consisted in attacks on
clerical endowments, with negotiations with the ministers of the
crown for the object of cutting down to the lowest level the
clerical contributions to the public revenues in respect of their
endowments. Chicheley was tenacious of the privileges of his
see, and this involved him in a constant struggle with Henry
Beaufort, bishop of Winchester. In 1418, while Henry V.
was alive, he successfully protested against Beaufort's being
made a cardinal and legate a latere to supersede the legatine
jurisdiction of Canterbury. But during the regency, after Henry
VI. 's accession, Beaufort was successful, and in 1426 became
cardinal and legate. This brought Chicheley into collision with
Martin V. The struggle between them has been represented
as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the encroachments of
the papacy on the Church of England. In point of fact it was
almost wholly personal, and was rather an incident in the
rivalry between the duke of Gloucester and his half-brother,
Cardinal Beaufort, than one involving any principle. Chicheley,
by appointing a jubilee to be held at Canterbury in 1420, " after
the manner of the Jubilee ordained by the Popes," threatened
to divert the profits from pilgrims from Rome to Canterbury.
A ferocious letter from the pope to the papal nuncios, on the igth
of March 1423, denounced the proceeding as calculated " to en-
snare simple souls and extort from them a profane reward,
thereby setting up themselves against the apostolic see and the
Roman pontiff, to whom alone so great a faculty has been granted
by God " (Col. Pap. Reg. vii. 12). Chicheley also incurred the
papal wrath by opposing the system of papal provision which
diverted patronage from English to Italian hands, but the
immediate occasion was to prevent the introduction of the bulls
making Beaufort a cardinal. Chicheley had been careful enough
to obtain " Papal provisions " for himself, his pluralities, his
bishopric and archbishopric.

But, after all, it is not as archbishop or statesman, persecutor,
papalist or antipapalist that Chicheley is remembered, but
for his educational foundations. He endowed a hutch, i.e. chest or
loan-fund for poor scholars at New College, and another for the

128

CHICHEN-ITZA— CHICHESTER OF BELFAST

university of Oxford at large. He founded no less than three
colleges, two at Oxford, one at Higham Ferrers, while there is
reason to believe that he suggested and inspired the foundation
of Eton and of King's College. His first college at Oxford, in
perishing, gave birth to St John's College, which now holds its
site. This was St Bernard's College, founded by Chicheley
under licence in mortmain in 1437 for Cistercian monks, on the
model of Gloucester Hall and Durham College for the southern
and northern Benedictines. Nothing more than a site and
building was required by way of endowment, as the young
monks, who were sent there to study under a provisor, were
supported by the houses of the order to which they belonged.
The site was five acres, and the building is described in the
letters patent " as a fitting and noble college mansion in honour
of the most glorious Virgin Mary and St Bernard in Northgates
Street outside the Northgate of Oxford." It was suppressed
with the Cistercian abbeys in 1539, and granted on the nth of
December 1546 to Christ Church, Oxford, who sold it to Sir
Thomas Pope in 1553 for St John's College.

The college at Higham Ferrers was a much earlier design.
On the 2nd of May 1422 Henry V., in right of the duchy of
Lancaster, " hearing that Chicheley inflamed by the pious
fervour of devotion intended to enlarge divine service and other
works of piety at Higham Ferrers, in consideration of his fruitful
services, often crossing the seas, yielding to no toils, dangers or
expenses . . . especially in the conclusion of the present final
peace with our dearest father the king of France," granted for
300 marks (£200) licence to found, on three acres at Higham
Ferrers, a perpetual college of eight chaplains and four clerks,
of whom one was to teach grammar and the other song . . . and
six choristers to pray for himself and wife and for Henry IV.
and his wife Mary . . . and to acquire the alien priory of
Merseye in Essex late belonging to St Ouen's, Rouen," as endow-
ment. A papal bull having also been obtained, on the 28th of
August 1425, the archbishop, in the course of a visitation of
Lincoln diocese, executed his letters patent founding the college,
dedicating it to the Virgin, St Thomas a Becket and St Edward
the Confessor, and handed over the buildings to its members, the
vicar of Higham Ferrers being made the first master or warden.
He further endowed it in 1434 with lands in Bedfordshire and
Huntingdonshire, and his brothers, William and Robert, gave
some houses in London in 1427 and 1438. The foundation was
closely modelled on Winchester College, with its warden and
fellows, its grammar and song schoolmasters, but a step in
advance was made by the masters being made fellows and so
members of the governing body. Attached was also a bede or
almshouse for twelve poor men. Both school and almshouse had
existed before, and this was merely an additional endowment.
The whole endowment was in 1535 worth some £200 a year, about
a fifth of that of Winchester College. Unfortunately, All Souls
being a later foundation, the college at Higham Ferrers was not
affiliated to it, and so fell with other colleges not part of the
universities. On the i8th of July 1542 it was surrendered to
Henry VIII., and its possessions granted to Robert Dacres on
condition of maintaining the grammar school and paying the
master £10 a year, the same salary as the headmasters of Win-
chester and Eton, and maintaining the almshouse. Both still
exist, but the school has been deprived of its house, and the
Fitzwilliam family, who now own the lands, still continue to pay
only £10 a year.

All Souls College was considerably later. The patent for it,
dated 20th of May 1438, is for a warden and 20 scholars, to be
called " the Warden and College of the souls of all the faithful
departed," to study and pray " for the soul of King Henry VI.
and the souls of Henry V., Thomas, duke of Clarence, and all
the dukes, earls, barons, knights, squires and other nobles and
subjects of our father who during the time and in the service
of our father and ourselves ended their lives in the wars of the
kingdom of France, and for the souls of all the faithful departed."
For this, the king granted Berford's Hall, formerly Charleston's
Inn, which Chicheley's trustees had granted to him so as to
obtain a royal grant and indefeasible title. Richard Andrews,

the king's secretary, like Chicheley himself a scholar of Win-
chester and fellow of New College, was named as first warden.
A papal bull for the college was obtained on the 2ist of June
1439; and further patents for endowments from the nth of
May 1441 to the 28th of January 1443, when a general confirma-
tion charter was obtained, for which £1000 (£30,000 at least of
our money) was paid. It is commonly represented that the
endowment was wholly derived from alien priories bought by
Chicheley from the crown. In truth, not so large a proportion
of the endowment of All Souls was derived from this source as
was that of New College. The only alien priories granted were
Abberbury in Oxfordshire, Wedon Pinkney in Northampton-
shire, Romney in Kent, and St Clare and Llangenith in Wales,
all very small affairs, single manors and rectories, and these
did not form a quarter of the whole endowment. The rest,
particularly the manor of Edgware, which made the fortune of
the college, was bought from private owners. Early in 1443 the
college was opened by Chicheley with four bishops in state.
The statutes, not drawn up until the 2nd of April 1443, raised
the number of the college to forty. Like the college buildings,
they are almost an exact copy of those of New College, mutatis
mutandis. The college is sometimes described as being different
from other colleges in being merely a large chantry to pray for
the souls of the dead warriors. But it was no more a chantry
than the other colleges, all of which, like the monasteries and
collegiate churches, were to pray for their founders' and other
specified souls. Indeed, All Souls was more of a lay foundation
than its model. For while at New College only twenty out of
seventy fellows were to study law instead of arts, philosophy and
theology, at All Souls College sixteen were to be " jurists "
and only twenty-four " artists "; and while at New College
there were ten chaplains and three clerks necessarily, at All
Souls the number was not defined but left optional; so that
there are now only one chaplain and four bible clerks.

Ten days after he sealed the statutes, on the I2th of April
1443, Chicheley died and was buried in Canterbury cathedral
on the north side of the choir, under a fine effigy of himself
erected in his lifetime. There is what looks like an excellent
contemporary portrait in one of the windows of All Souls College,
which is figured in the Victoria County History for Hampshire,
ii. 262. (A. F. L.)

CHICHEN-ITZA, or CHICKEN, an ancient ruined city of
Yucatan, Mexico, situated 22 m. W. of Valladolid. The name
is derived from that of the Itza, a tribe of the great Mayan
stock, which formerly inhabited the city, and chicken, having
reference probably to two wells or pools which doubtless origin-
ally supplied the inhabitants with water and are still in existence.
The history of the city is unknown, though it is regarded as prob-
able that it preserved its independence long after the Spaniards
had taken possession of the rest of the district. The area covered
by the ruins is approximately i sq. m., and other remains are
found in the neighbouring forest. (See CENTRAL AMERICA:
Archaeology.)

CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER,
BARON (1563-1625), lord-deputy of Ireland, second son of Sir
John Chichester of Raleigh, Devonshire, by Gertrude, daughter
of Sir William Courtenay of Powderham, was born at Raleigh
in May 1563, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford.
He commanded a ship against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and
is said to have served under Drake in his expedition of 1595.
Having seen further service abroad, he was sent to Ireland at
the end of 1598, and was appointed by the earl of Essex to the
governorship of Carrickfergus. When Essex returned to England,
Chichester rendered valuable service under Mountjoy in the
war against the rebellious earl of Tyrone, and in 1601 Mountjoy
recommended him to Cecil in terms of the highest praise as the
fittest person to be entrusted with the government of Ulster.
On the isth of October 1604 Chichester was appointed lord-
deputy of Ireland He announced his policy in a proclamation
wherein he abolished the semi-feudal rights of the native Irish
chieftains, substituting for them fixed dues, while their tenants
were to become dependent " wholly and immediately upon his

CHICHESTER

129

majesty." Tyrone and other Irish clan chieftains resented this
summary interference with their ancient social organization,
and their resistance was strengthened by the ill-advised measures
against the Roman Catholics which Chichester was compelled
to take by the orders of the English ministers. He himself was
moderate and enlightened in his views on this matter, and it
was through his influence that the harshness of the anti-Catholic
policy was relaxed in 1607. Meantime his difficulties with the
Irish tribal leaders remained unsolved. But in 1607, by " the
flight of the Earls " (see O'NEILL), he was relieved of the presence
of the two formidable Ulster chieftains, the earls of Tyrone and
Tyrconnell. Chichesler's policy for dealing with the situation
thus created was to divide the lands of the fugitive earls among
Irishmen of standing and character; but the plantation of
Ulster as actually carried out was much less favourable and
just to the native population than the lord-deputy desired.
In 1613 Chichester was raised to the peerage as Baron Chichester
of Belfast, and in the following year he went to England to give
an account of the state of Ireland. On his return to Ireland he
again attempted to moderate the persecuting policy against
the Irish Catholics which he was instructed to enforce; and
although he was to some extent successful, it was probably
owing to his opposition to this policy that he was recalled in
November 1614. The king, however, told him " You may rest
assured that you do leave that place with our very good grace
and acceptation of your services "; and he was given the post
of lord-treasurer of Ireland. After living in retirement for some
years, Chichester was employed abroad in 1622; in the following
year he became a member of the privy council. He died on the
ipth of February 1625 and was buried at Carrickfergus.

Lord Chichester married Lettice, daughter of Sir John Perrot
and widow of Walter Vaughan of Golden Grove. He had no
children, and his title became extinct at his death. The heir
to his estates was his brother Sir Edward Chichester (d. 1648),
governor of Carrickfergus, who in 1625 was created Baron
Chichester of Belfast and Viscount Chichester of Carrickfergus.
This nobleman's eldest son Arthur(i6oo-i67s),who distinguished
himself as Colonel Chichester in the suppression of the rebellion
of 1641, was created earl of Donegall in 1647, and was succeeded
in his titles by his nephew, whose great-grandson, Arthur, sth
earl of Donegall, was created Baron Fisherwick in the peerage
of Great Britain (the other family titles being in the peerage of
Ireland) in 1790, and earl of Belfast and marquess of Donegall
in the peerage of Ireland in 1791. The present marquess of
Donegall is his descendant.

See S. R. Gardiner in Diet. Nat. Biog. and History of England,
1603-1642 (London, 1883); Fynes Moryson, History of Ireland,
1599-1603 (Dublin, 1735). (R. J. M.)

CHICHESTER, a city and municipal borough in the Chichester
parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 69 m. S.S.W. from
London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop.
(1001) 12,224. It lies in a plain at the foot of a spur of the South
Downs, a mile from the head of Chichester Harbour, an inlet
of the English Channel. The cathedral church of the Holy
Trinity. was founded towards the close of the nth century, after
the see had been removed to Chichester from Selsey in 1075.
The first church was consecrated in 1108, but fires in 1114 and
1187 caused building to continue steadily until the close of the
i3th century. Bishop Ralph Luffa (1091-1123) was the first
great builder, and was followed by Seffiid II. (1180-1204).
Norman work appears in the nave (arcade and triforium), choir
(arcade) and elsewhere; but there is much very beautiful
Early English work, the choir above the arcade and the eastern
part being especially fine. The nave is remarkable in having
double aisles on each side, the outer pair being of the i3th century.
The church is also unique among English cathedrals in the
possession of a detached campanile, a massive and beautiful
Perpendicular structure with the top storey octagonal. The
principal modern restorations are the upper part of the north-
west tower, which copies the Early English work of that on the
south-west; and the fine central tower and spire, 'which had
been erected at different periods in the I4th century, but col-

n.3

lapsed, doing little damage to the fabric, in 1861. Under the
direction of Sir Gilbert Scott and others they were reconstructed
with scrupulous care in preserving the original plan. The Lady
chapel at the east end is in the main early Decorated, but greatly
restored; the library is a fine late Norman vaulted room; the
cloisters are Perpendicular and well restored; and the bishop's
palace retains an Early English chapel. The cathedral is 393 ft.
long within, 131 ft. across the transepts, and oo ft. across the
nave with its double aisles. The height of the spire is 277 ft.

At the junction of the four main streets of the town stands
the market cross, an exquisite octagonal structure in ornate
Perpendicular style, built by Bishop Story, c. 1500, perhaps the
finest of its kind in the United Kingdom. The hospital of St
Mary was founded in the izth century, but the existing buildings
are in a style transitional from Early English to Decorated.
Its use as an almshouse is maintained. Other ancient buildings
are the churches of St Olave, in the construction of which Roman
materials were used; and of St Andrew, where is the tomb of
the poet William Collins, whose memorial with others by the
sculptor Flaxman is in the cathedral; the Guildhall, formerly
a Grey Friars' chapel, of the i3th century; the Canon Gate
leading into the cathedral close; and the Vicars College. The
city retains a great part of its ancient walls, which have a circuit
of about a mile and a half, and, at least in part, follow the line
of Roman fortifications. The principal modern buildings,
besides churches and chapels, are the council house, corn
exchange, market house, and museum of the Chichester Literary
Society. The grammar school was founded in 1497 by Bishop
Story. There is a large cattle market, and the town has -a con-
siderable agricultural trade, with breweries and tanneries. A
canal connects with Chichester Harbour. The diocese includes
the whole county of Sussex except a few parishes, with very
small portions of Kent and Surrey. The municipal borough is
under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area,
1538 acres.

The Romano-British town on this site was perhaps Regnum
or Regni. Many inscriptions, pottery, coins, &c., have been
found, and part of the medieval walls contain a Roman cave.
An interesting inscription from this site is preserved at Goodwood.
Situated on one Roman road in direct connexion with London
and another leading from east to west, Chichester (Cissaceasler,
Cicestre) remained of considerable importance under the South
Saxon kings. In 967 King Edgar established a mint here.
Though Domesday Book speaks of one hundred and forty-two
burgages in Chichester and a charter of Henry I. mentions the
borough, the earliest extant charter is that granted by Stephen,
confirming to the burgesses their customs and rights of the
borough and gild merchant as they had them in the time of his
grandfather. This was confirmed by Henry II. Under Henry
III. the fee farm rent was £38: ios., but this was reduced by a
charter of 10 Edward II. to £36, the customs of wool, hides and
skins being reserved to the king. Edward III. directed that
the Sussex county court should be held at Chichester, and this
was confirmed in the following year. Confirmations of the
previous charters were also granted by Edward III., Richard 13.,
Henry VI., Edward IV., and Henry VII., who gave the mayor
and citizens cognizance of all kinds of pleas of assize touching
lands and hereditaments of freehold tenure. A court leet, court
of record and bailiffs' court of liberties still exist. The charters
were also confirmed by Henry VIII., Edward VI., Philip and
Mary, and Elizabeth. In 1604 the city was incorporated under
a mayor and aldermen. Since 1295, when it first returned a
member, Chichester has been regularly represented in parliament.
Throughout the middle ages Chichester was a place of great
commercial importance, Edward III. establishing a wool staple
here in 1348. Fairs were granted by Henry I. and Henry VII.
Fuller mentions the Wednesday market as being famous for
corn, while Camden speaks of that on Saturday as the greatest
for fish in the county. The markets and a fair on the zoth of
October are still held.

See Victoria County History, Sussex; Alexander Hay, History o)
Chichester (Chichester, 1804).

130

CHICKAMAUGA CREEK— CHICKEN-POX

CHICKAMAUGA CREEK, a small tributary of the Tennessee
river, which it joins near Chattanooga, Tennessee, U.S.A. It
gives its name to the great battle of Chickamauga in the American
Civil War, fought on the ip-aoth of September 1863, between
the Federal army of the Cumberland under Major-General
W. S. Rosecrans and the Confederate army under General
Braxton Bragg. For the general operations of Rosecrans' army
in 1 863 see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. A successful war of manoeuvre
had brought the army of the Cumberland from Murfreesboro
to Decherd, Tenn., and Bragg's army lay on the Tennessee at
and above Chattanooga. Rosecrans was expected by the enemy
t.o manoeuvre so as to gain touch with the Union forces in the
upper Tennessee valley, but he formed an entirely different plan
of operations. One part of the army demonstrated in front of
Chattanooga, and the main body secretly crossed the river about
Stevenson and Bridgeport (September 4th). The country was
mountainous, the roads few and poor, and the Federals had to
take full supplies of food, forage and ammunition with them,
but Rosecrans was an able commander, his troops were in good
hands, and he accepted the risks involved. These were intensified
by the want of good maps, and, in the event, at one moment the
army was placed in a position of great danger. A corps under A.
McD. McCook moved south-eastward across the ridges to Alpine,
another under Thomas marched via Trenton on McLemore's

tmtiy Wallur I

Cove. The presence of Federal masses in Lookout Valley caused
Bragg to abandon Chattanooga at once, and the object of the
manoeuvre was thus accomplished; but owing to the want of
good maps the Union army was at the same time exposed to
great danger. The head of Thomas's column was engaged at
Dug Gap, on the nth, against the flank guard of Bragg's army,
and at the time McCook was far away to the south, and Critten-
den's corps, which had occupied Chattanooga on the pth, was
also at a distance. Thomas was isolated, but Rosecrans, like
every other commander under whom he served, placed un-
bounded confidence in his tenacity, and if Bragg was wrong in
neglecting to attack him on the i4th, subsequent events went far
to disarm criticism. By the i8th of September Rosecrans had
at last collected his army on Chickamauga Creek covering Chat-
tanooga. But Bragg had now received heavy reinforcements,
and lay, concentrated for battle, on the other side of the Creek.
The terrain of the battle of Chickamauga (iQth-2oth of
September) had little influence on its course. Both armies lay
in the plain, the two lines roughly parallel. Bragg's intention
was to force his attack home on Rosecrans' left wing, thus cutting
him off from Chattanooga and throwing him back into the
mountain country whence he had come. On the igth a serious
action took place between the Confederate right and Rosecrans'
left under Thomas. On the 2oth the real battle began. The
Confederates, in accordance with Bragg's plans, pressed hard
upon Thomas, to whom Rosecrans sent reinforcements. One
of the divisions detached from the centre for this purpose was
by inadvertence taken out of the first line, and before the gap

could be filled the Confederate central attack, led by Longstreet
and Hood, the fighting generals of Lee's army, and carried out by
veteran troops from the Virginian battlefields, cut the Federal
army in two. McCook's army corps, isolated on the Federal
right, was speedily routed, and the centre shared its fate. Rose-
crans himself was swept off the field in the rout of half of his
army. But Thomas was unshaken. He re-formed the left wing
in a semicircle, and aided by a few fresh brigades from Rossville,
resisted for six hours the efforts of the whole Confederate army.
Rosecrans in the meantime was rallying the fugitives far to the
rear near Chattanooga itself. The fury of Bragg's assault spent
itself uselessly on the heroic divisions under Thomas, who
remained on the field till night and then withdrew in good order
to Rossville. Here he remained on the 2ist, imposing respect
upon the victors. On the zand Rosecrans had re-established
order, and Thomas fell back quietly to Chattanooga, whither
Bragg slowly pursued. For the subsequent events of the campaign
see CHATTANOOGA. The losses in the battle bear witness to a
severity in the fighting unusual even in the American Civil War.
Of 70,000 Confederates engaged at least 18,000 were killed and
wounded, and the Federals lost 16,000 out of about 57,000.
The battlefield has been converted into a national park, and was
used during the Spanish American War (1898) as a place of
mobilization for the U.S. volunteers.

CHICKASAWS, a tribe of North American Indians of Musk-
hogean stock, now settled in the western part of Oklahoma.
Their former range was northern Mississippi and portions of
Tennessee. According to their own tradition and the evidence
of philology, they are closely connected with the Creeks and
Choctaws; and they believe that they emigrated with these
tribes from the west, crossed the Mississippi, and settled in the
district that now forms the north-east part of the state of that
name. Here they were visited by De Soto in 1540. From the
first they were hostile to the French colonists. With the English,
on the other hand, their relations were more satisfactory. In
1786 they made a treaty with the United States; and in 1793
they assisted the whites in their operations against the Creeks.
In the early years of the igih century part of their territory
was ceded for certain annuities, and a portion of the tribe
migrated to Arkansas; and in 1832-1834, the remainder,
amounting to about 3600, surrendered to the United States the
6,442,400 acres of which they were still possessed, and entered
into a treaty with the Choctaws for incorporation with that tribe.
In 1855, however, they effected a separation of this union, with
which they had soon grown dissatisfied, and by payment to
the Choctaws of $150,000 obtained a complete right to their
present territory. In the Civil War they joined the Confederates
and suffered in consequence; but their rights were restored by
the treaty of 1865. In 1866 they surrendered 7,000,000 acres;
and in 1873 they adopted their former slaves. They had an
independent government consisting of a governor, a senate,
and a house of representatives; but tribal government virtually
ceased in 1906. TheChickasawsof pure or mixed blood numbered
4826 in 1900, and with the fully admitted " citizens," i.e. the
freed slaves and adopted whites, the whole nation amounted to
some 10,000.

See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907).

CHICKASHA, a city and the county-seat of Grady county,
Oklahoma, U. S. A., near the Washita river, about 45 m. S. S. W.
of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1900) 3209; (1907) 7862, including
1043 negroes; (1910) 10,320. Chickasha is served by the St Louis
& San Francisco, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and the
Oklahoma Central railways. It is the trade centre of a very
fertile section of the Washita Valley, whose principal products
are Indian corn, cotton, fruits and vegetables and live-stock.
The city has various manufactures, including flour, cotton-seed
oil, lumber, furniture and farm implements. Chickasha was
founded in 1892 and was chartered as a city in 1899.

CHICKEN-POX (Syn. varicella, a Low Latin diminutive of
variola), a specific contagious disease characterized by an
eruption of vesicles in the skin. The disease usually occurs in
epidemics, and is one of childhood, the patients being generally

CHICLANA— CHICORY

between two and six years old. The incubation period is from
ten to fifteen days; there are practically no prodromal symptoms,
the only indication being a slight amount of fever for some
twenty-four hours, after which the eruption makes its appearance.
A number of raised red papules appear on the trunk, either on
the back or chest; in from twelve to twenty-four hours these
develop into tense vesicles filled with a clear fluid, which in
another thirty-six hours or so becomes opalescent. During the
fourth day these vesicles dry and shrivel up, and the scabs fall
off, leaving as a rule no scar. Fresh spots appear during the first
three days, so that at the end of that time they can be seen
in all stages of growth and decay. The eruption is most marked
on the chest, but it also occurs on the face and limbs, and on the
mucous membrane of the mouth and palate. The temperature
begins to fall after the appearance of the rash, but a certain slight
amount may persist after the disappearance of all symptoms.
It rarely rises above 102 F. The disease runs a very favourable
course in the majority of cases, and after effects are rare. One
attack does not confer immunity, and hi numerous cases one
individual has had three attacks. The diet should be light,
and the patient should be prevented from scratching the spots,
which would lead to ulceration and scarring. After the first
few days there is no necessity to confine the patient to bed.
In the large majority of cases, it is easy to distinguish the disease
from smallpox, but in certain patients it is very difficult. The
chief points in the differential diagnosis are as follows, (i) In
chicken-pox the rash is distributed chiefly on the trunk, and
less on the limbs. (2) Some of the vesicles are oval, whereas in
smallpox they are always hemispherical. They are also more
superficial, and have not at the outset the hard shotty feeling
of the more virulent disease. (3) The vesicles attain their full
growth within twelve to twenty-four hours. (4) The pustules
are usually monocular. (5) There is no prodromal period.

CHICLANA, or CHICLANA DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern
Spain, in the province of Cadiz, 12 m. by rail S.E. of Cadiz.
Pop. (1900) 10,868. Chidana occupies a fertile valley, watered
by the river Lirio, and sheltered, on the north and south, by
low hills covered with vines and plantations. It faces the gulf
of Cadiz, 3 m. W., and, from its mild climate and pleasant
surroundings, is the favourite summer residence of the richer
Cadiz merchants; its hot mineral springs also attract many
visitors. In the neighbourhood are the Roman ruins of Chiclana
la Vieja, the town of Medina Sidonia (q.v.), and, about 5 m. S.,
the battlefield of Barrosa, where the British under Sir Thomas
Graham (Lord Lynedoch) defeated the French under Marshal
Victor, on the sth of March 1811.

CHICOPEE, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
situated on the E. side of the Connecticut river, at the mouth
of the Chicopee river, immediately N. of Springfield. Pop.
(1890) 14,050; (1900) 19,167, of whom 8139 were foreign-born;
(1910, census) 25,401. Chicopee is served by the Boston &
Maine railway. The city, which has an area of about 25
sq. m., contains five villages, Chicopee Center, Chicopee Falls,
Willimansett, Fairview and Aldenville. Chicopee Falls lies on
both sides of the Chicopee river, which falls some 70 ft. in less
than 3 m. and furnishes valuable power for manufactories. The
most important products are cotton goods (two large factories
having, together, about 200,000 spindles), fire-arms (especially
the Stevens rifles), tools, rubber and elastic goods, sporting
goods, swords, automobiles and agricultural implements. Here,
too, is a bronze statuary foundry, in which some of the finest
monuments, bronze doors, &c., in the country have been cast,
including the doors of the Capitol at Washington. The bronze
casting industry here was founded by Nathan Peabody Ames
(1803-1847), who was first a sword-maker and in 1836 began
the manufacture of cannon and church bells. The total value
of the city's factory product in 1905 was $7,715,653, an increase
of 43-2% in five years. There is a public library. The muni-
cipality owns and operates the water-works system and the
electric lighting plant. Chicopee was settled about 1638, was
set off from Springfield as an independent township in 1848,
and was chartered as a city in 1890. Chicopee Falls was the

home of Edward Bellamy. The name of the city is an Indian
word meaning " cedar-tree " or " birch-bark place."

CHICORY. The chicory or succory plant, Cichorium Inly bus
(natural order, Compositae), in its wild state is a native of Great
Britain, occurring most frequently in dry chalky soils, and by
road-sides. It has a long fleshy tap-root, a rigid branching hairy
stem rising to a height of 2 or 3 ft. — the leaves around the base
being lobed and toothed, not unlike those of the dandelion.
The flower heads are of a bright blue colour, few in number, and
measure nearly an inch and a half across. Chicory is cultivated
much more extensively on the continent of Europe — in Holland,
Belgium, France and Germany — than in Great Britain; and
as a cultivated plant it has three distinct applications. Its roots
roasted and ground are used as a substitute for, adulterant of,
or addition to coffee; both roots and leaves are employed as
salads; and the plant is grown as a fodder or herbage crop
which is greedily consumed by cattle. In Great Britain it is
chiefly in its first capacity, in connexion with coffee, that chicory
is employed. A large proportion of the chicory root used for
this purpose is obtained from Belgium and other neighbouring
continental countries; but a considerable quantity is cultivated
in England, chiefly in Yorkshire. For the preparation of chicory
the older stout white roots are selected, and after washing they
are sliced up into small pieces and kiln-dried. In this condition
the material is sold to the chicory roaster, by whom it is roasted
till it assumes a deep brown colour; afterwards when ground
it is in external characteristics very like coffee, but is destitute
of its pleasing aromatic odour. Neither does the roasted chicory
possess any trace of the alkaloid caffeine which giVes their
peculiar virtues to coffee and tea. The fact, however, that for
over a hundred years it has been successfully used as a sub-
stitute for or recognized addition to coffee, while in the meantime
innumerable other substances have been tried for the same pur-
pose and abandoned, indicates that it is agreeable and harmless.
It gives the coffee additional colour, bitterness and body. It is at
least in very extensive and general use; and in Belgium especi-
ally its infusion is largely drunk as an independent beverage.

The blanched leaves are much esteemed by the French as a
winter salad known by the name of Barbe de capucin. When
intended for winter use, chicory is sown in May or June, commonly
in drills, and the plants are thinned out to 4 in. apart. If at
first the leaves grow very strong, they are cut off, perhaps in
the middle of August, about an inch from the ground, so as to
promote the production of new leaves, and check the formation
of flower-stems. About the beginning of October the plants
are raised from the border, and all the large leaves cut off; the
roots are also shortened, and they are then planted pretty closely
together in boxes filled with rich light mould, and watered when
needful. When frost comes on, the boxes are protected by any
kind of litter and haulm. As the salad is wanted, they are re-
moved into some place having a moderately increased tempera-
ture, and where there is no light. Each box affords two crops
of blanched leaves, and these are reckoned fit for cutting when
about 6 in. long. Another mode of obtaining the young leaves
of this plant in winter is to sow seeds in a bed of light rich mould,
or in boxes in a heat of from 55° to 60°, giving a gentle watering
as required. The leaves will be fit to be cut in a fortnight after
sowing, and the plants will afford a second crop.

In Belgium a variety of chicory called Witloef is much pre-
ferred as a salad to the French Barbe de capucin. The seeds
are sown and the plants thinned out like those of the ordinary
sort. They are eventually planted hi light soil, in succession,
from the end of October to February, at the bottom of trenches
a foot or more in depth, and covered over with from * to 3 ft.
of hot stable manure. In a month or six weeks, according to
the heat applied, the heads are fit for use and should be cut
before they reach the manure. The plants might easily be forced
in frames on a mild hot-bed, or in a mushroom-house, in the same
way as sea-kale. In Belgium the fresh roots are boiled and eaten
with butter, and throughout the Continent the roots are stored
for use as salads during winter.

See also ENDIVE (Cichorium endivia).

132

CHIDAMBARAM— CHI-FU

CHIDAMBARAM, or CHEDUMBRUM, a town of British India,
in the South Arcot district of Madras, 7 m. from the coast and
151 m. S. of Madras by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,909. The pagodas
at Chidambaram are the oldest in the south of India, and portions
of them are gems of art. Here is supposed to have been the
northern frontier of the ancient Chola kingdom, the successive
capitals of which were Uriyur on the Cauvery, Combaconum
and Tanjore. The principal temple is sacred to Siva, and is
said to have been rebuilt or enlarged by a leper emperor, who
came south on a pilgrimage and was cured by bathing in the
temple tank; upwards of 60,000 pilgrims visit the temple every
December. It contains a " hall of a thousand pillars," one of
numerous such halls in India, the exact number of pillars in
this case being 984; each is a block of solid granite, and the
roof of the principal temple is of copper-gilt. Three hundred
of the highest-caste Brahmins live with their families within
the temple enclosure.

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput), the head or upper
part of anything, and so, in heraldry, the upper part of the
escutcheon, occupying one-third of the whole. When applied
to a leading personage, a head man or one having the highest
authority, the term chief or chieftain (Med. Lat. capitanus,
O. Fr. chevetaine) is principally confined to the leader of a clan or
tribe. The phrase " in chief " (Med. Lat. in capite) is used in
feudal law of the tenant who holds his fief direct from the lord
paramount (see FEUDALISM).

CHIEMSEE, also called BAYRISCHES MEER, the largest lake in
Bavaria, lying on a high plateau 1600 ft. above the sea, between
the rivers Inn (to which it drains through the Alz) and Salzach.
With a length of 6 and a breadth of 9 m., it has an area of about
33 sq. m., and contains three islands, Herrenworth, Frauenworth
and Krautinsel. The first, which has a circumference of 6j m.
and is beautifully wooded, is remarkable for the romantic castle
which Louis II. of Bavaria erected here. It was the seat of a
bishop from 1215 to 1805, and until 1803 contained a Benedictine
monastery. The shores of the lake are flat on the north and south
sides, but its other banks are flanked by undulating hills, which
command beautiful and extensive views. The waters are clear
and it is well stocked with trout and carp; but the fishing rights
are strictly preserved. Steamers ply on the lake, and the railway
from Rosenheim to Salzburg skirts the southern shores.

CHIENG MAI, the capital of the Lao state of the same name
and of the provincial division of Siam called Bayap, situated in
99° o' E., 18° 46' N. The town, enclosed by massive but decaying
walls, lies on the right bank of the river Me Ping, one of the
branches of the Me Nam, in a plain 800 ft. above sea-level,
surrounded by high, wooded mountains. It has streets intersect-
ing at right angles, and an enceinte within which is the palace
of the Chao, or hereditary chief. The east and west banks of the
river are connected by a fine teak bridge. The American Presby-
terian Mission, established here in 1867, has a large number of
converts and has done much good educational work. Chieng
Mai, which the Burmese have corrupted into Zimme, by which
name it is known to many Europeans, has long been an important
trade centre, resorted to by Chinese merchants from the north
and east, and by Burmese, Shans and Siamese from the west and
south. It is, moreover, the centre of the teak trade of Siam, in
which many Burmese and several Chinese and European firms
are engaged. The total value of the import and export trade
of the Bayap division amounts to about £2,500,000 a year. The
Siamese high commissioner of Bayap division has his head-
quarters in Chieng Mai, and though the hereditary chief continues
as the nominal ruler, as is also the case in the other Lao states
of Nan, Pre, Lampun, Napawn Lampang and Tern, which make
up the division, the government is entirely in the hands of that
official and his staff. The government forest department,
founded in 1896, has done good work in the division, and the
conservator of forests has his headquarters in Chieng Mai.
The headquarters of an army division are also situated here.
A British consul resides at Chieng Mai, where, in addition to the
ordinary law courts, there is an international court having
jurisdiction in all cases in which British subjects are parties.

The population, about 20,000, consists mainly of Laos,with many
Shans, a few Burmese, Chinese and Siamese and some fifty
Europeans. Hill tribes (Ka) inhabit the neighbouring mountains
in large numbers.

Chieng Mai was formerly the capital of a united Lao kingdom,
which, at one time independent, afterwards subject to Burma
and then to Siam, and later broken up into a number of states, has
finally become a provincial division of Siam. In 1902 a rising
of discontented Shans took place in Bayap which at one time
seemed serious, several towns being attacked and Chieng Mai
itself threatened. The disturbance was quelled and the malcon-
tents eventually hunted out, but not without losses which in-
cluded the commissioner of Pre and a European officer of
gendarmerie.

CHIERI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the
province of Turin, 13 m. S.E. by rail and 8 m. by road from the
town of Turin. Pop. (1901) 11,929 (town), 13,803 (commune).
Its Gothic cathedral, founded in 1037 and reconstructed in 1405,
is the largest in Piedmont, and has a i3th century octagonal
baptistery. Chieri was subject to the bishop of Turin in the gth
and loth centuries, it became independent in the nth century.
In 1347 it submitted voluntarily to Count Amedeus VI. of Savoy
to save itself from the marquis of Monferrato, and finally came
under the dominion of Savoy in the i6th century. In 1785 it
was made into a principality of the duke of Aosta. It was an
early centre of trade and manufacture; and hi the middle of
the isth century produced about 100,000 pieces of cotton
goods per annum.

See L. Cibrario, Delle storie di Chieri (Turin, 1855),

CHIETI, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province
of Chieti, and the seat of an archbishop, 140 m. E.N.E. of Rome
by rail, and 9 m. W. of Castellammare Adriatico. Pop. (1901)
26,368. It is situated at a height of 1083 ft. above sea-level,
3 m. from the railway station, from which it is reached by an
electric tramway. It commands a splendid view of the Apennines
on every side except the east, where the Adriatic is seen. It is
an active modern town, upon the site of the ancient Teate
Marrucinorum (<?.».), with woollen and cotton manufactories
and other smaller industries. The origin of the see of Chieti dates
from the 4th century, S. Justinus being the first bishop. The
cathedral has been spoilt by restoration, and the decoration of
the exterior is incomplete; the Gothic campanile of 1335 is,
however, fine. The cathedral possesses two illuminated missals.
Close by is the town hall, which contains a small picture gallery,
in which, in 1905, was held an important exhibition of ancient
Abruzzese art. The de Laurentiis family possesses a private
collection of some importance. To the north of Chieti is the
octagonal church of S. Maria del Tricaglio, erected hi 1317, which
is said (without reason) to stand upon the site of a temple of
Diana. The order of the Theatines, founded in 1524, takes its
name from the city. Under the Lombards Chieti formed part
of the duchy of Benevento; it was destroyed by Pippin in 801,
but was soon rebuilt and became the seat of a count. The
Normans made it the capital of the Abruzzi.

CHI-FU, CHEFOO, or YEN-T'AI (as it is called by the natives),
a seaport of northern China, on the southern coast of the Gulf
of Chih-li, in the province of Shan-tung, near the mouth of the
Yi-ho, about 30 m. E. of the city of Teng-chow-fu. It was
formerly quite a small place, and had only the rank of an un-
walled village; but it was chosen as the port of Teng-chow, opened
to foreign trade in 1858 by the treaty of Tientsin, and it is now
the residence of a Tao-t'ai, or intendant of circuit, the centre of
a gradually increasing commerce, and the seat of a British
consulate, a Chinese custom-house, and a considerable foreign
settlement. The native town is yearly extending, and though
most of the inhabitants are small shop-keepers and coolies of the
lowest class, the houses are for the most part well and solidly
built of stone. The foreign settlement occupies a position
between the native town and the sea, which neither affords a
convenient access for shipping nor allows space for any great
extension of area. Its growth, however, has hitherto been
steady and rapid. Various streets have been laid out, a large

CHIGI-ALBANI— CHIHUAHUA

133

MJJ-

S

hotel erected for the reception of the visitors who resort to the
place as a sanatorium in summer, and the religious wants of the
community are supplied by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant
church. Though the harbour is deep and extensive, and possessed
of excellent anchorage, large vessels have to be moored at a
considerable distance from the shore. Chi-fu has continued to
show fair progress as a place of trade, but the total volume is
inconsiderable, having regard to the area it supplies. In 1880
the total exports and imports were valued at £2,724,000, in
1899 they amounted to £4,228,000, and in 1904 to £4,909,908.
In 1895 there entered the port 905 vessels representing a tonnage

835,248 tons, while in 1905 the number of vessels had risen to
2, representing a tonnage of 1,492,514 tons. The imports
mainly woollen and cotton goods, iron and opium, and the
exports include bean cake, bean oil, peas, raw silk, straw-braid,
jiuts, a coarse kind of vermicelli, vegetables and dried fruits.

immunication with the interior is only by roads, which are
extremely defective, and nearly all the traffic is by pack animals.
From its healthy situation and tLe convenience of its anchorage,
Chi-fu has become a favourite rendezvous for the fleets of the
European powers in Chinese waters, and consequently it has
at times been an important coaling station. It lies in close
imity to Korea, Port Arthur and Wei-hai-Wei, and it
,red to some extent in the excitement to which the military

d naval operations in these quarters gave rise. The Chi-fu
mention was signed here in 1876 by Sir Thomas Wade and

i-Hung-Chang.

CHIGI-ALBANI, the name of a Roman princely family of
iienese extraction descended from the counts of Ardenghesca.
The earliest authentic mention of them is in the i3th century,
and they first became famous in the person of Agostino Chigi
(d. 1520), an immensely rich banker who built the palace and
gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by
Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments;
Pope Julius II. made him practically his finance minister and
gave him the privilege cf quartering his own (Delia Rovere)
arms with those of the Chigi. Fabio Chigi, on being made pope
(Alexander VII.) in 1655, conferred the Roman patriciate on his
family, and created his nephew Agostino prince of Farnese and
duke of Ariccia, and the emperor Leopold I. created the latter
Reichsftirst (prince of the Holy Roman Empire) in 1659. In
1712 the family received the dignity of hereditary marshals of
the Church and guardians of the conclaves, which gave them a
very great importance on the death of every pope. On the
marriage in 1735 of another Agostino Chigi (1710-1769) with
Giulia Albani, heiress of the Albani, a Venetian patrician family,
said to be of Albanian origin, her name was added to that of Chigi.
family owns large estates at Siena.

See A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, vol. iii. (Berlin,
i) ; Almanack de Gotha.

CHIGWELL, a parish and residential district in the Epping
parliamentary division of Essex, England; with stations
(Chigwell Lane and Chigwell) on two branches of the Great
Eastern railway, 12 m. N.E. from London. Pop. (1901) 2508.
The old village church of St Mary, principally Perpendicular,
has a Norman south door. The village lies in a branch of the
Roding valley, fragments of Hainault Forest lying to the south
and east, bordering the village of Chigwell Row. The village of
Chigwell appears in the Domesday survey. The pleasant scenery
of the neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers both of
itors and of residents from London, is described in Dickens's
ivel, Barnaby Rudge, and the King's Head Inn, Dickens's
Maypole," still stands. The old grammar school, founded by
iuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (d. 1631), whose fine
l brass is in St Mary's church, has become one of the
,or modern institutions of the English public school type,
illiam Penn attended school at Chigwell from his home at
'anstead.

CHIH-LI ("Direct Rule"), the metropolitan province of
" ina, in which is situated Peking, the capital of the empire,
contains eleven prefectural cities, and occupies an area of
,950 sq. m. The population is 29,400,000, the vast majority

of whom are resident in the plain country. This province forms
part of the great delta plain of China proper, 20,000 sq. m. of
which are within the provincial boundaries; the remainder of
the territory consists of the mountain ranges which define its
northern and western frontier. The plain of Chih-li is formed
principally by detritus deposited by the Pei-ho and its tributary
the Hun-ho (" muddy river "), otherwise known as the Yung-
ting-ko, and other streams having their sources in mountains of
Shan-si and other ranges. It is bounded E. by the Gulf of
Chih-li and Shan-tung, and S. by Shan-tung and Ho-nan. The
proportion of Mahommedans among the population is very
large. In Peking there are said to be as many as 20,000 Mahom-
medan families, and in Pao-ting Fu, the capital of the province,
there are about 1000 followers of the prophet. The extremes of
heat and cold in Chih-li are very marked. During the months of
December, January and February the rivers are frozen up, and
even the Gulf of Chih-li is fringed with a broad border of ice.
There are four rivers of some importance in the province: the
Pei-ho, with the-Hun-ho, which rises in the mountains in Mongolia
and, flowing to the west of Peking, forms a junction with the
Pei-ho at Tientsin; the Shang-si-ho, which rises in the mountains
on the north of the province of Shan-si, and takes a south-easterly
course as far as the neighbourhood of Ki Chow, from which point
it trends north-east and eventually joines the Hun-ho some ism.
above Tientsin; the Pu-to-ho, which rises in Shan-si, and after
running a parallel course to Shang-si-ho on the south, empties
itself in the same way into the Hun-ho; and the Lan-ho, which
rises in Mongolia, enters the province on the north-east after
passing to the west of Jehol, passes the city of Yung-'p'ing Fu
in its course (which is south-easterly) through Chih-li, and from
thence winds its way to the north-eastern boundary of the Gulf
of Chih-li. The province contains three lakes of considerable
size. The largest is the Ta-lu-tsze Hu, which lies in 37° 40' N.
and 115° 20' E.; the second in importance is one which is
situated to the east of Pao-ting Fu; and the third is the Tu-
lu-tsze Hu, which lies east by north of Shun-te Fu. Four high
roads radiate from Peking, one leading to Urga by way of
Siian-hwa Fu, which passes through the Great Wall at Chang-kiu
K'ow; another, which enters Mongolia through the Ku-pei K'ow
to the north-east, and after continuing that course as far as
Fung-ning turns in a north-westerly direction to Dolonnor; a
third striking due east by way of T'ung-chow and Yung-p'ing Fu
to Shan-hai Kwan, the point where the Great Wall terminates
on the coast; and a fourth which trends in a south-westerly-
direction to Pao-ting Fu and on to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si.
The mountain ranges to the north of the province abound with
coal, notably at Chai-tang, T'ai-gan-shan, Miao-gan-ling, and
Fu-tao in the Si-shan or Western Hills. " At Chai-tang," wrote
Baron von Richthofen, " I was surprised to walk over a regular
succession of coal-bearing strata, the thickness of which, estimat-
ing it step by step as I proceeded gradually from the lowest to
the highest strata, exceeds 7000 ft." The coal here is anthracite,
as is also that at T'ai-gan-shan, where are found beds of greater
value than any in the neighbourhood of Peking. In Suan-hwa
Fu coal is also found, but not in such quantities as in the places
above named. Iron and silver also exist in small quantities in
different parts of the province, and hot and warm springs are
very common at the foot of the hills along the northern and
western edges of the province. The principal agricultural pro-
ducts are wheat, kao-liang, oats, millet, maize, pulse and
potatoes. Fruits and vegetables are also grown in large
quantities. Of the former the chief kinds are pears, apples,
plums, apricots, peaches, persimmons and melons. Tientsin is
the Treaty Port of the province.

CHIHUAHUA, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded
N. and N.E. by the United States (New Mexico and Texas),
E. by Coahuila, S. by Durango, and W. by Sinaloa and Sonora.
Pop. (1895) 260,008; (1900) 327,784. Area, 87,802 sq. m.
The surface of the state is in great part an elevated plateau,
sloping gently toward the Rio Grande. The western side, how-
ever, is much broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which
form elevated valleys of great fertility. An arid sandy plain

134

CHIHUAHUA— CHILD, SIR F.

extending from the Rio Grande inland for 300 to 350 m. is quite
destitute of vegetation where irrigation is not used. There is
little rainfall in this region and the climate is hot and dry. The
more elevated plateaus and valleys have the heavier rainfall,
but the average for the state is barely 39 in.; an impermeable
clay substratum prevents its absorption by the soil, and the
bare surface carries it off in torrents. The great Bolson de
Mapimf depression, in the S.E. part of the state, was once
considered to be an unreclaimable desert, but experiments with
irrigation have shown its soil to be highly fertile, and the con-
version of the narrow valleys of the sierras on the west into
irrigation reservoirs promises to reclaim a considerable part of
its area. The only river of consequence is the Conchos, which
flows north and north-east into the Rio Grande across the whole
length of the state. In the north there are several small streams
flowing northward into lakes. Agriculture has made little
progress in Chihuahua, and the scarcity of water will always
be a serious obstacle to its development outside the districts
where irrigation is practicable. The climate and soil are favour-
able to the production of wheat, Indian corn, beans, indigo,
cotton and grapes, from which wine and brandy are made.
The principal grape-producing district is in the vicinity of
Ciudad Juarez. Stock-raising is an important industry in the
mountainous districts of the west, where there is excellent
pasturage for the greate.r part of the year. The principal in-
dustry of the state, however, is mining — its mineral resources
including gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead and coal. The
silver mines of Chihuahua are among the richest in Mexico, and
include the famous mining districts of Batopilas, Chihuahuilla,
Cosihuiriachic, Jesus Maria, Parral, and Santa Eulalia or
Chihuahua el Viejo. There are more than one hundred of these
mines, and the total annual yield at the end of the igth century
was estimated at $4,500,000. The state is traversed from
north to south by the Mexican Central railway, and there are
short branches to some of the mining districts.

Chihuahua originally formed part of the province of Nueva
Viscaya, with Durango as the capital. In 1777 the northern
provinces, known as the Provincias Internas, were separated
from the viceroyalty, and in 1786 the provinces were reorganized
as intendencias, but Chihuahua was not separated from Durango
until 1823. An effort was made to overthrow Spanish authority
in 1810, but its leader Hidalgo and two of his lieutenants were
captured and executed, after which the province remained
passive until the end of the struggle. The people of the state
have been active partizans in most of the revolutionary outbreaks
in Mexico, and in the war of 1862-66 Chihuahua was loyal to
Juarez. The principal towns are the capital Chihuahua, El
Parral, 120 m. S.S.E. of the state capital, in a rich mining district
(pop. 14,748 in 1900), Ciudad Juarez and Jimenez, 120 m. S.E.
of Chihuahua (pop. 5881 in 1900).

CHIHUAHUA, a city of Mexico, capital of the above state,
on the Chihuahua river, about 1000 m. N.W. of Mexico City
and 225 m. S. by E. of El Paso. Pop. (1895) 18,279; (1900)
30,405. The city stands in a beautiful valley opening northward
and hemmed in on all other sides by spurs of the Sierra Madre.
It is 4635 ft. above sea-level, and its climate is mild and healthy.
The city is laid out regularly, with broad streets, and a handsome
plaza with a monument to Hidalgo and his companions of the
revolution of 1810, who were executed here. The most note-
worthy of its public buildings is the fine old parish church of
San Francisco, begun in 1717 and completed in 1789, one of the
best specimens of 18th-century architecture in Mexico. It was
built, it is said, with the proceeds of a small tax on the output of
the Santa Eulalia mine. Other prominent buildings are the
government palace, the Porfirio Diaz hospital, the old Jesuit
College (now occupied by a modern institution of the same
character), the mint, and an aqueduct built in the i8th century.
Chihuahua is a station on the Mexican Central railway, and has
tramways and telephones. Mining is the principal occupation
of the surrounding district, the famous Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua
el Viejo mines being about 12 m. from the city. Next in im-
portance is agriculture, especially fruit-growing. Manufacturing

is making good progress, especially the weaving of cotton fabrics
by modern methods. The manufacture of cotton and woollen
goods are old industries in Chihuahua, but the introduction of
American skill and capital toward the end of the igih century
placed them on an entirely new footing. The manufacture
of gunpowder for mining operations is another old industry.

Chihuahua was founded between 1703 and 1705 as a mining
town, and was made a villa in 1715 with the title San Felipe el
Real de Chihuahua. Because of the rich mines in its vicinity
it soon became one of the most prosperous towns in northern
Mexico, although the state was constantly raided by hostile
Indians. In 1763 it had a population of nearly 5000. The war
of independence was followed by a period of decline, owing to
political disorder and revolution, which lasted until the presidency
of General Porfirio Diaz. In the war between Mexico and the
United States, Chihuahua was captured on the ist of March
1847, by Colonel A. W. Doniphan, and again on the 7th of March
by General Price. In 1864 President Juarez made the city his
provisional capital for a short time.

CHILAS, a hill village in the North-West Frontier Province
of India. It is dominated by a fort on the left bank of the
Indus, about 50 m. below Bunji, 4100 ft. above sea-level. It
was occupied by a British force early in 1893, when a determined
attack was made on the place by the Kohistanis from the Indus
valley districts to the south-west, aided by contingents from
Darel and Tangir west of Gilgit and north of the Indus. Its
importance consists in its position with reference to the Kashmir-
Gilgit route via Astor, which it flanks. It is now connected with
Bunji by a metalled road. Chilas is also important from its
command of a much shorter and more direct route to Gilgit
from the Punjab frontier than that of Kashmir and the Burzil
pass. By the Kashmir route Gilgit is 400 m. from the rail-head
at Rawalpindi. The Kagan route would bring it 100 m. nearer,
but the unsettled condition of the country through which the
road passes has been a bar to its general use.

CHILBLAINS (or KIBE; Erythema pernio), a mild form of
frostbite, affecting the fingers or toes and other parts, and causing
a painful inflammatory swelling, with redness and itching of
the affected part. The chief points to be noticed in its aetiology
are (i) that the lesions occur in the extremities of the circulation,
and (2) that they are usually started by rapid changes from
heat to cold or vice versa. The treatment is both general and
local. In the general treatment, if a history of blanching fingers
(fingers or hands going " dead ") can be obtained, the chilblains
may be regarded as mild cases of Raynaud's disease, and these
improve markedly under a course of nitrites. Cardiac tonics are
often helpful, especially in those cases where there is some
attendant lesion of the heart. But the majority of cases improve
wonderfully on a good course of a calcium salt, e.g. calcium
lactate or chloride; fifteen grains three times a day will answer
in most cases. The patient should wash in soft tepid water, and
avoid extremes of heat and cold. In the local treatment, two
drugs are of great value in the early congestive stage — ichthyol
and formalin. Ichthyol, 10 to 20% in lanoline spread on linen
and worn at night, often dispels an attack at the beginning.
Formalin is equally efficacious, but requires more skill in its use.
It can be used as an ointment, 10 to 50% for delicate skins, stronger
for coarser skins. It should be replaced occasionally by lanoline.
If the stage of ulceration has been reached, a paste made from
the following prescription, spread thickly on linen and frequently
changed, soon cures: — Hydrarg. ammoniat. gr. v., ichthyol
1Ux, pulveris zinci oxidi 3iv. vaseline 5ss.

CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713), English banker, was a
Wiltshire man, who, having been apprenticed to a goldsmith,
became himself a London goldsmith in 1664. In 1671 he married
Elizabeth (d. 1720), daughter of another goldsmith named
William Wheeler (d. 1663), and with his wife's stepfather,
Robert Blanchard (d. 1681), took over about the same time the
business of goldsmiths hitherto carried on by the Wheelers.
This was the beginning of Child's Bank. Child soon gave up
the business of a goldsmith and confined himself to that of a
banker. He inherited some wealth and was very successful in

CHILD, F. J.— CHILD, L. M.

135

3

business; he was jeweller to the king, and lent considerable
sums of money to the government. Being a freeman of the city
of London, Child was elected a member of the court of common
council in 1681; in 1689 he became an alderman, and in the
same year a knight. He served as sheriff of London in 1691
and as lord mayor in 1699. His parliamentary career began
about this time. In 1698 he was chosen member of parliament
for Devizes and in 1702 for the city of London, and was again
returned for Devizes in 1705 and 1710. He died on the 4th of
October 1713, and was buried in Fulham churchyard. Sir
Francis, who was a benefactor to Christ's hospital, bought
Osterley Park, near Isleworth, now the residence of his descendant
the earl of Jersey.

Child had twelve sons. One, Sir Robert, an alderman, died
1721. Another, Sir Francis (c. 1684-1740), was lord mayor
London in 1732, and a director of the East India Company.
He was chosen member of parliament for the city of London in
1722, and was member for Middlesex from 1727 until his death.
After the death of the younger Sir Francis at Fulham on the
of April 1740 the banking business passed to his brother
;uel, and the bank is still owned by his descendants, the
incipal proprietor being the earl of Jersey. Child's Bank was
first conducted at the Marygold, next Temple Bar in Fleet
:t, London; and the present bank occupies the site formerly
rered by the Marygold and the adjacent Devil tavern.
CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896), American scholar and
lucationist, was born in Boston on the ist of February 1825.
He graduated at Harvard in 1846, taking the highest rank in his
class in all subjects; was tutor in mathematics in 1846-1848;
and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in history, political
economy and English. After two years of study in Europe, in
1851 he succeeded Edward T. Channing as Boylston professor
of rhetoric, oratory and elocution. Child studied the English
drama (having edited Four Old Plays in 1848) and Germanic
philology, the latter at Berlin and Gottingen during a leave of
absence, 1849-1853; and he took general editorial supervision
of a large collection of the British poets, published in Boston in
1853 and following years. He edited Spenser (5 vols., Boston,
1855), and at one time planned an edition of Chaucer, but con-
tented himself with a treatise, in the Memoirs of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences for 1863, entitled " Observations
on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales," which did
much to establish Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation and
scansion as now generally understood. His largest undertaking,
however, grew out of an original collection, in his British Poets
series, of English and Scottish Ballads, selected and edited by
himself, in eight small volumes (Boston, 1857-1858). Thence-
forward the leisure of his life — much increased by his transfer,
in 1876, to the new professorship of English — was devoted to
the comparative study of British vernacular ballads. He ac-
cumulated, in the university library, one of the largest folklore
collections in existence, studied manuscript rather than printed
sources, and carried his investigations into the ballads of all
other tongues, meanwhile giving a sedulous but conservative
hearing to popular versions still surviving. At last his final
collection was published as The English and Scottish Popular
'ads, at first in ten parts (1882-1898), and then in five quarto
.umes, which remain the authoritative treasury of their
ibject. Professor Child worked — and overworked — to the last,
in Boston on the nth of September 1896, having com-
ted his task save for a general introduction and bibliography,
sympathetic biographical sketch was prefixed to the work by

pupil and successor George L. Kittredge.
CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690), governor of Bombay, and in fact
not in name the first governor-general of the British settlements
India, was born in London. He was sent as a little boy to his
;cle, the chief of the factory at Rajapur; and in 1682 was
inted chief of the East India Company's affairs at Surat
id Bombay, while at the same time his brother, Sir Josiah
!d (q.v.), was governor of the company at home. The two
thers showed themselves strong men and guided the affairs
of the company through the period of struggle between the

Moguls and Mahrattas. They have been credited by history
with the change from unarmed to armed trade on the part of the
company; but as a matter of fact both of them were loth to
quarrel with the Mogul. War broke out with Aurangzeb in 1689,
but in the following year Child had to sue for peace, one of the
conditions being that he should be expelled from India. He
escaped this expulsion by his death in 1690.

CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (1630-1699), English merchant,
economist and governor of the East India Company, was born in
London in 1630, the second son of Richard Child, a London
merchant of old family. After serving his apprenticeship in
the business, to which he succeeded, he started on his own account
at Portsmouth, as victualler to the navy under the Common-
wealth, when about twenty-five. He amassed a comfortable
fortune, and became a considerable stock-holder in the East India
Company, his interest in India being accentuated by the fact
that his brother John (q.v.) was making his career there. He
was returned to parliament in 1659 for Petersfield; and in later
years sat for Dartmouth (1673-1678) and for Ludlow (1685-
1687). He was made a baronet in 1678. His advocacy, both by
speech and by pen, under the pseudonym of Philopatris, of the
East India Company's claims to political power, as well as to
the right of restricting competition with its trade, brought him
to the notice of the shareholders, and he became a director in
1677, and, subsequently, deputy-governor and governor. In
this latter capacity he was for a considerable time virtually the
sole ruler of the company, and directed its policy as if it were his
own private business. He and his brother have been credited
with the change from unarmed to armed traffic; but the actual
renunciation of the Roe doctrine of unarmed traffic by the
company was resolved upon in January 1686, under Governor
Sir Joseph Ash, when Child was temporarily out of office. He
died on the 22nd of June 1699. Child made several important
contributions to the literature of economics; especially Brief
Observations concerning Trade and the Interest of Money (1668),
and A New Discourse of Trade (1668 and 1690). He was a
moderate in those days of the " mercantile system," and has
sometimes been regarded as a sort of pioneer in the development
of the free-trade doctrines of the i8th century. He made various
proposals for improving British trade by following Dutch ex-
ample, and advocated a low rate of interest as the " causa causans
of all the other causes of the riches of the Dutch people." This
low rate of interest he thought should be created and maintained
by public authority. Child, whilst adhering to the doctrine of
the balance of trade, observed that a people cannot always sell
to foreigners without ever buying from them, and denied that
the export of the precious metals was necessarily detrimental.
He had the mercantilist partiality for a numerous population,
and became prominent with a new scheme for the relief and
employment of the poor; it is noteworthy also that he advocated
the reservation by the mother country of the sole right of trade
with her colonies. Sir Josiah Child's eldest son, Richard, was
created Viscount Castlemain in 1718 and earl of Tylney in 1731.

~" See also Macaulay, History of England, vol. iv. ; R. Grant, Sketch
of the History of the East India Company (1813); D. Macpherson,
Annals of Commerce (1805); B. Willson, Ledger and Sword (1903).

(T.A.f.)

CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880), American author, was
born at Medford, Massachusetts, on the nth of February 1802.
She was educated at an academy in her native town and by her
brother Convers Francis (1795-1863), a Unitarian minister and
from 1842 to 1863 Parkman professor in the Harvard Divinity
School. Her first stories, Hobomok (1824) and The Rebels (1825),
were popular successes. She was a schoolmistress until 1828,
when she married David Lee Child (1794-1874), a brilliant but
erratic Boston lawyer and journalist. From 1826 to 1834 she
edited The Juvenile Miscellany, the first children's monthly
periodical in the United States. About 1831 both she and her
husband began to identify themselves with the anti-slavery
cause, and in 1833 she published An Appeal for that Class of
Americans called Africans, a stirring portrayal of the evils of
slavery, and an argument for immediate abolition, which had

136

CHILD

a powerful influence in winning recruits to the anti-slavery cause.
Henceforth her time was largely devoted to the anti-slavery
cause. From 1840 to 1844, assisted by her husband, she edited
the A nti-Slavery Standard in New York City. After the Civil War
she wrote much in behalf of the freedmen and of Indian rights.
She died at Wayland, Massachusetts, on the zoth of October
1880. In addition to the books above mentioned, she wrote many
pamphlets and short stories and The (American) Frugal House-
wife (1829), one of the earliest American books on domestic
economy, The Mother's Book (1831), a pioneer cook-book
republished in England and Germany, The Girls' Own Book
(1831), History of Women (2 vols., 1832), Good Wives (1833),
The Anti-Slavery Catechism (1836), PhUothea (1836), a romance
of the age of Pericles, perhaps her best book, Letters from New
York (2 vols., 1843-1845), Fact and Fiction (1847), The Power
of Kindness (1851), Isaac T. Hopper: a True Life (1853), 1 he
Progress of Religious Ideas through Successive Ages (3 vols., 1855),
Autumnal Leaves (1857), Looking Toward Sunset (1864), The
Freedman's Book (1865), A Romance of the Republic (1867),
and Aspirations of the World (1878).

See The Letters of Lydia Maria Child, with a Biographical Intro-
duction by J. G. Whittier (Boston, 1883) ; and a chapter in T. W.
Higginson's Contemporaries (Boston, 1899).

CHILD, the common term for the offspring of human beings,
generally below the age of puberty; the term is the correlative
of " parent, ' ' and applies to either sex, though some early dialecti-
cal uses point to a certain restriction to a girl. The word is
derived from the A.S. cild, an old Teutonic word found in English
only, in other Teutonic languages kind and its variants being used,
usually derived from the Indo-European root ken, seen in Gr.
ybm, Lat. genus, and Eng. " kin "; cild has been held to be a
modification of the same root, but the true root is kilth, seen
in Goth. kUthei, womb, an origin which appears in the expressions
"child-birth," "to be with child," and the like; the plural
in A.S. was cild, and later cildru, which in northern M.E. became
childre or childer, a form dialectically extant, and in southern
English childeren or children (with the plural termination -en,
as in " brethren "). There are several particular uses of " child "
in the English version of the Bible, as of a ycung man in the
" Song of the three holy children," of descendants or members
of a race, as in " children of Abraham," and also to express
origin, giving a description of character, as " children of dark-
ness." During the I3th and I4th centuries " child " was used,
in a sense almost amounting to a title of dignity, of a young man
of noble birth, probably preparing for knighthood. In the
York Mysteries of about 1440 (quoted in the New English
Dictionary) occurs "be he churl or child," obviously referring
to gentle birth, cf. William Bellenden's translation (1553) of
Livy (ii. 124) " than was in Rome ane nobill childe . . . namit
Caius Mucius." The spelling " childe " is frequent in modern
usage to indicate its archaic meaning. Familiar instances are
in the line of an old ballad quoted in King Lear, " childe Roland
to the dark tower came," and in Byron's Childe Harold. With
this use may be compared the Spanish and Portuguese Infante
and Infanta, and the early French use of Valet (?.».)•

Child-study. — The physical, psychological and educational
development of children, from birth till adulthood, has provided
material in recent years for what has come to be regarded as
almost a distinct part of comparative anthropological or socio-
logical science, and the literature of adolescence (q.v.) and of
" child-study " in its various
aspects has attained consider-
able proportions. In England
the British Child Study
Association was founded in
1894, its official organ being
the Paidologist, while similar
work is done by the Childhood
Society, and, to a certain
extent, by the Parents'
National Educational Union
(which issues the Parents'

Review). In America, where specially valuable work has
been done, several universities have encouraged the study
(notably Chicago, while under the auspices of Professor John
Dewey); and Professor G. Stanley Hall's initiative has
led to elaborate inquiries, the principal periodical for the move-
ment being the Pedagogical Seminary. The impetus to this
study of the child's mind and capacities was given by the classic
work of educationists like J. A. Comenius, J. H. Pestalozzi, and
F. W. A. Froebel, but more recent writers have carried it
much further, notably W. T. Preyer (The Mind of the Child, 1881),
whose psychological studies stamp him as one of the chief
pioneers in new methods of investigation. Other authorities of
first-rate importance (their chief works only being given here)
are J. Sully (Studies of Childhood, 1896), Earl Barnes (Studies in
Education, 1896, 1902), J. M. Baldwin (Mental Development in the
Child and the Race, 1895), Sigismund (Kind und Welt, 1897),
A. F. Chamberlain (TheChild, 1900), G.Stanley Hall (Adolescence,
1904; he had from 1882 been the leader in America of such
investigations), H. Holman and R. Langdon Down (Practical
Child Stu/Iy, 1899), E. A. Kirkpa trick (Fundamentals of Child-
study, 1903), and Prof. Tracy of Toronto (Psychology of Childhood,
5th ed., 1901); while among a number of contributions worth
particular attention may be mentioned W. B. Drummond's
excellent summary, Introduction to Child Study (1907), which deals
succinctly with methods and results; Irving King's Psychology
of Child Development (1906, useful for its bibliography); Prof.
David R.' Major's First Steps in Mental Growth (1906); and
Miss M. Shinn's Notes on the Development of a Child (1893) and
Mrs Louise E. Hogan's Study of a Child (1898), which are note-
worthy among individual and methodical accounts of what
children will do. In such books as those cited a great deal of
important material has been collected and analysed, and a
number of conclusions suggested which bear both on psychology
and the science of education; but it must be borne in mind,
as regards a great deal of the voluminous literature of the subject,
that it is often more pertinent to general psychology and
hygiene than to any special conclusions as to the essential nature
of a child — whatever " a child " generically may be as the special
object of a special science. The child, after all, is in a transition
stage to an adult, and there is often a tendency in modern " child
students " to'interpret the phenomena exhibited by a particular
child with a parti pris, or to exaggerate child-study — which is
really interesting as providing the knowledge of growth towards
full human equipment — as though it involved the discovery of
some distinct form of animal, of separate value on its own account.
Growth. — Into the psychical characteristics and development
of the child and all the interesting educational problems involved
it is impossible to enter here, and reference must be made to the
works cited above. But a knowledge of the more important
features of normal physical development has a constant import-
ance. Some of these, as matters of comparative physiology or
pathology, are dealt with in other articles in this work. One of
these chief matters of interest is weight and height, and this is
naturally affected by race, nutrition and environment. But
while the standard in different countries somewhat differs, the
British average for healthy children may here be followed.
At birth the average weight of a baby is a little over 7 Ib and the
length about 20 in. The following are the averages for weight
and height, taking the age in years of the child at the last
birthday: —

Height, in inches.

Age.

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

ii

12

13

14

15

Girls .
Boys .

28-7
29

32-5
32-5

35

35

38
38

4°'5
41

42-8
44

44-5
46

46-6
47

48-7
49

5i
51-8

53-1
53-5

55-6
55

57-7
57

59-8
59'3

60-9
62

Weight, in pounds.

Age.

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

ii

12

13

14

IS

Girls . .
Boys .

19-8
20-5

25-5

26-5

30
31-2

34
35

39-2
41-2

41-7
44.4

47-5
49-7

52-1
54-9

55-5
60-4

62
67-5

68
72

76-4
76-7

87-2
82-6

96-7
92

102-7
106

CHILDEBERT— CHILDERS, H. C. E.

137

See also CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; CHILDREN'S COURTS;
CHILDREN'S GAMES; INFANT; &c.

CHILDEBERT, the name of three Prankish kings.

CHILDEBERT I. (d. 558) was one of the four sons of Clovis.
In the partition of his father's realm in 511 he received as his
share the town of Paris, and the country to the north as far as
the river Somme, and to the west as far as the English Channel,
with the Armorican peninsula. In 524, after the murder of
Chlodomer's children, Childebert annexed the cities of Chartres
and Orleans. He took part in the various expeditions against
the kingdom of Burgundy, and in 534 received as his share
of the spoils of that kingdom the towns of Macon, Geneva and
Lyons. When Vitiges, the king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence
to the Franks in 535, the possession of Aries and Marseilles was
guaranteed to Childebert by his brothers. Childebert also made
a series of expeditions against the Visigoths of Spain; in 542 he
took possession of Pampeluna with the help of his brother
Clotaire I., and besieged Saragossa, but was forced to retreat.
From this expedition he brought back to Paris a precious relic,
the tunic of St Vincent, in honour of which he built at the gates
of Paris the famous monastery of St Vincent, known later as St
Germain-des-Pres. He died without issue in 558, and was
buried in the abbey he had founded, where his tomb has been
discovered.

See " Nouveaux documents sur le tombeau de Childebert 4 Saint -
Germain-des-Pres," in the Bulletin de la Societt des Antiguaires
(1887).

CHILDEBERT II. (570-595), king of Austrasia, was a son of
Sigebert. When his father was assassinated in 575, Childebert
was taken from Paris by Gundobald, one of his faithful leudes,
to Metz, where he was recognized as sovereign. He was then
only five years old, and during his long minority the power
was disputed between his mother Brunhilda and the nobles.
Chilperic, king at Paris, and King Gontran of Burgundy, sought
alliance with Childebert, who was adopted by both in turn.
But after the assassination of Chilperic in 584, and the dangers
occasioned to the Prankish monarchy by the expedition of
Gundobald in 585, Childebert threw himself unreservedly into
the arms of Gontran. By the pact of Andelot in 587 Childebert
was recognized as Gontran's heir, and with his uncle's help he
quelled the revolts of the nobles and succeeded in seizing the
castle of Woewre. Many attempts were made on his life by
Fredegond, who was anxious to secure Gontran's inheritance
for her son Clotaire II. On the death of Gontran in 592 Childe-
bert annexed the kingdom of Burgundy, and even contemplated
seizing Clotaire's estates and becoming sole king of the Franks.
He died, however, in 595. Childebert II. had bad relations with
the Byzantine empire, and fought in 585 in the name of the
emperor Maurice against the Lombards in Italy.

CHILDEBERT III. was one of the last and feeblest of the
Merovingians. A son of King Theuderich III., he succeeded
his brother Clovis III. in 695, and reigned until 711.

See B. Krusch, " Zur Chronologic der merowingischen Konige,"
in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, xxii. 451-490. (C. PF.)

CHILDERIC, the name of three Prankish kings.

CHILDERIC I. (c. 437-481), king of the Salian Franks, succeeded
his father Merwich (Merwing) as king about 457. With his tribe
he was established around the town of Tournai, on lands which
he had received as a foederatus of the Romans, and for some time
he kept the peace with his allies. About 463, in conjunction
with the Roman general Egidius, he fought against the Visigoths,
who hoped to extend their dominion along the banks of the Loire;
after the death of Egidius he assisted Count Paul in attempting
to check an invasion of the Saxons. Paul having perished in the
struggle, Childeric delivered Angers from some Saxons, followed
them to the islands at the mouth of the Loire, and massacred
them there. He also stopped a band of the Alamanni who
wished to invade Italy. These are all the facts known about him.
The stories of his expulsion by the Franks; of his stay of eight
years in Thuringia with King Basin and his wife Basine; of his
return when a faithful servant advised him that he could safely
do so by sending to him half of a piece of gold which he had broken

with him; and of the arrival at Tournai of Queen Basine, whom
he married, are entirely legendary. After the fall of the Western
Empire in 476 there is no doubt that Childeric regarded himself
as freed from his engagements towards Rome. He died in 481
and was buried at Tournai, leaving a son Clovis (?.».), afterwards
king of the Franks. His tomb was discovered? in 1653, when
numerous precious objects, arms, jewels, coins and a ring with a
figure of the king, were found.

CHILDERIC II. (c. 653-673), king of Austrasia, was a son of
the Frankish king Clovis II., and in 660, although a child, was
proclaimed king of Austrasia, while his brother, Clotaire III.,
ruled over the rest of the dominions of Clovis. After the death
of Clotaire in 670 he became ruler of the three Frankish kingdoms,
Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, but soon quarrelled with
some supporters in Neustria, and was assassinated whilst
hunting. He was buried at St Germain near Paris.

CHILDERIC III. (d. c. 751), king of the Franks, was the last king
of the Merovingian dynasty. The throne had been vacant for
seven years when the mayors of the palace, Carloman and Pippin
the Short, decided in 743 to recognize Childeric as king. We
cannot say whose son he was, or what bonds bound him to the
Merovingian family. He took no part in public business, which
was directed, as before, by the mayors of the palace, When in
747 Carloman retired into a monastery, Pippin resolved to take
the royal crown for himself; taking the decisive step in 751
after having received the celebrated answer of Pope Zacharias
that it were better to name king him who possessed the power
than him who possessed it not. Childeric was dethroned and
placed in the monastery of St Omer; his son, Theuderich, was
imprisoned at Saint-Wandrille.

See W. Junghans Die Gischichte der frdnkischen Konige Childerich
und Clodovech (Gottingen, 1857) ; J. J. Chiflet, Anastasis Childerici I.
Francorum regis (Antwerp, 1655); J. B. D. Cochet, Le Tombeau de
Childeric I, roi des Francs (Paris, 1859); and E. Lavisse. Histuire
de France, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).

CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY (1827-1896), British
statesman, was born in London on the 25th of June 1827. On
leaving Cambridge he went out to Australia (1850), and became
a member of the government of Victoria, but in 1857 returned
to England as agent-general of the colony. Entering parliament
in 1860 as Liberal member for Pontefract (a seat that he con-
tinued to hold till 1885), he became civil lord of the admiralty in
1864, and in 1865 financial secretary to the treasury. Childers
occupied a succession of prominent posts in the various Gladstone
ministries. He was first lord of the admiralty from 1868 to 187 1 ,
and as such inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. Ill-health
compelled his resignation of office in 1871, but next year he
returned to the ministry as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.
From 1880 to 1882 he was secretary for war, a post he accepted
somewhat unwillingly; and in that position he had to bear the
responsibility for the reforms which were introduced into the
war office under the parsimonious conditions which were then
part of the Liberal creed. During his term of office the Egyptian
War occurred, in which Childers acted with creditable energy;
and also the Boer War, in which he and bis colleagues showed to
less advantage. From 1882 to 1885 he was chancellor of the
exchequer, and the beer and spirit duty in his budget of the latter
year was the occasion of the government's fall. Defeated at
the general election at Pontefract, he was returned as a Home
Ruler (one of the few Liberals who adopted this policy before
Mr Gladstone's conversion) in 1886 for South Edinburgh, and
was home secretary in the ministry of 1886. When the first
Home Rule bill was introduced he demurred privately to its
financial clauses, and their withdrawal was largely due to his
threat of resignation. He retired from parliament in 1892, and
died on the 2gth of January 1896, his last piece of work being
the drafting of a report for the royal commission on Irish financial
relations, of which he was chairman. Childers was a capable and
industrious administrator of the old Liberal school, and he did his
best, in the political conditions then prevailing, to improve the
naval and military administration while he was at the admiralty
and war office. His own bent was towards finance, but no

138

CHILDERS, R. C.— CHILDREN, LAW FOR

striking reform is associated with his name. His most ambitious
effort was his attempt to effect a conversion of consols in 1884,
but the scheme proved a failure, though it paved the way for the
subsequent conversion in 1888.

The Life (1901) of Mr Chifders, by his son, throws some interesting
side-lights on fte inner history of more than one Gladstonian
cabinet.

CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR (1838-1876), English Oriental
scholar, son of the Rev. Charles Childers, English chaplain at
Nice, was born in 1838. In 1860 he received an appointment in
the civil service of Ceylon, which he retained until 1864, when
he was compelled to return to England owing to ill-health. He
had studied Pali during his residence in Ceylon, under Yatra-
mullc Unnansfe, a learned Buddhist for whom he cherished
a life-long respect, and he had gained an insight into the Sinhalese
character and ways of thought. In 1869 he published the first
Pali text ever printed in England, and began to prepare a Pali
dictionary, the first volume of which was published in 1872, and
the second and concluding volume in 1875. In the following
year it was awarded the Volney prize by the Institute of France,
as being the most important philological work of the year. He
was a frequent contributor to the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society, in which he published the Mahd-parinibbdna Sutta,
the Pali text giving the account of the last days of Buddha's
life. In 1872 he was appointed sub-librarian at the India Office,
and in the following year he became the first professor of Pali
and Buddhist literature at University College, London. He died
in London on the 2jth of July 1876.

CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO. English law has always
in theory given to children the same remedies as to adults for
ill-usage, whether by their parents or by others, and has never
recognized the patria potestas as known to the earlier Roman
law; and while powers of discipline and chastisement have been
regarded as necessarily incident to paternal authority, the father
is civilly liable to his children for wrongs done to them. The only
points in which infancy created a defect in civil status were that
infants were subject to the restraints on complete freedom of
action involved in their being in the legal custody of the father,
and that it was and is lawful for parents, guardians, employers
and teachers to inflict corporal punishment proportioned in
amount and severity to the nature of the fault committed and
the age and mental capacity of the child punished. But the
court of chancery, in delegated exercise of the authority of the
sovereign as parens patriae, always asserted the right to take
from parents, and if necessary itself to assume the wardship of
children where parental rights were abused or serious cruelty
was inflicted, the power being vested in the High Court of
Justice. Abuse of the power of correction was regarded as
giving a cause of action or prosecution for assault; and if
attended by fatal results rendered the parent liable to indictment
for murder or manslaughter.

The conception of what constitutes cruelty to children un-
doubtedly changed considerably with the relaxation of the
accepted standard of severity in domestic or scholastic discipline
and with the growth of new ideas as to the duties of parents to
children, which in their latest developments tend enormously
to enlarge the parental duties without any corresponding increase
of filial obligations.

Starting from the earlier conception, which limited ill-treat-
ment legally punishable to actual threats or blows, the common
law came to recognize criminal liability in cases where persons,
bound under duty or contract to supply necessaries to a child,
unable by reason of its tender years to provide for itself, wilfully
neglected to supply them, and thereby caused the death of the
child or injury to its health, although no actual assault had been
committed. Questions have from time to time arisen as to what
could be regarded as necessary within this rule; and quite apart
from legislation, popular opinion has influenced courts of justice
in requiring more from parents and employers than used to be
required. But parliament has also intervened to punish
abandonment or exposure of infants of under two years, whereby
their lives are endangered, or their health has been or is likely

to be permanently injured (Offences against the Person Act of
1861, s. 27), and the neglect or ill-treatment of apprentices or
servants (same act, s. 26, and Conspiracy and Protection of
Property Act 1875, s. 6). By the Poor Law Amendment Act
1868, parents were rendered summarily punishable who wilfully
neglected to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid or
lodging for their children under fourteen years of age in their
custody, whereby the health of the child was or was likely to be
seriously injured. This enactment (now superseded by later
legislation) made no express exception in favour of parents who
had not sufficient means to do their duty without resort to the
poor law, and was construed as imposing criminal liability on
parents whose peculiar religious tenets caused them advisedly
to refrain from calling in a doctor to a sick child.

The chief progress in the direction of adequate protection for
children prior to 1889 lay less in positive legal enactment on the
subject than in the institution of an effective system of police,
whereby it became possible to discover and repress cruelty
punishable under the ordinary law. It is quite inaccurate to
say that children had very few rights in England, or that animals
were better protected. But before the constitution of the present
police force, and in the absence of any proper system of public
prosecution, it is undeniable that numberless cases of neglect
and ill-treatment went unpunished and were treated as nobody's
business, because there was no person ready to undertake in
the public interest the protection of the children of cruel or
negligent parents. In 1889 a statute was passed with the special
object of preventing cruelty to children. This act was superseded
in 1894 by a more stringent act, which was repealed by the
Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act 1904, in its turn superseded
for the most part by the Children Act 1908, which introduced
many new provisions in the law relating to children and specific-
ally deals with the offence of " cruelty " to them. This offence
can only be committed by a person over sixteen in respect of a
child under sixteen of whom he has " custody," " charge " or
" care." The act presumes that a child is in the custody of its
parents, step-parents, or a person cohabiting with its parent,
or of its guardians or persons liable by law to maintain it; that
it is in the charge of a person to whom the parent has committed
such charge (e.g. a schoolmaster), and that it is in the care of a
person who has actual possession or control of it. Cruelty is
defined as consisting in assault, ill-treatment (falling short of
actual assault), neglect, abandonment or exposure of the child
in a manner likely to cause unnecessary suffering or injury to
health, including injury to or loss of sight, hearing or limb, or
any orgap of the body or any mental derangement; and the
act or omission must be wilful, i.e. deliberate and intentional,
and not merely accidental or inadvertent. The offence may be
punished either summarily or on indictment, and the offender
may be sent to penal servitude if it is shown that he was directly
or indirectly interested in any sum of money payable on the
death of the child, e.g. by having taken out a policy permitted
under the Friendly Societies Acts. A parent or other person
legally liable to maintain a child or young person will be deemed
to have " neglected " him by failure to provide adequate food,
clothing, medical aid, or lodging, or if in the event of inability
to provide such food, &c., by failure to take steps to procure the
same under acts relating to the relief of the poor.

These statutes overlap the common law and the statutes
already mentioned. Their real efficacy lies in the main in the
provisions which facilitate the taking of evidence of young
children, in permitting poor law authorities to prosecute at the
expense of the rates, and in permitting a constable on arresting
the offender to take the child away from the accused, and the
court of trial on conviction to transfer the custody of the child
from the offender to some fit and willing person, including any
society or body corporate established for the reception of poor
children or for the prevention of cruelty to children. The pro-
visions of the acts as to procedure and custody extend not only
to the offence of cruelty but also to all offences involving bodily
injury to a child under sixteen, such as abandonment, assault,
kidnapping and illegally engaging a child in a dangerous public

CHILDREN, LAW FOR

139

performance. The act of 1908 also makes an endeavour to
check the heavy mortality of infants through "overlaying," *
enacting that where it is proved that the death of an infant
under three years of age was caused by suffocation whilst the
infant was in bed with some other person over the age of sixteen,
and that that person was at the time of going to bed under the
influence of drink, that other person shall be deemed to have
neglected the child in manner likely to cause injury to its
health, as mentioned above. The acts have been utilized with
great zeal and on the whole with much discretion by various
philanthropic societies, whose members make it their business
to discover the ill-treated and neglected children of all classes
in society, and particularly by the Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Children, which is incorporated under royal charter
of the 28th of May 1895, f°r the purposes inter alia of preventing
the public and private wrongs of children, and the corruption
of their morals and of taking action to enforce the laws for
their protection.

The act of 1908 enacted more stringent provisions against
baby-farming (<?.».). The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897
did not apply where only one child was taken, but now by the
act of 1908, where a person undertakes for reward the nursing
and maintenance of one or more infants under the age of seven
years apart from their parents or having no parents, he must
give notice in writing to the local authority within forty-eight
hours from the reception of the child. If an infant is already
in the care of a person without reward and he undertakes to
continue the nursing for reward, such undertaking is a reception
of the child. The notice to the local authority must state the
name, sex, date and place of birth of the infant, the name and
address of the person receiving the infant and of the person from
whom the infant was received. Notice must also be given of
any change of address of the person having the care of the infant,
or of the death of the infant, or of its removal to the care of some
other person, whose name and address must also be given. It
is the duty of local authorities to provide for the carrying-out
in their districts of that portion of the act which refers to nursing
and maintenance of infants, to appoint infants' protection
visitors, to fix the number of infants which any person may
retain for nursing, to remove infants improperly kept, &c.
Relatives or legal guardians of an infant who undertake its
nursing and maintenance, hospitals, convalescent homes, or
institutions, established for the protection and care of infants,
and conducted in good faith for religious and charitable purposes,
as well as boarding schools at which efficient elementary education
is given, are exempt from the provisions of the act.

The acts of 1904 and 1908 deal with many other offences in
relation to children and young persons. The act of 1904 intro-
duced restrictions on the employment of children which lie on
the border land between cruelty and the regulation of child
labour. It prohibits custodians of children from taking them,
or letting them be, in the street or in public-houses to sing,
play, perform or sell between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M. These pro-
visions apply to boys under fourteen and girls under sixteen.
There are further prohibitions (i) on allowing children under
eleven to sing, play, perform or be exhibited for profit, or offer
anything for sale in public-houses or places of public amuse-
ment at any hour without a licence from a justice, which is
granted only as to children over ten and under stringent condi-
tions; (2) on allowing children under sixteen to be trained as

1 There has been some doubt as to whether it is more correct to
say a person " overlays " or " overlies " a child, and the question
came up in committee on the bill. According to Sir J. A. H. Murray
(see Letter in The Times, izth of May 1908) to lie," an intransitive
verb, becomes transitive when combined with a preposition, e.g.
a nurse lies over a child or overlies a child; " to lay " is the causal
derivative of " to lie," and is followed by two objects, e.g. to lay the
table with a cloth, or to lay a cloth on the table; similarly, to over-
lay a surface with varnish, or to overlay a child with a blanket, or
with the nurse's or mother's body. . The instrument can be left un-
expressed, and a person can be said to overlay a child, i.e. with
her own body, a pillow, &c. Thus, while " overlie " covers the case
where the woman herself lies over the child, " overlay " is the more
general word.

acrobats, contortionists, or circus performers, or for any dangerous
performance; and the Children's Dangerous Performances Act
1879, as amended in 1897, makes it an offence to employ a male
young person under sixteen and a female under eighteen in a
dangerous public performance.

The act of 1908 renders liable to a fine not exceeding £25, or
alternatively, or in addition thereto, imprisonment with or with-
out hard labour for any term not exceeding three months, any
custodian, &c., of any child or young person who allows him to
be in any street, premises or place for the purpose of begging
or receiving alms, or of inducing the giving of alms, whether
or not there is a pretence of singing, playing, performing or
offering anything for sale. An important departure in the act
of 1908 was the attempt to prevent the exposure of children
to the risk of burning. Any custodian, &c., of a child under
seven who allows that child to be in a room containing an open
grate not sufficiently protected to guard against the risk of
burning or scalding is liable on summary conviction to a fine
not exceeding £10. Provision is made against allowing children
between the ages of four and sixteen to be in brothels; it is also
made a misdemeanour if any custodian, &c., of a girl under
sixteen causes or encourages her seduction or prostitution, and
any person having the custody of a young girl may be bound
over to exercise proper care if it is shown to the satisfaction of a
court of summary jurisdiction, on the complaint of any person,
that she is exposed to such risk.

The act of 1008, following legislation in many parts of the
United States and in some of the British colonies, places a penalty
on selling tobacco to any person apparently under the age of
sixteen, whether for his own use or not. It empow'ers constables
and park keepers to seize tobacco in the possession of any
person apparently under sixteen found smoking in any street
or public place, as well as to search them; it also empowers
a court of summary jurisdiction to prevent automatic machines
for the sale of tobacco being used by young persons. The act
also contains useful provisions empowering the clearing of a
court whilst a child or young person is giving evidence in certain
cases (e.g. of decency or morality), and the forbidding children
(other than infants in arms) being present in court during the
trial of other persons; it places a penalty on pawnbrokers taking
an article in pawn from children under fourteen; and on vagrants
for preventing children above the age of five receiving education.
It puts a penalty on giving intoxicating liquor to any child
under the age of five, except upon the orders of a duly qualified
medical practitioner, or in case of sickness, or other urgent
cause; also upon any holder of the licence of any licensed
premises who allows a child to be at any time in the bar of the
licensed premises, or upon any person who causes or attempts
to cause a child to be in the bar of licensed premises other than
railway refreshment rooms or premises used for any purpose
to which the holding of a licence is merely auxiliary, or where
the child is there simply for the purpose of passing through to
some other part of the premises. It makes provision for the
safety of children at entertainments, and consolidates the law
relating to reformatory and industrial schools, and to juvenile
offenders (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS).

In the act of 1908, " child " is defined as a person under the
age of fourteen years, and " young person " as a person who is
fourteen years and upwards and under the age of sixteen years.
The act applies to Scotland and Ireland. In the application of
the act to Ireland exception is made relative to the exclusion
of children from bars of licensed premises, in the case of a child
being on licensed premises where a substantial part of the business
carried on is a drapery, grocery, hardware or other business
wholly unconnected with the sale of intoxicating liquor, and the
child is there for the purpose of purchasing goods other than
intoxicating liquor.

British Possessions. — Legislation much on the lines of the acts
of 1880-1908 has been passed in many British possessions, e.g.
Tasmania (1895, 1906), Queensland (1896, 1005), Jamaica
(1896), South Australia (1899, 1904), New South Wales (1892
and 1900), New Zealand (1906), Mauritius (1906), Victoria

140

CHILDRENITE— CHILDREN'S COURTS

(1905, 1906). In South Australia a State Children's Department
has been created to care for and manage the property and persons
of destitute and neglected children, and the officials of the
council may act in cases of cruelty to children; the legislation
of Victoria and Queensland is based on that of South Australia.
See also CHILDREN'S COURTS, EDUCATION and LABOUR LEGIS-
LATION. (W. F. C.;T. A. I.)

CHILDRENITE, a rare mineral species; a hydrous basic
aluminium iron phosphate, orthorhombic in crystallization.
The ferrous oxide is in part replaced by manganous oxide and
lime, and in the closely allied and isomorphous species eosphorite
manganese predominates over iron. The general formula for
the two species is Al(Fe, Mn)(OH)2PO4+H20. Childrenite
is found only as small brilliant crystals of a yellowish-brown
colour, somewhat resembling chalybite in general appearance.
They are usually pyramidal in habit, often having the form of
double six-sided pyramids with the triangular faces deeply
striated parallel to their shorter edges. Hardness 4-5-5;
specific gravity 3-18-3-24. The mineral, named after the
zoologist and mineralogist J. G. Children (1777-1852), secretary
of the Royal Society, was detected in 1823 on specimens obtained
some years previously during the cutting of a canal near Tavi-
stock in Devonshire. It has also been found in a few copper
mines in Cornwall and Devonshire.

Eosphorite occurs as crystals of prismatic habit with angles
very nearly the same as those of childrenite. Unlike childrenite,
it has a distinct cleavage in one direction, and often occurs in
compact masses as well as in crystals. The colour is sometimes
yellowish-white, but usually rose-pink, and on this account the
mineral was named from i7&xr<£6pos, dawn-bearer. Hardness 5;
specific gravity 3-n-3-i45. It was discovered in 1878 in a
pegmatite-vein at Branchville, Connecticut, where it is associated
with other rare manganese phosphates. (L. J. S.)

CHILDREN'S COURTS, or JUVENILE COURTS, a special
system of tribunals for dealing with juvenile offenders, first
suggested in the United States. The germ of such institutions
was planted in Massachusetts in 1869, when a plan was introduced
at Boston of hearing charges against children separately, and
apart from the ordinary business of the lesser tribunals. No
great progress was made in the development of the idea in Massa-
chusetts, as the legal authorities were not fully convinced of
the utility or need for a separate court so long as the children
were kept strictly apart from adults, and this could be assured
by a separate session. But the system of " probation," by
which children were handed over to the kindly care and guardian-
ship of an appointed officer, and thus escaped legal repression,
was created about the same time in Boston and produced
excellent results. The probation officer is present at the judge's
side when he decides a case, and is given charge of the offender,
whom he takes by the hand, either at his parent's residence or
at school, and continually supervises, having power if necessary
to bring him again before the judge. The example of Massa-
chusetts in due course influenced other countries, and especially
the British colony of South Australia, where a State Children's
Department was created at Adelaide in 1895, and three years
later a juvenile court was opened there for the trial of persons
under eighteen and was conducted with great success, though
the system of probation officers was not introduced. A juvenile
court was also established at Toronto (Canada) on the South
Australian model.

The movement when once fully appreciated went ahead very
rapidly. In the United States Illinois was the first state to call
a distinct children's court into existence, and Judge Richard
Tuthill was the pioneer at Chicago, where the court was estab-
lished in 1899. Many states followed suit, including New York,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Kansas, Colorado,
Indiana and others, till the number rose to nineteen in 1906.
In New York, where juvenile probation is supervised by the
Society for the Protection of Children, there is a separate
children's court with rooms attached, where the children for
detention wait till they are brought in for trial. Brooklyn has
also a children's court. In Pennsylvania, where the juvenile

court was at first opposed as unconstitutional, the difficulty
was met by first bringing the child before the magistrate in the
police court, a course which (though followed by his transferring
the case to the special court) perpetuated the very evils the chil-
dren's court was intended to avoid; the work of probation was,
however, most effectively carried out, chiefly by female officers.
The Chicago Juvenile Court sits twice weekly under an especially
appointed judge, and policemen act as probation officers to some
extent. The court of Indianapolis, however, gained the reputa-
tion of being the most complete and perfect in the United States.
It works with a large and highly efficient band of volunteer
probation officers under a chief. The juvenile court of Denver,
Colorado, attained remarkable results under Judge B. Lindsey,
whose magnetic personality, wonderful comprehension of boy
nature, and extraordinary influence over them achieved great
results. The court meets once a fortnight, when fresh cases are
tried and boys already on probation report themselves, often
to the number of two hundred at a time. The latter appear
before the judge in batches, each hands in his school report in a
sealed letter, and according to its purport receives praise or
blame, or he may be committed to the Detention House. An
efficient court was also constituted at Baltimore, Maryland, with
a judge especially chosen to preside, probation being for fixed
periods, varying from three months to three years, and children
being brought back to the court for parole or discharge, or, if
necessary, committal to the house of one of the philanthropic
societies. In Washington, D.C., the system of having no
distinct court or judge, but holding a separate session, was
followed, and it was found that numbers of children came to the
court for help and guidance, looking upon the judge for the time
being as their friend and counsellor. Probation in this instance
offered peculiar difficulties on account of the colour question,
two-thirds of the children having negro blood and a white boy
being always preferred for a vacant situation. Throughout,
the action of juvenile courts in the United States has been to
bring each individual into " human touch " with kindly helpful
workers striving to lead the young idea aright and train it to
follow the straight path. It was the result always of the effort
of private persons and not due to government initiative, indeed
the advocates and champions of the system only established it
by overcoming strong opposition from the authorities.

Progress in the same direction has been made in England.
The home office had recommended London police magistrates
to keep children's cases separate from those of adults; the
same practice or something analogous obtained in many county
boroughs, such as Bath, Birmingham, Bristol, Bolton, Bradford,
Hull, Manchester, Walsall, Halifax and others, and the Children
Act 1908 definitely established children's courts. This act
enacted that courts of summary jurisdiction when hearing charges,
&c., against children or young persons should, unless the child
or young person is charged jointly with an adult, sit in a different
building or room from that in which the ordinary sittings of the
•court are held, or on different days or at different times. Further-
more, provision must be made for preventing persons apparently
under the age of sixteen years whilst being conveyed to or from
court, or whilst waiting before or after their attendance in court,
from associating with adults, unless such adults are charged
jointly with them. The act prohibits any persons other than
members and officers of the court, the parties to the case, their
solicitors, counsel and other persons directly concerned in the
case, from being present in a juvenile court, except by leave
of the court. Bona-fide press representatives are also excepted.
The main object of the whole system is to keep the child, the
embryotic offender who has probably erred from ignorance or
the pressure of circumstances or misfortune, altogether free
from the taint or contagion that attaches to criminal proceedings.
The moral atmosphere of a legal tribunal is injurious to the
youthful mind, and children who appear before a bench, whether
as accused or as witness, gain a contemptuous familiarity with
legal processes.

The most beneficial action of the children's court comes from
its association with the system of personal guardianship and

CHILDREN'S GAMES— CHILDS

141

close supervision exercised by the probation officers, official
and voluntary. Where the intervention of the newly consti-
tuted tribunal can not only save the child from evil association
when first arrested, but can rescue him without condemnation
and committal to prison, its functions may be relied upon to
diminish crime by cutting it off at the source. Much depends
upon the quality and temperament of the presiding authority.
Where a judge with special aptitude can be appointed, firm,
sympathetic, tactful and able to gain the confidence of those
brought before him, he may do great good, by dealing with each
individual and not merely with his offence, realizing that the
court does not exist to condemn but to strengthen and give a
fresh chance. Where the children's court is only a branch of the
existing jurisdiction worked by the regular magistrate or
judge fulfilling his ordinary functions and not specially chosen,
the beneficial results are not so noticeable. (A. G.)

CHILDREN'S GAMES. The study of traditional games has in
recent years become an important branch of folklore research in
England, and has contributed not a little towards elucidating
many unrecorded facts in early history. These games may
be broadly divided into two kinds — dramatic games, and games
of skill and chance. These differ materially in their object.
Games of skill and chance are played for the purpose of
winning property from a less fortunate player. The dramatic
games consist of non-singing and singing games; they are divided
between boys' games and girls' games. Boys' games are mostly
of a contest character, girls' of a more domestic type. The boys'
dramatic games have preserved some interesting beliefs and
customs, but the tendency in these games, such as " prisoner's
base," has been to drop the words and tune and to preserve only
that part (action) which tends best for exercise and use in school
playgrounds. The girls' singing-games have not developed on
these lines, and have therefore not lost so much of their early
characteristics. The singing games consist of words, tune and
action. The words, in verse, express ideas contained in customs
not now in vogue, and they may be traced back to events taking
place between men and women and between people of different
villages. The tunes are simple, and the same tune is frequently
used for different games. The actions are illustrative of the ideas
to be expressed. The players represent various objects — animals,
villages and people. The singing game is therefore not a game
in the usual sense of the word. There is no element of
" gambling " or playing " to win " in it — no one is richer or
poorer for it; it also requires a number of children to play
together. It is really a " play," and has survived because
it has handed down some instances of custom and belief which
were deeply rooted and which made a strong appeal to the
imagination of our ancestors. The singing games represent in
dramatic form the survival of those ceremonial dances common
to people in early stages of development. These dances celebrated
events which served to bind the people together and to give them
a common interest in matters affecting their welfare. They were
dramatic in character, singing and action forming a part of them,
and their performers were connected by ties of place or kindred.
They are probably survivals of what we might call folk drama.
In these times it was held imperative to perform religious
ceremonies periodically; at sowing and harvesting to ensure
good crops; in the care of cattle and on occasions of marriage,
birth and death. These were matters affecting the welfare of
the whole community. Events were celebrated with dance,
song and feasting, and no event was too trivial to be unconnected
with some belief which rendered ceremony necessary.

At first these ceremonial dances had deep religious feeling for
their basis, but in process of time they became purely secular
and were performed at certain seasons only, because it was the
custom to do so. They then became recognized as beautiful
or pleasing things in the life of the people, and so continued,
altering somewhat in ideas but retaining their old dramatic
forms. They were danced by old and young at festivals and
holidays, these being held about the same time of year as
that at which the previous religious ceremonies had been
held.

Singing games are danced principally in one of two methods,
" line " and " circle." These represent two of the early forms
of dramatic action. The " line " form (two lines of players
standing opposite each other having a space of ground between
them, advancing and retiring in turn) represents two different
and opposing parties engaged in a struggle or contest. This
method is used in all cases where contest is involved. The
" circle " form, on the other hand, where all players join hands,
represents those occasions when all the people of one place were
engaged in celebrating events in which all were interested. Thus
games celebrating sowing and harvest, and those associated with
love and marriage, are played in this form. Both these methods
allow of development. The circle varies from examples where
all perform the same actions and say the same words to that
where two or more players have principal parts, the others
only singing or acting in dumb show, to examples where the
singing has disappeared. The form or method of play and the
actions constitute the oldest remaining parts of the game (the
words being subject to alterations and loss through ignorance of
their meaning), and it is to this form or method, the actions
and the accompaniment of song, that they owe their survival,
appealing as they do to the strong dramatic instinct of children
and of uncultured folk.

It will be convenient to give a few instances of the best-known
singing games. In " line " form, a fighting game is " We are the
Rovers." The words tell us of two opposing parties fighting
for their land; both sides alternately deride one another and end
by fighting until one side is victorious. Two other " line "
games, " Nuts in May " and " Here come three dukes a-riding,"
are also games of contest, but not for territory. These show an
early custom of obtaining wives. They represent marriage by
capture, and are played in " line " form because of the element
of contest contained in the custom. Another form, the " arch,"
is also used to indicate contest.

Circle games, on the contrary, show such customs as harvest
and marriage, with love and courting, and a ceremony and
sanction by assembled friends. " Oats and beans and barley "
and " Sally Water " are typical of this form. The large majority
of circle games deal with love or marriage and domestic life.
The customs surviving in these games deal with tribal life and
take us back to " foundation sacrifice," " well worship," " sacred-
ness of fire," besides marriage and funeral customs.

Details may be found in the periodical publications of the Folk-
lore Society, and particularly in the following works: — A. B.
Gomme's Traditional Games of Great Britain (2 vols., Nutt, 1894—
1898); Gomme's Children's Singing Games (Nutt, 1904); Ecken-
stein's Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes (Duckworth, 1906) ;
Maclagan, Games of Argyllshire, Folk-lore Society (1900); Newell's
Games of American Children (Harper Bros., New York, 1884). In
Mrs Gomme's Traditional Games, several versions of each game,
together with a short account of the suggested origin and of the
custom or belief indicated, are given for each game. In vol. ii. (pp.
458-531) a memoir of the history of games is given, and the customs
and beliefs which originated them, reviewing the whole subject from
the anthropological point of view, and showing the place which
games occupy among the evidences of early man. In Miss Ecken-
stein's comparative study of nursery rhymes suggested origins are
given for many of these, and an attempt made to localize certain of
the customs and events. In several of the publications of the Folk-
lore Society local collections of games are given, all of which may
be studied with advantage. Stubbes and other early writers give
many instances of boys' games in their days, many of which still
exist. Tylor and other writers on anthropology, in dealing with
savage custom, confirm the views here expressed. For nursery
rhymes see Halliwell, Nursery Rhymes (1845), and Chamberss
Popular Rhymes (first printed 1841, reprinted in 1870). The recently
collected Morris Dances by Mr Cecil Sharp should also be
consulted. One of the morris dances, bean-setting, evidently dealing
with planting or harvest, is danced in circle form, while others
indicating fighting or rivalry are danced in line form, each line danc-
ing in circle before crossing over to the opposite side, and thus
conforming to the laws already shown to exist in the more ordinary
game. (A. B. G.*)

CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1829-1894), American publisher,
was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the I2th of May 1829.
He was educated in the public schools, and after a brief term of
service in the navy, he became in 1843 a clerk in a book-shop at
Philadelphia. There, in 1847, he established an independent

142

CHILE

book-shop, and two years later organized the publishing house of
Childs & Peterson. In 1864, with Anthony J. Drexel, he pur-
chased the Public Ledger, at that time a little known newspaper;
he completely changed its policy and methods, and made it
one of the most influential journals in the country. He died at
Philadelphia on the 3rd of February 1894. Childs was widely
known for his public spirit and philanthropy. In addition to
numerous private benefactions in educational and charitable
fields, he erected memorial windows to William Cowper and
George Herbert in Westminster Abbey (1877), and to Milton in
St Margaret's, Westminster (1888), a monument to Leigh Hunt
at Kensal Green, a Shakespeare memorial fountain at Stratford-
on-Avon (1887), and monuments to Edgar Allan Poe and to
Richard A. Proctor. He gave Woodland Cemetery to the
Typographical Society of Philadelphia for a printers' burial-
ground, and with Anthony J. Drexel founded in 1892 a home for
Union printers at Colorado Springs, Colorado.

His Recollections were published at Philadelphia in 1890.

CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua ckiri,
cold, or tchUi, snow), a republic of South America, occupying the
narrow western slope of the continent between Peru and its
southern extremity. (For map see ARGENTINA.) It extends
from the northern boundary of the province of Tacna, about
17° 25' S., to Cape Horn at the extreme southern point of the
Fuegian archipelago in 55° 58' 40* S.( with an extreme meridian
length of 2661 m., and with a coast line considerably exceeding
that figure owing to a westward curve of about 3!° and an
eastward trend south of 50° S. of nearly 8°. Its mainland width
ranges from about 46 to 228 m., and its area, including the
islands of the southern coast, is officially computed to be 307,774
sq. m., though the Gotha computation (1904) places it at 293,062
sq. m. Chile is thus a ribbon-like strip of territory between the
Andes and the Pacific, comparatively regular north of the 42nd
parallel, but with an extremely ragged outline south of that line.
It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by Bolivia and Argentina, S. and W.
by the Pacific. Its eastern boundary lines are described under
ARGENTINA and BOLIVIA. The war of 1870-81 with Peru and
Bolivia gave to Chile 73,993 sq. m. of territory, or one-fourth
her total area. By subsequent agreements the Bolivian depart-
ment of the Literal, or Atacama, and the Peruvian department
of Tarapaca, were formally ceded to Chile, and the northern
frontier was removed to the river Camarones, which enters the
Pacific at 19° 12' S. Under the treaty of Ancon (2oth October
1883) Chile was to retain possession of the provinces of Tacna
and Arica belonging to the Peruvian department of Moquegua
for a period of ten years, and then submit " to popular vote
whether those territories are to belong to Chile or Peru." At the
expiration of the period (1893) Chile evaded compliance with the
agreement, and under various pretexts retained forcible posses-
sion of the territory. This arbitrary retention of Tacna and
Arica, which became the province of Tacna under Chilean
administration, removed the frontier still farther north, to the
river Sama, which separates that province from the remaining
part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Starting from
the mouth of that river, in 17° 57' S., the disputed boundary
follows its course in an irregular N.E. direction to its source in
the Alto do Toledo range, thence S. and E. along the water
parting to the Bolivian boundary line in the Cordillera Silillica.

Physiography. — For purposes of general topographical description
Chile may be divided into three regions: the desert region of the
north, the central agricultural region between the provinces of
Coquimbo and Llanquihue, and the heavily-forested rainy region
south of lat. 41° S. The desert region is an elevated arid plateau
descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast, where it
breaks down abruptly from elevations of 800 to 1500 ft. From the
sea this plateau escarpment has the appearance of a range of flat
topped hills closely following the coast line. The surface is made
up of extensive plains covered with sand and deposits of alkaline
salts, broken by ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs
from the Andes, and by irregular lateral ranges in the vicinity of
the main cordillera enclosing elevated saline plateaus. This region
is rainless, barren and inhospitable, absolutely destitute of vege-
tation except in some small river valleys where irrigation is possible,
and on the slopes of some of the snow-covered peaks where the
water from the melting snows nourishes a scanty and coarse vege-

tation before it disappears in the thirsty sands. It is very rich in
mineral and saline deposits, however. The eastern parts of this
region lie within the higher ranges of the Andes and include a large
district awarded to Chile in 1899 (see ARGENTINA and ATACAMA).
This arid, bleak area is apparently a continuation southward of the

?reat Bolivian altaplanicte, and is known as the Puna de Atacama.
ts average elevation is estimated at 11,000 to 12,000 ft. A line
of volcanoes crosses it from north to south, and extensive lava beds
cover a considerable part of its surface. Large shallow saline lakes
are also characteristic features of this region. From 28° S. the spurs
from the cordillera toward the coast are more sharply denned and
enclose deeper valleys, where the cultivation of the soil becomes
possible, at first through irrigation and then with the aid of light
periodical rains. The slopes of the Andes are precipitous, the
general surface is rough, and in the north the higher ground and
coast are still barren. Beginning with the province of Aconcagua
the coast elevations crystallize into a range of mountains, the
Cordillera Maritima, which follows the shore line south to the
province of Llanquihue, and is continued still farther south by the
mountain range of Chilo£ and the islands of the western coast, which
are the peaks of a submerged mountain chain. Lying between this
coast range and the Andes is a broad valley, or plain, extending from
the Aconcagua river south to the Gulf of Ancud, a distance slightly
over 620 m. with an average width of about 60 m. It is sometimes
called the " Vale of Chile," and is the richest and most thickly-
populated part of the republic. It is a highly fertile region, is well
watered by numerous streams from the Andes, has a moderate rain-
fall, and forms an agricultural and grazing region of great pro-
ductiveness. It slopes toward the south, and its lower levels are
filled with lakes andwith depressions where lakes formerly existed.
It is an alluvial plain for the greater part, but contains some sandy
tracts, as in 5}uble and Arauco; in the north very little natural
forest is found except in the valleys and on the slopes of the enclosing
mountain ranges, but in the south, where the rainfall is heavier, the
plain is well covered with forest. South of 41° S. the country is
mountainous, heavily-forested and inhospitable. There are only
a few scattered settlements within its borders, and a few nomadic
tribes of savages eke out a miserable existence on the coast. The
deeply-indented coast line is filled with islands which preserve
the general outline of the continent southward to the Fuegian
archipelago, the outside groups forming a continuation of the Cor-
dillera Maritima. The heavy and continuous rainfall throughout
this region, especially in the latitude of Chiloe, gives rise to a large
number of rivers and lakes. Farther south this excessive precipi-
tation is in the form of snow in the Cordilleras, forming glaciers at
a comparatively low level which in places discharge into the inlets
and bays of the sea. The extreme southern part of this region
extends eastward to the Atlantic entrance to the Straits of Magellan,
and includes the greater part of the large island of Tierra del Fuego
with all the islands lying south and west of it. There are some com-
paratively level stretches of country immediately north of the
Straits, partly forested and partly grassy plains, where sheep farming
has been established with some degree of success, but the greater
part of this extreme southern territory is mountainous, cold, wet
and inhospitable. The perpetual snow-line here descends to 3500
to 4000 ft. above sea-level, and the forest growth does not rise above
an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft.

It has been officially estimated that the arable lands of Chile
comprise about twenty-five millions of acres (slightly over 39,000
sq. m.), or very nearly one-eighth of its total area.
The desert regions of the north include comparatively "
large areas of plains and gently sloping surfaces, traversed by
ranges of barren hills. The remainder of the republic, probably
more than three-fifths of its surface, is extremely mountainous.
The western slopes of the Andes, with its spurs and lateral ranges,
cover a broad zone on the eastern side of the republic, and the
Cordillera Maritima covers another broad zone on its western side
from about lat. 33° to the southern extremity of Chiloe, or below
lat. 43°. This maritime range is traversed by several river valleys,
some of which, like the Bio-Bio, are broad and have so gentle a slope
as to be navigable. The Andes, however, present an unbroken
barrier on the east, except at a few points in the south where the
general elevation is not over 5000 to 6000 ft., and where some of the
Chilean rivers, as the Palena and Las Heras, have their sources on its
eastern side. From the 52nd to about the 3ist parallel this great
mountain system, known locally as the Cordillera de los Andes,
apparently consists of a single chain, though in reality it includes
short lateral ranges at several points; continuing northward several
parallel ranges appear on the Argentine side and one on the Chilean
side which are ultimately merged in the great Bolivian plateau.
The Chilean lateral range, which extends from the 2gth to the I9th
parallels, traverses an elevated desert region and possesses several
noteworthy peaks, among which are Cerro Bolson, 16,017 ft., and
Cerro Dona Ines, 16,706 ft. It is broken to some extent in crossing
the province of Antofagasta, the southern division being known
as the Sierra de Huatacondo. At the southern frontier of Bolivia
the main chain, which has served as the boundary line betw_een
Argentina and Chile, divides into two great ranges, the principal
one continuing almost due north along the eastern side of the great
Bolivian alta-planicie, and the other forming its western rim, where

GEOGRAPHY]

CHILE

it is known as the Cordillera Silillica, and then following the trend
of the coast north-westward into Peru becomes the Cordillera
Occidental. The western slopes of the Andes are precipitous, with
short spurs enclosing deep valleys. The whole system is volcanic,
and a considerable number of volcanoes are still intermittently
active, noticeably in central and southern Chile. The culminating
point of the Chilean Andes is Aconcagua, which rises to a height of
23,097 ft.

In southern Chile the coast is highly mountainous, but the relation
of these elevations to the Andes has not been clearly determined.
The highest of these apparently detached groups are Mt. Maca (lat.
45° S.), 9711 ft., and Mt. Arenales (about 47° S. lat.), 11,286 ft.
Cathedral Peak on Wellington Island rises to a height of 3838 ft.
and the highest point on Taytao peninsula to 3937 ft. The coast
range of central Chile has no noteworthy elevations, the culminating
point in the province of Santiago being 7316 ft. Between central
Chile and the northern desert region there is a highly mountainous
district where distinct ranges or elongated spurs cross the republic
from the Andes to the coast, forming transverse valleys of great
beauty and fertility. The most famous of these is the " Vale of
Quillota " between Valparaiso and Santiago. The Chilean Andes
between Tacna and Valdivia are crossed by 24 passes, the majority
of them at elevations exceeding 10,000 ft. The best-known of these
is the Uspallata pass between Santiago and the Argentine city of
Mendoza, 12,870 ft. above sea-level. The passes of central and
southern Chile are used only in the summer season, but those of
northern Chile are open throughout the whole year.

The volcanic origin of the Andes and their comparatively recent
elevation still subject Chile, in common with other parts of the
western coast region, to frequent volcanic and seismic disturbances.
In some instances since European occupation, violent earthquake
shocks have resulted in considerable elevations of certain parts of
the coast. After the great earthquake of 1835 Captain Robert
FitzRoy (1805-1865) of H.M.S. " Beagle " found putrid mussel-
shells still adhering to the rocks 10 ft. above high water on the island
of Santa Maria, 30 m. from Concepcion, and Charles Darwin declares,
in describing that disaster, that " there can be no doubt that the land
round the bay of Concepcion was upraised two or three feet." These
upheavals, however, are not always permanent, the upraised land
sometimes settling back to its former position. This happened on the
island of Santa Maria after 1835. The existence of sea-shells at ele-
vations of 350 to 1300 ft. in otnei; parts of the republic shows that
these forces, supplemented by a gradual uplifting of the coast, have
been in operation through long periods of time and that the greater
part of central and southern Chile has been raised from the sea in
this way. These earthquake shocks have two distinct character-
istics, a slight vibration, sometimes almost imperceptible, called a
temblor, generally occurring at frequent intervals, and a violent
horizontal or rotary vibration, or motion, also repeated at frequent
intervals, called a terremoto, which is caused by a fracture or displace-
ment of the earth's strata at some particular point, and often results
in considerable damage. When the earthquake occurs on the coast,
or beneath the sea in its vicinity, tidal waves are sometimes formed,
which cause even greater damage than the earthquake itself. Arica
has been three times destroyed by tidal waves, and other small
towns of the north Chilean coast have suffered similar disasters.
Coquimbo was swept by a tidal wave in 1849, and Concepci6n and
Talcahuano were similarly destroyed in 1835. The great earth-
quake which partially destroyed Valparaiso in 1906, however, was
not followed by a tidal wave. These violent shocks are usually
limited to comparatively small districts, though the vibrations may
be felt at long distances from the centre of disturbance. In this
respect Chile may be divided into at least four great earthquake
areas, two in the desert region, the third enclosing Valparaiso, and
the fourth extending from Concepcion to Chiloe. A study of Chilean
earthquake phenomena, however, would probably lead to a division
of southern Chile into two or more distinct earthquake areas.

The coast of Chile is fringed with an extraordinary number of
islands extending from Chiloe S. to Cape Horn, the grouping of which
£.. shows that they are in part the summits of a submerged
mountain chain, a continuation southward of the Cor-
dillera Maritima. Three groups of these islands, called the Chiloe,
Guaytecas and Chonos archipelagoes, lie N. of the Taytao peninsula
(lat. 45° 50' to 46° 55' S.), and with the mainland to the E. form the
province of Chiloe. The largest of these is the island of Chiloe, which
is inhabited. Some of the smaller islands of these groups are also in-
habited, though the excessive rainfall of these latitudes and the
violent westerly storms render them highly unfavourable for human
occupation. Some of the smallest islands are barren rocks, but the
majority of them are covered with forests. These archipelagoes are
separated from the mainland in the north by the gulfs of Chacao
(or Ancud) and Corcovado, 30 to 35 m. wide, which appear to be a
submerged part of the great central valley of Chile, and farther south
by the narrower Moraleda channel, which terminates southward
in a confusing network of passages between the mainland and the
islands of the Chonos group. One of the narrow parts of the Chilean
mainland is to be found opposite the upper islands of this group,
where the accidental juxtaposition of Magdalena island, which in-
dents the continent over half a degree at this point, and the basin
of Lake Fontana, which gives the Argentine boundary a sharp

wedge-shaped projection westward, narrows the distance between
the two to about 26 m. The Taytao peninsula, incorrectly called
the Tres Monies on some maps, is a westward projection of the
mainland, with which it is connected by the narrow isthmus of Ofqui,
over which the natives and early missionaries were accustomea to
carry their boats between the Moraleda Channel and Gulf of Penas.
A short ship canal here would give an uninterrupted and protected
inside passage from Chacao Channel all the way to the Straits of
Magellan, a distance of over 760 m. A southern incurving pro-
jection of the outer shore-line of this peninsula is known as Tres
Montes peninsula, the most southern point of which is a cape of the
same name. _ Below the Taytao peninsula is the broad open Gulf
of Penas, which carries the coast-line eastward fully 100 m. and is
noticeably free from islands. The northern entrance to Messier
Channel is through this gulf. Messier, Pitt, Sarmiento and Smyth's
Channels, which form a comparatively safe and remarkably pictur-
esque inside route for small steamers, about 338 m. in length,
separate another series of archipelagoes from the mainland. These
channels are in _ places_ narrow ana tortuous. Among the islands
which thickly fringe this part of the coast, the largest are Azopardo
(lying within Baker Inlet), Prince Henry, Campana, Little
Wellington, Great Wellington and Mornington (of the Wellington
archipelago), Madre de Dios, Duke of Yorjc, Chatham, Hanover,
Cambridge, Contreras, Rennell and the Queen Adelaide group of
small barren rocks and islands lying immediately north of the
Pacific entrance to the Straits_of Magellan. The large number of
English names on this coast is due to the fact that the earliest
detailed survey of this region was made by English naval officers;
the charts prepared from their surveys are still in use and form the
basis of all subsequent maps. None of these islands is inhabited,
although some of them are of large size, the largest (Great Welling-
ton) being about 100 m. long. It has likewise been determined, since
the boundary dispute with Argentina called attention to these ter-
ritories and led to their careful exploration at the points in dispute,
that Skyring Water, in lat. 53° S., opens westward into the Gulf
of Xaultegua, which transforms Ponsonby Land and Cordoba (or
Croker) peninsula into an island, to which the name of Riesco has
been given. The existence of such a channel was considered probable
when these inland waters were first explored in 1829 by Captain
FitzRoy, but it was not discovered and surveyed until three-quarters
of a century had elapsed. Belonging to the Fuegian group south
of the Straits of Magellan are Desolation, Santa Ines, Clarence,
Dawson, Londonderry, Hoste, Navarin and Wpllaston islands, with
innumerable smaller islands and rocks fringing their shores and
filling the channels between them. Admirable descriptions of this
inhospitable region, the farthest south of the inhabited parts of
the globe, may be found in the Narrative of the Surveying Voyages
of His Majesty's Ships "Adventure" and "Beagle" between the years
1826 and 1836 (3 vols., 1839).

The western and larger part of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.) belongs to
Chile. About 63 m. S.W. of Cape Horn, in lat. 56* 25' S., is the
Diego Ramirez group of small, rocky islands, the most southern
possession of the republic. Its westernmost possessions are Sala-y-
Gomez and Easter islands, the former in about 27° S., 105° W., and
the latter, the easternmost inhabited Polynesian island, jn 27° 6' S.,
109" 17' W. Much nearer the Chilean coast (396 m.), lying between
the 33rd and 34th parallels, are the three islands of the Juan Fer-
nandez group, and rising apparently from the same submerged
plateau about 500 m. farther north of the latter are the rocky islets
of San Ambrosio and San Felix, all belonging to Chile. North of
Chiloe there are few islands in close proximity to the coast. The
more important of these are La Mocha, off the southern coast of
Arauco, in lat. 38° 20' S., which is 8 m. long and rises to an elevation
of 1240 ft. above the sea; Santa Maria, 30 m. south-west of Con-
cepcion, which partially encloses the Bay of Arauco and is well
cultivated ; and Quinquina, lying off the port of Talcahuano in the
entrance to Concepcion bay. There are a few barren islands on the
desert coast, the largest of which are between Coquimbo and Caldera.
Since the removal of their guano deposits they have become practi-
cally worthless, except where they serve to shelter anchorages.

The coast of northern and central Chile is singularly deficient in
good harbours. Those of the desert region are only slight inden-
tations in a remarkably uniform coast-line, sheltered on Harl)a
one side by a point of land, or small island. The landings
are generally dangerous because of the surf, and the anchorages are
unsafe from storms on the unprotected side. Among the most
frequented of these are Valparaiso, Coquimbo, Caldera, fquique and
Arica. There are some small harbours for coasting vessels of light
draught along the coast of central Chile, usually at the partially
obstructed mouths of the larger rivers, as San Antonio near the
mouth of the Maipo, Constituci6n at the mouth of the Maule, and
Llico on the outlet of Lake Vichuquen, but there is no harbour of
importance until Concepci6n (or Talcahuano) Bay is reached.
There are three harbours on this bay, El Tome, Penco and Talca-
huano (?.».), the last being the largest and best-protected port on
the inhabited part of the Chilean coast. Immediately south of this
bay is the large Bay of Arauco, into which the Bio-Bio river dis-
charges, and on which, sheltered by the island of Santa Maria, are
the ports of Coronel and Lota. The next important harbour is that
of El Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia river and 15 m. below

144

CHILE

[GEOGRAPHY

the city of Valdivia. The Bay of San Carlos on the northern coast
of Chiloe, which opens upon the narrow Chacao channel, has the port
of Ancud, or San Carlos, and is rated an excellent harbour for
vessels of light and medium draught. Inside the island of Chilod
the large gulfs of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado are well pro-
tected from the severe westerly storms of these latitudes, but they
are little used because the approach through the Chacao channel is
tortuousand only 2 to 3 m. wide, and the two gulfs, though over 30 m.
wide and 150 m. long, are beset with small rocky islands. At the
north end of the first is the Reloncavi, a large and nearly landlocked
bay, on which stands Puerto Montt, the southern terminus of the
Chilean central railway. The large Gulf of Peftas, south of Taytao
peninsula, is open to the westerly storms of the Pacific, but it affords
entrance to several natural harbours. Among these are the Gulfs
of Tres Monies and San Estevan, and Tarn Bay at the entrance to
Messier Channel. The next 300 m. of the Chilean coast contain
numerous bays and inlets affording safe harbours, but the mainland
and islands are uninhabited and the climate inhospitable. Behind
Rennell Island in lat. 52° S., however, is a succession of navigable
estuaries which penetrate inland nearly to the Argentine frontier.
The central part of this group of estuaries is called Worsley Sound,
and the last and farthest inland of its arms is Last Hope Inlet
(Ultima Esperanza), on which is situated the Chilean agricultural
colony of Puerto Consuelo. The Straits of Magellan, about 360 m. in
length, lie wholly within Chilean territory. Midway of them is situ-
ated Punta Arenas, the most southern town and port of the republic.
Except in the extreme south the hydrography of Chile is of the
simplest description, all the larger rivers having their sources in the
„. Andes and flowing westward to the Pacific. Their courses

are necessarily short, and only a few have navigable
channels, the aggregate length of which is only 705 m. Nearly all
rivers in the desert region are lost in the sands long before reaching
the coast. Their waterless channels are interesting, however, as evi-
dence of a time when climatological conditions on this coast were
different. The principal rivers of this region are Sama (which forms
the provisional boundary line with Peru), Tacna, Camarones, Loa,
Copiapo, Huasco, Elqui, Limari and Choapa. The Loa is the
largest, having its sources on the slopes of the Cordillera south of
the Minho volcano, between 21° and 21° 30' S. lat., and flowing
south on an elevated plateau to Chiuchiu, and thence west and
north in a great curve to Quillaga, whence its dry channel turns
westward again and reaches the Pacific in lat. 21° 28' S., a few miles
south of the small port of Huanillos. Its total length is estimated at
250 m. The upper courses of the river are at a considerable elevation
above the sea and receive a large volume of water from the Cor-
dilleras. The water of its upper course and tributaries is sweet,
and is conducted across the desert in pipes to some of the coast towns,
but in its lower course, as in all the rivers of this region, it becomes
brackish. The Copiap6, which once discharged into the sea, is now
practically exhausted in irrigating a small fertile valley in which
stands the city of that name. The Copiapo and Huasco have com-
paratively short courses, but they receive a considerable volume of
water from the higher sierras. The latter is also used to irrigate a
small, cultivated valley. The rivers of the province of Coquimboy-
the Elqui or Coquimbo, Limari and Choapa — exist under less arid
conditions, and like those of the province of Aconcagua — the Ligua
and Aconcagua — are used to irrigate a much larger area of culti-
vated territory. The central agricultural provinces are traversed by
several important rivers, all of them rising on the western slopes of
the snow-clad Andes and breaking through the jower coast range
to the Pacific after being extensively used to irrigate the great
central valley of Chile; These are the Maipo (Maypo or Maipu),
Rapel, Mataquito, Maule, Itata, Bio-Bio, Imperial, Tolten, Valdivia
or Calle-Calle, Bueno and Maullin. With the exception of the first
three, these rivers have short navigable channels, but they are open
only to vessels of light draught because of sand-bars at their mouths.
The largest is the Bio-Bio, which has a total length of 220 m., 100 of
which are navigable. These rivers have been, of great service in the
agricultural development of this part of Chile, affording means of
transportation where railways and highways were entirely jacking.
Some of the larger tributaries of these rivers, whose economic value
has been equally great, are the Mapocho, which flows through
Santiago and enters the Maipo from the north; the turbulent
Cachapoal, which joins the Rapel from the north; the Claro, which
waters an extensive part of the province of Talca and enters the
Maule from the north; the Ruble, which rises in the higher Andes
north of the peaks of Chilian and flows entirely across the province
of Nuble to join the Itata on its western frontier; the Laja, which
rises in a lake of the same name near the Argentine frontier in about
lat. 35° 30' S. and flows almost due west to the Bio-Bio; and the
Cautin, which rises in the north-east corner of Cautin and after a
tortuous course westward nearly across that province forms the
principal confluent of the Imperial. The unsettled southern regions
of Chuoe (mainland) and Magallanes are traversed by a number of
important rivers which have been only partially explored. They
have their sources in the Andes, some of them on the eastern side
of the line of highest summits. The Puelo has its origin in a lake of
the same name in Argentine territory, and flows north-west through
the Cordilleras into an estuary (Reloncavi Inlet) of the Gulf of
Reloncavi at the northern end of the Gulf of Chacao. Its lower

course is impeded in such a manner as to form three small lakes,
called Superior, Inferior and Taguatagua. A large northern tribu-
tary of the Puclo, the Manso, has its sources in Lake Mascardi and
other lakes and streams south-east of the Cerro Trpnador, also in
Argentina, and flows south-west through the Cordilleras to unite
with the Puelo a few miles west of the 72nd meridian. The Relon-
cavi Inlet also receives the outflow of Lake Todos los Santos through
a short tortuous stream called the Petrohue. The Comau Inlet and
river form the boundary line between the provinces of Llanquihue
and Chilo£, and traverse a densely wooded country in a north-
westerly direction from the Andes to the north-eastern shore of the
Gulf of Chacao. Continuing southward, the Yelcho is the next
important river to traverse this region. It drains a large area of
Argentineterritory, whereit is called the RioFetaleufuorFetalauquen,
its principal source being a large lake of the same name. It flows
south-west through the Andes, and then north-west through Lake
Yelcho to the Gulf of Corcovado. The Argentine colony of the i6th
of October, settled principally by Welshmen from Chubut, is located
on some of the upper tributaries of this river, in about lat. 43" S.
The Palena is another river of the same character, having its source
in a large frontier lake called General Paz and flowing for some
distance through Argentine territory before crossing into Chile.
It receives one large tributary from the south, the Rio Pico, and
enters an estuary of the Gulf of Corcovado a little north of the 441(1
parallel. The Frias is wholly a Chilean river, draining an extensive
Andean region between the 44th and 45th parallels and discharging
into the Puyuguapi channel, which separates Magdalena island
from the mainland. The Aisen also has its source in Argentine
territory near the 4&th parallel, and drains a mountainous region as
far north as the 45th parallel, receiving numerous tributaries, and
discharging a large volume of water into the Moraleda channel in
about lat. 45° 20 S. The lower course of this river is essentially an
inlet, and is navigable for a short distance. The next large river is
the Las Heras, or Baker, through which the waters of Lakes Buenos
Aires and Pueyrredon, or Cocnrane, find their way to the Pacific.
Both of these large lakes are crossed by the boundary line. The
Las Heras discharges into Martinez Inlet, the northern part of a large
estuary called Baker or Calen Inlet which penetrates the mainland
about 75 m. and opens into Tarn Bay at the south-east corner of the
Gulf of Pefias. Azopardo (or Merino Jarpa) island lies wholly within
this great estuary, while at its mouth lies a group of smaller islands,
called Baker Islands, which separate it from Messier Channel. The
course of the Las Heras from Lake Buenos Aires is south and south-
west, the short range of mountains in which are found the Cerros
San Valentin and Arenales forcing it southward for an outlet.
Baker Inlet also receives the waters of stilj another large Argentine-
Chilean lake, San Martin, whose far-reaching fjord-like arms extend
from lat. 49° 10' to 48° 20' S. ; its north-west arm drains into the
Tcro, or La Pascua, river. Lake San Martin lies in a crooked deeply
cut passage through the Andes, and the divide between its southern
extremity (Laguna Tar) and Lake Viedma, which discharges through
the Santa Cruz river into the Atlantic, is so slight as to warrant the
hypothesis that this was once a strait between the two oceans.
After a short north-westerly course the Tore discharges into Baker
Inlet in lat. 48° 15' S., long. 73° 24' W. South of the Toro there are
no large rivers on this coast, but the narrow fjords penetrate deeply
into the mountains and bring away the drainage of their snow-capped,
storm-swept elevations. A peculiar network of fjords and connecting
channels terminating inland in a peculiarly shaped body of water
with long, widely branching arms, called Worsley Sound, Obstruction
Sound and Last Hope Inlet, covers an extensive area between the
5 ist and 53rd parallels, and extends nearjy to the Argentine frontier.
It has the characteristics of a tidewater river and drains an extensive
region. The sources of the Argentine river Coile are to be found
among the lakes and streams of this same region, within Chilean
territory. A noteworthy peculiarity of southern Chile, from the
Taytao peninsula (about 46° 50' S. lat.) to Tierra del Fuego, is the
large number of glaciers formed on the western and southern slopes
of the Cordilleras and other high elevations, which discharge direct
into these deeply cut estuaries. Some of the larger lakes of the
Andes have glaciers discharging into them. The formation of these
icy streams at comparatively low levels, with their discharge direct
into tidewater estuaries, is a phenomenon not to be found elsewhere
in the same latitudes.

The lakes of Chile are numerous and important, but they are
found chiefly in the southern half of the republic. In the north the
only lakes are large lagoons, or morasses, on the upper , .
saline plateaus between the 23rd and 28th parallels.
They are fed from the melting snows and periodical storms of the
higher Andes, and most of them are completely dry part of the year.
Their waters are saturated with saline compounds, which in some
cases have considerable commercial value. In central Chile above
the Bio-Bio river the lakes are small and have no special geographical
interest, with the exception perhaps of the Laguna del Maule, in
36° 7' S., and Laguna de la Laja, in 37° 20' .which lie in the Andes
near the Argentine frontier and are sources of the two rivers of the
same names. Below the Bio-Bio river there is a line of large pictur-
esque lakes extending from the province of Cautin, south through
that of Llanquihue, corresponding in character and position to the
dry lacustrine depressions extending northward in the same valley.

GEOLOGY: CLIMATE]

CHILE

They lie on the eastern side near the Cordilleras, and serve the
purpose of great reservoirs for the excessive precipitation of rain
and snow on their western slopes. With one exception they all drain
westward into the Pacific through short and partly navigable rivers,
and some of the lakes are also utilized for steamship navigation.
These lakes are Villarica on the southern frontier of Cautin, Rinihue
and Ranco in Valdivia, and Puyehue, Rupanco, Llanquihue and
Todos los Santos in Llanquihue. The largest of the number are Lakes
Ranco and Llanquihue, the former with an estimated area of 200
sq. m. and the latter of 300 so. m. Lake Todos los Santos is situated
well within the Andean foothills north-east of Puerto Montt and at an
elevation of 509 ft., considerably above that of the other lakes,
Lake Ranco being 230 ft. above sea-level. The great Andean lakes of
General Paz (near the 44th parallel), Buenos Aires (in lat. 46° 30' S.),
Pueyrredon, or Cochrane (47° 15' S.) and San Martin (49° S.), lie
partly within Chilean territory. _In the extreme south are Lagoa
Blanca, a large fresh-water lake in lat. 52° 30' S., and two large
inland salt-water sounds, or lagoons, called Otway Water and
Skyring Water, connected by FitzRoy Passage.

Geology. — Chile may be divided longitudinally into two regions
which differ from each other in their geological structure. Along
the coast lies a belt of granite and schist overlaid unconformably
by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits; inland the mountains are
formed chiefly of folded Mesozoic beds, together with volcanic rocks
of later date. The great ^longitudinal valley of Chile runs approxi-
mately, but only approximately, along the boundary between the
two zones. Towards the north the coastal zone disappears beneath
the sea and the Andean zone reaches to the shore. The ancient
rocks which form the most characteristic feature of the former do
indeed occur upon the coast of Peru, but in the north of Chile they
are found only in isolated masses standing close to the shore or, as at
Meiillones, projecting into the sea. South of Antofagasta the old
rocks form a nearly continuous band along the coast, extending as
far as Cape Horn and Staten Island, and occupying the greater part
of the islands of southern Chile. Lithologically they are crystalline
schists, together with granite, diorite, gabbro and other igneous rocks.
They are known to be pre- Jurassic, but whether they are Palaeozoic
or Archaean is uncertain. They are strongly folded and are overlaid
unconformably by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. In the north
both the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds of this zone are limited in
extent, but towards the south Mesozoic beds, which are at least in part
Cretaceous, form a band of considerable width. The Tertiary beds
include both marine and terrestrial deposits, and appear to be chiefly
of Miocene and Pliocene age. The whole of'the north part of Tierra
del Fuego is occupied by plateaus of horizontal Tertiary strata.

The Chilean Andes correspond with the Western Cordillera of
Bolivia and Peru, and consist almost entirely of Jurassic and Cre-
taceous beds, together with the products of the Tertiary eruptions.
The Mesozoic beds are thrown into a series of parallel folds which run
in the direction of the chain and which are generally free from any
complications such as overthrusting or overfolding. The Cretaceous
beds form a synclinal upon the eastern side of the chain (and, in
general, beyond the Chilean boundary), while the Jurassic beds are
thrown into a number of folds which form the axis and the western
flank. Through the Mesozoic beds are intruded granitic and other
igneous rocks of Tertiary age, and upon the folded Mesozoic founda-
tion rise the volcanic cones of Tertiary and later date. The Trias
is known only at La Ternera near Copiapo, where coal-seams with
Rhaetic plants have been found ; but thfe rest of the Mesozoic series,
from the Lias to the Upper Cretaceous, appears to be represented
without a break of more than local importance. The deposits are
marine, consisting mainly of sandstone and limestone, together with
tuffs and conglomerates of porphyry and porphyrite. These porphy-
ritic rocks form a characteristic feature of the southern Andes,
and were at one time supposed to be metamorphic; but they are
certainly volcanic, and as they contain marine fossils they must have
been laid down beneath the sea. They are not confined to any one
horizon, but occur irregularly throughout the Jurassic and occasion-
ally also amongst the Cretaceous strata. They form, in fact, a special
facies which may frequently be traced laterally into the more normal
marine deposit of the same age. The fauna of the Mesozoic beds
is very rich, and includes forms which are found in northern Europe,
others which occur in central Europe, and others again which are
characteristic of the Mediterranean region. It lends no support to
Neumayr's theory of climatic zones. A large part of the chain is
covered by the products of the great volcanoes which still form the
highest summits of the Chilean and Argentine Andes. The rocks are
Kparites, dacites, hornblende and pyroxene andesites. The recent
lavas of the still active volcanoes of the south are olivine-bearing
hypersthene-andesite and basalt.1

Climate. — The climate of Chile varies widely, from the tropical

1 See A. Pissis, " Sur la constitution geologique de la chaine
des Andes entre le i6e et le 55" degre de latitude sud," Ann.
des mines, ser. 7, vol. iii. (Mem.), 1873, pp. 402-426, pis. ix., x. ;

Burckhardt, " Profils geolpgiques transversaux de la Cordillere
argentino-chilienne. Stratigraphie et tectonique," AnoJ.es Mus.

heat and extreme arid conditions of the northern coast to the low
temperatures and extreme humidity of western Tierra del Fuego
and the southern coast. The high altitudes of the Andean region
also introduce vertical zones of temperature, modified to some extent
by the rainless plateaus of the north, and by the excessive rainfall
of the south. In general terms it may be said that the extremes of
temperature are not so great as in corresponding latitudes of the
northern hemisphere, because of the greater expanse of water in
comparison with the land areas, the summers being cooler and the
winters warmer. The cold antarctic, or Humboldt, current sweeps
northward along the coast and greatly modifies the heat of the arid,
tropical plateaus. The climate of northern and central Chile is
profoundly affected by the high mountain barrier on xhe eastern
frontier and by the broad treeless pampas of Argentina, which raise
the easterly moisture-laden winds from the Atlantic to so high an
elevation that they sweep across Chile without leaving a drop of
rain. At very rare intervals light rains fall in the desert regions
north of Coquimbo, but these are brought by the prevailing coast
winds. With this exception these regions are the most arid on the
face of the globe, highly heated by a tropical sun during the day
and chilled at night by the proximity of snow-covered heights and a
cold ocean current. Going south the temperature slowly falls and the
rainfall gradually increases, the year being divided into a short
rainy season and a long, dry, cloudless season. At Copiapo, in

S-, 1755 ft- above the sea, the mean temperature is 54° and the
annual rainfall i6J in., though the latter varies considerably.
The number of rainy days in the year averages about 21. At Talca,
in 35° 36' S. and 334 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual temperature
is nearly one degree above that of Santiago, but the rainfall has
increased to 19-7 in. The long dry season of this region makes ir-
rigation necessary, and vegetation has something ofa subtropical
appearance, palms growing naturally as far south as 37°. The
climate is healthy and agreeable, though the death-rate among the
common people is abnormally high on account of personal habits and
unsanitary surroundings. In southern Chile the blimate undergoes
a radical change — the prevailing winds becoming westerly, causing a
long rainy season with a phenomenal rainfall. The plains as well
as the western slopes of the Andes are covered with forest, the rivers
become torrents, and the sky is covered with heavy clouds a great
part of the year. At Valdivia, in 39° 49' S. and near the sea-level,
the mean annual temperature is 52-9° and the annual rainfall 108
to 115 in., with about 150 rainy days in the year. These meteoro-
logical conditions are still more accentuated at Ancud, at the north
end of the island of Chiloe, in 41° 46' S., where the mean annual
temperature is 50-7° and the annual rainfall 134 in. The equable
character of the climate at this point is shown by the limited range
between its summer and winter temperatures, the mean for January
being 56-5° and the mean for July 45-9°. The almost continual
cloudiness is undoubtedly a principal cause, not only of the low
summer temperatures, but also of the comparatively high winter
temperatures. Frosts are infrequent, and snow does not lie long.
The climate is considered to be healthful notwithstanding the
excessive humidity. The 6op m. of coast from the Chonos Archi-
pelago south to the Fuegian islands have a climate closely approxi-
mating that of the latter. It is wet and stormy all the year through,
though the rainfall is much less than that of Ancud and Valdivia.
The line of perpetual snow, which is 6000 ft. above sea-level between
lat. 41° and 43°, descends to 3500 (to 4000) ft. in Tierra del Fuego,
affording another indication of the low maximum temperatures ruling
during the summer. At the extreme south, where Chilean territory
extends across to the Atlantic entrance to the Straits of Magellan,
a new climatic influence is encountered in the warm equatorial
current flowing down the east coast of South America, which eives
to eastern Tierra del Fuego a higher temperature than that of the
western shore. The Andes, although much broken in these latitudes,
also exert a modifying influence on these eastern districts, sheltering
them from the cold westerly storms and giving them a drier climate.
This accounts for the surprising meteorological data obtained from
Punta Arenas, in 53° 10' S., where the mean annual temperature is
43-2° and the annual rainfall only 22-5 in. Other observations reduce
this annual precipitation to less than 1 6 in. According to observations
made by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1901-1903), at Orange
Bay, Hoste Island, in lat. 55° 31' S., long. 68* 05' W., which is more
exposed to the westerly storms, the mean temperature for 1 1 months
was 41-98° and the total precipitation (rain and snow) 53-1 in.
The mean maximum temperature was 49-24°, and the mean minimum
35-83°. The observations showed 284 days with rain or snow, of
which 70 were with snow.

Flora. — The indigenous flora of Chile is less extensive and less
interesting than those of Argentina and Brazil, but contains many
peculiar genera and species. A classification of this flora necessitates

La Plata, 1900, and " Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Jura- und Kreide-
formation der Cordillere," Palaeontographica, vol. 1. (1903-1904),
pp. 1-144, P'S- i.-xyi. ; see also a series of papers on South American
geology by G. Steinmann and his collaborators in Neues Jakrb. far
Min. Beil.-band viii. et seq.

146

CHILE

[FLORA AND FAUNA

its division into at least three general zones — the desert provinces
of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of the south.
The first is an arid desert absolutely barren along part of the coast,
between Tacna and Copiap6, but with a coarse scanty vegetation
near the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the slopes where
moisture from the melting snows above percolates through the sand.
In the valleys of the Copiap6 and Huasco rivers a meagre vegetation
is to be found near their channels, apart from what is produced by
irrigation, but the surface of the plateau and the dry river channels
below the sierras are completely barren. Continuing southward
into the province of Coquimbo a gradual change in the arid conditions
may be observed. The higher summits of the Cordilleras afford a
larger and more continuous supply of water, and so dependent are
the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water
supply that they watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an
indication of what the coming season is to be. The arborescent
growth near the mountains is larger and more vigorous, in which are
to be found the " algarrobo " (Prosopis siliquastrum) and " chanar "
(Gourliea chtiensis), but the only shrub to be found on the coast is a
species of Skytanthus. Near the sierras where irrigation is possible,
fruit-growing is so successful, especially the grape and fig, that the
product is considered the best in Chile. In regard to the indigenous
flora of this region John Ball1 says: "The species which grow here
are the more or less modified representatives of plants which at
some former period existed under very different conditions of life."
Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a dwarfed species,
and then a larger columnar form (Cereus quisco). The streams are
fringed with willows; fruit trees and alfalfa fields fill the irrigated
valleys, and the lower mountain slopes are better covered with a
thorny arborescent growth. The divides between the streams,
however, continue barren as far south as the transverse ranges of
mountains across the province of Aconcagua.

To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character
between the northern and southern zones. It is much more than
this, however, for it has a large number of genera and species peculiarly
its own. A large majority of the 198 genera peculiar to the South
American temperate regions belong exclusively to central Chile.
This zone extends from about the 3Oth to the 36th parallel, perhaps
a little farther south to include some characteristic types. The
evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south,
and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a sub-
tropical aspect. One of the most characteristic trees of this zone is
the peumo (Cryptocarya peumus), whose dense evergreen foliage is
everywhere conspicuous. The quillay (Quillaja saponaria) is another
characteristic evergreen tree of this region, whose bark possesses
saponaceous properties. In earlier times the coquito palm (Jubaea
spectabilis) was to be found throughout this part of Chile, but it has
been almost completely destroyed for its saccharine sap, from which
a treacle was made. One of the most striking forest trees is the
pehuen or Chilean pine (Araucaria imbricata), which often grows
to a height of lop ft. and is prized by the natives for its fruit. Three
indigenous species of the beech — the roble (Fagus obligua), coyhue
(F. Dombeyi), and rauli (F. procera) — are widely diffused and highly
prized for their wood, especially the first, which is misleadingly called
roUe (oak). Most of the woods used in construction and manu-
factures are found between the Bio-Bio river and the Taytao
peninsula, among which are the alerce (Fitzroya patagonica), cipres
or Chiloe cypress (Libocedrus tetragona), the Chilean cypress (L.
Chilensis), hngue (Per sea lingue), laurel (Laurus aromatica), ayella.no
(Guevina avellana), lunia (Myrtus luma), espino (Acacia cavenia) and
many others. Several exotic species have been introduced into this
part of Chile, some of which have thriven even better than in their
native habitats* Among these are the oak, elm, beech (F. sylvatica),
walnut, chestnut, poplar, willow and eucalyptus. Through the
central zone_ the plains are open and there are forests on the mountain
slopes, but in the southern zone there are no plains, with the excep-
tion of small areas near the Straits of Magellan, and the forests are
universal. In the variety, size and density of their growth these
forests remind one of the tropics. They are made up, in great part,
of the evergreen beech (Fagus betuloides), the deciduous antarctic
beech (F. antarctica) ,2 and Winter's bark (Drimys Winteri), inter-
mingled with a dense undergrowth composed of a great variety of
shrubs and plants, among which are Maytenus magellanica, Arbutus
rigida, Myrtus memmolaria, two or three species of Berberis, wild
currant (Ribes antarctica), a trailing blackberry, tree ferns, reed-like
grasses and innumerable parasites. On the eastern side of the
Cordillera, in the extreme south, the climate is drier and open,
and grassy plains are found, but on the western side the dripping
forests extend from an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft. down to the level
of the sea. A peculiar vegetable product of this inclement region
is a small globular fungus growing on the bark of the beech, which
is a staple article of food among the Fuegians — probably the only
instance where a fungus is the bread of a people.

It is generally conceded that the potato originated in southern
Chile, as it is found growing wild in Chiloe and neighbouring islands
and on the adjacent mainland. The strawberry is also indigenous
to these latitudes on both sides of the Andes, and Chile is credited

1 Notes of a Naturalist in South America, p. 134.
1 Also classified as Nothofagus (Mirb.).

with a species from which the cultivated strawberry derives some of
its best qualities. Maize and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) were
known in Chile before the arrival of Europeans, but it is not
certain that they are indigenous. Species of the bean and pepper
plant are also indigenous, and the former is said to have been
cultivated by the natives. Among the many economic plants
which have been introduced into Chile and have become important
additions to her resources, the more prominent are wheat, barley,
hemp and alfalfa (Medicago saliva), together with the staple European
fruits, such as the apple, pear, peach, nectarine, grape, fig, olive
and orange. The date-palm has also been introduced into the
southern provinces of the desert region. Among the marine pro-
ductions on the southern coast, a species of kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera,
merits special mention because of its extraordinary length, its habit
of clinging to the rocks in strong currents and turbulent seas, and
its being a shelter for innumerable species of marine animals. Captain
FitzRoy found it growing from a depth of 270 ft.

Fauna.— The fauna of Chile is comparatively poor, both in species
and individuals. A great part of the northern deserts is as barren
of animal life as of vegetation, and the dense humid forests of the
south shelter surprisingly few species. There are no large mammals
in all this extensive region except the Cetacea and a species of the
Phocidae of southern waters. Neither are there any dangerous
species of Carnivora, which are represented by the timid puma
(Felis concolor), three species of wildcats, three of the fox, two of
Conepatus, a weasel, sea-otter and six species of seal. The rodents
are the most numerously represented order, which includes the coypu
or nutria (Myopotamus coypus), the chinchilla (Chinchilla laniger),
the tucc-tuco (Ctenomys brasiliensis), a rabbit, and 12 species of
mice — in all some 12 genera and 25 species. The coypu, sometimes
called the South American beaver, inhabits the river;banks, and is
highly prized for its fur. It is also found along the river-courses
of Argentina. The ruminants are represented by a few species only —
the guanaco (Auchenia huanaco), vicuna (A. vicugna), huemul (Cervus
chilensis), which appears on the Chilean escutcheon, and the pudu
deer, a small and not very numerous species. There are two species
of the Edentata, Dasypus and Pichiciego, the latter very rare, and
one of the opossums. European animals, such as horses, cattle,
sheep, swine and goats, have been introduced into the country and
do well. Sheep-raising has also been inaugurated with some degree
of success in the vicinity of the Straits of Magellan. The avifauna,
with the exception of waterfowl, is also limited to comparatively
few species. Birds of prey are represented by the condor, vulture,
two species of the carrion-hawk (Polyborus), and owl. The Chilean
slopes of the Andes appear to be a favourite haunt of the condor,
where neighbouring stock-raisers suffer severe losses at times from
its attacks. The Insessores are represented by a number of species.
Parrots are found as far south as Tierra del Fuego, where Darwin
saw them feeding on seeds of the Winter's bark. Humming-birds
have a similar range on this coast, one species (Mettisuga Kingii)
being quite numerous as far south as Tierra del Fuego. A character-
istic_genus is that of Pteroptochus, of which there are three or four
species each characterized by some conspicuous peculiarity. These
are P. megapodius, called El Turco by the natives, which is noticeable
for its ungainly appearance and awkward gait; the P. albicoUis,
which inhabits barren hillsides and is called tapacollo from the manner
of carrying its tail turned far forward over its back ; the P. rubecula,
of Chiloe, a small timid denizen of the gloomy forest, called the
cheucau or chuca, whose two or three notes are believed by the
superstitious natives to be auguries of impending success or disaster ;
and an allied species (Hylactes Tarnii, King) called the guid-guid or
barking bird, whose cry is a close imitation ot the yelp of a small dog.
The southern coast and its inland waters are frequented by several
species of petrel, among which are the Procellaria gigantea, whose
strength and rapacity led the Spaniards to call it quebranta huesos
(breakbones), the Puffinus cinereus, which inhabits the inland
channels in large flocks, and an allied species (Puffinuria Berardii)
which inhabits the inland sounds and resembles the auk in some
particulars of habit and appearance. There are numerous species
in these sheltered channels, inlets and sounds of geese, ducks, swans,
cormorants, ibises, bitterns, red-beaks, curlew, snipe, plover and
moorhens. Conspicuous among these are the great white swan
(Cygnus anatoides), the black-necked swan (Anser nigricollis), the
antarctic goose (Anas antarctica) and the " race-horse ' or " steamer
duck " (Micropterus brachypterus).

The marine fauna is less known than the others, but it is rich in
species and highly interesting in its varied forms and characteristics.
The northern coast has no sheltered waters of any considerable
extent, and the shore slopes abruptly to a great depth, which gives
it a marine life of no special importance. In the shoal waters about
Juan Fernandez are found a species of codfish (possibly Gadus
macrocephalus), differing in some particulars from the Newfoundland
cod, and a large crayfish, both of which are caught for the Valparaiso
market. The sheltered waters of the broken southern coast, however,
are rich in fish and molluscs, especially in mussels, limpets and
barnacles, which are the principal food resource of the nomadic
Indian tribes of those regions. A large species of barnacle, Balanus
psittacus, is found in great abundance from Concepcion to Puerto
Montt, and is not only eaten by the natives, by whom it is called
pica, but is also esteemed a great delicacy in the markets of Valparaiso

CHILE

POPULATION]

and Santiago. Oysters of excellent flavour are found in the sheltered
waters of Chiloe. The Cetacea, which frequent these southern
waters, are represented by four species — two dolphins and the sperm
and right whale— and the Phocidae by six species, one of which
(Phoca lupina) differs but little from the common seal. Another
species (Macrorhinus leoninus), popularly known as the sea-elephant,
isprovided with short tusks and a short trunk and sometimes grows
to a length of 20 ft. Still another species, the sea-lion (Otana jubata) ,
furnishes the natives of Tierra del Fuego with an acceptable article
of food, but like the Phoca lupina it is becoming scarce.

Of Reptilia Chile is singularly free, there being recorded only eleven
species — five saurians, four ophidians, one Frog and one toad —
but a more thorough survey of the uninhabited territories of the
south may increase this list. There are no alligators in the streams,
and the tropical north has very few lizards. There are no poisonous
snakes in the country, and, in a region so filled with lakes and rivers
as the rainy south, only two species of batrachians. The insect life
of these strangely associated regions is likewise greatly restricted by
adverse climatic conditions, a considerable part of the northern
desert being absolutely barren of animal and vegetable life, while the
climateof Tierra delFuegoand the southern coast is highly unfavour-
able to terrestrial animal life, for which reason comparatively few
species are to be found. Writing of a journey inland from Iquique,
Charles Darwin says (Journal of Researches, &c., p. 444) : " Excepting
the Vultur aura, ... I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor
insect." Of his entomological collection in Tierra del Fuego, which
was not large, the majority were of Alpine species. Moreover, he
did not find a single species common to that island and Patagonia.
These conditions subsist with but few modifications, if any, from the
Straits northward to the d2nd parallel, the extreme humidity,
abnormal rainfall and dark skies being unfavourable to the develop-
ment of insect life, while the Andes interpose an impassable barrier
to migration from the countries of the eastern coast. The only
venomous species to be found in central Chile is that of a spider
which frequents the wheat fields in harvest time.

Population. — The population of Chile is largely concentrated
in the twelve agricultural provinces between and including
Coquimbo and Concepci6n, though the next six provinces to the
south, of more recent general settlement, have received some
foreign immigrants, and are rapidly growing. In the desert
provinces the population is limited to the mining communities,
and to the ports and supply stations maintained for their support
and for the transport, smelting and export of their produce.
The province of Atacama has, in addition to its mining popula-
tion, a considerable number of agriculturists located in a few
irrigated river valleys, which class is largely increased in the
adjoining province of Coquimbo. The more northern provinces,
however, maintain their populations without the support of such
small cultivated areas. In the southern territories unfavourable
conditions of a widely different character prevail, and the
population is restricted to a few small settlements and some
nomadic tribes of Indians. Here, however, there are localities
where settlements could be maintained by ordinary means and
the population could be greatly increased. Since the census
of 1895 the population of Punta Arenas has been largely increased
by the discovery of gold in the vicinity. The twelve provinces
first mentioned, which include the celebrated " Vale of Chile,"
comprise only 17% of the area of the republic, but the census
of 1895 showed that 72% of the total population was con-
centrated within their borders. The four desert provinces north
of Coquimbo had only 8% of the total, and the seven provinces
and one territory south of Conception had 20%. According
to the census of 1895 the total population was 2,712,145, to
which the census officials added 10% to cover omissions. This
shows an increase slightly over 7 % for the preceding decennial
period, the population having been returned as 2,527,320 in 1885.
The census returns of 1875 and 1866 gave respectively 2,068,447
and 2,084,943, showing an actual decrease in population.
During these years Chile held the anomalous position of a country
spending large sums annually to secure immigrants while at the
same time her own labouring classes were emigrating by
thousands to the neighbouring republics to improve their
condition. Writing in 1879, a correspondent of The Times1
stated that this emigration then averaged 8000 a year, and in
bad times had reached as many as 30,000 in one year. The
condition of the Chilean labourer has been much improved since
then, however, and Chile no longer suffers so serious a loss ol
1 A. Gallenga, South America (London, 1880), p. 181.

wpulation. In 1895, the foreigners included in the Chilean
copulation numbered 72,812, of which 42,105 were European,
29,687 American, and 1020 Asiatic, &c. According to nation-
ality there were 8269 Spanish, 7809 French, 7587 Italian, 7049
German, 6241 British, 1570 Swiss, 1490 Austro-Hungarian,
13,695 Peruvian, 7531 Argentine, 6654 Bolivian, 701 American
[U.S.), 797 Chinese. According to residence, 1471,792 were
nhabitants of rural districts, and 1,240,353 of towns. The
registration of births, marriages and deaths is compulsory since
the ist of January 1885, but the provisions of the law are
frequently eluded. Notwithstanding the healthiness of the
climate, the death-rate is high, especially in the large cities,
[n Santiago and Valparaiso the death-rate sometimes rises to
42 and 60 per 1000, and infant mortality is very high, being
73 % of the births in some of the provincial towns. This
unfavourable state of affairs is due to the poverty, ignorance
and insanitary habits of the lower classes. The government has
made repeated efforts to secure immigrants from Europe, but
the lands set apart for immigrant settlers are in the forested
provinces south of the Bio-Bio, where the labour and hardships
involved in establishing a home are great, and the protection
of the law against bandits and criminal assaults is weak. The
Germans have indeed settled in many parts of these southern
provinces since 1845, and by keeping together have succeeded
in building up several important towns and a large number of
prosperous agricultural communities. One German authority
(Huber) estimates the number of Germans in two of these pro-
vinces at 5000. The arrivals, however, have been on the whole
discouragingly small, the total for the years 1901-1005 being
only 14,000.

Although Chileans claim a comparatively small admixture
with the native races, it is estimated that the whites and Creoles
of white extraction do not exceed 30 to 40% of the population,
while the mestizos form fully 60%. This estimate is unquestion-
ably conservative, for there has been no large influx of European
blood to counterbalance the race mixtures of earlier times.
The estimated number of Indians living within the boundaries
of Chile is about 50,000, which presumably includes the nomadic
tribes of the Fuegian archipelago, whose number probably
does not reach 5000. The semi-independent Araucanians,
whose territory is slowly being occupied by the whites, are
concentrated in the eastern forests of Bio-Bio, Malleco and
Cautin, all that remains to them of the Araucania which they
so bravely and successfully defended for more than three
centuries. Their number does not much exceed 40,000, which
is being steadily reduced by drunkenness and epidemic diseases.
A small part of these Indians live in settled communities and
include some very successful stock-raisers, but the greater part
live apart from civilization. There are also some remnants of
tribes in the province of Chiloe, which inhabit the island of that
name, the Chonos and Guaytecas archipelagoes and the adjacent
mainland, who have the reputation of being good boatmen and
fishermen; and there are remnants of a people called Changes,
on the desert coast, and traces of Calchaqui blood in the
neighbouring Andean foothills.

There is a wide difference in every respect between the upper
or ruling class and the common people. The former includes
the landed proprietors, professional men and a part of those
engaged in commercial and industrial pursuits. These educated
classes form only a small minority of the population. Many of
them, especially the landed proprietors, are descendants of the
original Spanish settlers and are celebrated for their politeness
and hospitality. The political control of the republic was secured
to them by the constitution of 1833. The common people were
kept in ignorance and practically in a state of hopeless servitude.
They were allowed to occupy small leaseholds on the large estates
on condition of performing a certain amount of work for the
landlord. Every avenue toward the betterment of their con-
dition was practically closed. The condition of the itinerant
labourers (peons) was still worse, the wages paid them being
hardly sufficient to keep them from starvation. The Chilean
peon, however, comes from a hardy stock, and has borne all

148

CHILE

[ POPULATION

these hardships with a fortitude and patience which go far to
counterbalance his faults. Recent reforms in education, &c.,
together with the growth of manufacturing industries, are
slowly leading to improvements in the material condition of
the common people.

The political organization of the country has not been favour-
able to the development of artistic or scientific tastes, though
Chile has produced political leaders, statesmen and polemical
writers in abundance. Historical
literature has been enriched by
the works of Diego Barros Arana,
Benjamin Vicuna Mackenna, Miguel
Luis Amunategui, Carlos Walker
Martinez, and others. One of the
earliest native histories of Chile
was that of Abb6 J. Ignacio
Molina, an English translation of
which has long been a recognized
authority; it is full of errors,
however, and should be studied
only in connexion with modern
standard works. Among these must
be included Claude Gay's monu-
mental work, Historia General de
Chile, and Sir C. R. Markham's
admirable studies on special parts
of the subject. In science, nearly all the important work has
been done by foreigners, among whom are Charles Darwin,
Claude Gay, Eduard Poppig, Rudolph A. Philippi and Hans
Steffen, who deserves special mention -for his excellent geo-
graphical work in the southern Andes.

Divisions and Towns. — Chile contains 23 provinces and one terri-
tory, which are subdivided into 75 departments, 855 subdelegations
and 3068 districts. The territory north of the Bio-Bio was origin-
ally divided into 13 provinces, besides which the Spaniards held
Chiloe, Juan Fernandez and Valdivia, the latter being merely a
military outpost. During the years which have elapsed since the
War of Independence the territory south of the Bio-Bio has been
effectively occupied and divided into six provinces, Chiloe and the
neighbouring islands and mainland to the east became a province,
and four provinces in the northern deserts were acquired from
Bolivia and Peru. In addition to this, Chile claimed Patagonia and
the adjacent islands, and has finally secured not only the forested

strip of territory west of the Andes, but also a large piece of the
Patagonian mainland, south of lat. 52° S., the larger part of Tierra
del Fuego, and all the western islands. This extensive region,
comprising an area of 71,127 sq. m.( has been provisionally organized
as the territory of Magallanes. For a list of provinces, their areas,
reduced from official returns, their populations, and the names and
populations of their capitals, see the bottom of this page.

In addition to the provincial capitals there are few towns of im-
portance. Among these may be mentioned : —

Population.

Population.

1895-

Est. 1902.

1895.

Est. 1902.

Arica

2-853

2824

Parral . . .

8,586

10,219

Pisagua ....

3.635

4720

Constituci6n

6,400

6,453

Taltal . . .' .

5,834

6574

San Carlos .

7.051

6,579

Tocopilla ....

3-383

4752

Coronel .

4-575

5-959

Vallenar ....

5-052

5199

Lota ....

9.797

Coquimbo.

7,322

8165

Talcahuano .

10,431

"3-499

Ovalle ....

5,565

5772

El Tome . .

3-977

6,189

Los Andes (Santa

Rosa) ....

5.504

6854

Arauco .

3.008

3.334

Quillota . . .

9,621

9876

Canete .

2,000

2,552

Vina del Mar

10,651

Mulchen

4,268

4.332

Melipilla

4,286

5023

Traiguen

5.732

7,099

Rengo

6,463

7232

Victoria .

6,989

10,002

Vichuquen

826

3714

La Uni6n

2,830

3.908

Molina . . . .

3.609

3222

Osorno .

4,667

5,888

Castro(Chiloe) .

1.035

2,166

Provinces.

Area.

Population.
Census 1895.

Capitals.

Population.

Census 1895.

Est. 1902.

Tacna

9,251

24,160

Tacna

9,418

11,504

Tarapaca ....

18,131

89,751

Iquique .

33,031

42.788

Antofagasta .

46,611

44,085

Antofagasta .

I3-530

16,084

Atacama ....

30,729

59,713

Copiapo .

9,301

8,991

Coquimbo.

13,461

160,898

La Serena

15,712

19.536

Aconcagua

5,487

113,165

San Felipe .

".313

1 1, 660

Valparaiso

1-953

220,756

Valparaiso .

122,447

142,282

Santiago ....

5-665

415,636

Santiago .

256,403

332,059

O'Higgins

2,342

85,277

Rancagua

6,665

7.J33

Colchagua

3-856

157,566

San Fernando .

7,447

8,164

Curico ....

2,978

103,242

Curico

12,669

14.340

Talca

3.840

128,961

Talca

33.232

42,766

Linires ....

3.942

101,858

Linares .

7.331

7.256

Maule

2,475

H9,79i

Cauquenes .

8,574

9.895

Ruble

3.407

152,935

Chilian . . .

28,738

36,382

Concepci6n .

3,252

188,190

Conception .

39,837

49.351

Arauco ....

2,458

59,237

Lebu . . .

2,784

3.178

Bio-Bio ....

5.246

88,749

Los Angeles .

7,868

7,777

Malleco ....

2,973

98,032

Angol

7,056

7,638

Cautin

5.832

78,221

Temuco .

7,078

9,699

Valdivia ....

8,649

60,687

Valdivia

8,060

9,704

Llanquihue

45,515

78,315

Puerto Montt .

3.480

4,140

Chiloe

8,593

77,750

Ancud

3.182

3.787

Magallanes (Ter.)

71,127

5,170

Punta Arenas .

3.227

8,327

Total, official

307.774

2,712,145

Total according to

Gotha computation

293,062

With 10% added for

omissions .

2,983.359

Official estimate for

1902 ....

3.173.783

The population is not concentrated in large cities, but is well dis-
tributed through the cultivated parts of the country. The large
number of small towns, important as ports, market towns, or manu-
facturing centres, is a natural result. Many of the foregoing towns
are only villages in size, but their importance is not to be measured
in this way. Arica is one of the oldest ports on the coast, and has
long been a favoured port for Bolivian trade because the passes
through the Cordilleras at that point are not so difficult. Moreover,
the railway from Arica to La Paz will still further add to its import-
ance, though it may not greatly increase its population. Another
illustration is that of Vichuquen, province of Curic6, situated on a
tide-water lake on the coast, which is the centre of a large salt-
making industry. Still another instance is that of Castro, the oldest
settlement and former capital of Chiloe, which after a century of
decay is increasing again through the efforts to develop the industries
of that island.

Communications. — Railway construction in Chile dates from 1850,
when work was begun on a short line between Copiapo and the port
of Caldera, in the Atacama desert region. Since then lines have

been built by private companies from
the coast at several points to inland
mining centres. One of these, run-
ning from Antofagasta to the Caracoles
district, was afterwards extended to
Oruro, Bolivia, and has become a
commercial route of international
importance, with a total length of
574 m., 224 of which are in Chile.
It should be remembered that many
of these railway enterprises of the
desert region originated at a time when
the territory belonged to Bolivia and
Peru. The first railway to be con-
structed in central Chile was the
government line from Valparaiso to
Santiago, 115 m. in length, which
was opened to traffic in 1863. About
the same time the government began
the construction of a longitudinal
trunk line running southward from
Santiago midway between the Andes
and the Coast range, and connecting
with all the provincial capitals and
prominent ports. This is the only
railway " system " it is possible for
Chile to have. The civil war of 1891
called attention to the need of a similar
inland route through the northern
provinces. A branch of the Valparaiso
and Santiago line runs to Los Andes,
and its extension across the Andes
connects with the Argentine lines
from Buenos Aires to Mendoza and
the Chilean frontier — all sections
together forming a transcontinental
route about 850 m. in length. The
Transandine section of this route
crosses the Cordillera through the

INDUSTRY]

CHILE

149

Uspallata pass. A further Transandine scheme provides for a line
through the Pino Hachado pass (38° 30' to 39° S.), and the Argentine
Great Southern Company obtained a concession in 1909 to extend its
Neuquen line to the frontier of Chile. The railways of the republic
had a total mileage at the end of 1906 of 2950 m., of which 1495 m.
were owned by the state, and 1455 m. belonged to private companies.
The private lines are located in the northern provinces and are for
the most part built and maintained for the transportation of mining
products and supplies.

In addition to her railway lines Chile has about 21,000 m. of public
roads of all descriptions, 135 m. of tramways, and 705 m. of navigable
river channels, besides a very considerable mileage of lake and coast
navigation. Telegraphic communication between all the important
towns of the republic, initiated in 1855 with a line between Santiago
and Valparaiso, is maintained by the state, which in 190^ owned
9306 m. of line in a total of 1 1 ,080 m. Cable communication with
Europe by way of Buenos Aires was opened in 1875, and is now
maintained by means of two underground cables across the Andes,
32 m. in length. A West Coast cable also connects with Europe and
North American states by way of Panama. There were 15,853 m.
of telephone wires in the republic in 1906, all the principal cities
having an admirable service. Modern postal facilities date from
1853. The Chilean post-office is administered by a director-general
at Santiago, and has a high degree of efficiency and liberality, com-
pared with those of other South American states. The postal rates
are low, and newspapers and other periodical publications circulate
free, as a means of popular instruction. The postal revenues for

1904 amounted to 2,775,730 pesos and the expenditures to 2,407,753
pesos. Chile is a member of the International Postal Union, and has
arrangements with the principal commercial nations for the exchange
of postal money values.

The sea has been the only means of communication with distant
parts of the country, and must continue to be the chief transporta-
tion route. There are said to be 56 ports on the Chilean coast,
of which only 12 are prominent in foreign trade. Many of the so-
called ports are only landing-places on an open coast, others are on
shallow bays and obstructed river-mouths, and some are little-known
harbours among the channels and islands of the south. The pro-
sperity of Chile is intimately connected with her ocean-going trade,
and no elaborate system of national railway lines and domestic
manufactures can ever change this relationship. These conditions
should have developed a large merchant marine, but the Chileans
are not traders and are sailors only in a military sense. In 1905 their
ocean-going merchant marine consisted of only 148 vessels, of which
54 were steamers of 42,873 tons net, and 94 were sailing vessels of
39,346 tons. Nineteen of the 54 steamers belonged to a subsidized
national line whose West Coast service once extended to San Fran-
cisco, California, and a large part of the others belongs to a Lota
coal-mining and copper-smelting company which employs them in
carrying coal to the northern ports and bringing back metallic ores
for smelting. The navigable rivers and inland lakes employ a number
of small steamers. The foreign commerce of the republic is carried
chiefly by foreign vessels, and the coasting trade is also open to them.
Three or four foreign companies maintain a regular steamship ser-
vice to Valparaiso and other Chilean ports. The shipping entries
at all Chilean ports during the year 1904, both national and
foreign, numbered 11,756, aggregating 17,723,138 tons, and the clear-
ances 1 1,689, aggregating 17,370,763 tons. Very nearly one-half this
tonnage was British, a little over 18% German, and about 29%
Chilean.

Commerce. — In the aggregate, the commerce of Chile is large and
important ; in proportion to population it is exceeded among South
American states only by Argentina, Uruguay and the Guianas.
Unlike those states, it depends in great part on mining and its allied
occupations. The values of imports and exports (including bullion,
specie and re-exports) in pesos of i8d. during the five years 1901-

1905 were as follows: —

Imports. Exports.

Year. pesos. pesos.

1901 .... 139,300,766 171,844,976

1902 .... 132,428,204 185,879,965

1903 .... 149,081,524 210,442,144

1904 .... 164,874,928 232,493,598

1905 .... 188,596,418 265,209,192

The principal imports comprise live animals, fish, coffee, mate
(Ilex paraguayensis) , tea, sugar, wood and its manufactures, struc-
tural iron and steel, hardware and machinery, railway and telegraph
supplies, lime and cement, glass and earthenware, cotton, woollen
and silk manufactures, coal," petroleum, paints, &c. Import duties
are imposed at the rates of 60, 35, 15, 5 and 25%, and certain
classes of merchandise are admitted free. The higher rates are
designed chiefly to protect national industries, while wines, liquors,
cigars and tobacco are admitted at the lowest rate. The 25% rate
covers all articles not mentioned in the schedules, which number 2260
items. The duty free list includes raw cotton, certain descriptions
of live animals, agricultural machinery and implements, metal wire,
fire engines, structural iron and steel, and machinery in general.
The tariff is nominally ad valorem, but as the rates are imposed on
fixed official valuations it is essentially specific. The duties on

imports in 1905 amounted to 91,321,860 pesos, and in 1906 to
IO3>5°7>556 pesos. The principal exports are gold, silver, copper
(bars, regulus and ores), cobalt and' its ores, lead and its ore»,
vanadium ores, manganese, coal, nitrate of soda, borate of lime,
iodine, sulphur, wheat and guano. Nitrate of soda forms from 70
to_75% of the exports, and the royalty received from it is the
principal source of national revenue, yielding about £4,000,000 per
annum. In 1904 mineral products made up fully seven-eighths of
the exports, while agricultural and pastoral products did not quite
reach one-eighth.

Agriculture. — According to the census returns about one-half the
population of Chile lives in rural districts, and is engaged nominally
in agricultural pursuits. What may be called central Chile is
singularly well adapted to agriculture. The northern part of this
region has a sub-tropical climate, light rainfall and a long, dry
summer, but with irrigation it produces a great variety of products.
Alfalfa, or lucerne (Medicago saliva), is grown extensively for ship-
ment to the mining towns of the desert provinces. There were no
less than 108,384 acres devoted to it in 1904, a considerable part of
which was in the irrigated river valleys of Coquimbo and Aconcagua.
Considerable attention is also given to fruit cultivation in these sub-
tropical provinces, where the orange, lemon, fig, melon, pineapple
and banana are produced with much success. Some districts,
especially in Coquimbo, have gained a high reputation for the excel-
lence of their preserved fruits. The vine is cultivated all the way
from Atacama and Coquimbo, where excellent raisins are produced,
south to Concepci6n, where some of the best wines of Chile are
manufactured. In 10x14 there were 93,370 acres devoted to grape
production in_this region, the product for that year being 30,184,704
gallons of wine and 212,366 gallons of brandy. The universal
beverage of the people — chicha — is made from Indian corn.
Although wheat is produced in the northern part of this region, it
is grown with greater success in the south, where the rainfall is
heavier and the average temperature is lower. There were 1 ,044,025
acres devoted to this cereal in 1903, which produced 17,910,614
bushels, or an average of 17 bushels (of 60 lb) to the acre. In 1904
the production was increased to 19,999,324 bushels, but in 1905 it
fell off to 15,771,477 bushels. At one time Chile supplied Argentina
and the entire West Coast as far north as California with wheat, but
Argentina and California have become wheat producers and ex-
porters, and Chile has been driven from all her old consuming
markets. Great Britain is now her best customer, and Brazil takes
a small quantity for milling mixtures. Chile has been badly handi-
capped by her crude methods of cultivation, but these are passing
away and modern methods are taking their place. Formerly wheat
was grown chiefly in the region of long rainless summers, and the
ripened grain was thrown upon uncovered earth floors and threshed
by horses driven about over the straw, but this antiquated process
was not suited to the climate and enterprise of the more southern
provinces, and the modern threshing-machine has been introduced.
Barley is largely produced, chiefly for home consumption. Maize
(Indian corn)_is grown in every part of Chile except the rainy south
where the grain cannot ripen, and is a principal article of food. The
green maize furnishes two popular national dishes, choclos and
humitas, which are eaten by both rich and poor. Potatoes also are
widely cultivated, but the humid regions of the south, particularly
from Valdivia to Chiloe, produce the greatest quantity. The total
annual production exceeds three million bushels. The kidney bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris) is another staple product in every part of the
country, and is perhaps the most popular article of food among all
classes of Chileans. Peas are largely cultivated south of the Maule.
Walnuts have become another important product and are exported,
the average annual produce being 48,000 to 50,000 bushels. The
olive was introduced from Spain in colonial times and is widely
distributed through the north central provinces, but its economic
importance is not great. Of the European fruits introduced into
the southern provinces, the apple has been the most successful.
It grows with little care and yields even better than in its original
home. The peach, apricot, plum, quince and cherry are also culti-
vated with success. Wild strawberries are found on both sides of
the Andes; the cultivated varieties are unsurpassed, especially
those of the province of Concepci6n.

The pastoral industries of Chile have been developed chiefly for
the home_ market. The climate is admirably suited to cattle-raising,
as the winters are mild and pasture is to be found throughout the
whole year, but the proximity of the Argentine pampas is fatal to
its profitable development. The government has been trying to
promote cattle-breeding by levying duties (as high as 1 6 pesos a
head) on cattle imported from Argentina, but with no great success.
The importation, which formerly numbered about l4O,oooper annum,
still numbers not far from 100,000 head. There are some districts
in central Chile where cattje-raising is the principal occupation, but
the long dry summers limit the pasturage on the open plains and
prevent the development which perhaps would otherwise result.
As in Argentina, beef is generally dried in the sun to make charqui
(jerked beef), in which form it is exported to the desert provinces.
Horse and mule breeding are carried on to a limited extent, and
since the opening of the far South more attention has been given to
sheep. Goats and swine are raised in small numbers on the large
estates, but in Chiloe swine-raising is one of the chief occupations

CHILE

[GOVERNMENT

of the people. Some attention has been given to the production of
butter and cheese, but the industry has attained no great importance.
A new industry which has made noteworthy progress, however, is
that of bee-keeping, which is greatly favoured by the mild climate
and the long season and abundance of flowers.

Manufactures. — The manufacturing interests of Chile have become
influential enough to force a high tariff policy upon the country.
They have been restricted principally to articles of necessity — food
preparations, beverages, textiles and wearing apparel, leather and
leatherwork, woodwork, pottery, chemicals, ironware, &c. In earlier
days, when Chile had less competition in the production of wheat,
flour mills were to be found everywhere in the wheat-producing
provinces, and flour was one of the leading exports. Conception,
Talca, and other provincial capitals developed important milling
industries, which were extended to all the chief towns of the newer
provinces south of the Bio-Bio. There are over 500 large flour mills
in Chile, the greater part of which are equipped with modern roller-
process machinery. The development of the coal deposits in the
provinces of Concepcion and Arauco has made possible other in-
dustries besides those of smelting mineral ores, and numerous small
manufacturing establishments have resulted, especially in Santiago,
Valparaiso, Copiap6 and other places where no permanent water
power exists. Tanning leather is an important industry, especially
in the south, some of the Chilean trees, notably the algarrobilla
(Balsamocarpon brevifolium) and lingue (Per sea lingue), being rich in
tannin. To provide a market for the leather produced, factories
have been established for the manufacture of boots and shoes, harness
and saddles, and under the protection of a high tariff are doing well.
Brewing and distilling have made noteworthy progress, the domestic
consumption of their products being very large. The breweries are
generally worked by Germans and are situated chiefly in the south,
though there are large establishments in Santiago and Valparaiso.
Small quantities of their products are exported. Furniture and
carriage factories, cooperages, and other manufactories of wood are
numerous and generally prosperous. There are likewise a large
number of factories for canning and preserving fruits and vegetables.
Foundries and machine shops have been established, especially for
the manufacture of railway material. The sugar beet has been
added to the productions of Chile, and with it the manufacture on
a small scale of beet sugar. There is one large refinery at Vina del
Mar, however, which imports raw cane sugar from Peru for refining;.
The manufacture of textiles is carried on at Santiago and El Tome,
and numerous small factories are devoted to clothing of various
descriptions. The great mining industries have led to a noteworthy
development in the production of chemicals, and a considerable
number of factories are engaged in the production of pharmaceutical
preparations, perfumeries, soaps, candles, &c.

Mining. — The most important of all the national industries,
however, is that of mining. In 1903 there were 11,746 registered
mines, on which mining dues were paid, the aggregate produce being
valued at 178,768,170 pesos. These mines gave employment to
46,592 labourers, of whom 24,445 were employed by the nitrate
companies, 13,710 in various metalliferous mines, 6437 in coal
mines, and 2000 in other mines. Gold is found in nearly all the
provinces from Antofagasta to Concepcion, and in Llanquihue,
Chiloe and Magallanes territory, but the output is not large. There
are a great many placer washings, among which are some extensive
deposits near the Straits of Magellan. Silver is found principally
on the elevated slopes and plateaus of the Andes in the desert
provinces of the north. The second most important mining industry
in Chile, however, is that of copper, which is found in the provinces of
Antofagasta, Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Valparaiso, Santiago,
O'Higgms, Colchagua, Curico and Talca, but the richest deposits
are in the three desert provinces. Chile was once the largest pro-
ducer of copper in the world, her production in 1860-1864 being
rated at 60 to 67 % of the total. Low prices afterwards caused a
large shrinkage in the output, but she is still classed among the
principal producers. Iron mining has never been developed in Chile,
although extensive deposits are said to exist. Manganese ores are
mined in Atacama and Coquimbo, and their export is large. The
other metals reported in the official returns are lead, cobalt and
vanadium, of which only small quantities are produced. Bolivian
tin is exported from Chilean ports. Among the non-metallic minerals
are nitrate of soda, borate of lime, coal, salt and sulphur, together
with various products derived from these minerals, such as iodine,
sulphuric acid, &c. Guano is classed among the mineral products
and still figures as an export, though the richest Chilean deposits
were exhausted long before the war with Peru. Of non-metallic
products nitrate of soda is by far the most important. Extensive
deposits of the salt (called caliche in its crude, impure state) in the
provinces of Tacna, Tarapaca, Antofagasta and Atacama owe their
existence to the rainless character of the climate. Those of the first-
named province have been discovered since the war between Chile
and Peru, and have greatly extended the prospective life of the in-
dustry. The nitrate fields, which lie between 50 and 100 m. from
the coast and at elevations exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level, have
been officially estimated at 89,177 hectares (344 sq. m.) and to con-
tain 2316 millions of metric quintals (254,760,000 short tons). The
first export of nitrates was in 1830, and in 1884 it reached an aggre-
gate of 550,000 tons, and in 1905 of 1,603,140 tons. The latter

Unit.

Quantity.

Value pesos
(of i8d.).

Gold

grammes

1 .424, 62 S

I.74« UK

VJ.OI2 ^82

I 284 "?o8

Copper
Lead
Cobalt ore ....
Lead and Vanadium ores
Manganese ore .
Coal

kilogrs.
tons

29-923,132
70,984
284,990
2,OOO
I7,IIO,OOO
827,112

21,438,397
9,097
99.695

682,400

8.2 SO. 72O

Nitrates
Iodine

metric
quintals
kilogrs.

14-449-200
157,444

140,102,012
1,687.^27

Borates

16,878,91 1

2,-j6^ 048

Salt

metric

Sulphur

quintals
kilogrs.

162,635

•^,440,642

324,270

777 cje

Sulphuric acid . . .
Guano

Various

»»
metric
quintals
kiloers.

1,600,000

in.335
200

176,000

267,466
800

figure is apparently about the production agreed upon between the
Chilean government and the nitrate companies to prevent over-
production and a resulting decline in price. Nearly all the oficinas,
or working plants, are owned and operated by British companies,
and the railways of this desolate region are generally owned by the
same companies and form a part of the working plant. Borate of
lime also furnishes another important export, though a less valuable
one than nitrate of soda. Extensive deposits of borax and common
salt have been found in the same region, which with several other
products of these saline deposits, such as iodine, add considerably
to its exports. The coal deposits of Chile are found chiefly in the
provinces of Concepci6n and Arauco, the principal mines being on
the coast of the Bay of Arauco at Cpronel and Lota. Coal is found
also in Valdivia, on the island of Chiloe, and in the vicinity of Punta
Arenas on the Straits of Magellan. Sulphur is found in the volcanic
regions of the north, but the principal mines are in the provinces
of Talca.

The relative magnitude and value of these mineral products may
be seen in the following abstract from the official returns of 1903 : —

Government. — Chile is a centralized republic, whose govern-
ment is administered under the provisions of the constitution
of 1833 and the amendments of the gth of August 1888, the nth
of August 1890, the zoth of August 1890, the 22nd of December
1891, and the 7th of July 1892. According to this constitution
the sovereignty resides in the nation, but suffrage is restricted
to married citizens over twenty-one and unmarried citizens over
twenty-five years of age, not in domestic service, who can read
and write, and who are the owners of real estate, or who have
capital invested in business or industry, or who receive salaries
or incomes proportionate in value to such real estate as invest-
ment; and as 75% of the population is classed as illiterate, and
a great majority of the labouring classes is landless, badly paid,
and miserably poor, it is apparent that political sovereignty
in Chile is the well-guarded possession of a small minority. The
dominant element in this minority is the rich landholding interest,
and the constitution and the laws of the first half-century were
framed for the special protection of that interest.

The supreme powers of government are vested in three distinct
branches — legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative
power is exercised by a national congress, which consists of two
chambers — a senate of 32 members, and a chamber of deputies
of 94 members. The membership of the lower house is in the
proportion of one deputy for each 30,000 of the departmental
population, and each fraction over 15,000; and the senate is
entitled to one-third the membership of the chamber. The
senators are elected by provinces and by a direct cumulative vote,
and hold office for six years, one-half of the senate being renewed
every three years. The deputies are elected by departments and
by a direct cumulative vote, and hold office for three years.
Both senators and deputies must have reached the age of thirty-
six, must have a specified income, and are required to serve
without salary. A permanent committee of 14 members repre-
sents the two chambers during the congressional recess and
exercises certain supervisory and advisory powers in the ad-
ministration of public affairs. Congress convenes each year on
the ist of June and sits until the ist of September, but the
president may prorogue an ordinary session for a period of 50

ADMINISTRATION]

CHILE

days, and with the consent of the council of state may convene it
in extraordinary session. Congress has the privilege of giving
or withholding its confidence in the acts of the government.

The executive is a president who is elected for a term of five
years and is ineligible for the next succeeding term. He is chosen
by electors, who are elected by departments in the manner
prescribed for deputies and in the proportion of three electors for
each deputy. These elections are held on the 25th of June in
the last year of a presidential term, the electors cast their votes on
the 25th of July, and the counting takes place in a joint session
of the two chambers of congress on the 3Oth of August, congress
in joint session having the power to complete the election when
no candidate has been duly chosen by the electors. The formal
installation of the president takes place on the i8th of September,
the anniversary of the declaration of national independence.
In addition to the prerogatives commonly invested in his office,
the president is authorized to supervise the judiciary, to nominate
candidates for the higher ecclesiastical offices, to intervene in
the enforcement of ecclesiastical decrees, papal bulls, &c., to
exercise supervisory police powers, and to appoint the intendants
of provinces and the governors of departments, who in turn
appoint the sub-delegates and inspectors of subordinate political
divisions. The president, who is paid £2250 per annum, must
be native-born, not less than thirty years of age, and eligible
for election to the lower house. He is assisted and advised by a
cabinet of six ministers whose departments are : interior, foreign
affairs, worship and colonization, justice and public instruction,
war and marine, finance, industry and public works. In case
of a vacancy in the presidential office, the minister of interior
becomes the " vice-president of the republic " and discharges
the duties of the executive office until a successor can be legally
elected. A council of state of 12 members, consisting of the
president, 6 members appointed by congress and 5 by the
president, has advisory functions, and its approval is required
in many executive acts and appointments.

The provinces are administered by inlendentes, and the depart-
ments by gobernadores, both appointees of the national executive.
The sub-delegacies are governed by sub-delegados appointed by
the governors, and the districts by inspectores appointed by the
sub-delegates. Directly and indirectly, therefore, the administra-
tion of all these political divisions is in the hands of the president,
who, in like manner, makes and controls the appointments of
all judicial functionaries, subject, however, to receiving recom-
mendations of candidates from the courts and to submitting
appointments to the approval of the council of state. This gives
the national executive absolute control of all administrative
matters in every part of the republic. The police force also
is a national organization under the immediate control of
the minister of interior, and the public prosecutor in every
department is a representative of the national government.
There is no legislative body in any of these political divisions, nor
any administrative official directly representing the people, with
this exception: under the law of the 22nd of December 1891,
municipalities, or communes,are created and invested with certain
specified powers of local government affecting local police services,
sanitation, local improvements, primary instruction, industrial
and business regulations, &c.; they are authorized to borrow
money for sanitary improvements, road-making, education,
&c., and to impose certain specified taxes for their support;
these municipalities elect their own alcaldes, or mayors, and
municipal councils, the latter having legislative powers within
the limits of the law mentioned.

Justice. — The judicial power consists of a Supreme Court of Justice
of seven members located in the national capital, which exercises
supervisory and disciplinary authority over all the law courts of the
republic ; six courts of appeal, in Tacna, Serena, Valparaiso, Santiago,
Talca and Concepci6n ; tribunals of first instance in the department
capitals; and minor courts, or justices of the peace, in the sub-
delegacies and districts. The jury system does not exist in Chile,
and juries are unknown except in cases where the freedom of the
press has been abused. All trials, therefore, are heard by one or
more judges, and appeals may be taken from a lower to a higher
court. The government is represented in each department by a
public prosecutor. The police officials, who are under the direct

control of the minister of interior, also exercise some degree of judicial
authority. This force is essentially military in its organization, and
consisted in 1901 of 500 officers, 934 non-commissioned officers and
5400 police soldiers. Small forces of local policemen are supported
by various municipalities. The judges of the higher courts are ap-
pointed by the national executive, and those of the minor tribunals
by the federal official governing the political division in which they
are located.

Army. — For military purposes the republic is divided into five
districts, the northern desert provinces forming ths first, the central
provinces as far south as the Bio-Bio the second and third, and the
southern provinces and territory the fourth and fifth. Large sums
of money have been expended in arms, equipment, guns and
fortifications. The army is organized on the German model and has
been trained by European officers who have been employed both
for the school and regiment. Though the president and minister of
war are the nominal heads of the army, its immediate direction is
concentrated in a general staff comprising six service departments,
at the head of which is a chief of staff. After the triumph of the
revolutionists in the civil war of 1891, the army was reorganized
under the direction of Colonel Emil Korner, an accomplished German
officer, who subsequently served as chief of the general staff. In
1904 the permanent force consisted of 12 battalions of infantry,
6 regiments of cavalry, 4 regiments of mountain artillery, I regiment
of horse artillery, 2 regiments of coast artillery, and 5 companies of
engineers — aggregating 915 officers and 4757 men. To this nucleus
were added 6160 recruits, the contingent for that year of young men
twenty-one years of age compelled to serve with the colours. Under
the law of the 5th of September 1900, military service is obligatory
for all citizens between eighteen and forty-five years, all young men
of twenty-one years being required to serve a certain period with the
regular force. After this period they are transferred to the 1st
reserve for 9 years, and then to the 2nd reserve. The military rifle
adopted for all three branches of the service is the Mauser, 1895
model, of 7 mm. calibre, and the batteries are provided with Krupp
guns of 7 and 7-5 cm. calibre. Mijitary instruction is given in a well-
organized military school at Santiago, a war academy and a school
of military engineering.

Navy. — The Chilean navy is essentially British in organization
and methods, and all its best fighting ships were built in British
yards. In 1906 the effective fighting force consisted of I battle-
ship, 2 belted cruisers, 4 protected cruisers, 3 torpedo gunboats, 6
destroyers and 8 modern torpedo boats. In addition to these there
are several inferior armed vessels of various kinds which bring the
total up to 40, not including transports and other auxiliaries. The
administration of the navy, under the president and minister of war
and marine, is confided to a general naval staff, called the " Direccion
jeneral de la Armada," with headquarters at Valparaiso. Its duties
also include the military protection of the_ ports, the hydrographic
survey of the coast, and the lighthouse service. The personnel com-
prises about 465 officers, including those of the staff, and 4000 petty
officers and men. There is a military port at Talcahuano, in Con-
ception Bay, strongly fortified, and provided with arsenal and repair
shops, a large dry dock and a patent slip. The naval school, which
occupies one of the noteworthy edifices of Valparaiso, is attended
by 90 cadets and is noted for the thoroughness of its instruction.

Education. — Under the old conservative regime very little was
done for the public school outside the larger towns. As a large pro-
portion of the labouring classes lived in the small towns and rural
communities, they received comparatively little attention. The
increasing influence of more liberal ideas greatly improved the
situation with reference to popular education, and the government
now makes vigorous efforts to bring its public school system within
the reach of all. The constitution provides that free instruction
must be provided for the people. School attendance is not com-
pulsory, however, and the gain upon illiteracy (75 %) appears to be
very slow. The government also gives primary instruction to recruits
when serving with the colours, which, with the increasing employ-
ment of the people in the towns, helps to stimulate a desire for
education among the lower classes. Education in Chile is very
largely under the control of the national government, the minister
of justice and public instruction being charged with the direction of
all public schools from the university down to the smallest and most
remote primary school. The system includes the University of
Chile and National Institute at Santiago, lyceums or high schools in
all the provincial capitals and larger towns, normal schools at central
points for the training of public school teachers, professional and
industrial schools, military schools and primary schools. I nstruction
in all these is free, and under certain conditions text-books are
supplied. In the normal schools, where the pupils are trained_to
enter the public service as primary teachers, not only is the tuition
free, but also books, board, lodging and everything needed in their
school work. The national university at Santiago comprises faculties
of theology, law and political science, medicine and pharmacy,
natural sciences and mathematics, and philosophy. _ The range of
studies is wide, and the attendance large. The National Institute
at Santiago is the principal high school of the secondary grade in
Chile. There were 30 of these high schools for males and 12 for
females in 1903, with an aggregate of 1 1 ,504 matriculated students.
The normal schools for males are located at Santiago, Chilian and

152

CHILE

[FINANCE

Valdivia ; and for females at La Serena, Santiago and Concepci6n.
The mining schools at Copiap6, La Serena and Santiago had an
aggregate attendance of 180 students in 1903, and the commercial
schools at Iquique and Santiago an attendance of 21$. The more
important agricultural schools are located at Santiago, Chilian,
Concepci6n and Ancud, the Quinta Normal de Agriculture in the
national capital having a large attendance. The School of Mechanic
Arts and Trades (Escuela de Aries y Oficios) of Santiago has a high
reputation for the practical character of its instruction, in which
it is admirably seconded bya normal handicraft school (Sloyd system)
and a night school of industrial drawing in the same city, and pro-
fessional schools for girls in Santiago and Valparaiso, where the
pupils are taught millinery, dress-making, knitting, embroidery
and fancy needlework. The government also maintains schools for
the blind and for the deaf and dumb. The public primary schools
numbered 1961 in 1903, with 3608 teachers, 166,928 pupils enrolled,
and an average attendance of 108,582. The cost of maintaining
these schools was 4,146,574 pesos, or an average of £2 : 17 : 3 per
pupil in attendance. In addition to the public schools there are a
Roman Catholic university at Santiago, which includes law and civil
engineering among its regular courses of study; numerous private
schools and seminaries of the secondary grade, v/ith a total of 11,184
students of both sexes in 1903 ; and 506 private primary schools, with
an attendance of 29,684. The private schools usually conform to
the official requirements in regard to studies and examinations,
which facilitates subsequent admission to the university and the
obtainment of degrees; probably they do better work than the
public schools, especially in the German settlements of the southern
provinces. A Consejo de Instrucci6n Publica (council of public
instruction) of 14 members exercises a general supervision over the
higher and secondary schools. There are schools of music and fine
arts in Santiago. The national library at Santiago, with 116,300
volumes in 1906, and the national observatory, are both efficiently
administered. At the beginning cf the 2Oth century there were 41
public libraries in the republic, including public school collections,
with an aggregate of 240,000 volumes.

Charities. — According to the returns of 1903 there were 88 hos-
pitals in the republic, which reported 79,051 admissions duting the
year, and had 6215 patients under treatment at its close; 628,536
patients received gratuitous medical assistance at the public dis-
pensaries during the year; there were 24 foundling hospitals with
5570 children ; and there were 3092 persons in the various hospicios
or asylums, and 1478 in the imbecile asylums.

Religion. — The Roman Catholic religion is declared by the con-
stitution to be the religion of the state, and the inaugural oath of
the president pledges him to protect it. A considerable part of its
income is derived from a subsidy included in the annual budget,
which makes it a charge upon the national treasury like any other
public service. The secular supervision of this service is entrusted
to a member of the president's cabinet, known as the minister of
worship and colonization. The executive and legislative powers
intervene in the appointments to the higher offices of the Church.
The greater part of the population remains loyal to the established
faith. The law of 1865 gives the privilege ot religious worship to
other faiths, and the laws of 1883 made civil marriage and the civil
registry of births, deaths and marriages obligatory, and secularized
the cemeteries. Under the reform of 1865 full religious freedom
is practically accorded, and it is provided that the services of religious
organizations other than the Roman Catholic may be held in private
residences or in edifices owned by private individuals or corporations.
Of the 72,812 foreigners residing in Chile in 1895, about 16,000 were
described as Protestants. Notwithstanding the opposition of some
political elements to the Church, the Chileans themselves may all be
classed as Roman Catholics. The ecclesiastical organization includes
one archbishop, who resides at Santiago, three bishops residing at
La Serena, Concepcion and Ancud, and two vicars residing in Anto-
fagasta and Tarapaca. These benefices are filled by appointments
from lists of three prepared by the council of state and sent to Rome
by the president, and in the case of an archbishop or bishop the
appointment must also receive the appioval of the Senate. The
Chilean clergy are drawn very largelyfrom the higher classes.and their
social standing is much better than in many South American states.
The Church also possesses much property of its own, and is therefore
able to maintain itself on a comparatively small subsidy from the
public treasury, which was 985,910 pesos (£73,943) in 1902. The
Church maintains seminaries in all cathedral towns, and these also
receive a subsidy from the government.

Finance. — For a long time Chile was considered one of the poorest
states of Spanish America, but the acquisition of the rich mineral-
producing provinces of the north, together with the development
of new silver and copper mines in Atacama and Coquimbo, largely
increased her revenues and enabled her to develop other important
resources. During the decade 1831-1840 the annual revenues
averaged about 2,100,000 pesos (of <l8d.), which in the decade 1861-
1870 had increased to an average of only 8,200,000 pesos— and this
during a period of considerable agricultural activity on account of
wheat exports to California and Australia. After 1870 the revenues
increased more rapidly owing to the development of new mining
industries, the receipts in 1879 amounting to 15,300,000 pesos, and
in 1882 to 28,900,000 pesos. The revenues from the captured

Receipts, pesos.

Expenditures, pesos.

Gold.

Paper.

Gold.

Paper.

1899

1900
1901
1902

1903

83,051,604
89,869,178
74,665,061
105,072,832
108,503,565

45-239-970
46,515,102
35-394.434
33,434,346
32,490,145

31,732,797
30,564,821
39,808,517
45,093-278'
12,508,075

76,749-793
82,143,742
91,087,171
89,170,087'
84,721,437

Peruvian nitrate fields then became an important part of the national
income, which ten years later (1902) reached an aggregate of
138,507,178 pesos (of i8d.), of which 105,072,832 pesos were in gold.
In 1906 the receipts from all sources were estimated at 149,100,000
pesos, of which 62,200,000 pesos gold were credited to the tax on
nitrate, 39,800,000 pesos gold -to import duties, and 23,500,000 pesos
currency to railway receipts. During these years of fiscal prosperity
the country suffered much from financial crises caused by industrial
stagnation, an excessive and depreciated paper currency and
political disorder. To ensure an income that would meet its foreign
engagements, the government collected the nitrate and iodine taxes
and import duties in gold. As a considerable part of the expenditures
were in gold, the practice was adopted of keeping the gold and currency
accounts separate. In 1895 a conversion law was passed in which
the sterling value of the peso was reduced to I8d., at which rate the
outstanding paper should be redeemed. A conversion fund was also
created, and, although the government afterwards authorized two
more large issues, the beneficial effects of this law were so pronounced
that the customs regulations were modified in 1907 to permit the pay-
ment of import duties in paper. The national revenue isderived chiefly
from the nitrate taxes, customs duties, alcohol tax, and from railway,
postal and telegraph receipts. There is no land tax, and licence or
business taxes are levied by the municipalities for local purposes.
The national expenditures are chiefly for the interest and amortiza-
tion charges on the public debt, official salaries, military expenses
in connexion with the army and navy, public works (including railway
construction, port improvements, water and sewage works), the
administration of the state railways, telegraph lines and post office,
church subsidies, public instruction and foreign representation.

The ordinary and extraordinary receipts and expenditures for the
five years 1899-1903, in gold and currency, in pesos of i8d., were as
follows : —

For 1906 the expenditures were fixed at 149,000,000 pesos, and the
revenues were estimated to produce 149,100,000 pesos, which in-
cluded 62,200,000 pesos gold from nitrate taxes, 39,800,000 pesos
gold and 200,000 pesos paper from import duties, 23,500,000 pesos
paper from the state railways, 2,500,000 pesos paper from postal
and telegraph receipts, and 15,000,000 pesos gold from loans. How
the revenues are expended is shown in the estimates for 1907, in
which the total expenditures were estimated at 134,830,532 pesos
paper and 58,796,780 pesos gold, the principal appropriations being

16.192.780 pesos paper and 99, 733 gold for the war department,

10.460.781 paper and 6,315,731 gold for the marine department,
40,934,273 paper and 16,984,671 gold for railways, and 6,324,817
paper for public works. In addition to these the budget of 1906
provided for gold expenditures in 1907 of 7,000,000 pesos on sanitary
works and 8,000,000 pesos on the Arica-La Paz railway. The custom
of dividing receipts and expenditures into ordinary and extra-
ordinary, of treating the receipts from loans as revenue, of adding six
months to the fiscal year for closing up accounts, and of dividing
receipts and expenditures into separate gold and currency accounts,
leads to much confusion and complication in the returns, and is the
cause of unavoidable discrepancies and contradictions.

In May 1906 the external debt of the republic aggregated
£21,700,000, including the loans of 1905 and 1906, amounting to
£5,700,000, for sanitary works and railway construction. At the
same time the internal debt was 107,000,000 pesos (£8,025,000),
which increases the funded indebtedness to £29,725,000. Like
Brazil, Chile has been careful to preserve her foreign credit, and
though an average indebtedness of about £10 per capita may seem
large for a nation with so much absolute poverty among its people,
the government is finding no difficulty in negotiating new loans, the
mineral resources of the country and the conservative instincts of
the people being considered satisfactory guarantees. According to
official returns, the real-estate valuations in 1903-1904 aggregated
1,777,217,704 pesos, of which 1,020,609,215 pesos were in urban
and 754,608,489 pesos in rural property. Of the total returned,
1,775,217,704 is described as taxable, and 262,626,576 pesos as non-
taxable. The large and steadily increasing receipts from import
duties, amounting to 91,321,860 pesos in 1905, and 103,507,556 pesos
in 1906, appears to indicate an encouraging state of prosperity in
the country, although an average of 34$ pesos a year (nearly
£2 : I2s.), in addition to the increased prices paid for home manu-
factures, seems to be a very heavy indirect tax upon so poor a
people.

Currency. — The monetary circulation in Chile consists almost
wholly of paper currency, nominally based on a gold standard of

1 The expenditures of 1902 are also given as 25,882,702 pesos gold,
and 108,844,693 pesos currency.

HISTORY]

CHILE

153

i8d. per peso. The conversion law of 1805 made the currency con-
vertible at this rate, although the gold peso was rated at 480%
previous to that date; but the financial crisis of 1898 caused the sus-
pension of specie payments, and a forced issue of additional paper
led to a further postponement of conversion and the prompt with-
drawal of specie from circulation. The paper circulation consists
of national and bank issues. The former owes its existence very
largely to the war with Peru, the civil war of 1891, and the financial
troubles of 1898. On the 1st of January 1890 the national issues
stood at 22,487,916 pesos, and the bank issues at 16,679,790 pesos,
making a total of 39,167,706 pesos currency in circulation. This
total was largely increased by President Balmaceda in 1891. On
the 3ist of July 1898 the conversion of paper notes, under the law
of ist June 1895, was suspended, and the government issued
27,989,929 pesos to the banks of issue, which was described as a loan
at 2 %, and raised their outstanding circulation to 40,723,089 pesos,
and at the same time issued on its own account 17,693,890 pesos and
assumed responsibility for 1,193,641 pesos which had been illegally
put into circulation before 1896. This gave an aggregate registered
circulation of 86,045,166 pesos in 1898. In 1904 another issue of
30,000,000 pesos was authorized and the date of conversion was
still further postponed, and in 1907 a more general act provided that
the maximum paper circulation should not exceed 150,000,000 pesos
of the value of i8d. per peso, and that new issues should be made
only through the issue department and against deposits of gold,
which deposits would be returned to depositors on the presentation
of the currency issued. The redemption of this issue was guaran-
teed by a conversion fund of 100,000,000 pesos, and by an authoriza-
tion to issue a loan of 50,000,000 pesos to redeem the balance, if
necessary. The conversion fund under the act of 1895 stood at
77,282,257 pesos (£5,796,170) on the 3ist of May 1907. There ate
23 joint-stock banks of issue, with an aggregate registered capital
of 40,689,665 pesos (£3,051 ,724). Their circulating notes are secured
by deposits in the national treasury of gold, government notes and
other approved securities. There is no state bank, though the Bank
of Chile, with its numerous agencies and its paid-up capital of
20,000,000 pesos, may be said to fill the place of such an institution.
Besides these, there are four non-issue banks, two foreign banks and
their agencies, and three mortgage banks, with agencies at the
important provincial centres, which loan money on real-estate
security and issue interest bearing hypothecary notes to bearer.
There are 8 savings banks in the republic, whose aggregate deposits
on the 3ist of December 1906 were 14,799,728 pesos.

The monetary unit, the jpld peso, does not form a part of the
actual coinage. The gold coins authorized by this law are the condor
of 20 pesos, the media condor, or doblon, of 10 pesos, and the escudo of
5 pesos. The silver coins are the peso of 100 centavos and its
fractional parts of 20, 10 and 5 centavos. The bronze coins are of
2\, 2, I, and J ccntavos.

The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard
in Chile, but the old Spanish standards are still widely used, especially
in handling mining and farm produce. Nitrate of soda is estimated
in Chilean quintals (101-41 Ib) in the field, and metric quintals
(220-46 ft) at the port of shipment. In silver and copper mining
the marc (8 oz.) is commonly used in describing the richness of the
ores. Farm produce is generally sold by the arroba or fanega; the
vara is used in lineal measurement, and the cuadra is used by country
people in land measurement. (A. J. L.)

HISTORY.

Chile was the recognized name of the country from the
beginning of its known history. The land was originally in-
habited by tribes of Indians, who, though not mere savages,
were far below the level of civilization distinguishing the races
of Mexico and Peru. When the country first became known
to the Spaniards in the i6th century the northern tribes were
found to be more civilized and much more submissive than
those of the south. The difference was no doubt due to the
invasion and conquest of northern Chile in the isth century by
Yupanqui, Inca of Peru, grandfather of Atahualpa,
ru'er °^ Peru at the time °f its conquest by Pizarro.
The dominion of the Incas in Chile was probably
bounded by the Rapel river (lat. 34° 10' S.), and, though their
control of the country was slight, the Peruvian influence led to
the introduction of a higher civilization, and, by weakening the
power of the tribes, paved the way for the invasion of the
Spaniards. Beyond the limits of the Inca conquest the Indians
of Chile were distinguished by fierce independence of character
and by their warlike qualities. Rude and ignorant as they were,
they possessed a rough military organization; each community
was led by its ulmen (chief), and in war the tribes fought together
under an elected leader (toqui). The name of the Araucanians,
the most powerful of the tribes, came to be applied to the whole
confederation of Indians living south of the Bio-bio river.

conquest.

The first Spanish invasion of Chile took place in 1535, when
Diego de Almagro, the companion and rival of Pizarro in the
conquest of Peru, marched into Chile in search of gold.
Disappointed in his quest, and meeting with obstinate y/v«"ton*.
resistance from the southern tribes, he returned to
Peru with his whole force in 1538. In 1540 Pizarro sent Pedro
de Valdivia to make a regular conquest and settlement of Chile.
Valdivia founded Santiago, the present capital of Chile, in
February 1541, and proceeded to build the towns of La Serena,
Concepci6n, Villarica, Imperial, Valdivia and Angol, in order
to secure his hold on the country. But the Indians fought
desperately for their independence, and in 1553 a general rising
of the tribes ended in the defeat and death of Valdivia and in
the destruction of most of his settlements. This was the
beginning of nearly a century of continuous warfare. As there
was no gold in the country the number of settlers was small,
the loose tribal organization of the natives made it impossible
to inflict a vital defeat on them, and the mountainous and
thickly wooded country lent itself admirably to a warfare of
surprises and ambuscades. General after general and army
after army were despatched from Spain and Peru; Chile was
given a government independent of the viceroy of Lima; attack
after attack was made on the Indians, their lands were laid
waste, and the struggle was conducted with merciless ferocity:
all in vain. Settlements and forts were never free from assault
and were taken and retaken: if one Indian aimy was destroyed
another took its place, if one toqui was killed another was chosen;
when defeated, the Indians retired to their forests, marshes and
hills, recruited their forces, and fell on the pursuing Spaniards.
In 1612 an attempt was made by a Jesuit missionary to negotiate
a peace, but not till 1640 was the desperate struggle ended by
the treaty of Quillin, which left the Indians all the land south
of the Bio-bio river. Up to 1800 the peace was broken by three
wars, in 1655, in 1723 and in 1766, the last ended by a treaty
which actually gave the Araucanians the right to have a minister
at Santiago.

It was this constant warfare with the Indians and the necessity
for hard continuous work, owing to the lack of precious metals
in Chile, that no doubt helped to produce in the settlers .the
strength and hardihood of character that distinguishes the
Chileans among South American races. But not unnaturally
the material condition of the country was the reverse of
prosperous. The expenditure far exceeded the revenue. The
Indian warfare occupied nearly the whole attention of the
governors and much of the time of the settlers. By the Spanish
colonial system the development of manufactures was prohibited
and the trade of the colony was limited not only to
Spain but to the one port of Cadiz. Till the i8th
century ships were not allowed to sail round Cape
Horn, so that the Chileans had to trade indirectly through Peru
and the Argentine. Agriculture was the one resource of the
colony, and wheat was grown for export to Peru, but the land
was concentrated in the hands of a few big landowners, and the
cultivation of the vine and olive was forbidden. At the end of
the 1 7th century Santiago was a town of poor one-storeyed houses
and had only 8000 inhabitants; the other towns, Valparaiso,
Conception, La Serena, were only large villages. Books were
not allowed to be imported, and education was limited to such
as was given here and there by priests and monks. The Indians
within the limits of the Spanish colony were treated like slaves,
and horribly mutilated to prevent their escape; but at the
same time a gradual fusion of races was taking place, and the
Chilean peasant (peon) of to-day is as much of Indian as of
Spanish descent. The Araucanians, however, continued to
preserve their independence; they jealously resented the intro-
duction of Spanish influence, and the missionary efforts of the
Jesuits met with little success.

During the i8th century the condition of the colony was
improved in many ways. The Bourbon kings of Spain were
more liberal in their colonial policy. Merchant-ships were
allowed to sail direct to Chile, trade with France was sometimes
permitted, and a large batch of hardy emigrants was sent out

Colonial

fystem.

154

CHILE

[HISTORY

from the Biscay provinces of Spain. Freed from the preoccupa-
tion of the Indian wars, the governors gave more attention to
the general welfare of the country: a university was started
in Santiago in 1747, many towns were built about the same
time, agriculture and industries were promoted and a coasting
trade grew up. In 1778 Charles III. threw open all the ports of
Spain to the colonies and allowed freedom of trade with France.
But in general the administration of the colony was burdensome,
oppressive and inefficient. The people had no voice in the
government. Ruling with the help of the Royal Audience, the
governor was absolute master of the country, and regulated
the smallest details of life. Such time as the officials could spare
from the main object of enriching themselves by extortion and
corruption was given up to endless official and religious ceremonies
and to petty disputes of etiquette and precedence. All the high
posts and offices were filled by men sent from Spain, with the
result that bitter jealousy reigned between them and the native-
born colonists (criollos). The criollos as a rule filled the posts
in the municipalities (cabildos) , disposed of by sale, so that
when the revolution broke out the cabildos naturally became
the centres of the movement. As in all Spanish colonies, so in
Chile, the Church played a large part in the public life. Chile
was divided into the two bishoprics of Santiago and Concepci6n,
and the Church managed to accumulate most of the wealth of
the country. At the same time the monks and Jesuits did
useful work in teaching industrial and agricultural arts, and in
giving the people a certain degree of education; but the influence
of the Church was used to bolster up the traditional narrow
colonial system, and the constant quarrels between the clergy
and the secular powers often threw the country into confusion.
At the opening of the ipth century Chile was a colony whose
resources had hardly been touched, with a population of about
500,000 persons, of Spanish and mixed Spanish and Indian
blood: a people endowed with the vigour of character bred by
a mountainous country and a bracing climate and by a hard
struggle for existence, but ignorant through lack of education,
shut out by a narrow-minded commercial system from knowledge
of the outside world, and destitute of the character-training
that free institutions afford.

The national independence of Chile dates from the second
decade of the ipth century. The revolt of England's North
American colonies, and the events of the French
Revolution naturally suggested the idea of a struggle
for independence to the Spanish colonists, and the
deposition of Ferdinand VII. by Napoleon, and the
ensuing disorganizationof Spain, supplied thedesired opportunity.
In 1809 risings took place in Venezuela, in Ecuador, in Upper
Peru and in the Argentine; the revolutionary fever spread
to Chile, and on the i8th of September 1810 the cabildo of
Santiago secured the resignation of the governor and vested his
powers in an elected Junta (board) of seven members. This
event was the beginning of the independence of Chile. But it
was some time before independence was fully attained. The
mass of the people were ignorant, intercourse between them was
slight, and there was a strong section attached to the old regime.
The party determined on independence was at first small, and
compelled to conceal its aims till the ground had been prepared
for open decisive action. Further, there were divisions between
the patriots of Santiago and those of Concepci6n, and bitter
jealousies between the leaders, the chief of whom were Juan
Martinez de Rozas, Jose Miguel Carrera and Bernardo O'Higgins.
Owing to the apathy of the people and the enmities existing
among the leaders, the Spanish forces, sent by the viceroy of
Peru to crush the revolutionary movement, succeeded after two
years' indecisive fighting in completely defeating the patriots
at Rancagua in 1814. For three years the Spaniards maintained
their hold on Chile, ruling the country with tyrannical harshness,
but in the spring of 181 7 a patriot force which had been organized
at Mendoza in the Argentine by Jose de San Martin, an Argentine
officer, and by O'Higgins, crossed the Andes and overwhelmed
the royalists at the battle of Chacabuco. O'Higgins was named
director-general of Chile, while San Martin, realizing that the

independence of each colony depended on the Spanish being
expelled from the whole of South America, set about prepar-
ing an invasion of Peru. The viceroy of Lima made one more
effort to uphold the power of Spain in Chile, but the army he
despatched under Mariano Osorio, the victor of Rancagua, was
decisively defeated at the river Maipo on the 3rd of April 1818.
By this battle the independence of Chile, formally proclaimed by
O'Higgins in the previous February, was finally secured.

The next few years witnessed the expulsion of the royalists
from the south of Chile, the equipment of a small fleet, placed
under the command of Manuel Blanco Encalada and
Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald), and the invasion
of Peru by San Martin with the help of the fleet,
ending in the proclamation of Peruvian independence in 1821;
though the Spanish power was not finally broken until Bolivar's
victory at Ayacucho in 1824. Relieved from all fear of Spanish
attacks from the north, the new republic of Chile entered upon
a period of internal confusion and dissension bordering upon
anarchy. As soon as the necessity for establishing a stable
government arose the lack of training in self-government among
the Chileans became painfully obvious. O'Higgins as director-
general, rightly perhaps, considered that firm orderly government
was more important than the concession of liberal institutions,
but his administration roused strong hostility, and in 1823 he was
compelled to resign. From that date up to 1830 there were no
less than ten governments, while three different constitutions
were proclaimed. The nation was divided into small mutually
hostile parties; there were ecclesiastical troubles owing to the
hostility of the Church to the new republic; there were Indian
risings in the south and royalist revolts in the island of Chiloe;
the expenditure exceeded the revenue, and the employment
of the old Spanish financial expedients naturally increased the
general discontent. Up to 1830 the Liberal party, which favoured
a free democratic regime, held the upper hand, but in that year
the Conservatives, backed by a military rising led by General
Joaquin Prieto, placed themselves in power after a sanguinary
battle at Lircay . Prieto was elected president in 1 83 1 , and a new
constitution was drafted' and promulgated in 1833, which, with
some modifications, remains the constitution of Chile at the
present time. This constitution invested the executive with
almost dictatorial powers, and the Conservatives entered upon
a long term of office.

The aim of the Conservative policy was to secure above all a
strong administration; power was concentrated in the hands
of a small circle; public liberties were restricted and all opposi-
tion crushed by force. Inaugurated under General Prieto's
administration (1831-1841) by his able minister Diego Portales,
this policy was continued by his successors General Manuel
Bulnes (1841-1851) and Manuel Montt (1851-1861), each of
whom like Prieto was elected to a double term of office. In
spite of the discontent of the Liberals, the Conservative ascend-
ancy secured a long period of firm stable government, which was
essential to put an end to the confusion in public life and to give
time for the people to awake to a fuller realization of the duties
and responsibilities of national independence. The internal
peace of the country was only disturbed three times, by Liberal
risings in 1835, in 1851 and in 1859, all of which were crushed, but
not without severe fighting. In 1836 Chile also became involved
in a war with a confederation of Peru and Bolivia, which ended in
the victory of Chile and the dissolution of the confederation.

While refusing to allow the people any share in, or control
over, the government, the Conservative leaders devoted them-
selves to improving the condition of the people and of the
country, and under their firm rule Chile advanced rapidly in
prosperity. The government established a department for
education, a training college for teachers, and numerous schools
and libraries; literary magazines were started and a school of
art and an academy of music founded. By the consolidation
of the foreign debt, by the regular payment of interest, by the
establishment of several banks, and by the negotiation of
commercial treaties, the financial position of the country was
improved. Internal development was promoted by the working

HISTORY]

CHILE

155

of the silver mines of Copiapo and the coal mines of Lota, by
the building of railways and erection of telegraphs, and by the
colonization of the rich Valdivia province with German settlers.
The Straits of Magellan were occupied; under an American
engineer, William Wheelwright, a line of steamers was started on
the coast, and, by a wise measure allowing merchandise to be
landed free of duty for re-exportation, Valparaiso became a
busy port and trading centre; while the demand for food-stuffs
in California and Australia, following upon the rush for gold,
gave a strong impetus to agriculture. A code of law was drawn
up and promulgated, and the ecclesiastical system was organized
under an archbishop appointed by the pope. To Montt, as
minister under Bulnes and afterwards as president, must be
given the main credit for the far-seeing policy which laid the
foundations of the prosperity of Chile; and though the adminis-
tration was in many ways harsh and narrow, firm government,
rather than liberty that would have tended to anarchy, was
essential for the success of the young republic.

After 1861, however, a. Liberal reaction set in, aided by
divisions in the Conservative party arising mainly over church
questions. Monti's successors, Jos6 Joaquin Perez (1861-1871),
Fedcrico Errazuriz (1871-1876) and Anibal Pinto (1876-1881),
abandoned the repressive policy of their predecessors, invited
the co-operation of the Liberals, and allowed discontent to vent
itself freely in popular agitation. Some democratic changes
were made in the constitution, notably a law forbidding the
re-election of a president, and the gradual and peaceful transition
to a Liberal policy was a proof of the progress which the nation
had made in political training. Outside the movement for con-
stitutional reform, the most important internal question was the
successful Liberal attack on the privileged position and narrow
views of the Church, which led to the birth of a strong ultra-
montane party among the clergy. The government continued to
be animated by a progressive spirit: schools, railways, telegraphs
were rapidly extended; a steamship mail service to Europe
was subsidized, and the stability of the government enabled it
to raise new foreign loans in order to extinguish the old high
interest-bearing loans and to meet the expenses of public works.
In 1877 a financial crisis occurred, met by the emission of paper
money, but the depression was only temporary, and the country
soon rallied from the effects.

During this period there was desultory fighting with the
Indians; there was a long boundary dispute with the Argentine,
settled in 1880; and in 1865 Chilean sympathy with Peru in a
quarrel with Spain led to a foolish war with Spain. The blockade
of their ports and the bombardment of Valparaiso by a Spanish
squadron impressed the Chileans with the necessity of possessing
an adequate fleet to defend their long coast-line; and it was
under President Errazuriz that the ships were obtained and the
officers trained that did such good service in the great war with
Peru. With a population of over two millions, a rapidly increas-
ing revenue, ruled by a government that was firm and progressive
and that enjoyed the confidence of all classes, Chile was well
equipped for the struggle with Peru that began in 1879.

The war of 1870-82 between Chile and Peru is the subject
of a separate article (see CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR). By the
beginning of 1881 the war had reached a stage when
<&°S»-,«r tne ^nal stru8S'e was close at hand. On the i3th of
with Peru. January of that year the Chilean forces under command
of General Baquedano attacked the entrenched
positions of the Peruvians at daybreak in the vicinity of Chorillos,
a village some few miles from Lima, and forming the outer line
of defence for the capital. After a stubborn fight the day ended
in victory for the attacking forces; but the losses on both sides
were great, and on the following day negotiations for peace were
attempted by the representatives of the foreign powers in Lima,
the object being to avoid, if possible, any further bloodshed.
This attempt to end the conflict proved, however, abortive,
and on the i$th of January at 2 P.M. hostilities recommenced in
the neighbourhood of Miraflores. After severe fighting for some
four hours the Chileans again proved victorious, and drove the
Peruvians from the second line of defence back upon the city of

Lima. Lima was now at the mercy of the Chileans, and on the
1 7th of January a division of 4000 men of all arms, under the
command of General Cornelio Saavedra, was sent forward to
occupy the Peruvian capital and restore order within the town
limits. A portion of the Chilean forces was shortly afterwards
withdrawn from Peru, and the army of occupation remaining
in the conquered country was in charge of Admiral Patricio
Lynch, an officer who had been specially promoted for dis-
tinguished services during the war. President Anibal Pinto of
Chile now set about to find means to conclude a treaty of peace
with Peru, but his efforts in this direction were frustrated by
the armed resistance offered in the country districts to the
Chilean authorities by the remainder of the Peruvian forces
under command of General Caceres. So matters continued —
the Chileans administering on the seaboard and in the principal
towns, the Peruvians maintaining a guerilla warfare in the
mountainous districts of the interior. In September 1881 the
term of office of president Pinto expired, and he was succeeded
in the post of chief executive of Chile by President Domingo
Santa Maria. Ex-President Pinto died three years later in
Valparaiso, leaving a memory respected and admired by all
political parties in his country. The name of Pinto will always
occupy a prominent place in the annals of Chilean history,
not only because the war with Peru took place during his term
of office, but also on account of the fact that it was largely due
to the intelligent direction of all details by the president during
the struggle that the Chilean arms proved so absolutely successful
by land and sea.

Senor Domingo Santa Maria, who now acceded to the presi-
dency of Chile, was a Liberal in politics, and -had previously
held various important posts under the government.
Under the rule of President Montt he had been an
active member of the opposition and involved in
various revolutionary conspiracies; for his participa-
tion in these plots he was at one time exiled from the country,
but returned and received official employment under President
Perez. The principal task confronting President Santa Maria
on assuming the presidency was to negotiate a treaty of peace
with Peru and provide for the evacuation of the Chilean army
of occupation. The presence of the Peruvian general Ciceres
and his forces in the interior of Peru prevented for some two
years the formation of any Peruvian national administration
in Lima with which the Chilean authorities could deal. In
August of 1883 the Peruvians were defeated by the forces
commanded by Admiral Lynch, and a government was then
organized under the leadership of General Iglesias. A provisional
treaty of peace was then drawn up and signed by General Iglesias
and the Chilean representative, and this was finally ratified by
the Chilean and Peruvian congresses respectively in April 1884.
By the terms of this treaty Peru ceded to Chile unconditionally
the province of Tarapaca, and the provinces of Tacna and Arica
were placed under Chilean authority for the term of ten years,
the inhabitants having then to decide by a general vote whether
they remained a part of Chile or elected to belong once more to
Peru. In the event of the decision being favourable to Peru a sum
of 10,000,000 dollars was to be paid by Peru to Chile. On the
ratification of this treaty the Chilean forces were immediately
withdrawn from Lima and other points of occupation in Peruvian
territory. The government of Bolivia also attempted to negotiate
a treaty of peace with Chile in 1884, and for this purpose sent
representatives to Santiago. No satisfactory terms, however,
could be arranged, and the negotiations ended in only an armistice
being agreed to, by which Chile remained in occupation of the
Bolivian seaboard pending a definite settlement at some future
period.

The administration of President Santa Maria met with violent
opposition from the Conservatives, who included the Clerical
party in their ranks, and also from a certain section of the Liberals.
The dislike of the Conservatives to President Santa Maria was
occasioned by his introduction of the law of civil marriage, the
civil registration of births and deaths, and the freeing of the
cemeteries. Hitherto no marriage was legal unless celebrated

I56

CHILE

[HISTORY

according to the rites of the Roman Catholic religion, and all
registers of births and deaths were kept by the parish priests.
Civil employees were now appointed under the new laws to attend
to this work. Formerly the cemeteries were entirely under the
control of the Church, and, with the exception of a few places
specially created for the purpose, were reserved solely for the
burial of Roman Catholics. Under the new regime these
cemeteries were made common to the dead of all religions.
Under President Perez, in 1865, a clause in the law of constitution
had been introduced permitting the exercise of all creeds of
religion, and this was now put into practice, all restrictions
being removed. On several occasions, notably in 1882 and 1885,
President Santa Maria used his influence in the elections of
senators and deputies to congress for the purpose of creating
a substantial majority in his favour. He was induced to take
this course in consequence of the violent opposition raised in
the chambers by the liberal policy he pursued in connexion
with Church matters. This intervention caused great irritation
amongst the Conservatives and dissentient Liberals, and the
political situation on more than one occasion became so strained
as to bring the country to the verge of armed revolution. No
outbreak, however, took place, and in 1886 the five years of office
for which President Santa Maria had been elected came to an
end, and another Liberal, Senor Jos6 Manuel Balmaceda, then
succeeded to power.

The election of Balmaceda was bitterly opposed by the
Conservatives and dissentient Liberals, but was finally success-
fully carried by the official influence exercised by
So/mate a pj-ggj,]^ Santa Maria. On assuming office President
president. Balmaceda endeavoured to bring'about a reconciliation
of all sections of the Liberal party in congress and so
form a solid majority to support the administration, and to this
end he nominated as ministers representatives of the different
political groups. Six months later the cabinet was reorganized,
and two most bitter opponents to the recent election of President
Balmaceda were accorded portfolios. Believing that he had
now secured the support of the majority in congress on behalf
of any measures he decided to put forward, the new president
initiated a policy of heavy expenditure on public works, the
building of schools, and the strengthening of the naval and
military forces of the republic. Contracts were given out to the
value of £6,000,000 for the construction of railways in the
southern districts; some 10,000,000 dollars were expended in
the erection of- schools and colleges; three cruisers and two
sea-going torpedo boats were added to the squadron; the
construction of the naval port at Talcahuano was actively pushed
forward; new armament was purchased for the infantry and
artillery branches of the army, and heavy guns were acquired
for the purpose of permanently and strongly fortifying the
neighbourhoods of Valparaiso, Talcahuano and Iquique. In
itself this policy was not unreasonable, and in many ways
extremely beneficial for the country. Unfortunately corruption
crept into the expenditure of the large sums necessary to carry
out this programme. Contracts were given by favour and not
by merit, and the progress made in the construction of the new
public works was far from satisfactory. The opposition in
congress to President Balmaceda began to increase rapidly
towards the close of 1887, and further gained ground in 1888.
In order to ensure a majority favourable to his views, the
president threw the whole weight of his official influence into
the elections for senators and deputies in 1888; but many of
the members returned to the chambers through this official
influence joined the opposition shortly after taking their seats.
In 1889 congress became distinctly hostile to the administration
of President Balmaceda, and the political situation became grave,
and at times threatened to involve the country in civil war.
According to usage and custom in Chile, a ministry does not
remain in office unless supported by a majority in the chambers.
Balmaceda now found himself in the impossible position of being
unable to appoint any ministry that could control a majority
in the senate and chamber of deputies and at the same time be
in accordance with his own views of the administration of public

affairs. At this juncture the president assumed that the con-
stitution gave him the power of nominating and maintaining
in office any ministers he might consider fitting persons for the
purpose, and that congress had no right of interference in the
matter. The chambers were now only waiting for a suitable
opportunity to assert their authority. In 1890 it was stated
that President Balmaceda had determined to nominate and
cause to be elected as his successor at the expiration of his term
of office in 1891 one of his own personal friends. This question
of the election of another president brought matters to a head,
and congress refused to vote supplies to carry on the government.
To avoid trouble Balmaceda entered into a compromise with
congress, and agreed to nominate a ministry to their liking on
condition that the supplies for 1890 were voted. This cabinet,
however, was of short duration, and resigned when the ministers
understood the full amount of friction between the president
and congress. Balmaceda then nominated a ministry not in
accord with the views of congress under Senor Claudio Vicuna,
whom it was no secret that Balmaceda intended to be his
successor in the presidential chair, and, to prevent any expression
of opinion upon his conduct in the matter, he refrained from
summoning an extraordinary session of the legislature for the
discussion of the estimates of revenue and expenditure for 1891.
When the ist of January 1891 arrived, the president published
a decree in the Diario Oficial to the effect that the budget of
1890 would be considered the official budget for 1891. This act
was illegal and beyond the attributes of the executive
power. As a protest against the action of President 0//,g9/. '
Balmaceda, the vice-president of the senate, Senor
Waldo Silva, and the president of the chamber of deputies,
Senor Ramon Barros Luco, issued a proclamation appointing
Captain Jorje Montt in command of the squadron, and stating
that the navy could not recognize the authority of Balmaceda
so long as he did not administer public affairs in accordance
with the constitutional law of Chile. The majority of the
members of the chambers sided with this movement, and on the
7th of January Sefiores Waldo Silva, Barros Luco and a number
of senators and deputies embarked on board the Chilean warship
" Blanco Encalada," accompanied by the " Esmeralda " and
" O'Higgins " and other vessels, sailing out of Valparaiso harbour
and proceeding northwards to Tarapaca to organize armed
resistance against the president (see CHILEAN CIVIL WAR). It
was not alone this action of Balmaceda in connexion with
congress that brought about the revolution. He had alienated
the sympathy of the aristocratic classes of Chile by his personal
vanity and ambition. The oligarchy composed of the great
landowners have always been an important factor in the political
life of the republic; when President Balmaceda found that he
was not a persona grata to this circle he determined to endeavour
to govern without their support, and to bring into the adminis-
tration a set of men who had no traditions and with whom his
personality would be all-powerful. The Clerical influence was
also thrown against him in consequence of his radical ideas in
respect of Church matters.

Immediately on the outbreak of the revolution President
Balmaceda published a decree declaring Montt and his com-
panions to be traitors, and without delay organized an army of
some 40,000 men for the suppression of the insurrectionary
movement. While both sides were preparing for extremities,
Balmaceda administered the government under dictatorial
powers with a congress of his own nomination. In June 1891
he ordered the presidential election to be held, and Senor Claudio
Vicuna was duly declared chosen as president of the republic for
the term commencing in September 1891. The resources of
Balmaceda were running short on account of the heavy military
expenses, and he determined to dispose of the reserve of silver
bullion accumulated in the vaults of the Casa de Moneda in
accordance with the terms of the law for the conversion of the
note issue. The silver was conveyed abroad in a British man-
of-war, and disposed of partly for the purchase of a fast steamer
to be fitted as an auxiliary cruiser and partly in payment for
other kinds of war material.

HISTORY]

CHILE

157

The organization of the revolutionary forces went on slowly.
Much difficulty was experienced in obtaining the necessary arms
and ammunition. A supply of rifles was bought in the United
States, and embarked on board the " Itata," a Chilean vessel
in the service of the rebels. The United States authorities
refused to allow this steamer to leave San Diego, and a guard
was stationed on the ship. The " Itata," however, slipped away
and made for the Chilean coast, carrying with her the repre-
sentatives of the United States. A fast cruiser was immediately
sent in pursuit, but only succeeded in overhauling the rebel ship
after she was at her destination. The " Itata " was then forced
to return to San Diego without landing her cargo for the insur-
gents. The necessary arms and ammunition were arranged for
in Europe; they were shipped in a British vessel, and transferred
to a Chilean steamer at Fortune Bay, in Tierra del Fuego, close
to the Straits of Magellan and the Falkland Islands, and thence
carried to Iquique, where they were safely disembarked early in
July 1891. A force of 10,000 men was now raised by the junta
of the revolution, and preparations were rapidly pushed forward
for a move to the south with the object of attacking Valparaiso
and Santiago. Early in April a portion of the revolutionary
squadron, comprising the " Blanco Encalada " and other ships,
was sent to the southward for reconnoitring purposes and put
into the port of Caldera. During the night of the 23rd of April,
and whilst the " Blanco Encalada " was lying quietly at anchor,
a torpedo boat called the " Almirante Lynch," belonging to the
Balmaceda faction, steamed into the bay of Caldera and dis-
charged a torpedo at the rebel ship. The " Blanco Encalada "
sank in a few minutes and 300 of her crew perished.

In the middle of August 1891 the rebel forces were embarked
at Iquique (where a provisional government under Captain
Jorje Montt had been set up), numbering in all about 9000 men,
and sailed fcr the south. On the 2oth of August the congressist
army was disembarked at Quinteros, about 20 m. north of
Valparaiso, and marched to Concon, where the Balmacedists
were entrenched. A severe fight ensued, in which the troops
of President Balmaceda were defeated with heavy loss. This
reverse roused the worst passions of the president, and he ordered
the arrest and imprisonment of all persons suspected of sympathy
with the revolutionary cause. The population generally were,
however, distinctly antagonistic to Balmaceda; and this feeling
had become accentuated since the lyth of August 1891, on
which date he had ordered the execution of a number of youths
belonging to the military college at San Lorenzo on a charge of
seditious practices. The shooting of these boys created a feeling
of horror throughout the country, and a sensation of uncertainty
as to what measures of severity might not be practised in the
future if Balmaceda won the day. After the victory at Concon
the insurgent army, under command of General Campos, marched
in a southerly direction towards Vina del Mar, and thence to
Placilla, where the final struggle in the conflict took place.
Balmaceda's generals Barbosa and Alcerrica had here massed
their troops in a strong position. The battle, on the 28th of
August, resulted in victory for the rebels. Both the Balmacedist
generals were killed and Valparaiso was at once occupied.
Defeat and Tnree days later the victorious insurgents entered
suicide of Santiago and assumed the government of the republic.
Baima- After the battle of Placilla it was clear to President
ced* Balmaceda that he could no longer hope to find a

sufficient strength amongst his adherents to maintain himself in
power, and in view of the rapid approach of the rebel army he
abandoned his official duties to seek an asylum in the Argentine
legation. The president remained concealed in this retreat until
the 1 8th of September. On the evening of that date, when the
term for which he had been elected president of the republic
terminated, he committed suicide by shooting himself. The
excuse for this act, put forward in letters written shortly before
his end, was that he did not believe the conquerors would give
him an impartial trial. The death of Balmaceda finished all
cause of contention in Chile, and was the closing act of the most
severe and bloodiest struggle that country had ever witnessed.
In the various engagements throughout the conflict more than

10,000 lives were lost, and the joint expenditure of the two
governments on military preparations and the purchase of war
material exceeded £10,000,000 sterling.

An unfortunate occurrence soon after the close of the revolution
brought strained relations for a short period between the govern-
ments of the United States and Chile. A number of men of the
U.S.S. "Baltimore" having been given liberty on shore, an
argument arose between some of them and a group of Chilean
sailors in a drinking den in Valparaiso. Words led to blows.
The Americans were badly handled, one of their number being
killed and others severely hurt. The United States government
characterized the affair as an outrage, demanding an indemnity
as satisfaction. The Chilean authorities demurred at this
attitude, and attempted to argue the matter. James G. Elaine,
then secretary of state, refused peremptorily to listen to any
explanations. In the end Chile paid an indemnity of $75,000
as asked, but the affair left bad feeling in its train.

The close of the revolution against Balmaceda left the govern-
ment of Chile in the hands of the junta under whose guidance
the military and naval operations had been organized.
Admiral Jorje Montt had been the head of this
revolutionary committee, and he acted as president
of the provisional government when the administration
of the country changed hands after the victory of the Congres-
sional party. An election was now immediately ordered for the
choice of a president of the republic and for representatives in
the senate and chamber of deputies. Admiral Montt, as head
of the executive power, stanchly refused to allow official influence
to be brought to bear in any way in the presidential campaign.
The great majority of the voters, however, required no pressure
to decide who was in their opinion the man most fitted to ad-
minister the affairs of the republic. For the first time in the
history of Chile a perfectly free election was held, and Admiral
Montt was duly chosen by a nearly unanimous vote to be chief
magistrate for the constitutional term of five years. The senate
and chamber of deputies were formally constituted in due course,
and the government of the republic resumed normal conditions
of existence. The new president showed admirable tact in dealing
with the difficult problem he was called upon to face. Party
feeling still ran high between the partisans of the two sides of the
recent conflict. Admiral Montt took the view that it was politic
and just to let bygones be bygones, and he acted conscientiously
by this principle in all administrative measures in connexion
with the supporters of the late President Balmaceda. Early in
1892 an amnesty was granted to the officers of the Balmaceda
regime, and they were freely permitted to return to Chile without
any attempt being made to molest them. The first political act
of national importance of the new government was the grant
of control to the municipalities, which hitherto had possessed
little power to direct local affairs, and were not even permitted
to dispose of the municipal revenues to any important amount
without first obtaining the consent of the central government.
Almost absolute power was now given these corporations to
manage their own concerns, and the organization of the police
was placed in their hands; at a later period, however, it was
found necessary to modify this latter condition.

President Montt next turned his attention towards the
question of how best to repair the damage occasioned to the
country by eight months of civil warfare. The plan of public
works authorized in 1887 was reconsidered, and the construction
of portions of the various undertakings recommenced. The
army and navy were reorganized. Additional instructors were
brought from Germany, and all arms of the military service
were placed on a thoroughly efficient footing in matters of drill
and discipline. Several new and powerful cruisers were added
to the navy, and the internal economy of this branch of the
national defence was thoroughly inspected and many defects
were remedied. President Montt then took in hand the question
of a reform of the currency, the abolition of inconvertible paper
money, and the re-establishment of a gold basis as the monetary
standard of the republic. This reform of the currency became
the keynote of the president's policy during the remainder of

i58

CHILE

[HISTORY

his term of office. Great opposition was raised by the repre-
sentatives of the debtor class in congress to the suppression of the
inconvertible paper money, but in the end President Montt
carried the day, and on the nth of February 1895 a measure
finally became law establishing a gold currency as the only legal
tender in Chile. In July 1896 the Conversion Act was put in
force, a dollar of i8d. being the monetary unit adopted. In 1895
relations with the neighbouring republic of Argentina began to
become somewhat strained in regard to the interpretation of the
treaty concerning the boundary between the two countries.
The treaties of 1881, 1893 and 1895 left doubts in the minds of
both Chileans and Argentines as to the position of the frontier
line. On the lyth of April 1896 another protocol was drawn
up, by which the contending parties agreed to submit any differ-
ences to the arbitration of Great Britain, at the instance of one
or both governments. President Montt had now fulfilled his
term of office, and on the i8th of September 1896 he handed
over the presidential power to his successor, Sefior Federico
Errazuriz, who had been duly elected in the month of Jun.e
previously.

The election for the position of president of the republic was
closely contested in 1896 between Senor Errazuriz and Sefior
Reyes, and ended in the triumph of the former candi-
^ate ^v l^e narrow majority of one vote. The father
of the new president had been chief magistrate of
Chile from 1871 to 1876, and his administration had been one
of the best the country had ever enjoyed; his son had therefore
traditions to uphold in the post he was now called upon to fill.
At the beginning of 1897 the public attention was absorbed by
foreign political questions. The problems to be solved were the
frontier difficulty with Argentina, the question of the possession
of Tacna and Arica with Peru, and the necessity of fulfilling the
obligation contracted with Bolivia to give that country a seaport
on the Pacific coast. The treaty made in 1896 with the Argentine
government, referring to the arbitration of disputed points con-
cerning the boundary, became practically for the moment a dead
letter, and both Argentines and Chileans began to talk openly
of an appeal to arms to settle the matter once for all. The
governments of both countries began to purchase large supplies
of war material, and generally to make preparations for a possible
conflict. In these circumstances no final settlement with Peru
and Bolivia was possible, the authorities of those republics
holding back to see the issue of the Chile-Argentine dispute, and
Chile being in no position at the time to insist on any terms being
arranged. So matters drifted until the beginning of 1898. In
July of that year the crisis reached an acute stage. Both Chile
and Argentina put forward certain pretensions to territory in the
Atacama district to the north, and also to a section of Patagonia
in the south. Neither side would give way, nor was any dis-
position exhibited to refer the matter to arbitration under the
protocol of 1896. The cry of an acute financial crisis emanating
from the fear of war with Argentina was now raised in Chile.
The president was advised that the only way of averting the
financial ruin of the banking institutions of the republic was to
suspend the conversion law and lend from the national treasury
inconvertible notes to the banks. Senor Errazuriz weakly gave
way, and a decree was promulgated placing the
wltll currency once more on an inconvertible paper money

Argentina, basis until 1902. In August of 1898 the Chilean
government determined to insist upon the terms of the
protocol of 1896 being acted upon, and intimated to Argentina
that they demanded the fulfilment of the clause relating to
arbitration on disputed points. This was practically an ulti-
matum, and a refusal on the part of the Argentine government
to comply with the terms of the 1896 agreement meant a declara-
tion of war by Chile. For a few days the issue hung in the
balance, and then the Argentine government accepted the
provisions made in 1896 for arbitration. The dispute concerning
the Atacama district was submitted to an arbitration tribunal,
consisting of the representative of the United States in Argentina,
assisted by one Argentine and one Chilean commissioner. This
tribunal, after due investigation, gave their decision in April

1899, and the verdict was accepted unreservedly by both govern-
ments. The dispute regarding the I'atagonian territory was
submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain, and a commission
— consisting of Lord Macnaghten, Sir John Ardagh and Sir T. H.
Holdich — was appointed in 1899 to hear the case.

The Argentine difficulty was ended, but Chile still had to find
a settlement with Peru and Bolivia. The treaty made with the
former country in 1893 was not ratified, as it was thought to
concede too much to Peru, and the subsequent ad referendum
treaty was rejected on account of Peru claiming that only
Peruvians, and not all residents, should have the right to vote
in the plebiscite to be taken by the terms of the treaty of 1883
for the possession of Tacna and Arica. By the terms of the
armistice of 1883 between Chile and Boh' via, a three years'
notice had to be given by either government wishing to denounce
that agreement. By the protocol of 1895 Chile agreed to give
to Bolivia the port of Arica, or some other suitable position on
the seaboard. On these lines a settlement was proposed. Vitor,
•a landing-place a little to the south of Arica, was offered by the
Chilean government to Bolivia, but refused as not complying
with the conditions stated in the protocol of 1895; the Bolivians
furthermore preferred to wait and see if Arica was finally ceded
by Peru to Chile, and if so to claim the fulfilment of the terms of
the protocol.

After the accession to office of President Errazuriz there was
no stability of any ministry. Political parties in congress were
so evenly balanced and so subdivided into groups that a vote
against the ministry was easy to obtain, and the resignation of
the cabinet immediately followed in accordance with the so-called
parliamentary system in vogue in Chile. The president of the
republic has no power to dissolve the chambers, to endeavour to
remedy the evil by one or another political party obtaining a
substantial working majority, but must wait to see the results
of the triennial elections. As a consequence of these conditions
Conservative, Liberal and coalition ministries held office at short
intervals. These unsettled political circumstances checked any
continuity of policy, and tended to block the passage of all useful
legislation to help forward the economic development of the
country and inhabitants; on the other hand, the financial
situation was better by the end of 1899 than in the previous year,
since all proposals for a fresh paper issue had been vetoed;
and the elections for congress and municipal office at the opening
of 1900 returned a majority favourable to a stable currency
policy.

In September 1900 a fresh outburst of hostile feeling against
Chile was created in Argentina by a note addressed by the Chilean
government to Bolivia, intimating that Chile was no longer
inclined to hand over the port of Arica or any other port on the
Pacific, but considered the time ripe for a final settlement of the
questions connected with the Chilean occupation of Bolivian
territory, which had now been outstanding for sixteen years.
The foreign policy of Chile, as indicated by this note, was con-
sidered by Argentina to be grasping and unconciliatory, and there
were rumours of an anti-Chilean South American federation.
Chile disclaimed any aggressive intentions^ but in December the
Bolivian congress declined to relinquish their claim to a port,
and refused to conclude a definite treaty of peace. The year
closed with a frontier incident between Chile and Argentina
in the disputed territory of Ultima Esperanza, where some
Argentine colonists were ejected by Chilean police; but both
governments signed protocols agreeing not to take aggressive
action in consequence.

At the opening of 1901 the country was chiefly interested in
the forthcoming presidential election, for which the candidates
were Don Pedro Montt (Conservative and Clerical)
and Senor. German Riesco (Liberal). The relations
between President Errazuriz and congress became
rather strained, owing to the former's inclination to retain in
office a ministry on which congress had passed a vote of censure;
but Errazuriz had been in ill-health for more than a year, and
on the ist of May he resigned, and died in July. At the ensuing
election Riesco was elected president. The attitude of Chile

HISTORY]

CHILE

'59

towards the Pan-American Congress at Mexico became a matter
of interest in the autumn, particularly in connexion with the
proposal for compulsory arbitration between all American
governments. The Chilean government made it quite clear that
they would withdraw from the congress if this proposal was
meant to be retroactive; and their unyielding attitude testified
to the apprehensions felt by Chile concerning United States
interference. In October the Chilean government announced
that the contemplated conversion scheme, for which gold had
been accumulated, would be postponed for two years (till October
1003), the gold being held as a reserve fund pending the result
of the arbitration over the Argentine frontier. This was generally
considered to be a reasonable and statesmanlike course. Un-
fortunately, a recrudescence of the excitement over the boundary
dispute was occasioned by the irritation created in Argentina
by the fact that, pending a decision, Chile was constructing roads
in the disputed territory. During December 1001 relations were
exceedingly strained, and troops were called out on both sides.
But at the end of the month it was agreed to leave the question
to the British arbitrators, and the latter decided to send one of
their number, Sir T. H. Holdich, to examine the territory.
( The survey occupied some eight months, and it was not until
the autumn that Sir T. H. Holdich returned to England to make
his report. The difficulty of ascertaining the true line
Argentine of ^ watershed had been very great, but the result
mward?* was eminently successful. The award of King Edward
was signed on the zoth of November 1902, and both
parties to the litigation were satisfied. In order that future
disputes might be amicably settled, a treaty was signed by
which it was agreed that any question that might arise should be
submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain or in default of
that power to the Swiss Confederation. The removal of this
source of irritation and the restoration of friendly relations
between the two republics was a great relief to the finance of
Chile. Had it not been for the political instability of the country,
the effects of the diminution of expenditure on military and naval
preparations would have effected a rapid improvement in its
financial position. The constant change of ministry (there
being no stable majority in the congress) prevented during 1903
any settled policy, or that confidence in the government which
is the basis of commercial prosperity. In 1904, however, both
trade and revenue showed signs of improvement, and the sale
of the warships " Esmeralda " and " Chambuco " for £1,000,000
furnished a surplus, which was devoted to the improvement of
the port of Valparaiso. This was the beginning of a period of
steady industrial growth and development. The settlement of
the long outstanding dispute with Bolivia in a treaty of peace
signed on the i7th of October 1005 was very advantageous to
both countries. By this treaty Bolivia ceded all claims to a
seaport and strip of the coast, on condition that Chile constructed
at her own charges a railway to Lapaz from the port of Arica,
giving at the same time to Bolivia free transit across Chilean
territory to the sea. A cash indemnity of £300,000 was also paid,
and certain stipulations were made with regard to the construc-
tion of other railways giving access from Chile to the Bolivian
interior.

The prosperity of Chile was to suffer a rude shock. On the
17th of August 1006 a terrible earthquake visited Valparaiso
and the surrounding district. The town of Valparaiso
was almost entirely destroyed, while Santiago and
other towns were severely shaken and suffered much
damage. It was estimated that about 3000 persons
were killed, a still larger number injured, and at least 100,000
rendered homeless. The loss of property was enormous. The
fire which broke out after the earthquake shock had subsided
added to the horror of the catastrophe. Measures were, however,
promptly taken for succouring the people, who had been driven
from their homes, and the task of restoration was vigorously
taken in hand. Before the end of the year the rebuilding of the
city was rapidly progressing.

In 1906 Senor Pedro Montt was elected president and entered
upon his office on the i7th of September. The personality of

the president, however, had become of much less importance in
modern Chile than in earlier days. Up to 1870 the government
was in the hands of a small oligarchy of Santiago
families, but the president enjoyed large powers
of initiative. Nowadays the congress has virtually Moott,
absorbed the executive power, with the result that the
cabinet is often changed many times in one year. This prevents
indeed any continuity of policy, for the majority in congress is
perpetually fluctuating, and ministerial crises rapidly follow one
another. Chile, however, except in the Balmacedist civil war,
is happily distinguished by its freedom from revolution and
serious political unrest. Its history in this respect is in marked
contrast to that of the neighbouring South American states.
The completion of the Trans- Andean railway between Valparaiso
and Buenos Aires was bound to be of immense commercial and
industrial value; and eventually the making of a longitudinal
railway route uniting the nitrate province of the north with
Santiago, and Santiago with Puerto Montt in the distant south,
opened up further important prospects. Such a line of through
communication, binding together the different provinces forming
the long narrow strip of territory stretching along more than
2000 m. of the Pacific littoral, could only be looked forward to,
both politically and economically, as an inestimable benefit to
the country.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — General History. — The most valuable authority
is D. Barros Arana's Historia jeneral de Chile (15 vols., Santiago,
1884), from the earliest days up to 1830. Smaller handbooks cover-
ing the whole period are : A. U. Hancock, a History of Chile (Chicago.,
!893), the only general history in English, and containing a biblio-
graphy; Caspar Toro, Compendia de la historic, de Chile (Santiago,
1879), a good clear abstract of Chilean history; 'and F. Valdes
Vergara, Historia de Chile (Valparaiso, 1898), written primarily
for schools.but containing useful sketches of leading figures in Chilean
history.

Works on Special Periods. — Colonial Period: M. L. Amunatequi,
Descubri miento y conquista de Chile (Santiago, 1885), a valuable
detailed account of the Spanish conquest; by same author, Los
Precursores de la independencia de Chile (Santiago, 1870), a clear
useful description of the evils of the Spanish colonial system;
Horacio Lara, Cronica de la Araucania (Santiago, 1889), a history
of the Araucanian Indians right up to recent dates; Abb6 Eyza-
guirre, Histoire du Chili (Lille, 1855), mainly dealing with the
position of the Church during the colonial period. Perez Garcia's
Historia del reino de Chile (Santiago, 1900), an old history by a
Spanish officer written about 1780, and Molina's History of Chili in
the English translation (London, 1809), will also be found useful.
Useful material for research exists in J. T. Medina's Coleccion de
documentos para la historia de Chile (Santiago, 1888), a collection
of despatches and official documents; his Cosas de la colonia
(Santiago, 1889), an accumulation of undigested information about
life in the colonial period; and Historiadores de Chile (21 vols.,
Santiago, 1861), a collection of ancient chronicles and official
documents up to the early part of the i;th century.

Revolutionary Period. — A. Roldan, Las Primer as Asambleas
nacionales (Santiago, 1890), an account of the struggles in the first
national assemblies; A. Valdes, Revolution Chilena. y campanas de
la independencia (Santiago, 1888), an account of the early fighting
and rivalry of the revolutionary leaders ; W. Pilling, Emancipation
of South America (London, 1893), a translation of B. Mitre's life of
San Martin, describing the fighting in the wars of independence;
Lord Cochrane, Narrative of Services in Chile, Peru and Brazil
(London, 1859), an autobiography describing the naval exploits that
helped to secure the expulsion of the Spaniards; B. Vicuna
Machenna, Vida de O'Higgins (Santiago, 1882), giving a useful
account of the revolutionary struggle and the main actors; and the
same author's Historia jeneral de la republica de Chile, a collection
of essays on the early republican history by various writers.

Later History. — R. Sotomayor Valdes, Historia de Chili, 1831-
1871, a detailed account of the period (Sanitago, 1875); the same
author's Campana del ejercito Chileno en 1837 (Santiago, 1896),
describing the fighting of the first Peruvian War; B. Vicuna
Machenna, D. Diego Portales (Valparaiso, 1863), a good account_of
the life and time of Portales, the famous minister of the Conservative
party; P. B. Fiqueroa, Historia de la revolution constituyente
1858-59 (Santiago, 1889), an account of the revolution at the end of
Monti's presidency ; F. Fonch, Chile in der Gegenwart (Berlin, 1870),
a description of Chile at the time; Statement on Behalf of Chile (in
the Chilean-Argentine Boundary Arbitration) (6 vols., London,
1901-1902); Sir Thomas Holdich, Countries of the King's Award
(1904); Beltran y Rospido, Los Pueblos hispano-americanos en el
siglo XX. (Madrid, 1904); P. F. Martin, Through Five Republics of
South America (London, 1006); Wright, The Republic of Chile
(London, 1905) ; G. F. Scott Elliot, Chile (London, 1907) ; Sir W. M.

i6o

CHILEAN CIVIL WAR— CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR

Conway, Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego (London, 1902) ; " Chile-
Argentine Arbitration" in the Geog. Journal (January 1903);
C. M. Pepper, Panama to Patagonia (London, 1907); C. E. Akers,
History of South America, 1854-1904 (London, 1904); M. Hume,
Lecture on the Republic of Chile (London, 1902).

(E. G. J. M.; C. E. A.; G. E.)

CHILEAN CIVIL WAR (1891). The Chilean civil war grew
out of political dissensions between the president of Chile, J. M.
Balmaceda, and his congress (see CHILE: History), and began
in January 1891. On the 6th, at Valparaiso, the political leaders
of the Congressional party went on board the ironclad " Blanco
Encalada," and Captain Jorje Montt of that vessel hoisted a
broad pennant as commodore of the Congressional fleet. Prepara-
tions had long been made for the naval pronunciamento, and in
the end but few vessels of the Chilean navy adhered to the cause
of the " dictator " Balmaceda. But amongst these were two
new and fast torpedo gunboats, " Almirante Condell " and
" Almirante Lynch," and in European dockyards (incomplete)
lay the most powerful vessel of the navy, the " Arturo Prat,"
and two fast cruisers. If these were secured by the Balmacedists
the naval supremacy of the congress would be seriously
challenged For the present, and without prejudice to the future,
command of the sea was held by Montt's squadron (January).
The rank and file of the army remained faithful to the executive,
and thus in the early part of the war the " Gobernistas," speaking
broadly, possessed an army without a fleet, the congress a
fleet without an army. Balmaceda hoped to create a navy; the'
congress took steps to recruit an army by taking its sympathizers
on board the fleet. The first shot was fired, on the i6th of
January, by the " Blanco " at the Valparaiso batteries, and
landing parties from the warships engaged small parties of
government troops at various places during January and
February. The dictator's principal forces were stationed in
and about Iquique, Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Santiago and Con-
cepci6n. The troops at Iquique and Coquimbo were necessarily
isolated from the rest and from each other, and military opera-
tions began, as in the campaign of 1879 in this quarter, with a
naval descent upon Pisagua followed by an advance inland to
Dolores. The Congressional forces failed at first to make good
their footing (i6th-23rd of January), but, though defeated in
two or three actions, they brought off many recruits and a
quantity of munitions of war. On the 26th they retook Pisagua,
and on the isth of February the Balmacedist commander,
Eulojio Robles, who offered battle in the expectation of receiving
reinforcements from Tacna, was completely defeated on the old
battlefield cf San Francisco. Robles fell back along the railway,
called up troops from Iquique, and beat the invaders at Haura
on the 1 7th, but Iquique in the meanwhile fell to the Congres-
sional fleet on the i6th. The Pisagua line of operations was at
once abandoned, and the military forces of the congress were
moved by sea to Iquique, whence, under the command of Colonel
Estanislao Del Canto, they started inland. The battle of Pozo
Almonte, fought on the 7th of March, was desperately contested,
but Del Canto was superior in numbers, and Robles was himself
killed and his army dispersed. After this the other Balmacedist
troops in the north gave up the struggle. Some were driven
into Peru, others into Bolivia, and one column made a laborious
retreat from Calama to Santiago, in the course of which it twice
crossed the main chain of the Andes.

The Congressional Junta de Gobierno now established in Iquique
prosecuted the war vigorously, and by the end of April the whole
country was in the hands of the " rebels " from the Peruvian
border to the outposts of the Balmacedists at Coquimbo and La
Serena. The Junta now began the formation of a properly
organized army for the next campaign, which, it was believed
universally on both sides, would be directed against Coquimbo.
But in a few months the arrival of the new ships from Europe
would reopen the struggle for command of the sea; the torpederas
" Condell " and " Lynch " had already weakened the Congres-
sional squadron severely by sinking the " Blanco Encalada " in
Caldera Bay (23rd of April), and the Congressional party could
no longer aim at a methodical conquest of successive provinces,
but was compelled to attempt to crush the dictator at a blow.

Where this blow was to fall was not decided up to the last
moment, but the instrument which was to deliver it was prepared
with all the care possible under the circumstances. Del Canto
was made commander-in-chief, and an ex-Prussian officer, Emil
Korner, chief of staff. The army was organized in three brigades
of all arms, at Iquique, Caldera and Vallenar. Korner super-
intended the training of the men, gave instruction in tactics to
the officers, caused maps to be prepared, and in general took
every precaution that his experience could suggest to ensure
success. Del Canto was himself no mere figurehead, but a
thoroughly capable leader who had distinguished himself at
Tacna (1880) and Miraflores (1881), as well as in the present war.
The men were enthusiastic, and the officers unusually numerous.
The artillery was fair, the cavalry good, and the train and
auxiliary services well organized. About one-third of the infantry
were armed with the (Mannlicher) magazine rifle, which now made
its first appearance in war, the remainder had the Gras and other
breech-loaders, which were also the armament of the dictator's
infantry. Balmaceda could only wait upon events, but he pre-
pared his forces as best he was able, and his torpederas constantly
harried the Congressional navy. By the end of July Del Canto
and Korner had done their work as well as tune permitted, and
early in August the troops prepared to embark, not for Coquimbo,
but for Valparaiso itself.

The expedition by sea was admirably managed, and Quinteros,
N. of Valparaiso and not many miles out of range of its batteries,
was occupied on the zoth of August 1891. Balmaceda was
surprised, but acted promptly. The first battle was fought on
the Aconcagua at Concon on the 2ist. The eager infantry of the
Congressional army forced the passage of the river and stormed
the heights held by the Gobernistas, capturing 36 guns. The
killed and wounded of the Balmacedists numbered 1600, and
nearly all the prisoners, about 1500 men, enrolled themselves
in the rebel army, which thus more than made good its loss of
1000 killed and wounded. The victors pressed on towards
Valparaiso, but were soon brought up by the strong fortified
position of the Balmacedist general Barbosa at Vina del Mar,
whither Balmaceda hurried up all available troops from Valparaiso
and Santiago, and even from Concepcion. Del Canto and Korner
now resolved on a daring step. Supplies of all kinds were brought
up from Quinteros to the front, and on the 24th of August the
army abandoned its line of communications and marched inland.
The flank march was conducted with great skill, little opposition
was encountered, and the rebels finally appeared to the south-
east of Valparaiso. Here, on the 28th, took place the decisive
battle of La Placilla. Concon had been perhaps little more than
the destruction of an isolated corps; the second battle was a fair
trial of strength, for Barbosa was well prepared, and had under
his command the greater part of the existing forces of the dictator.
But the splendid fighting qualities of the Congressional troops
and the superior generalship of their leaders prevailed in the
end over every obstacle. The government army was practically
annihilated, 941 men were killed, including Barbosa and his
second in command, and 2402 wounded. The Congressional
army lost over 1800 men. Valparaiso was occupied the same
evening and Santiago soon afterwards. There was no further
fighting, for so great was the effect of the battles of Concon and
La Placella that even the Coquimbo troops surrendered without
firing a shot.

BIBLIOGRAPHY, — Lieut. Sears and Ensign Wells, U.S.N., The
Chilian Revolution of 1891 (Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington,
1893) ; The Capture of Valparaiso, 1891 (Intelligence Department,
War Office, London, 1892) ; Hermann Kunz, Taktische Benspiele aus
den Kriegen der neuest-en Zeit; der Biirgerkrieg in Chile (Berlin,
1901) ; Revista militar de Chile (February-March 1892) ; Hugo
Kunz, Der Biirgerkrieg in Chile (Vienna, 1892) ; Militar Wochenblatt
(5th supplement, 1892); Sir W. Laird Clowes, Four Modern Naval
Campaigns (London, 1902); Proceedings of U. S. Naval Institute
(1894) (for La Placilla); and the military and naval periodicals of
1892.

CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR (1870-1882). The proximate cause
of this war was the seizure, by the authorities of Bolivia, of the
effects of the Chilean Nitrate Company at Antofagasta, then
part of the Bolivian province of Atacama. The first act of

CHILIASM— CHILLIANWALLA

161

hostility was the despatch of 500 soldiers to protect Chilean
interests at Antofagasta. This force, under Colonel Sotomayor,
landed and marched inland; the only resistance encountered
was at Calama on the river Loa, where a handful of newly raised
militia was routed (zjrd March 1879). About the same time
Chilean warships occupied Cobija and Tocapilla, and Sotomayor,
after his victory at Calama, marched to the latter port. Bolivia
had declared war on the ist of March, but Peru not till the 5th
of April: this delay gave the Chileans time to occupy every
port on the Bolivian coast. Thus the Chilean admiral was able
to proceed at once to the blockade of the southern ports of Peru,
and in particular Iquique, where there took place the first naval
action of the war. On the zist of April the Chilean sloop
" Esmeralda " and the gunboat " Covadonga " — both small and
weak ships — engaged the Peruvian heavy ironclads " Huascar "
and " Independencia "; after a hot fight the " Huascar " under
Miguel Grau sank the " Esmeralda " under Arturo Prat, who
was killed, but Carlos Condell in the " Covadonga " manoeuvred
the " Independencia " aground and shelled her into a complete
wreck. The Chileans now gave up the blockade and con-
centrated all their efforts on the destruction of the " Huascar,"
while the allies organized a field army in the neighbour-
hood of Tacna and a large Chilean force assembled at Anto-
fagasta.

On the 8th of October 1879 the " Huascar " was brought to
action off Angamos by the " Blanco Encalada," and the " Al-
mirante Cochrane." Grau was outmatched as hopelessly and
made as brave a fight as- Prat at Iquique. Early in the action
a shot destroyed the Peruvian's conning tower, killing Grau
and his staff, and another entered her turret, killing the flag
captain and nearly all the crew of the turret guns. When the
" Huascar " finally surrendered she had but one gun left in
action, her fourth commander and three-quarters of her crew
were killed and wounded, and the steering-gear had been shot
away. The Peruvian navy had now ceased to exist. The
Chileans resumed the blockade, and more active operations were
soon undertaken. The whole force of the allies was about
20,000 men, scattered along the seaboard of Peru. The Chileans
on the other hand had a striking force of 16,000 men in the
neighbourhood of Antofagasta, and of this nearly half was
embarked for Pisagua on the 26th of October. The expeditionary
force landed, in the face of considerable opposition, on the
2nd of November, and captured Pisagua. From Pisagua the
Peruvians and Bolivians fell back along the railway to their
reinforcements, and when some 10,000 men had been collected
they moved forward to attack the Chilean position of San
Francisco near Dolores station (igth November). In the end
the Chileans were victorious, but their only material gain was
the possession of Iquique and the retreat of the allies, who fell
back inland towards Tarapaca. The tardy pursuit of the
Chileans ended in the battle of Tarapaca on the 27th. In this
the allies were at first surprised, but, rapidly recovering them-
selves, took the offensive, and after a murderous fight, in which
more men were killed than were wounded, the Chileans suffered a
complete defeat. For some inexplicable reason the allies made
no use of their victory, continued to retreat and left the Chileans
in complete possession of the Tarapaca region. With this
the campaign of 1879 ended. Chile had taken possession of the
Bolivian seaboard and of the Peruvian province of Tarapaca,
and had destroyed the hostile navy.

The objective of the Chileans in the second campaign was the
province of Tacna and the field force of the allies at Tacna and Arica.
The invasion was again carried out by sea, and 12,000 Chileans were
landed at Pacocha (Ylo), far to the N. of Arica. Careful prepara-
tions were made for a desert march, and on the I2th of March 1880
the advanced corps started inland for Moquegua, which was occupied
on the 2Oth. Near Moquegua the Peruvians, some 2000 strong, took
up an unusually strong position in the defile of Cuesta de los Angeles.
But the great numerical superiority of the assailants enabled them
to turn the flanks and press the front of the Peruvian position, and
after a severe struggle the defence collapsed (March 22nd). In
April the army began its advance southward from Moquegua to
Tacna, while the Chilean warships engaged in a series of minor
naval operations in and about the bay of Callao. Arica was also

vi. 6

watched, and the blockade was extended north of Lima. The
land campaign had ere this culminated in the battle of Tacna (May
26th), in which the Chileans attacked at first in several disconnected
bodies, and suffered severely until all their forces came on the field.
Then a combined advance carried all before it. The allies engaged
under General Narciso Campero, the new president of Bolivia, lost
nearly 3000 men, and the Chileans, commanded by Manuel Baque-
dano, lost 2000 out of 8500 on the field. The defeated army was
completely dissolved, and it only remained for the Chileans to march
on Arica from the land side. The navy co-operated with its long-
range guns, on the 7th of June a general assault was made, and before
nightfall the whole of the defences were in the hands of the Chileans.
Their second campaign had given them entire possession of another
strip of Peru (from Pisagua to Ylo), and they had shown themselves
greatly superior, both in courage and leadership, to their opponents.
While the army prepared for the next campaign, the Chilean navy
was active; the blockade became more stringent and several fights
took place, in one of which the " Covadonga " was sunk; an expe-
ditionary force about 3000 strong, commanded by Patricio Lynch,
a captain in the Chilean navy, carried out successful raids at various
places on the coast and inland.

The Chilean army was reorganized during the summer, and prepared
for its next operation, this time against Lima itself. General
Baquedano was in command. The leading troops disembarked at
Pisco on the i8th of November 1880, and the whole army was ready
to move against the defences of Lima six weeks later. These defences
consisted of two distinct positions, Chorrillos and Miraflores. the
latter being about 4000 yds. outside Lima. The first line of defence
was attacked by Baquedano on the i^th of January 1881. Recon-
naissances proved that the Peruvian lines could not be turned, and
the battle was a pure frontal attack. The defenders had 22,000 men
in the lines, the Chileans engaged about 24,000. The battle of
Chorrillos ended in the complete defeat of the Peruvians, less than a
quarter of whose army rallied behind the Miraflores defences. The
Chileans lost over 3000 men. Two days later took place the battle
of Miraflores (January 15th). Here the defences were very strong,
and the action began with a daring counter-attack by some Peruvians.
Neither party had intended to fight a battle, for negotiations were in
progress, but the action quickly became general. Its result was, as
before, the complete dissolution of the defending army. Lima, in-
capable of defence, was occupied by the invaders on the I7th, and
on the i8th Callao surrendered. The resistance of the Peruvians was
so far broken that Chile left only a small army of occupation to deal
with the remnants of their army. The last engagement took place
at Caxacamara in September 1882, when the Peruvians won an
unimportant success.

See T. B. M. Mason, The War on the Pacific Coast, 1870-1881
(U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1883); Captain
Chateauminois (transl.), Memoire du Ministre de la Guerre du Chili
sur la guerre Chilo-Peruvienne (1882); Barros Arana, Hist, de la
guerre du Pacifique (1884) ; Sir W. Laird Clowes, Four Modern Naval
Campaigns (London, 1902); Anon., Precis de la guerre du Pacifique
(Paris, 1886) ; Clements R. Markham, The War between Peru and Chile.

CHILIASM (from Gr. x'^ao'M'fc, X^«>t, a thousand), the
belief that Christ will return to reign in the body for a thousand
years, the doctrine of the Millennium (q.v.).

CHILIAN, a city and the capital of the province of Nuble,
in the southern part of central Chile, 35° 56' S., 71° 37' W.,
246 m. by rail S.S.W. of Santiago and about 56 m. direct (108 by
rail) N.E. of Conception. Pop. (1895) 28,738; (1902, official
estimate) 36,382. Chilian is one of the most active commercial
cities of central Chile, and is surrounded by a rich agricultural
and grazing country. Chilian was founded by Ruiz de Gamb6a
in 1594. Its present site was chosen in 1836. The original site,
known as Chilian Viejo, forms a suburb of the new city. The
hot sulphur springs of Chilian, which were discovered in
1795, are about 45 m. E.S.E. They issue from the flanks
of the " Volcan Viejo," about 7000 ft. above sea-level. The
highest temperature of the water issuing from these springs is
a little over 135°. The principal volcanoes of the Chilian
group are the Nevado (9528 ft.) and the Viejo. After a repose
of about two centuries the Nevado de Chilian broke out in
eruption early in 1861 and caused great destruction. The
eruption ceased in 1863, but broke out again in 1864.

CHILLIANWALLA, a village of British India in the Punjab,
situated on the left bank of the river Jhelum, about 85 m. N.W.
of Lahore. It is memorable as the scene of a battle on the I3th
of January 1849, between a British force commanded by Lord
~ough and the Sikh army under Sher Singh. The loss of the
Sikhs was estimated at 4000, while that of the British in killed
and wounded amounted to 2800, of whom nearly 1000 were
Europeans and 89 were British and 43 native officers. An

162

CHILLICOTHE— CHILOE

obelisk erected at Chillianwalla by the British government
preserves the names of those who fell.

CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Livingston
county, Missouri, U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state,
on the Grand river, about 80 m. N.E. of Kansas City. Pop.
(1890) 5717; (1900) 6905 (538 negroes); (1910) 6265. It is
served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Wabash, and
the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. There are various
manufactures. Coal and limestone are found in the vicinity,
and much live stock is raised, wool and hides being shipped
from Chillicothe. Chillicothe was settled about 1830, and the
town was laid out in 1837 on land granted directly by the
Federal government; it was incorporated in 1855.

CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Ross county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Scioto river, on the Ohio &
Erie Canal, about 50 m. S. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 11,288;
(1900) 12,976, of whom 986 were negroes, and 910 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 14,508. Chillicothe is served by the
Baltimore & Ohio South-Western (which has railway shops
here), and other railways. The city has two parks. There are
several ancient mounds in the vicinity. Chillicothe is built on a
plain about 30 ft. above the river, in the midst of a fertile agri-
cultural region, and has a large trade in grain and coal, and in
manufactures. The value of the city's factory products increased
from £1,615,959 in 1900 to $3,146,890 in 1905, or 94-7%.
Chillicothe was founded in 1796, and was first incorporated in
1802. In 1800-1803 it was the capital of the North-West
Territory, and in 1803-1810 and 1812-1816 the capital of Ohio.
Three Indian villages bore the name Chillicothe, each being in
turn the chief town of the Chillicothe, one of the four tribal
divisions of the Shawnee, in their retreat before the whites;
the village near what is now Oldtown in Greene county was
destroyed by George Rogers Clark in 1780; that in Miami
county, where Piqua is now, was destroyed by Clark in 1782;
and the Indian village near the present Chillicothe was destroyed
in 1787 by Kentuckians.

See Henry Howe, Historical Collections of Ohio (Columbus, 1891).

CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM (1602-1644), English divine
and controversialist, was born at Oxford in October 1602. In
June 1618 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford,
and was made a fellow of his college in June 1628. He had
some reputation as a skilful disputant, excelled in mathematics,
and gained some credit as a writer of verses. The marriage
of Charles I. with Henrietta Maria of France had stimulated
the propaganda of the Roman Catholic Church, and the Jesuits
made the universities their special point of attack. One of
them, " John Fisher," who had his sphere at Oxford, succeeded
in making a convert of young Chillingworth, and prevailed
upon him to go to the Jesuit college at Douai. Influenced,
however, by his godfather, Laud, then bishop of London, he
resolved to make an impartial inquiry into the claims of the two
churches. After a short stay he left Douai in 1631 and returned
to Oxford. On grounds of Scripture and reason he at length
declared for Protestantism, and wrote in 1634, but did not
publish, a confutation of the motives which had led him over to
Rome. This paper was lost; the other, on the same subject,
was probably written on some other occasion at the request of
his friends. He would not, however, take orders. His theo-
logical sensitiveness appears in his refusal of a preferment offered
to him in 1635 by Sir Thomas Coventry, lord keeper of the great
seal. He was in difficulty about subscribing the Thirty-nine
Articles. As he informed Gilbert Sheldon, then warden of All
Souls, in a letter, he was fully resolved on two points — that to
say that the Fourth Commandment is a law of God appertaining
to Christians is false and unlawful, and that the damnatory
clauses in the Athanasian Creed are most false, and in a high
degree presumptuous and schismatical. To subscribe, therefore,
he felt would be to " subscribe his own damnation." . At this
time his principal work was far towards completion. It was
undertaken in defence of Dr Christopher Potter, provost of
Queen's College in Oxford, who had for some time been carrying
on a controversy with a Jesuit known as Edward Knott, but

whose real name was Matthias Wilson. Potter had replied in
1633 to Knott's Charity Mistaken (1630), and Knott retaliated
with Mercy and Truth. This work Chillingworth engaged to
answer, and Knott, hearing of his intention and hoping to bias
the public mind, hastily brought out a pamphlet tending to show
that Chillingworth was a Socinian who aimed at perverting not
only Catholicism but Christianity.

Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury, was not a little solicitous
about Chillingworth's reply to Knott, and at his request, as " the
young man had given cause why a more watchful eye should be
held over him and his writings," it was examined by the vice-
chancellor of Oxford and two professors of divinity, and pub-
lished with their approbation in 1637, with the title The Religion
of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation. The main argument
is a vindication of the sole authority of the Bible in spiritual
matters, and of the free right of the individual conscience to
interpret it. In the preface Chillingworth expresses his new
view about subscription to the articles. " For the Church of
England," he there says, " I am persuaded that the constant
doctrine of it is so pure and orthodox, that whosoever believes
it, and lives according to it, undoubtedly he shall be saved,
and that there is no error in it which may necessitate or warrant
any man to disturb the peace or renounce the communion of it.
This, in my opinion, is all intended by subscription." His
scruples having thus been overcome, he was, in the following
year (1638), promoted to the chancellorship of the church of
Sarum, with the prebend of Brixworth [in Northamptonshire
annexed to it. In the great civil struggle he used his pen against
the Scots, and was in the king's army at the siege of Gloucester,
inventing certain engines for assaulting the town. Shortly
afterwards he accompanied Lord Hopton, general of the king's
troops in the west, in his march; and, being laid up with illness
at Arundel Castle, he was there taken prisoner by the parlia-
mentary forces under Sir William Waller. As he was unable to
go to London with the garrison, he was conveyed to Chichester,
and died there in January 1644. His last days were harassed
by the diatribes of the Puritan preacher, Francis Cheynell.

Besides his principal work, Chillingworth wrote a number of
smaller anti-Jesuit papers published in the posthumous Additional
Discourses (1687), and nine of his sermons have been preserved. In
politics he was a zealous Royalist, asserting that even the unjust and
tyrannous violence of princes may not be resisted, although it might
be avoided in terms of the instruction, " when they persecute you in
one city, flee into another." His writings long enjoyed a high popu-
larity. The Religion of Protestants is characterized by much fairness
and acuteness of argument, and was commended by Locke as a
discipline of " perspicuity and the way of right reasoning." The
charge of Socinianism was frequently brought against him, but, as
Tillotson thought, " for no other cause but his worthy and successful
attempts to make the Christian religion reasonable." His creed,
and the whole gist of his argument, is expressed in a single sentence,
" I am fully assured that God does not, and therefore that men
ought not to, require any more of any man than this, to believe the
Scripture to be God's word, and to endeavour to find the true sense
of it, and to live according to it."

A Life by Rev. T. Birch was prefixed to the 1742 edition of
Chillingworth's Works.

CHILOE (from Chile and hue, " part of Chile "), a province of
southern Chile, and also the name of a large island off the Chilean
coast forming part of the province. The province, area 8593
sq. m., pop. (1895) 77,750, is composed of three groups of islands,
Chiloe, Guaitecas and Chonos, and extends from the narrow
strait of Chacao in 41° 40' S. to the peninsula of Taytao, about
45° 45' S. The population is composed mainly of Indians,
distantly related to the tribes of the mainland, and mestizos.
The capital of the province is Ancud or San Carlos, at the northern
end of the island of Chiloe, on the sheltered bay of San Carlos,
once frequented by whalers. It is the seat of a bishopric;
pop. (1905) 3182. Other towns are Castro, the former capital,
on the eastern shore of Chilo6, and the oldest town of the island
(founded 1566), once the seat of a Jesuit mission, and Melinca
on an island of the Guaitecas group.

The island of Chilo£, which lies immediately south of the province
of Llanquihue, is a continuation of the western Chilean formation,
the coast range appearing in the mountainous range of western Chilo6
and the islands extending south along the coast. Between this coast

CHILON— CHILTERN HUNDREDS

163

range and the Andes, the gulfs of Chacao, or Ancud and Corcovado
(average width, 30 m.) separate the island from the mainland. Chiloe
has an extreme length north to south of about 1 1 8 m., and an average
width of 15 to 40 m., with an area of about 4700 sq. m. There are
several lakes on the island — Cucap, 12 m. long, being the largest, —
and one small river, the Pudeto, in the northern rjart of the island,
is celebrated as the scene of the last engagement in the war for in-
dependence, the Spanish retaining possession of Chilo6 until 1826.

CHILON, of Sparta, son of Damagetus, one of the Seven
Sages of Greece, flourished about the beginning of the 6th century
B.C. In 560 (or 556) he acted as ephor, an office which he is
even said to have founded. The tradition was that he died of
joy on hearing that his son had gained a prize at the Olympic
games. According to Chilon, the great virtue of man was
prudence, or well-grounded judgment as to future events.

A collection of the sayings attributed to him will be found in
F. W. Mullach, Fragmenta Philosophorum Graccorum, \.; see Hero-
dotus i. 69; Diogenes "Laertius i. 68; Pausanias iii. 16, x. 24.

CHILPERIC, the name of two Prankish kings.

CHILPERIC I. (d. 584) was one of the sons of Clotaire I. Im-
mediately after the death of his father in 561 he endeavoured
to take possession of the whole kingdom, seized the treasure
amassed in the royal town of Berny and entered Paris. His
brothers, however, compelled him to divide the kingdom with
them, and Soissons, together with Amiens, Arras, Cambrai,
Th6rouanne, Tournai and Boulogne, fell to Chilperic's share,
but on the death of Charibert in 567 his estates were augmented.
When his brother Sigebert married Brunhilda, Chilperic also
wished to make a brilliant marriage. He had already repudiated
his first wife, Audovera, and had taken as his concubine a
serving-woman called Fredegond. He accordingly dismissed
Fredegond, and married Brunhilda's sister, Galswintha. But
he soon tired of his new partner, and one morning Galswintha
was found strangled in her bed. A few days afterwards Chilperic
married Fredegond. This murder was the cause of long and
bloody wars, interspersed with truces, between Chilperic and
Sigebert. In 575 Sigebert was assassinated by Fredegond at
the very moment when he had Chilperic at his mercy. Chilperic
retrieved his position, took from Austrasia Tours and Poitiers
and some places in Aquitaine, and fostered discord in the king-
dom of the east during the minority of Childebert II. One
day, however, while returning from the chase to the town of
Chelles, Chilperic was stabbed to death.

Chilperic may be regarded as the type of Merovingian
sovereigns. He was exceedingly anxious to extend the royal
authority. He levied numerous imposts, and his fiscal measures
provoked a great sedition at Limoges in 579. He wished to
bring about the subjection of the church, and to this end sold
bishoprics to the highest bidder, annulled the wills made in
favour of the bishoprics and abbeys, and sought to impose upon
his subjects a rationalistic conception of the Trinity. He
pretended to some literary culture, and was the author of some
halting verse. He even added letters to the Latin alphabet,
and wished to have the MSS. rewritten with the new characters.
The wresting of Tours from Austrasia and the seizure of ecclesi-
astical property provoked the bitter hatred of Gregory of Tours,
by whom Chilperic was stigmatized as the Nero and the Herod
of his time.

See S6r6sia, L'&glise et 1'f.lat sous Its rois francs au VI* sitcle
(Ghent, 1888).

CmiPERic II. (d. 720) was the son of Childeric II. He
became king of Neustria in 715, on which occasion he changed
his name from Daniel to Chilperic. At first he was a tool in the
hands of Ragenfrid, the mayor of the palace. Charles Martel,
however, overthrew Ragenfrid, accepted Chilperic as king of
Neustria, and, on the death of Clotaire IV., set him over the whole
kingdom. The young king died soon afterwards. (C. PF.)

CHILTERN HILLS, or THE CHII.TERNS, a range of chalk hills
in England, extending through part of Oxfordshire, Bucking-
hamshire and Bedfordshire. Running from S.W. to N.E., they
form a well-marked escarpment north-westward, while the
south-eastern slope is long. The name of Chilterns is applied
to the hills between the Thames in the neighbourhood of Goring

and the headwaters of its tributary the Lea between Dunstable
and Hitchin, the crest line between these points being about
55 m. in length. But these hills are part of a larger chalk system,
continuing the line of the White Horse Hills from Berkshire,
and themselves continued eastward by the East Anglian ridge.
The greatest elevation of the Chilterns is found in the centre
from Watlington to Tring, where heights from 800 to 850 ft.
are frequent. Westward towards the Thames gap the elevation
falls away but little, but eastward the East Anglian ridge does
not often exceed 500 ft., though it continues the northward
escarpment across Hertfordshire. There are several passes
through the Chilterns, followed by main roads and railways
converging on London, which lies in the basin of which these
hills form part of the northern rim. The most remarkable
passes are those near Tring, Wendover and Prince's Risborough,
the floors of which are occupied by the gravels of former rivers.
The Chilterns were formerly covered with a forest of beech,
and there is still a local supply of this wood for the manufacture
of chairs and other articles in the neighbourhood of Wycombe.

CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An old principle of English parlia-
mentary law declared that a member of the House of Commons,
once duly chosen, could not resign his seat. This rule was a
relic of the days when the local gentry had to be compelled tc
serve in parliament. The only method, therefore, of avoiding
the rule came to be by accepting an office of profit from the
crown, a statute of 1707 enacting that every member accepting
an office of profit from the crown should thereby vacate his seat,
but should be capable of re-election, unless the office in question
had been created since 1705, or had been otherwise declared to
disqualify for a seat in parliament. Among the posts of profit
held by members of the House of Commons in the first half of the
i8th century are to be found the names of several crown steward-
ships, which apparently were not regarded as places of profit
under the crown within the meaning of the act of 1707, for no
seats were vacated by appointment to them. The first instance
of the acceptance of such a stewardship vacating a seat was in
1740, when the house decided that Sir W. W. Wynn, on inheriting
from his father, in virtue of a royal grant, the stewardship of the
lordship and manor of Bromfield and Yale, had ipso facto vacated
his seat. On the passing of the Place Act of 1742, the idea of
utilizing the appointment to certain crown stewardships (possibly
suggested by Sir W. W. Wynn's case) as a pretext for enabling a
member to resign his seat was carried into practice. These
nominal stewardships were eight in number, but only two sur-
vived to be used in this way in contemporary practice — those
of the Chilterns and Northstead; and when a member wished
to vacate his seat, he was accordingly spoken of as taking the
Chiltern Hundreds.

1. Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, County Bucks. —
The Chiltern Hundreds formed a bailiwick of the ordinary type.
They are situated on the Chiltern Hills, and the depredations of the
bandits, who found shelter within their recesses, became at an early
period so alarming that a special officer, known as the steward of the
Chiltern Hundreds, was appointed for the protection of the inha-
bitants of the neighbouring districts. It is doubtful at what date
the necessity for such an appointment disappeared, but the three hun-
dreds of Stoke, Burnham and Desborough are still distinguished by
the old name. The appointment of steward was first used for parlia-
mentary purposes in 1750, the appointment being made by the
chancellor of the exchequer (and at his discretion to grant or not),
and the warrant bestowing on the holder " all wages, fees, allowances
and other privileges and pre-eminences." Up to the igth century
there was a nominal salary of 2os. attached to the post. It was laid
down in 1846 by the chancellor of the exchequer that the Chilterns
could not be granted to more than one person in the same day, but
this rule has not been strictly adhered to, for on four occasions
subsequent to 1850 the Chilterns were granted twice on the same day.
The Chilterns might be granted to members whether they had taken
the oath or not, or during a recess, though in this case a new writ
could not be issued until the House met again. Each new warrant
expressly revoked the grant to the last holder, the new steward
retaining it in his turn until another should be appointed.

2. Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of East Hundred, or Hendred,
Berks. — This stewardship was first used for parliamentary purposes
in 1763, and was in more or less constant use until 1840, after which
it disappeared. This manor comprised copyholds, the usual courts
were held, and the stewardship was an actual and active office, the
duties being executed by a deputy steward. The manor was sold by

164

CHILWA— CHIMERE

public auction in 1823 for £910, but in some manner the crown
retained the right of appointing a steward for seventeen years after
that date.

3. Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead, Yorkshire. —
This manor was crown property before 1750, but was in lease until
1838. It has no copyhold lands, nor are there any records of manor
courts. There are no traces of any profits having ever been derived
from the oflBce. It was used for parliamentary purposes in 1844 and
subsequently.

4. Steward of the Manor of Hempholme, Yorkshire. — This manor
appears to have been of the same nature as that of Northstead. It
was in lease until 1835. It was first used for parliamentary purposes
in 1845 and was in constant use until 1865. It was sold in 1866.

5. Escheator of Munster. — Escheators were officers commissioned
to secure the rights of the crown over property which had legally
escheated to it. In Ireland mention is made of escheators as early as
1256. In 1605 the escheatorship of Ireland was split up into four,
one for each province, but the duties soon became practically nominal.
The escheatorship of Munster was first used for parliamentary pur-
poses in the Irish parliament from 1703 to 1800, and in the united
parliament (24 times for Irish seats and once for a Scottish seat) from
1801 to 1820. After 1820 it was discontinued and finally abolished
in 1838.

6. Steward of the Manor of Old Shoreham, Sussex. — This manor
belonged to the duchy of Cornwall, and it is difficult to understand
how it came to be regarded as a crown appointment. It was first
used for parliamentary purposes in 1756, and then, occasionally,
until 1799, in which year it was sold by the duchy to the duke of
Norfolk.

7. Steward of the Manor of Poynings, Sussex. — This manor reverted
to the crown on the death of Lord Montague about 1804, but was
leased up to about 1835. It was only twice used for parliamentary
purposes, in 1841 and 1843.

8. Escheator of Ulster. — Thjs appointment was used in the united
parliament three times, for Irish seats only; the last time in 1819.

See parliamentary paper — Report from the Select Committee on
House of Commons (Vacating of Seats) (1894). (T. A. I.)

CHILWA (incorrectly SHIRWA), a shallow lake in south-east
Africa, S.S.E. of Lake Nyasa, cut by 35° 20' E., and lying between
1 5° and 1 5° 3 5' S. The lake is undergoing a process of desiccation,
and in some dry seasons (as in 1879 and 1903) the " open water "
is reduced to a number of large pools. Formerly the lake seems
to have found an outlet northwards to the Lujenda branch of
the Rovuma, but with the sinking of its level it is now sepa-
rated from the Lujenda by a wooded ridge some 30 to 40 ft.
above the surrounding plains. There are four islands, the
largest rising 500 ft. above the water. The lake was discovered
by David Livingstone in 1859 and was by him called Shirwa,
from a mishearing of the native name.

CHIMAERA, in Greek mythology, a fire-breathing female
monster resembling a lion in the fore part, a goat in the middle,
and a dragon behind (Iliad, vi. 179), with three heads correspond-
ing. She devastated Caria and Lycia until she was finally slain by
Bellerophon (see H. A. Fischer, Bellerophon, 1851). The origin
of the myth was the volcanic nature of the soil of Lycia (Pliny,
Nat. Hist. ii. no; Servius on Aeneid, vi 288), where works
have been found containing representations of the Chimaera
in the simple form of a lion. In modern art the Chimaera is
usually represented as a lion, with a goat's head in the middle
of the back, as in the bronze Chimaera of Arezzo (sth century).
The word is now used generally to denote a fantastic idea or
fiction of the imagination.

CHIHAY, a town in the extreme south-east of the province of
Hainaut, Belgium, dating from the 7th century. Pop. (1904)
3383. It is more commonly spoken of as being in the district
entre Sambre et Meuse. Owing to its proximity to the French
frontier it has undergone many sieges, the last of which was in
1640, when Turenne gave orders that it should be reduced to
such ruin that it could never stand another. The town is chiefly
famous for the castle and park that bear its name. Originally a
stronghold of the Croy family, it has passed through the D'Aren-
bergs to its present owners, the princes of Caraman-Chimay.
The castle, which before Turenne's order to demolish it possessed
seven towers, has now only one in ruins, and a modern chateau
was built in the Tudor style in the i8th century. This domain
carried with it the right to one of the twelve peerages of Hainaut.
Madame Tallien, daughter of Dr Cabarrus, the Lady of Thermidor,
married as her second husband the prince de Chimay, and held
her little court here down to her death in 1835. There is a

memorial to her in the church, which also contains a fine monu-
ment of Phillippe de Croy, chamberlain and comrade in arms of
the emperor Charles V. John Froissart the chronicler died and
was buried here. There is. a statue in his honour on the Grand
Place. Chimay is situated on a stream called the White Water,
which in its lower course becomes the Viroin and joins the Meuse.
CHIME, (i) (Probably derived from a mistaken separation
into two words, chimbe bell, of chymbal or chymbel, the old form
of "cymbal," Lat. cymbalum), a mechanical arrangement by
which a set of bells in a church or other tower, or in a clock, are
struck so as to produce a sequence of musical sounds or a tune.
For the mechanism of such an arrangement in a clock and in a
set of bells, see the articles CLOCK and BELL. The word is also
applied to the tune thus played by the bells and also to the
harmonious " fall " of verse, and so, figuratively, to any harmoni-
ous agreement of thought or action. (2) (Fr.om Mid. Eng. chimb,
a word meaning " edge," common in varied forms to Teutonic
languages, cf. Ger. Kimme), the bevelled rim formed by the
projecting staves at the ends of a cask.

CHIMERE (Lat. chimera, chimaera; O. Fr. chamarre, Mod. Fr.
simarre; Ital. zimarra; cf. Span, zamarra, a sheepskin coat;'
possibly derived ultimately from Gr. X&.I&PUK, " wintry, "
i.e. a winter overcoat), in modem English use the name of a
garment worn as part of the ceremonial dress of Anglican bishops.
It is a long sleeveless gown of silk or satin, open down the front,
gathered in at the back between the shoulders, and with slits
for the arms. It is worn over the rochet (q.v.), and its colour is
either black or scarlet (convocation robes). By a late abuse the
sleeves of the rochet were, from motives of convenience, some-
times attached to the chimere. The origin of the chimere has
been the subject of much debate; but the view that it is a
modification of the cope (q.v.) is now discarded, and it is practic-
ally proved to be derived from the medieval tabard (tabardtim,
laberda or collobium), an upper garment worn in civil life by all
classes of people both in England and abroad. It has there-
fore a common origin with certain academic robes (see ROBES,
§ Academic dress).

The word " chimere," which first appears in England in the
1 4th century, was sometimes applied not only to the tabard
worn over the rochet, but to the sleeved cassock worn under it.
Thus Archbishop Scrope is described as wearing when on his way
to execution (1405) a blue chimere with sleeves. But the word
properly applies to the sleeveless tabard which tended to super-
sede, from the isth century onwards, the inconvenient cappa
clausa (a long closed cloak with a slit in front for the arms) as the
out-of-doors upper garment of bishops. These chimeres, the
colours of which (murrey, scarlet, green, &c.) may possibly have
denoted academical rank, were part of the civil costume of
prelates. Thus in the inventory of Walter Skirlawe, bishop of
Durham- (1405-1406), eight chimeres of various colours are
mentioned, including two for riding (pro equitalura). The
chimere was, moreover, a cold weather garment. In summer its
place was taken by the tippet.

In the Anglican form for the consecration of bishops the newly
consecrated prelate, hitherto vested in rochet, is directed to put
on " the rest of the episcopal habit," i.e. the chimere. The robe
has thus become in the Church of England symbolical of the
episcopal office, and is in effect a liturgical vestment. The rubric
containing this direction was added to the Book of Common
Prayer in 1662; and there is proof that the development of the
chimere into at least a choir vestment was subsequent to the
Reformation. Foxe, indeed, mentions that Hooper at his
consecration wore " a long scarlet chymere down to the foot "
(Acts and Man., ed. 1563, p. 1051), a source of trouble to himself
and of scandal to other extreme reformers; but that this was
no more than the full civil dress of a bishop is proved by the
fact that Archbishop Parker at his consecration wore surplice
and tippet, and only put on the chimere, when the service was
over, to go away in. This civil quality of the garment still
survives alongside the other; the full dress of an Anglican prelate
at civil functions of importance (e.g. in parliament, or at court)
is still rochet and chimere.

CHIMESYAN— CHIMNEYPIECE

165

The continental equivalent of the chimere is the zimarra or simarre,
which is defined by foreign ecclesiologists (Moroni, Barbier de
Montault) as a kind of soutane (cassock), from which it is distinguished
by having a small cape and short, open arms (manches-fausses) reach-
ing to the middle of the upper arm and decorated with buttons. In
France and Germany it is fitted more or less to the figure; in Italy
it is wider and falls down straight in front. Like the soutane, the
zimarra is not proper to any particular rank of clergy, but in the case
of bishops and prelates it is ornamented with red buttons and bind-
ings. It never has a train (cauda). It is not universajly worn, e.g. in
Germany apparently only by prelates. G. Moroni identifies the
timarra with the epitogium which Domenico Magri, in his Hierolexicon
(ed. 1677), calls the uppermost garment of the clergy, worn over the
soutane (toga) instead of the mantellum (vestis supremo, dericorum loco
pallii), with a cross-reference to Tabardum, the "usual" upper
garment (pallium usuale) ; and this definition is repeated in the 8th
edition of the work (1732). From this it appears that so late as the
middle of the i8th century the zimarra was still in common use as an
out-of-doors overcoat. But, according to Moroni, by the latter half
of the igth century the zimarra., though still worn by certain civilians
(e.g. notaries and students), had become in Italy chiefly the domestic
garment of the clergy, notably of superiors, parish priests, rectors,
certain regulars, priests of congregations, bishops, prelates and
cardinals. It was worn also by the Roman senators, and is still worn
by university professors. A biack zimarra lined with white, and
sometimes ornamented with a white binding and gold tassels, is worn
by the pope.

More analogous to the Anglican chimere in shape, though not in
significance, is the purple mantelletum worn over the rochet by bishops,
and by others authorized to wear the episcopal insignia, in presence
of the pope or his legates. This symbolizes the temporary suspension
of the episcopal jurisdiction (symbolized by the rochet) so long as the
pope or his representative is present. Thus at the Curia cardinals and
prelates wear the mantelletum, while the pope wears the zimarra, and
the first act of the cardinal camerlengo after the pope's death is to
expose his rochet by laying aside the mantelletum, the other cardinals
following his example, as a symbol that during the vacancy of the
papacy the pope's jurisdiction is vested in the Sacred College. On
the analogy of the mantelletum certain Anglican prelates, American
and colonial, have from time to time appeared in purple chimeres ;
which, as the Rev. N. F. Robinson justly points out, is a most un-
happy innovation, since it has no historical justification, and its
symbolism is rather unfortunate.

AUTHORITIES. — See the Report of the sub-committee of Con-
vocation on the ornaments of the church and its ministers, p. 31
(London, 1908); the Rev. N. F. Robinson, " The black chimere of
Anglican Prelates: a plea for its retention and proper use," in
Transactions of the St Paul's Ecclesiological Soc. vol. iv. pp. 181-220
(London, 1898); Herbert Druitt, Costume on Brasses (London,
1906); G. Moroni, Dizionario dell' erudizione storico-ecdesiastica
(Venice, 1861), vol. 103, s.v. "Zimarra"; X. Barbier de Montault,
Trait^ pratique de la construction, &c., des 6glises, ii. 538 (Paris,
1878). (W. A. P.)

CHIMESYAN (Tsimshian), a tribe of North American Indians,
now some 3000 in number, living around the mouth of the
Skeena river, British Columbia, and on the islands near the
coast. They are a powerfully built people, who tattoo and wear
labrets and rings in noses and ears. They are skilful fishermen,
and live in large communal houses. They are divided into
clans and distinct social orders.

CHIMKENT, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of
Syr-darya, 70 m. by rail N.N.E. of Tashkent. Pop. (1897)
10,756, mostly Sarts. It occupies a strategical position at the
west end of the valley between the Alexander range and the
Ala-tau (or Talas-tau), at the meeting of commercial routes
from (i) Vyernyi and Siberia beyond, from the north-east,
(2) the Aral Sea and Orenburg (connected with it by rail since
1905) to the north-west, and (3) Ferghana and Bokhara to the
south. The citadel, which was stormed by the Russians in 1864,
stands on high ground above the town, but is now in ruins.
Chimkent is visited by consumptive patients who wish to try
the koumiss cure. It has cotton mills and soap-works.

CHIMNEY (through the Fr. cheminee, from caminala, sc.
camera, a Lat. derivative of caminus, an oven or furnace), in
architecture, that portion of a building, rising above the 'roof,
in which are the flues conveying the smoke to the outer air.
Originally the term included the fireplace as well as the chimney
shaft. At Rochester Castle (1130) and Heddington, Essex,
there were no external chimney shafts, and the flue was carried
through the wall at some height above the fireplace. In the
early examples the chimney shaft was circular, with one flue only,
and was terminated with a conical cap, the smoke issuing from

openings in the side, which at Sherborne Abbey (A.D. 1300)
were treated decoratively. It was not till the isth century that
the smoke issued at the top, and later in the century that -nore
than one flue was carried up in the same shaft. There are a few
examples of the clustered shaft in stone, but as a rule they are
contemporaneous with the general use of brick. The brick
chimney shafts, of which there are fine specimens at Hampton
Court, were richly decorated with chevrons and other geometrical
patterns. One of the best examples is that at Thornton Castle,
Gloucestershire.

In the i sth and i6th centuries in France the chimney shaft
was recognized as an important architectural feature, and was
of considerable elevation in consequence of the great height of
the roofs. In the chateau of Meillant (1503) the chimney shafts
are decorated with angle buttresses, niches and canopies, in the
late Flamboyant style; and at Chambord and Blois they are
carved with pilasters and niches with panelling above, carved
with the salamander and other armorial devices. In the Roman
palaces they are sometimes masked by the balustrades, and
(when shown) take the form of sepulchral urns, as if to disguise
their real purpose. Though not of a very architectural character,
the chimneys at Venice present perhaps the greatest variety of
terminations, and as a rule the smoke comes out on the sides
and not through the top. (R. P. S.)

Factory Chimneys. — Chimneys, besides removing the products of
combustion, also serve to provide the fire with the air requisite for
burning the fuel. The hot air in the shaft, being lighter than the cold
air outside it, tends to rise, and as it does so air flows in at the bottom
to take its place. An ascending current is thus established in the
chimney, its velocity, other things being equal, varying as the square
root of the height of the shaft above the grate. The velocity also
increases with increase of temperature in the gas column, but since
the weight of each cubic foot grows less as the gases expand, the
amount of smoke discharged by a chimney does not increase inde-
finitely with the temperature; a maximum is reached when the
difference in temperature between the gases in the shaft and the out-
side air is about 600° F., but the rate of increase is very slow after the
difference has passed about 300° F. In designing a chimney the
dimensions (height and sectional area) have to be so proportioned to
the amount of fuel to be burnt in the various furnaces connected
with it that at the temperature employed the products of combustion
are effectively removed, due allowance being made for the frictional
retardation of the current against the sides of the flues and shafts
and in passing through the fire. The velocity of the current in actual
chimneys varies widely, from 3 or 4 to 50 or 6p ft. a second. Increased
velocity, obtainable by increasing the height of the shaft, gives
increased delivering capacity, but a speed of 10 or 12 ft. a second
is regarded as good practice. Ordinary factory chimneys do not in
general exceed 180 or 200 ft. in height, but in some cases, especially
when, as in chemical works, they are employed to get rid of objection-
able vapours, they have been made double that height, or even more.
In section they are round, octagonal or square. The circular form
offers the least resistance to wind pressure, and for a given height
and sectional area requires less material to secure stability than the
octagonal and still less than the square; on the other hand, there is
more liability to cracking. Brick is the material commonly used, but
many chimneys are now made of iron or steel. Reinforced concrete
is also employed.

CHIMNEYPIECE, the term given to the projecting hood which
in medieval times was built over a fireplace to catch the smoke,
and at a later date to the decorative framework, often carried
up to the ceiling. " Chimneypiece " or " mantelpiece " is now
the general term for the jambs, mantelshelf and external acces-
sories of a fireplace. For many centuries the chimneypiece
was the most ornamental and most artistic feature of a room,
but as fireplaces have become smaller, and modern methods of
heating have been introduced, its artistic as well as its practical
significance has grown less.

Up to the 1 2th century rooms were warmed entirely by a hypo-
caust, or with braziers, or by fires on the hearth, the smoke finding
its way up to a lantern in the roof. The earliest chimneypiece known
is that in the King's House at Southampton, with Norman shafts in
the joints carrying a segmental arch, which is attributed to the first
half of the I2th century. At a later date, in consequence of the
greater width of the fireplace, flat or segmental arches were thrown
across and constructed with voussoirs, sometimes joggled, the thrust
of the arch being resisted by bars of iron at the back. In domestic
work of the I4th century the chimneypiece was greatly increased
in order to allow of the members of the family sitting on either side
of the fire on the hearth, and in these cases great beams of timber
were employed to carry the hood ; in such cases the fireplace was so

i66

CHIMPANZEE— CHINA

deeply recessed as to become externally an important architectural
feature, as at Haddon Hall. The largest chimneypiece existing is
in the great hall of the Palais des Comtes at Poitiers, which is nearly
30 ft. wide, having two intermediate supports to carry the hood ;
the stone flues arc carried up between the tracery of an immense
window above. In the early Renaissance style, the chimneypiece
of the Palais de Justice at Bruges is a magnificent example; the
upper portion, carved in oak, extends the whole width of the room,
with statues of nearly life size of Charles V. and others of the royal
family of Spain. The most prolific modern designer of chimneypiec
was J. B. Piranesi, who in 1765 published a large series, on which at a
later date the Empire style in France was based. In France the finest
work of the early Renaissance period is to be found in the chimney-
pieces, which are of infinite variety of design.

The English chimneypieces of the early i7th century, when the
purer Italian style was introduced by Inigo Jones, were extremely
simple in design, sometimes consisting only of the ordinary mantel-
piece, with classic architraves and shelf, the upper part of the
chimney breast being panelled like the rest of the room. In the
latter part of the century the classic architrave was abandoned in
favour of a much bolder and more effective moulding, as in the
chimneypieces at Hampton Court, and the shelf was omitted.

In_the i8th century the architects returned to the Inigo Jones
classic type, but influenced by the French work of Louis XIV. and
XV. Figure sculpture, generally represented by graceful figures on
each side, which assisted to carry the shelf, was introduced, and the
overmantel developed into an elaborate frame for the family portrait
over the chimneypiece. Towards the close of the i8th century the
designs of the brothers Adam superseded all others, and a century
later they came again into fashion. The Adam mantels are in wood
enriched with ornament, cast in moulds, sometimes copied from the
carved wood decoration of old times. (R. P. S.)

CHIMPANZEE (Chimpanzi), the vernacular name of the
highest species of the man-like apes, forming the typical repre-
sentatives of the genus Anthropopithecus. Chimpanzees, of
which there appear to be at least two species, range through the
tropical forest-zone of Africa from the west coast to Uganda.
The typical A. troglodytes has been long known to European
science, Dr Tyson, a celebrated surgeon and anatonu'st of his time,
having dissected a young individual, and described it, as a pigmy
or Homo syhestris, in a book published in 1699. Of this baby
chimpanzee the skeleton may be seen in the Natural History
branch of the British Museum alongside the volume in which
it is described. It was not, however, till 1 788 that the chimpanzee
received what is now recognized as a scientific name, having been
christened in that year Simia troglodytes by the naturalist
Johann Friedrich Gmelin. In his classification it was included
in the same genus as the orang-utan; and it has recently been
suggested that the name Simia pertains of right to the chim-
panzee rather than to the orang-utan. Between the typical West
African chimpanzee and the gorilla (?.».) there is no difficulty
in drawing a distinction; the difficulty conies in when we have
to deal with the aberrant races, or species, of chimpanzee, some
of which are so gorilla-like that it is by no means easy to deter-
mine to which group they really pertain. In height the adult
male chimpanzee of the typical form does not exceed 5 ft., and the
colour of the hair is a full black, while the skin, especially that of
the face, is light-coloured; the ears are remarkably large and
prominent, and the hands reach only a short distance below the
knees. The head is rounded and short, without prominent beet-
ling ridges above the eyes, or a strong crest along the middle line of
the back of the skull ; and the tusks of the old males are of no very
great length and prominence. Moreover, there is no very marked
difference in the size of the two sexes. Gentleness and docility
are specially characteristic of the species, even when full-grown;
while in the native state its habits are thoroughly arboreal.

In central Africa the chimpanzees assume more or less marked
gorilla-like traits. The first of these aberrant types is Schweinfurth's
chimpanzee (Anthropopithecus troglodytes schweinfurihi), which in-
habits the Niam-Niam country, and, although evidently belonging
to the same species as the typical race, exhibits certain gorilla-like
features. These traits are still more developed in the bald chim-
panzee (A. tschego) of Loango, the Gabun, and other regions of
French Congo, which takes its English name from the sparse covering
of hair on the head. The most gorilla-like of all the races is, however,
the kulu-kamba chimpanzee (A. kulu-kamba) of du Chaillu, which
inhabits central Africa. The celebrated ape " Mafuka," which lived
in the Dresden zoological gardens during 1875, and came from Loango,
was apparently a member of this species, although it was at one time
regarded as a hybrid between a chimpanzee and a gorilla. These
gorilla-like traits were still more pronounced in "Johanna," a female

chimpanzee living in Barnum & Bailey's show in 1899, which has been
described and figured by Dr A. Keith. The heavy ridges over the
brow, originally supposed to be distinctive of the gorilla, are particu-
larly weir marked in "Johanna," and they would doubtless be still
more noticeable in the male of the same race, which seems to be
undoubtedly du Chaillu's kulu-kamba. Still the large size and
prominence of the ears proclaim that both " Mafuka " and
' Johanna " were chimpanzees and not gorillas. A gorilla-like
feature in " Johanna " is, however, the presence of large folds at
the sides (a/a) of the nostrils, which are absent in the typical chim-
panzee, but in the gorilla extend down to the upper lip. Chimpanzees
exhibit great docifity in confinement, where, however, they seldom
survive for any great length of time. They likewise display a much
higher degree of intelligence than any of the other man-like apes.
(See PRIMATES.) (R. L.*)

CHINA, a country of eastern Asia, the principal division of
the Chinese empire. In addition to China proper the Chinese
Empire includes Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet and Sin-kiang
(East Turkestan, Kulja, Dzungaria, &c., i.e. all the Chinese
dependencies lying between Mongolia on the north and Tibet on
the south). Its most southern point is in 18° 50' N.; its most
northern in 53° 25' N.; its most western in 74° E., and its most
eastern in 135° E. It h'es, however, mainly between 20° and
50° N. and 80° and 130° E. It is considerably larger than the
whole of Europe. Though its area has not been exactly ascer-
tained the various estimates closely approximate, varying
between 4,277,000 and 4,300,000 sq. m. It is bounded N.W.,
N. and N.E. by Asiatic Russia, along a frontier extending some
6000 m.; E. by Korea and those parts of the Pacific known as
the Yellow Sea and China Sea; S. and S.W. by the China Sea,
French Indo-China, Upper Burma and the Himalayan states.
It is narrowest in the extreme west. Chinese Turkestan along
the meridian of Kashgar (76° E.) has a breadth of but 250 m.
It rapidly broadens and for the greater part of its area is over
1800 m. across in a direct N. and S. line. Its greatest length is
from the N.E. corner of Manchuria to the S.W. confines of Tibet,
a distance of 3.100 m. in a direct line. Its seaboard, about 5000
m. following the indentations of the coast, is almost wholly in
China proper, but the peninsula of Liao-tung and also the western
shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung are in Manchuria.

China1 proper or the Eighteen Provinces (Shih-pa-sheng)
occupies the south-eastern part of the empire. It is bounded N.
by Mongolia, W. by Turkestan and Tibet, S.W. by Burma, S.
by Tongking and the gulf of that name, S.E. by the South China
Sea, E. by the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, Gulf of Chih-li
and Manchuria. Its area is approximately 1,500,000 sq. m.'

This vast country is separated from the rest of continental
Asia by lofty tablelands and rugged mountain ranges, which
determine the general course — west to east — of its principal
rivers. On the north and west the Mongolian and Tibetan
tablelands present towards China steep escarpments across
which are very few passes. On the S.W. and S., on the borders
of Yun-nan, high mountains and deep valleys separate China
from Burma and Tongking. On the narrow N.E. frontier the
transition from the Manchurian plateau to the alluvial plain of
northern China is not abrupt, but, before the advent of railways,
Manchuria afforded few and difficult means of access to other
•egions. Thus China was almost cut off from the rest of the
world save by sea routes.

I. THE COUNTRY

Western China consists of highlands often sparsely, and eastern
China of lowlands densely peopled. Western China contains the
only provinces where the population is under 100 per sq. m.

From the Tibetan and Mongolian tablelands project mountain
ranges which, ramifying over the western region, enclose elevated

evel tracts and1 lower basins and valleys. East of this mountain-
ous region, which extends into central China and covers probably

1 As to the origin of the names China and Cathay (the medieval
lame) see below § History. According to one theory the name
"hifta is of Malay origin, designating originally the region now called
hido-China, but transferred in early times to China proper. By the
Chinese the country is often called Shih-pa-shSng, " the Eighteen
Provinces," from the number of its great territorial divisions. It
s also called Chung-kwo, " the Middle Kingdom," properly used of
the central part of China, and Hwa-kwo, " the Flowery Kingdom."

GEOGRAPHY]

CHINA

167

fully half of the kingdom, are, in the north a great alluvial plain
and in the south a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill
ranges of moderate elevation (see §§ Mountains and Geology).
In north-eastern China there is only one mountain system, the
group of hills— highest peak 5060 ft.— forming the Shan-tung
peninsula. This peninsula was formerly an island, but has been
attached to the mainland by the growth of the alluvial plain.
Besides the broad division of the country into western and
eastern China it may also be considered as divided into three
regions by the basins of its chief rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow
river) in the north, the Yangtsze-kiang in the centre, and the
Si-kiang (West river) in the south. In the northern provinces of
Kan-suh and Shen-si the basins of the Hwang-ho and Yangtsze-
kiang are separated by a mountain chain with various names —
the eastern termination of the Kuen-lun range of central Asia.
These mountains, in China, attain, in the Tsing-ling Shan, a
maximum elevation of 13,000 ft. East of Shen-si, in Ho-nan the
Fu-niu-shan continue the range, but with decreasing elevation,
and beyond this the deltaic plain is entered.

The watershed between the Yangtsze-kiang and that of the
Si-kiang is less clearly marked. It traverses the immense table-
land which occupies a great part of the south-west^ provinces of
Yun-nan and Kwei-chow and is continued eastward by the lower
tableland of Kwang-si and the Nanshan hills (whose elevation
seldom exceeds 6000 ft.) . The basin of the Yangtsze-kiang forms
the whole of central China. Its western border, in Sze-ch'uen
and Yun-nan, is wholly mountainous, with heights exceeding
19,000 ft. Central Sze-ch'uen, which is shut in by these moun-
tains on the west, by the Yun-nan and Kwei-chow plateau on the
south, by the Kiu-lung range on the north, and by highlands
eastward (save for the narrow valley through which the Yangtsze-
kiang forces its way), is a vast red sandstone tableland of about
1600 ft. elevation. It is exceedingly fertile and supports a dense
population. Eastward of Sze-ch'uen the Yangtsze valley is
studded with lakes. Finally it enters the deltaic plain. The
basin of the Si-kiang fills the two southern provinces of Kwang-si
and Kwang-tung and contains no very striking orographic
features. It may be added that in the extreme S.W. portion of
China is part of a fourth drainage area. Here the Mekong,
Salween, Song-koi (Red river), &c. flow south to Indo-China.

The Coast. — The coast-line, following all the minor indentations,
is reckoned at over 4500 m.; if only the larger inlets and pro-
montories be regarded, the coast-line is about 2150 m. in length.
Its shape is that of a semicircle, with its most easterly point midway
(30° N.) between its northern and southern extremities. At either
end of this semicircular sweep lies a peninsula, and beyond the
peninsula a gulf. In the north are the peninsula of Shan-tung and
the gulf of Chih-li; in the south the Lien-chow peninsula and the
gulf of Tongking. Due south of Lien-chow peninsula, separated
from it by a narrow strait, is Hai-nan, the only considerable island
of China. From the northern point of the gulf of Chih-li to 30° N.,
where is Hang-chow bay, the snores are flat and alluvial save where
the Shan-tung peninsula juts out. Along this stretch there are few
good natural harbours, except at the mouths of rivers and in the
Shan-tung promontory; the sea is shallow and has many shoals.
The waters bordering the coast of Chih-li are partly frozen in winter;
at 10 m. from the shore the water is only 20 ft. deep. The proximity
of Peking gives its few ports importance; that of Taku is at the
mouth of the Peiho. In Shan-tung, deeply indented on its southern
coast, are the ports of Chi-fu, Wei-hai-wei and Tsing-tao (the last in
Kiao-chow bay). South of Shan-tung and north of the mouth of the
Yangtsze huge sandbanks border the coast, with narrow channels
between them and the shore. The estuary of the Yangtsze is 60 m.
across; it contains islands and sandbanks, but there is easy access
to Wusung (Shanghai) and other river ports. The bay of Hang-
chow, as broad at its entrance as the Yangtsze estuary, forms the
mouth of the Tsien-tang-kiang. The Chusan and other groups of
islands lie across the entrance of the bay.

South of Hang-chow bay the character of the coast alters. In
place of the alluvial plain, with flat, sandy and often marshy shores,
the coast is generally hilly, often rocky and abrupt; it abounds
in small indentations and possesses numerous excellent harbours;
in this region are Fu-chow, Amoy, Swatow, Hongkong, Macao,
Canton and other well-known ports. The whole of this coast is
bordered by small islands. Formosa lies opposite the S.E. coast,
the channel between it and Fu-kien province being about 100 m. wide.
Formosa protects the neighbouring regions of China from the typhoons
experienced farther north and farther south.

Surface. — As already indicated, one of the most noticeable features
in the surface of China is the immense deltaic plain in the north-

eastern portion of the country, which, curving round the mountain-
ous districts of Shan-tung, extends for about 700 m. in a southerly
direction from the neighbourhood of Peking and varies
from 150 to 500 m. in breadth. This plain is the delta of
the Yellow river and, to some extent, that of the Yangtsze-

Deltalc
plain.

Moun-
tains.

kiang also. Beginning in the prefecture of Yung-p'ing Fu, in the
province of Chih-li, its outer limit passes in a westerly direction as
far as Ch'ang-p'ing Chow, north-west of Peking. Thence running
a south-south-westerly course it passes westward of Ch6ne-ting Fu
and Kwang-p'ing Fu till it reaches the upper waters of the Wei river
in Ho-nan. From this point it turns westward and crosses the
Hwang-ho or Yellow river in the prefecture of Hwai-k'ing. Leaving
this river it takes a course a little to the east of south, and passing
west of Ju-ning Fu, in the province of Ho-nan, it turns in a more
easterly direction as far as Luchow Fu. From this prefecture an
arm of the plain, in which lies the Chap Lake, stretches southward
from the Hwai river to the Yangtsze-kiang, and trending eastward
occupies the region between that river and Hangchow Bay. To the
north of this arm rises a hilly district, in the centre of which stands
Nanking. The greater part of this vast plain descends very gently
towards the sea, and is generally below the level of the Yellow
river, hence the disastrous inundations which so often accompany
the rise of that river. Owing to the great quantity of soil which is
brought down by the waters of the Yellow nver, and to the absence
of oceanic currents, this delta is rapidly increasing and the adjoining
seas are as rapidly becoming shallower. As an instance, it is said
that the town of P'utai was one Chinese mile ' west of the seashore
in the year 200 B.C., and in 1730 it was 140 m. inland, thus giving a
yearly encroachment upon the sea of about loo ft. Again, Sien-
shwuy-kow on the Peiho was on the seashore in A.D. 500, and it is
now about 18 m. inland.

Some of the ranges connected with the mountain system of
central Asia which enter the western provinces of China have been
mentioned above, others may be indicated here. In the
eastern portion of Tibet the Kuen-lun range throws off
a number of branches, which spread first of all in a south-
easterly direction and eventually take a north and south course,
partly in the provinces of Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan, where they divide
the beds of the rivers which flow into Siam and French Indo-China,
as well as the principal northern tributaries of the Yangtsze-kiang.
In the north-west, traversing the western portion of the province of
Kan-suh, are parallel ranges running N.W. and S.E. and forming a
prolongation of the northern Tibetan mountains. They are known
as the Lung-shan, Richthofen and Nan-shan, and join on the south-
east the Kuen-lun range. The Richthofen range (locally called
Tien-shan, or Celestial Mountains)attains elevations of over 20,000 ft.
Several of its peaks are snowclad, and there are many glaciers.
Forming the northern frontier of the province of Sze-ch'uen run the
Min-shan and the Kiu-lung(or Po-m§ng) ranges.which, entering China
in 102° E., extend in a general easterly course as far as 1 12° E. in the
province of Hu-peh. These ranges have an average elevation of
8000 and 1 1 ,000 ft. respectively. In the south a number of parallel
ranges spread from the Yun-nan plateau in an easterly direction as
far as the province of Kwang-tung. Then turning north-eastward
they run in lines often parallel with the coast, and cover large areas
of the provinces of Fu-kien, Kiang-si, Cheh-kiang, Hu-nan and
southern Ngan-hui, until they reach the Yangtsze-kiang; the valley
of that river from the Tung-ting Lake to Chinkiang Fu forming
their northern boundary. In Fu-kien these hills attain the character
of a true mountain range with heights of from 6500 to nearly 10,000
ft. Besides the chief ranges there are the Tai-hang Mountains in
Shan-si, and many others, among which may be mentioned the ranges
— part of the escarpment of the Mongolian plateau — which form the
northern frontier of Chih-li. Here the highest peak is Ta-kuang-
ting-tzu (6500 ft.), about 300 m. N.N.E. of Peking and immediately
north of Wei Ch'ang (the imperial hunting grounds).

Rivers and Canals. — The rivers of China are very numerous and
there are many canals. In the north the rivers are only navigable by
small craft ; elsewhere they form some of the most f re- _. YeUaw
quented highways in the country. The two largest rivers,
the Yangtsze-kiang and the Hwang-ho (Yellow river), are
separately noticed. The Hwang-ho (length about 2400 m.) has
only one important tributary in China, the Wei-ho, which rises in
Kan-suh and flows through the centre of Shen-si. Below the con-
fluence the Hwang-ho enters the plains. According to the Chinese
records this portion of the river has changed its course nine times
during 2500 years, and has emptied itself into the sea at different
mouths, the most northerly of which is represented as having been
in about 39" N., or in the neighbourhood of the present mouth of the
Peiho, and the most southerly being that which existed before the
change in 1851-1853, in 34° N. Owing to its small value as a nayi-
gable highway and to its propensity to inundate the regions in its
neighbourhood, there are no considerable towns on its lower course.

The Yangtsze-kiang is the chief waterway of China. The river,
flowing through the centre of the country, after a course of 2oxx> m.,
empties itself into the Yellow_ Sea in about 31° N. Unlike the
Yellow river, the Yangtsze-kiang is dotted along its navigable
portions with many rich and populous cities, among which are
Nanking, An-ch'ing (Ngank'ing), Kiu-kiang, Hankow and I-ch'ang.

1 A Chinese mile, li, or /e = o-36 English mile.

i68

CHINA

[GEOGRAPHY

From its mouth to I-ch'ang, about 1000 m., the river is navigable by
large steamers. Above this last-named city the navigation becomes
impossible for any but light native craft or foreign vessels
specially constructed for the navigation, by reason of
Yaaftsze- t{je raplcls which occur at frequent intervals in the deep
ki»ag- mountain gorges through which the river runs between
Kwei-chow and I-ch'ang. Above Kwei-chow it receives from the
north many tributaries, notably the Min, which water the low table-
land of central Sze-ch'uen. The main river itself has in this province
a considerable navigable stretch, while below I-ch'ang it receives the
waters of numerous navigable affluents. The Yangtsze system is thus
all important in the economic and commercial development of China.
Perhaps the most remarkable of the affluents of the Yangtsze is
the Han-kiang or Han river. It rises in the Po-m§ng mountains to
the north of the city of Ning-kiang Chow in Shen-si. Taking a
generally easterly course from its source as far as Fan-cheng, it
from that point takes a more southerly direction and empties itself
into the Yangtsze-kiang at Han-kow, " the mouth of the Han."
Here it is only 200 ft. wide, while higher up it widens to 2600 ft.
It is navigable by steamers for 300 m. The summer high-water line
is for a great part of its course, from I-ch'eng Hien to Han-kow,
above the level of its banks. Near Sien-t'ao-che'n the elevation of
the plain above low water is no more than I ft., and in summer the
river rises about 26 ft. above its lowest level. To protect themselves
against inundations the natives have here, as elsewhere, thrown up
high embankments on both sides of the river, but at a distance from
the natural banks of abont 50 to 100 ft. This intervening space is
flooded every year, and by the action of the water new layers of
sand and soil are deposited every summer, thus strengthening the
embankments from season to season.

The Hwai-ho is a large river of east central China flowing between
the Hwang-ho and the Yangtsze-kiang. The Hwai-ho and its
numerous affluents (it is said to have 72 tributaries) rise in Ho-nan.
The main river flows through the centre of Ngan-hui, in which
province it receives from the N.W. the Sha-ho, Fei-ho and other
important affluents. Formerly it received through the Sha-ho part
of the waters of the Hwang-ho. The Hwai-ho flows into the Hungtso
lake, through which it feeds the Grand Canal, not far from the old
course of the Hwang-ho, and probably at one time joined that river
not far from its mouth. It has a length of about 800 m. and is navi-
gable from the point where it leaves the hill country of Ho-nan to
Lake Hungtso. It is subject to violent floods, which inundate the
surrounding country for a distance of 10 to 20 m. Many of its
tributaries are also navigable for considerable distances.

Next in importance to the Yangtsze-kiang as a water highway is
the Yun-ho, or, as it is generally known in Europe, the Grand Canal.
This magnificent artificial river reaches from Hang-chow
Fu in the province of Cheh-kiang to Tientsin in Chih-li,
where it unites with the Peiho, and thus may be said to
extend to Tung-chow in the neighbourhood of Peking. According
to the itineraries published by Pere Gandar, the total length of the
canal is 3630 It, or about 1200 m. A rough measurement, taking
account only of the main bends of the canal, makes its length 850 m.
After leaving Hang-chow the canal passes round the eastern border
of the Tai-hu or Great Lake, surrounding in its course the beautiful
city of Su-chow, and then trends in a generally north-westerly
direction through the fertile districts of Kiang-su as far as Chin-
kiang on the Yangtsze-kiang. In this, the southern section, the
slope is gentle and water is plentiful (from 7 ft. at low water to 1 1 ft.,
and occasionally 13 ft. at high water). Between Su-chow and Chin-
kiang the canal is often over loo ft. wide, and its sides are in many
places faced with stone. It is spanned by fine stone bridges, and near
its banks are many memorial arches and lofty pagodas. In the
central portion of the canal, that is between Chin-kiang and Tsing-
kiang-pu, at which latter place it crosses the dry channel which marks
the course of the Yellow river before 1852, the current is strong and
difficult to ascend in the upward (northern) journey. This part of
the canal skirts several lakes and is fed by the Hwai-ho as it issues
from the Hungtso lake. The country lying west of the canal is
higher than its bed; while the country east is lower than the canal.
The two regions are known respectively as Shang-ho (above the
river) and Ssia-ho (below the river). Waste weirs opening on the
Ssia-ho (one of the great rice-producing areas of China) discharge
the surplus water in flood seasons. The northern and considerably
the longest section of the canal extends from the old bed of the
Yellow river to Tientsin. It largely utilizes existing rivers and
follows their original windings. Between Tsing-kiang-pu and the
present course of the Yellow river the canal trends N.N.W., skirting
the highlands of Shan-tung. In this region it passes through a series
of lagoons, which in summer form one lake — Chow-yang. North of
that lake on the east bank of the canal is the city of Tsi-ning-chow.
About 25 m. N. of that city the highest level of the canal is reached
at the town of Nan Wang. Here the river Wen enters the canal from
the east, and about 30 m. farther N. the Yellow river is reached.
On the west side of the canal, at the point where the Yellow river
now cuts across it, there is laid down in Chinese maps of the i8th
century a dry channel which is described as being that once followed
by the Yellow river, i.e. before it took the channel it abandoned in
1851-1853. The passage of the Yellow river to the part of the canal
lying north of that stream is difficult, and can only be effected at

certain levels of the river. Frequently the waters of the river are
either too low or the current is too strong to permit a passage,
leaving this point the canal passes through a well-wooded and hilly
country west of Tung-p'ing Chow and east of Tung-ch'ang Fu.
At Lin-ching Chow it is joined at right angles by the Wei river
in the midst of the city. Up to this point, i.e. from Tsing-kiang-pu
to Lin-ching Chow, a distance of over 300 m., navigation is difficult
and the water-supply often insufficient. The differences of level,
20 to 30 ft., are provided for by barrages over which the boats —
having discharged their cargo — are hauled by windlasses. Below
the junction with the Wei the canal borrows the channel of the river
and again becomes easily navigable. Crossing the frontier into
Chih-li, between Te Chow and Tsang Chow, which it passes to the
west, it joins the Peiho at Tientsin, after haying received the waters
of the Keto river in the neighbourhood of Tsing Hien.1

The most ancient part of the canal is the section between the
Yangtsze and the Hwai-ho. This part is thought, on the strength
of a passage in one of the books of Confucius, to have been built
c. 486 B.C. It was repaired and enlarged in the 3rd century A.D.
The southern part, between the Yangtsze and Hang-chow, was built
early in the 7th century A.D. The northern part is stated to have
been constructed in the three years 1280-1283. The northern portion
of the canai is now of little use as a means of communication between
north and south.2 It is badly built, neglected and charged with the
mud-laden waters of the Yellow river. The " tribute fleet " bearing
rice to Peking still uses this route; but the rice is now largely
forwarded by sea. The central and southern portions of the canal
are very largely used.

The Peiho (length about 350 m.) is of importance as being the
high waterway to Peking. Taking its rise in the Si-shan, or Western
Mountains, beyond Peking, it passes the city of T'sung-chow, the
port of Peking, and Tientsin, where it meets the waters of the Hun-ho
and empties itself into the gulf of Chih-li at the village pt Taku.
The Peiho is navigable for small steamers as far as Tientsin during
the greater part of the year, but from the end of November to the
beginning of March it is frozen up.

In the southern provinces the Si-kiang, or Western river, is the
most considerable. It has a length of over 1000 m. This river takes
its rise in the prefecture of Kwang-nan Fu in Yun-nan,
whence it reaches the frontier of Kwang-si at a distance i/ */
of about 90 li from its source. Then trending in a north-
easterly direction it forms the boundary between the two provinces
for about 150 li. From this point it takes a generally south-easterly
course, passing the cities of Tsien Chow, Fung-e Chow, Shang-Iin
Hien, Lung-ngan Hien, Yung-kang Chow and Nan-ning Fu to Yung-
shan Hien. Here it makes a bend to the north-east, and continues
this general direction as far as Sin-chow Fu, a distance of 800 li,
where it meets and joins the waters of the Kien-kiang from the north.
Its course is then easterly, and after passing Wu-chow Fu it crosses
the frontier into Kwang-tung. In this part of its course it flows
through a gorge 3 m. long and in places but 270 yds. in width.
Both above and below this gorge it is I m. wide. Some 30 m. above
Canton it divides into* two main and several small branches. The
northern branch, called Chu-kiang, or Pearl river, flows past Fat-
shan and Canton and reaches the sea through the estuary called the
Bocca Tigris or Bogue, et the mouth of which is the island of Hong-
Kong. The southern branch, which retains the name of Si-kiang,
reaches the sea west of Macao. Near the head of its delta the Si-
kiang receives the Pei-kiang, a considerable river which flows through
Kwang-tung in a general N. to S. direction. Like the Yangtsze-
kiang the Si-kiang is known by various names in different parts of
its course. From its source to Nan-ning Fu in Kwang-si it is called
the Si-yang-kiang, or river of the Western Ocean; from Nan-ning
Fu to Sin-chow Fu it is known as the Yu-kiang, or the Bending river;
and over the remainder of its course it is recognized by the name of
the Si-kiang, or Western river. The Si-kiang is navigable as far as
Shao-king, 130 m., for vessels not drawing more than 15 ft. of water,
and vessels of a light draught may easily reach Wu-chow Fu, in
Kwang-si, which is situated 75 m. farther up. In winter the navi-
gation is difficult above Wu-chow Fu. Above that place there is a
rapid at low water, but navigation is possible to beyond Nan-ning Fu.

Lakes. — There are numerous lakes in the central provinces of
China. The largest of these is the Tung-t'ing in Hu-nan, which,
according to the Chinese geographers, is upwards of 800 li, or 266 m.,
in circumference. In native gazetteers its various portions are known
under distinct names; thus it is said to include the Ts'ing-ts'ao, or
Green Grass Lake; the Ung, or Venerable Lake; the Chih-sha, or
Red Sand Lake; the Hwang-yih, or Imperial Post-house Lake;
the Ngan-nan, or Peaceful Southern Lake; and the Ta-tung, or

1 For the Grand Canal the chief authority is Dominique Gandar,
S.J., " Le Canal Imperial. Etude historique et descriptive," Varietis
sinologiques No. 4 (Shanghai, 1903) ; see also Stenz, " Der Kaiser-
kanal," in Beitragen zur Kolonialpolitik, Band v. (Berlin, 1903-1904),
and the works of Ney Elias, Sir J. F. Davis, A. Williamson, E. H.
Parker and W. R. Carles.

1 Nevertheless there is considerable local traffic. The transit
trade with Shan-tung, passing the Chin-kiang customs and using
some 250 m. of the worst part of the canal, was valued in 1905 at
3,331,000 taels.

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GEOLOGY]

CHINA

169

Great Deep Lake. In ancient times it went by the name of the
Kiu-kiang Hu, or Lake of the Nine Rivers, from the fact that nine
rivers flowed into it. Its chief affluents are the Siang-kiang, which
rises in the highlands in the north of Kwan^-si and flows in a general
N.N.E. direction, and the Yuen-kiang, which flows N. and then E.
from the eastern border of Kwei-chow. The lake is connected with
the Yangtsze-kiang by two canals, the Taping and the Yochow Fu.
In summer it is fed by the overflow from the Yangtsze-kiang; in
winter it pours its waters into that river through the Yochow Fu
canal. During the winter and spring the water of the lake is so low
that the shallow portions become islands, separated by rivers such
as the Siang and Yuen, and numberless streams; but in summer,
owing to the rise in the waters of the Yangtsze-kiang, the whole basin
of the lake is filled. It is then about 75 m. lone and 60 m. broad.
About 1 80 m. E. of the Tung-t'ing lake is the Poyang lake, which
occupies the low- lying part of the province of Kiang-si, and is con-
nected with the Yangtsze by the Hu-kow canal. The Poyang lake
is also subject to a wide difference between high and low water, but
not quite to the same extent as the Tung-t'ing lake, and its land-
marks are more distinctly denned. It is about 90 m. long by 20
broad. The T'ai lake, in the neighbourhood of Su-chow Fu, is also
celebrated for its size and the beauty of its surroundings. It is
about 150 m. in circumference, and is dotted over with islands,
on which are built temples for the devotees of religion, and summer-
houses for the votaries of pleasure from the rich and voluptuous
cities of Hang-chow and Su-chow. The boundary line between the
provinces of Choh-kiang and Kiang-su crosses its blue waters, and
its snores are divided among thirteen prefectures. Besides these
lakes there are, among others, two in Yun-nan, the Kun-yang-hai
(Tien-chi) near Yun-nan Fu, which is 40 m. long and is connected
with the Yangtsze-kiang by the Pu-to river, and the Erh-hai (Urh-
hai) to the east of the city of Tali.

The Great Wall. — Along the northern provinces of Chih-li, Shan-si,
Shen-si and Kan-suh, over 22° of longitude (98° to 120° E.), stretches
the Great Wall of China, built to defend the country against foreign
aggression. It was begun in the 3rd century B.C., was repaired in
the isth century, and in the i6th century was extended by 300 m.
Following the windings the wall is 1500 m. long. Starting near the
seashore1 at Shan-hai-kwan on the gulf of Liao-tung, where the
Chinese and Manchurian frontiers meet, it goes eastward past Peking
(which is about 35 m. to the south) and then trends S. and E. across
Shan-si to the Hwang-ho. From the neighbourhood of Peking to
the Hwang-ho there is an inner and an outer wall. The outer
(northern) wall passes through Kalgan, thus guarding the pass
into Mongolia. A branch wall separates the greater part of the
western frontier of Chih-li from Shan-si. West of the Hwang-ho
the Great Wall forms the northern frontier of Shen-si, and west of
Shen-si it keeps near the northern frontier of Kan-suh, following
for some distance in that province the north bank of the Hwang-ho.
It ends at Kiayu-kwan (98° 14' E.) just west of Su-chow. This part
of the wall was built to protect the one main artery leading from
central Asia to China through Kan-suh and Shen-si by the valley
of the Wei-ho, tributary of the Hwang-ho. There is a branch wall
in Kan-suh running west and south to protect the Tibetan frontier.
The height of the wall is generally from 20 to 30 ft., and at intervals
of some 200 yds. are towers about 40 ft. high. Its base is from
15 to 25 ft. thick and its summit 12 ft. wide. The wall is carried
over valleys and mountains, and in places is over 4000 ft. above
sea-level. Military posts are still maintained at the chief gates or
passes — at Shan-hai-kwan, the Kalgan pass, the Yenmun pass (at
the N. of Shan-si) and the Kaiyu pass in the extreme west, through
which runs the caravan route to Barkal in Turkestan. Colonel
A. W. S. Wingate, who in the opening years of the2Oth century
visited the Great Wall at over twenty places widely apart and
gathered many descriptions of it in other places, states that its
position is wrongly shown " on the maps of the day " (1907) in a
number of places; while in others it had ceased to exist, " the only
places where it forms a substantial boundary being in the valley
bottoms, on the passes and where it crosses main routes. These
remarks apply with particular force to the branch running south-
west from the Nan-k'owpass and forming the boundary ofChih-li
and Shan-si provinces." In Colonel Wingate's opinion the wall
was originally built by degrees and in sections, not of hewn stone,
but of round boulders and earth, the differeirt sections being repaired
as they fell into ruin. " Only in the^rSflley bottoms and on the
passes was it composed of maspafy or brickwork. The Mings
rebuilt of solid masonry all thpsC'sections through which led a likely
road for invading Tatars to follow, or where it could be seen at a
distance from the sky-line." The building of the wall " was a
sufficiently simple affair," not to be compared with the task of
building the pyramids of Egypt.1

1 The portion of the wall which abutted on to the sea has been
destroyed.

* See the Geog. Jnl. (Feb. and March 1907). For a popular account
of the wall, with numerous photographs, see The Great Wall of
China (London, 1909), by W. E. Giel, who in 1908 followed its course
from east to west. Consult also A. Williamson, Journey in North
China (London, 1870); Martin, " La Grande Muraille de la Chine,"
Revue scientifique (1891).

Climate. — The climate over so vast an area as China necessarily
varies greatly. The southern parts of Yun-nan, Kwang-si and
Kwang-tung (including the city of Canton) lie within the tropics.
The northern zone (in which lies Peking) by contrast has a climate
which resembles that of northern Europe, with winters of Arctic
severity. The central zone (in which Shanghai is situated) has a
generally temperate climate. But over both northern and central
China the influence of the great plateau of Mongolia tends to establish
uniform conditions unusual in so large an area. The prevailing winds
during summer — the rainy season — are south-easterly, caused by
heat and the ascending current of air over the sandy deserts of
central Asia, thus drawing in a current from the Pacific Ocean.
In the winter the converse takes place, and the prevailing winds,
descending from the Mongolian plateau, are north and north-west,
and are cold and dry. From October to May the climate of central
China is bracing and enjoyable. The rainfall is moderate and regular.

In northern China the inequalities both of temperature and rainfall
are greater than in the central provinces. In the province of Chih-li,
for example, the heat of summer is as intense as is the cold of winter.
In summer the rains often render the plain swampy, while the dry
persistent westerly winds of spring create dust storms (experienced
in Peking from March to June). The rainfall is, however, uncertain,
and thus the harvests are precarious. The province? of Shan-tung
and Shan-si are peculiarly liable to prolonged periods of drought,
with consequent severe famines such as that of 1877-1878, wnen
many millions died. In these regions the air is generally extremely
dry, and the daily variations of temperature consequent on excessive
radiation are much greater than farther south.

Accurate statistics both of heat and rainfall are available from a
few stations only. The rainfall on the southern coasts is said to be
about 100 in. yearly; at Peking the rainfall is about 24 in. a year.
In the coast regions the temperatures of Peking, Shanghai and
Canton may be taken as typical of those of the northern, central
and southern zones. In Peking (39° N.) the mean annual temperature
is about 53° F., the mean for January 23°, for July 79°. In Shanghai
(31° n' N.)3 the mean annual temperature is 59°, the mean for
January 36-2°, for July 80-4°. In Canton (23° 15' N.) the mean
annual temperature is 70°, the mean for January 54°, for July 82°.
The range of temperature, even within the tropics, is noteworthy.
At Peking and Tientsin the thermometer in winter falls sometimes
to 5° below zero and rises in summer to 105° (at Taku 107° has
been recorded); in Shanghai in winter the thermometer falls to 18°
and in summer rises to 102°. In Canton frost is said to have been
recorded, but according to the China Sea Directory the extreme range
is from 38° to ioo°.4 The climate of Shanghai, which resembles,
but is not so good as, that of the Yangtsze-kiang valley generally, is
fairly healthy, but there is an almost constant excess of moisture.
The summer months, July to September, are very hot, while snow
usually falls in December and January.

At Canton and along the south coast the hot season corresponds
with the S.W. monsoon; the cool season — mid October to end of
April — with the N.E. monsoon. Farther north, at Shanghai, the
S.W. monsoon is sufficiently felt to make the prevailing wind in
summer southerly.

Provinces. — China proper is divided into the following provinces:
Cheh-kiang, Chih-li, Fu-kien, Ngan-hui (An-hui), Ho-nan, Hu-nan,
Hu-peh, Kan-suh, Kiang-si, Kiang-su, Kwang-si, Kwang-tung,
Kwei-chow, Shan-si, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan.
See the separate notices of each province and the article on ShSng-
king, the southern province of Manchuria. X.

Geology.

The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part
of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and
Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial
origin. From the close of the Palaeozoic period down to the present
day the greater part of the empire has been dry land, and it is only
in the southern portion of Tibet and in the western Tian Shan that
any evidence of a Mesozoic sea has yet been found. The geological
sequence may be summarized as follows: —

Archean.— Gneiss, crystalline schists, phyllites, crystalline lime-
stones. Exposed in Liao-tung, Shan-tung, Shan-si, northern Chih-li
and in the axis of the mountain ranges, e.g. the Kuen-lun and the
ranges of southern China.

Sinian.- — Sandstones, quartzites, limestones. Sometimes rests
unconformably upon the folded rocks of the Archaen system; but
sometimes, according to Loczy, there is no unconformity. Covers
a large area in the northern part of China proper; absent in the
eastern Kuen-lun; occurs again in the ranges of S.E. China. In
Liao-tung Cambrian fossils have been found near the summit of the
series; they belong to the oldest fauna known upon the earth,
the fauna of the Olenellus zone. It is, however, not improbable
that in many places beds of considerably later date have been
included in the Sinian system.

1 For Shanghai the figures are compiled from twenty-six years' ob-
servations. See China Sea Directory, vol. iii. (4th ed., 1904) p. 660.

4 The thermometer registered 23 F. in January 1893, on the river
28 m. below Canton. This is the lowest reading known. Ibid.
pp. 104-105.

170

CHINA

[FAUNA

Ordovician. — Ordovician fossils have been found in the Lung-
shan Kiang-su (about 50 m. east of Nan-king), in the south-west of
Cheh-kiang and in the south-east of Yun-nan. Ordovician beds
probably occur also in the Kuen-lun.

Silurian. — Limestones and slates with Silurian corals and other
fossils have been found in Sze-ch'uen.

Devonian. — Found in Kan-suh and in the Tsing-lmg-shan, but
becomes much more important in southern China. Occurs also on
the south of the Tian-shan, in the Altyn-tagh, the Nan-shan and the
western Kuen-lun.

Carboniferous. — Covers a large area in northern China, in the
plateau of Shen-si and Shan-si, extending westwards in tongues
between the folds of the Kuen-lun. In this region it consists of a
lower series of limestones and an upper series of sandstones with
seams of coal, which may perhaps be in part of Permian age. This is
probably the most extensive coalfield in the world.

In south China the whole series consists chiefly of limestones, and
the coal seams are comparatively unimportant. Carboniferous beds
are also found in the Tian-shan, the Nan-shan, Kan-suh, on the
southern borders of the Gobi, &c.

Mesozoic. — Marine Triassic beds containing fossils similar to those
of the German Muschelkalk have been found by Loczy near Chung-
tien, on the eastern border of the Tibetan plateau. Elsewhere,
however, the Mesozoic is represented chiefly by a red sandstone,
which covers the greater part of Sze-ch'uen and fills also a number
of troughs amongst the older beds of southern China. No marine fos-
sils are found in this sandstone, but remains of plants are numerous,
and these belong to the Rhaetic, Lias and Lower Oolite. No
Cretaceous beds are known in China excepting in S. Tibet, (on the
shores of the Tengri-nor) and in the western portion of the
Tian-shan.

Cainozoic and Recent. — No marine deposits of this age are known.
Although the loess of the great plain and the sand of the desert are
still in process of formation, the accumulation of these deposits
probably began in the Tertiary period.

Volcanic Rocks. — Amongst the Archean rocks granitic and other
intrusions are abundant, but of more modern volcanic activity the
remains are comparatively scanty. In south China there is no evi-
dence of Tertiary or Post-Tertiary volcanoes, but groups of volcanic
cones occur in the great plain of north China. In the Liao-tung
and Shan-tung peninsulas there are basaltic plateaus, and similar
outpourings occur upon the borders of Mongolia. All these out-
bursts appear to be of Tertiary or later data.

Loess.— One of the most characteristic deposits of China is the
loess, which not merely imparts to north China the physical character
of the scenery, but also determines the agricultural products, the
transport, and general economic life of the people of that part of
the country. It is peculiar to north China and it is not found
south of the Yangtsze. The loess is a solid but friable earth of
brownish-yellow colour, and when triturated with water is not unlike
loam, but differs from the latter by its highly porous and tubular
structure. The loess soil is extremely favourable to agriculture.
(See LOESS and infra, § Agriculture.)

The loess is called by the Chinese Hwang-t'u, or yellow earth,
and it has been suggested that the imperiaj title Hwang-ti, Yellow
Emperor or Ruler of the Yellow, had its origin in the fact that the
emperor is lord of the loess or yellow earth.

Structurally, China proper may be divided into two regions,
separated from each other by the folded range of the Tsing-ling-
Structure. shan, which is a continuation of the folded belt of the
Kuen-lun. North of this chain the Palaeozoic beds are
in general nearly horizontal, and the limestones and sandstones of
the Sinian and Carboniferous systems form an extensive plateau
which rises abruptly from the western margin of the great plain of
northern China. The plateau is deeply carved by the rivers which
flow through it; and the strata are often faulted, but they are
never sharply folded. South of the Tsing-ling-shan, on the other
hand, the Palaeozoic beds are thrown into a series of folds running
from W. 30° S. to E. 30° N., which form the hilly region of southern
China. Towards Tongking these folds probably bend southwards
and join the folds of Further India. Amongst these folded beds lie
trough-like depressions filled with the Mesozoic red sandstone which
lies unconformably upon the Palaeozoic rocks.

The present configuration of Chirta is due, in a very considerable
degree, to faulting. The abrupt eastern edge of the Shan-si plateau,
where it overlooks the great plain, is a line of fault, or rather a
series of step faults, with the downthrow on the east; and von
Richthofen has shown reason to believe that this line of faulting is
continued far to the south and to the north. He believed also that
the present coast-line of China has to a large extent been determined
by similar faults with their downthrow on the east.

Concerning the structure of the central Asian plateau our know-
ledge is still incomplete. The great mountain chains, the Kuen-
lun, the Nan-shan and the Tian-shan, are belts of folding; but the
Mongolian Altai is a horst — a strip of ancient rock lying between
two faults and with a depressed area upon each side. In the whole
of this northern region faulting, as distinct from folding, seems to
have played an important part. Along the southern margin of the
Tian-shan there is a remarkable trough-like depression which appears
to lie between two approximately parallel faults. (P. LA.)

Fauna.

China lies within two zoological provinces or regions, its southern
portion forming a part of the Oriental or Indian region and having a
fauna close akin to that of the western Himalaya, Burma and Siam,
whereas the districts to the north of Fu-chow and south of the
Yangtsze-kiang lie within the eastern Holarctic (Palaearctic) region,
or rather the southern fringe of the latter, which has been separated
as the Mediterranean transitional region. Of these two divisions of
the Chinese fauna, the northern one is the more interesting, since it
forms the chief home of a number of peculiar generic types, and also
includes types represented elsewhere at the present day (exclusive in
one case of Japan) only in North America. The occurrence in China
of these types common to the eastern and western hemispheres is
important in regard to the former existence of a land-bridge between
Eastern Asia and North America by way of Bering Strait.

Of the types peculiar to China and North America the alligator
of the Yangtsze-kiang is generically identical with its Mississippi
relative. The spoon-beaked sturgeon of the Yangtsze and Hwang-ho
is, however, now separated, as Psephurus, from the closely allied
American Polyodon. Among insectivorous mammals the Chinese
and Japanese shrew-moles, respectively forming the genera Uropsilus
and Urotrichus, are represented in America by Neurotrichus. The
giant salamander of the rivers of China and Japan and the Chinese
mandarin duck are by some included in the same genera as their
American representatives, while by others they are referred to genera
apart. Whichever view we take does not alter their close relationship.
One wapiti occurs on the Tibetan frontier, and others in Manchuria
and Amurland.

As regards mammals and birds, the largest number of generic and
specific types peculiar to China are met with in Sze-ch'uen. Foremost
among these is the great panda (Aeluropus melanoleucus), represent-
ing a genus by itself, probably related to bears and to the true panda
(Aelurus), the latter of which has a local race in Sze-ch'uen. Next
come the snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus), of which the typical
species is a native of Sze-ch'uen, while a second is found on the upper
Mekong, and a third in the mountains of central China. In the In-
sectivora the swimming-shrew (Nectogale) forms another generic type
peculiar to Sze-ch'uen, which is also the sole habitat of the mole-like
Scaptochirus, of Uropsilus, near akin to the Japanese Urotrichus, of
Scaptonyx, which connects the latter with the moles (Talpa), and of
Neotetracus , a relative of the Malay rat-shrews (Gymnura). Here also
may be mentioned the raccoon-dog, forming the subgenus Nyctereutes,
common to China and Japan. The Himalayan black and the Malay
bear have each a local race in Sze-ch'uen, where the long-haired
Fontanier's cat (Felts tristis) and the Tibet cat (F. scripta) connect
Indo-Malay species with the American ocelots, while the bay cat (F.
temmincki), a Malay type, is represented by local forms in Sze-ch'uen
and Fu-chow. The Amurland leopard and Manchurian tiger likewise
constitute local races of their respective species.

Among ruminants, the Sze-ch'uen takin represents a genus (Budor-
cas) found elsewhere in the Mishmi Hills and Bhutan, while serows
(Nemorhaedus) and gorals (Urotragus), allied to Himalayan and
Burmo-Malay types, abound. The Himalayan fauna is also repre-
sented by a race of the Kashmir hangul deer. Of other deer, the
original habitat of Pere David's milu (Elaphurus), formerly kept in
the Peking park, is unknown. The sika group, which is peculiar to
China, Japan and Formosa, is represented by Cervus hortulorum in
Manchuria and the smaller C. manchuricus and sika in that province
and the Yangtsze valley; while musk-deer (Moschus) abound in
Kan-suh and Sze-ch'uen. The small water-deer (Hydropotes or
Hydrelaphus) of the Yangtsze valley represents a genus peculiar to
the country, as do the three species of tufted deer (Elaphodus),
whose united range extends from Sze-ch'uen to Ning-po and I-ch'ang.
Muntjacs (Cervulus) are likewise very characteristic of the country,
to which the white-tailed, plum-coloured species, like the Tenasserim
C. crinifrons, are peculiar. The occurrence of races of the wapiti in
Manchuria and Amurland has been already mentioned.

To refer in detail to the numerous forms of rodents inhabiting China
is impossible here, and it must suffice to mention that the flying-
squirrels (Pteromys) are represented by a large and handsome species
in Sze-ch'uen, where is also found the largest kind of bamboo-rat
(Rhizomys), the other species of which are natives of the western
Himalaya and the Malay countries. Dwarf hamsters of the genus
Cricetulus are natives of the northern provinces. In the extreme
south, in Hai-nan, is found a gibbon ape (Hylobates), while langur
(Semnopithecus) and macaque monkeys (Macacus) likewise occur in
the south, one of the latter also inhabiting Sze-ch'uen.

To give an adequate account of Chinese ornithology would require
space many times the length of this article. The gorgeous mandarin
duck (Aix galerita) has already been mentioned among generic types
common to America. In marked distinction to this is the number of
species of pheasants inhabiting north-western China, whence the
group ranges into the eastern Himalaya. Among Chinese species are
two of the three species of blood-pheasants (Ithagenes) , two tragopans
(Ceriornis or Tragopan), a monal (Lophophorus) , three out of the five
species of Crossoptilum, the other two being Tibetan, two kinds of
Pucrasia, the gorgeous golden and Amherst's pheasants alone repre-
senting the genus Chrysolophus, together with several species of the
typical genus Phasianus, among which it will suffice to mention the

FLORA]

CHINA

171

long-tailed P. reevesi. The Himalayan bamboo-partridges (Bam-
busicola) have also a Chinese representative. The only other large
bird that can be mentioned is the Manchurian crane, misnamed
Grusjaponensis. Pigeons include the peculiar subgenus Dendroleron ;
while among smaller birds, warblers, tits and finches, all of an
Eastern Holarctic type, constitute the common element in the avi-
fauna. Little would be gained by naming the genera, peculiar or
otherwise.

China has a few peculiar types of freshwater tortoises, among
which Ocadia sinensis represents a genus unknown elsewhere, while
there is also a species of the otherwise Indian genus Damonia. The
Chinese alligator, Alligator sinensis, has been already mentioned.
Among lizards, the genera Plestiodon, Mabuia, Tachydromus and
Gecko, of which the two latter are very characteristic of the Oriental
region, range through China to Japan ; and among snakes, the Malay
python (Python reticulatus) is likewise Chinese. The giant sala-
mander (Cryptobranchus, or Megalobatrachus, maximus) represents,
as mentioned above, a type found elsewhere only in North America,
while Hynobius and Onychodactylus are peculiar generic types of
salamanders. Among fishes, it must suffice to refer to the spoon-
beaked sturgeon (Psephurus) of the Yangtsze-kiang, and the numerous
members of the carp family to be found in the rivers of China. From
these native carp the Chinese have produced two highly coloured
breeds, the goldfish and the tejescope-eyed carp.

Among the invertebrates special mention may be made of the great
ailanthus silk-moth (Attacus cynthia) of northern China and Japan,
and also of its Manchurian relative A. pernyi ; while it may be added
that the domesticated " silkworm " (Bombyx mori) is generally
believed to be of Chinese origin, although this is not certain. Very
characteristic of China is the abundance of handsomely coloured
swallow-tailed butterflies of the family Papilionidae. The Chinese
kermes (Coccus sinensis) is also worth mention, on account of it
yielding wax. As regards land and freshwater snails, China exhibits
a marked similarity to Siam and India; the two groups in which the
Chinese province displays decided peculiarities of its own being Helix
(in the wider sense) and Clausilia. There are, for instance, nearly
half a score of subgenera of Helix whose headquarters are Chinese,
while among these, forms with sinistral shells are relatively common.
The genus Clausilia is remarkable on account of attaining a second
centre of development in China, where its finest species, referable to
several subgenera, occur. Carnivorous molluscs include a peculiar
slug (Rathouisia) and the shelled genera Ennea and Streptaxis. In
the western provinces species of Buliminus are abundant, and in the
operculate group Heudeta forms a peculiar type akin to Helicina, but
with internal foldings to the shell.

Lastly, it has to be mentioned that the waters of the Yangtsze-
kiang are inhabited by a small jelly-fish, or medusa (Limnocodium
kawaii), near akin to L. sowerbii, which was discovered in the hot-
house tanks in the Botanical Gardens in the Regent's Park, London,
but whose real home is probably the Amazon. (R. L.*)

Flora.

The vegetation of China is extremely rich, no fewer than 9000
species of flowering plants having been already enumerated, of which
nearly a half are endemic or not known to occur elsewhere. Whole
provinces are as yet only partially explored; and the total flora is
estimated to comprise ultimately 12,000 species. China is the con-
tinuation eastward of the great Himalayan mass, numerous chains of
mountains running irregularly to the sea-board. Thousands of deep
narrow valleys form isolated areas, where peculiar species have been
evolved. Though the greater part of the country has long ago been
cleared of its primeval forest and submitted to agriculture, there still
remain some extensive forests and countless small woods in which
the original flora is well preserved. Towards the north the vegetation
is palaearctic, and differs little in its composition from that of
Germany, Russia and Siberia. The flora of the western and central
provinces is closely allied to that of the Himalayas and of Japan;
while towards the south this element mingles with species derived
from Indo-China, Burma and the plain of Hindostan. Above a certain
elevation, decreasing with the latitude, but approximately 6000 ft. in
the Yangtsze basin, there exist in districts remote from the traffic of
the great rivers, extensive forests of conifers, like those of Central
Europe in character, but with different species of silver fir, larch,
spruce and Cembran pine. Below this altitude the woods are com-
posed of deciduous and evergreen broad-leafed trees and shrubs,
mingled together in a profusion of species. Pure broad-leafed forests
of one or two species are rare, though small woods of oak, of alder
and of birch are occasionally seen. There is nothing comparable to
the extensive beech forests of Europe, the two species of Chinese
beech being sporadic and rare trees. The heaths, Calluna and Erica,
which cover great tracts of barren sandy land in Europe, are absent
from China, where the Ericaceous vegetation is made up of numerous
species of Rhododendron, which often cover vast areas on the moun-
tain slopes. Pine forests occur at low levels, but are always small in
extent.

The appearance of the vegetation is very different from that of
the United States, which is comparable to China in situation and in
extent. Though there are 60 species of oak in China, many with mag-
nificent foliage and remarkable cupules, the red oaks, so characteristic
of North America, with their bristle-pointed leaves, turning beautiful

colours in autumn, are quite unknown. The great coniferous forest
west of the Rocky Mountains has no analogue in China, the gigantic
and preponderant Douglas fir being absent, while the giant Sequoias
are represented only on a small scale by Cryplomeria, which attains
half their height.

Certain remnants of the Miocene flora which have disappeared
from Europe are stilj conspicuous and similar in North America and
China. In both regions there are several species of Magnolia • one
species each of Liriodendron, Liquidambar and Sassafras; and curious
genera like Nyssa, Hamamelis, Decumaria and Gymnocladus. The
swamps of the south-eastern states, in which still survive the once
widely spread Taxodium or deciduous cypress, are imitated on a
small scale by the marshy banks of rivers near Canton, which are
clad with Glyptostrpbus, the " water-pine "of the Chinese. Pseudo-
larix, Cunninghamia and Keteleeria are coniferous genera peculiar to
China, which nave become extinct elsewhere. The most remarkable
tree in China, the only surviving link between ferns and conifers,
Ginkgo biloba, has only been seen in temple gardens, but may occur
wild in some of the unexplored provinces. Its leaves have been
found in the tertiary beds of the Isle of Mull.

Most of the European genera occur in China, though there are
curious exceptions like the plane tree, and the whole family of the
Cistaceae, which characterize the peculiar maquis of the Mediterranean
region. The rhododendrons, of which only four species are European,
have their headquarters in China, numbering 130 species, varying in
size from miniature shrubs 6 in. high to tall trees. Lysimacnia,
Primula, Clematis, Rubus and Gentiana have each a hundred species,
extraordinary variable in habit, in size and in colour of the flowers.
The ferns are equally polymorphic, numbering 400 species, and
including strange genera like Archangiopteris and Cheiropteris,
unknown elsewhere. About 40 species of bamboos have been dis-
tinguished; the one with a square stem from Fu-kien is the most
curious.

With a great wealth of beautiful flowering shrubs and herbaceous
plants, the Chinese at an early period became skilled horticulturists.
The emperor Wu Ti established in in B.C. a botanjc garden at
Ch'ang-an, into which rare plants were introduced from the west
and south. Many garden varieties originated in China. The
chrysanthemum, perhaps the most variable of cultivated flowers, is
derived from two wild species ^small and inconspicuous plants), and
is mentioned in the ancient Chinese classics. We owe to the skill of
the Chinese many kinds of roses, lilies, camellias and peonies; and
have introduced from China some of the most ornamental plants in
our gardens, as Wistaria, Diervilla, Kerria, Incarvittea, Deutzia,
Primula sinensis, Hemerocallis, &c. The peach and several oranges
are natives of China. The varnish tree (Rhus vernicifera), from
which lacquer is obtained; the tallow tree (Sapium-sebiferum); the
white mulberry, on which silkworms are fed ; and the tea plant were
all first utilized by the Chinese. The Chinese have also numerous
medicinal plants, of which ginseng and rhubarb are best known.
Nearly all our vegetables and cereals have their counterpart in China,
where there are numerous varieties not yet introduced into Europe,
though some, like the Soy bean, are now attracting great attention.

AUTHORITIES. — L. Richard (S.J.), Geographic de {'empire de Chine
(Shanghai, 1905) — the first systematic account of China as a whole in
modern times. The work, enlarged, revised and translated into
English by M. Kennelly (S.J.), was reissued in 1908 as Richard's
Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies.
This is the standard authority for the country and gives for each
section bibliographical notes. It has been used in the revision of the
present article. Valuable information on northern, central and
western China is furnished by Col. C. C. Manifold and Col. A. W. S.
Wingate in the Geog. Journ. vol. xxiii. (1904) and vol. xxix. (1907).
Consult also Marshall Broomhall (ed.), The Chinese Empire: a
General and Missionary Survey (London, 1907) ; B. Willis, E. Black-
welder and others, Research in China, vol. i. part i. " Descriptive
Topography and Geology," part ii. " Petrography and Zoology,"
and Atlas (Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1906-1907}; Forbes
and Hemsley, " Enumeration of Chinese Plants, ' in Journ.
Linnean Soc. (Bot.), vols. xxiii. and xxxyi. ; Bretschneider, History
of European Botanical Discoveries in China ; E. Tiessen, China das
Reich der achtzehn Provinzen, Teil i. " Die allgemeine Geographic
des Landes" (Berlin, 1902); and The China Sea Directory (published
by the British Admiralty), a valuable guide to the coasts: vol. ii.
(5th ed. , 1906) deals with Hong- Kong and places south thereof, vol. iii.
(4th ed., 1906, supp. 1907) with the rest of the Chinese coast; vol. i.
(5th ed., 1906) treats of the islands and straits in the S.W. approach
to the China Sea. Much of China has not been surveyed, but con-
siderable progress has been made since 1900. The Atlas of the
Chinese Empire (London, 1908), a good general atlas, which, however,
has no hill shading, gives maps of each province on the scale of
i : 3,000,000. The preface contains a list of the best regional maps.

The Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society con-
tains papers on all subjects relating to China.

II. THE PEOPLE

China is noted for the density of its population, but no accurate
statistics are forthcoming. The province of Shan-tung is reputed

172

CHINA

[SOCIAL LIFE

to have a population of 680 per sq. m. The provinces of centra
China, in the basin of the Yangtsze-kiang — namely Sze-ch'uen
Hu-peh, Ngan -hui, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang — contain
probably a third of the total population, the density
of the people in these provinces being representec
as from 400 to 310 per sq. m. Ho-nan, which belongs partly to
the basin of the Hwang-ho and partly to that of the Yangtsze-
kiang, as well as the S.E. coast provinces of Fu-kien and Kwang-
tung, are also densely peopled, Ho-nan being credited with 520
persons per sq. m., Fu-kien with 400 and Kwang-tung with
about 320.

The Chinese government prints from time to time in the Peking
Gazette returns of the population made by the various provincial
authorities. The method of numeration is to count the households,
and from that to make a return of the total inhabitants of each
province. There would be no great difficulty in obtaining' fairly
accurate returns if sufficient care were taken. It does not appear,
however, that much care is taken. Mr E. H. Parker published in the
Statistical Society' s Journal for March 1899 tables translated from
Chinese records, giving the population from year to year between
1651 and 1860. These tables show a gradual rise, though with many
fluctuations, up till 1851, when the total population is stated to be
432 millions. From that point it decreases till 1860, when it is put
down at only 261 millions. The Chinese Imperial Customs put the
total population of the empire in 1906 at 438,214,000 and that of
China proper at 407,253,000. It has been held by several inquirers
that these figures are gross over-estimates. Mr Rockhill, American
minister at Peking (1905-1909), after careful inquiry ' concluded
that the inhabitants of China proper did not exceed, in 1904,
270,000,000. Other competent authorities are inclined to accept
the round _ figure of 400,000,000 as nearer the accurate number.
Eleven cities were credited in 1908 with between 500,000 and
1,000,000 inhabitants each, and smaller cities are very numerous,
but the population is predominantly rural. In addition to the
Chinese the population includes a number of aboriginal races such
as the Lolos (q.v.), the Miaotsze (g.p.), the Ikias of Kwei-chow and
Kwang-si, the Hakka, found in the south-east provinces, and the
Hoklos of Kwang-tung province.2 The Manchus resident in China
are estimated to number 4,000,000. According to the Imperial
Customs authorities, the number of foreigners resident in China in
1908 was 69,852. Of these 44,143 were Japanese, 9520 Russian,
9043 British, 3637 German, 3545 American, 3353 Portuguese, 2029
French, 554 Italian and 282 Belgian.

The Chinese are a colonizing race, and in Manchuria, Mongolia and
Turkestan they have brought several districts under cultivation. In
Eat/era- tne reS>ons where they settle they become the dominant
race-^-thus southern Manchuria now differs little from a
province of China proper. In Indo-China, the Malay
Peninsula and throughout the Far East Chinese are numerous as
farmers, labourers and traders; in some places, such as Singapore,
Chinese are among the principal merchants. This colonizing spirit
is probably due more to the enterprise of the people than to the
density of the population. There were Chinese settlements at places
on the east coast of Africa before the loth century A.D. Following
the discovery of gold in California there was from 1850 onwards a
large emigration of Chinese to that state and to other parts of America.
But in 1879 Chinese exclusion acts were passed by the United States,
an example followed by Australia, where Chinese immigration was
also held to be a public danger. Canada also adopted the policy
of excluding Chinese, but not before there had been a considerable
immigration into British Columbia. Two factors, a racial and an
economic, are at work to bring about these measures of exclusion.
As indentured labourers Chinese have been employed in the West
Indies, South America and other places (see COOLIE).

In addition to several million Chinese settlers in Manchuria, and
smaller numbers in Mongolia, Turkestan and Tibet, it was estimated
in 1908 that there were over 9,000,000 Chinese resident beyond the
empire. Of these 2,250,000 were in Formosa, which for long formed
a part of the empire, and over 6,000,000 in neighbouring regions of
Asia and in Pacific Islands. In the West Indies (chiefly Cuba) the
number of Chinese was estimated at 100,000, in South America
(Brazil, Peru and Chile) at 72,000, in the United States at 150,000, in
Canada at 12,000, and in Australia and New Zealand at 35,000.
There are comparatively few Chinese in Japan (if Formosa be ex-
cepted) and Korea. The number is given in 1908 as 17,000 in Japan
and 1 1 ,oco in Korea.

Social Life.

The awakening of the East which has followed the Russo-
Japanese War of 1904-5 has affected China also. It is too soon
to say how far the influx of European ideas will be able to modify

1 See W. W. Rockhill, Inquiry into the Population of China
(Washington, 1904).

* For a bibliography of works relating to the aboriginal races of
China see Richard's Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire
(1908 ed.), pp. 371-373.

the immemorial customs and traditions of perhaps the most
conservative people in the world; but the process has begun,
and this fact makes it difficult to give a picture of Chinese habits
and customs which shall be more than historical or provisional.
Moreover, the difficulty of presenting a picture which shall be
true of China as a whole is enhanced by the different character-
istics observable in various regions of so vast a country. The
Chinese themselves, until the material superiority of Western
civilization forced them to a certain degree to conform to its
standards, looked down from the height of their superior culture
with contempt on the " Western barbarians." Nor was their
attitude wholly without justification. Their civilization was
already old at a time when Britain and Germany were peopled
by half-naked barbarians, and the philosophical and ethical
principles on which it was based remain, to all appearances, as
firmly rooted as ever. That these principles have, on the whole,
helped to create a national type of a very high order few
Europeans who know the Chinese well would deny. The Chinese
are naturally reserved, earnest and good-natured; for the
occasional outbursts of ferocious violence, notably against
foreign settlements, are no index to the national character.
There is a national proverb that " the men of the Four Seas are
all brothers," and even strangers can travel through the country
without meeting with rudeness, much less outrage. If the
Chinese character is inferior to the European, this inferiority lies
in the fact that the Chinaman's whole philosophy of life dis-
inclines him to change or to energetic action. He is industrious;
but his industry is normally along the lines marked out by
authority and tradition. He is brave; but his courage does
not naturally seek an outlet in war. The jealously exclusive
empire, into which in the ipth century the nations of the West
forced an entrance, was organized for peace; the arts of war had
been all but forgotten, and soldiers were of all classes the most
despised.

The whole social and political organization of the Chinese is based,
in a far more real sense than in the West, on the family. The supreme
duty is that of the child to its parent; on this the whole Chinese
moral system is built up. Filial piety, according to the teaching of
Confucius, is the very foundation of society; the nation itself is
but one great family, and the authority of the government itself is
but an extension of the paternal authority, to which all its children
are bound to yield implicit obedience. The western idea of the liberty
and dignity of the individual, as distinct from the community to
which he belongs, is wholly alien to the Chinese mind. The political
unit in China is not the individual but the family, and the father of
the family is supposed to be responsible for the qualities and views of
all his km. He is rewarded for their virtues, punished for their
Faults ; the deserts of a son ennoble the father and all his ancestors,
and conversely his crimes disgrace them.

An outcome of this principle is the extraordinary importance in
~hma of funeral rites, especially in the case of the father. The eldest
son, now head of the family, or, failing him, his first-born or adopted
son, fixes one of the three souls of the dead in the tablet commemor-
ating his virtues, burns incense to his shade, and supplies him with
paper money and paper representations of everything (clothes,
servants, horses) that he may require in his journey to the other
world. Mourning lasts for three years, during which the mourners
wear white garments and abstain from meat, wine and public
gatherings. Custom, too, dictates that wherever the Chinaman may
die he must be brought back for burial to the place of his birth ; one
of the objects of the friendly societies is to provide funds to charter
ships to transport home the bodies of those who have died abroad.
Annually, in Mav, the white-clad people stream to the graves and
mortuary temples with flowers, fruit and other offerings for the
dead. Christian missionaries have found in this ancestor worship
he most serious obstacle to the spread of a religion which teaches
that the convert must, if need be, despise his father and his mother
and follow Christ.

The same elaborate ceremonialism that characterizes the Chinese

uneral customs is found also in their marriage rites and the rules of

heir social intercourse generally. Confucius is reported to have said

that " all virtues have their source in etiquette," and the due

observance of the " ceremonial " (li) in the fulfilling of social duties

s that which, in Chinese opinion, distinguishes civilized from bar-

>arous peoples. The Board of Rites, one of the departments of

he central government, exists for the purpose of giving decisions in

matters of etiquette and ceremony. As to marriage, the rule that the

ndividual counts for nothing obtains here in its fullest significance.

The breeding of sons to carry on the ancestral cult is a matter of

orime importance, and the marriage of a young man is arranged at

he earliest possible age. The bride and bridegroom have little voice

SOCIAL LIFE]

CHINA

173

in the matter, the match being arranged by the parents of the
parties; the lifting of the bride's veil, so that the bridegroom may
see her face, is the very last act of the long and complicated
ceremony.

In the traditional Chinese social system four classes are dis-
tinguished: the literary, the agricultural, the artisan and the
trading class. Hereditary nobility, in the European sense, scarcely
exists, and the possession of an hereditary title gives in itself no
special privileges. Official position is more highly esteemed than
birth and the bureaucracy takes the place of the aristocracy in the
west. There are, nevertheless, besides personal decorations for
merit, such as the yellow jacket, five hereditary rewards for merit;
these last only for a fixed number of lives. A few Chinese families,
however, enjoy hereditary titles in the full sense, the chief among
them being the Holy Duke of Yen (the descendant of Confucius).
The Imperial Clansmen consist of those who trace their descent
direct from the founder of the Manchu dynasty, and are distinguished
by the privilege of wearing a yellow girdle; collateral relatives
of the imperial house wear a red girdle. Twelve degrees of nobility
(in a descending scale as one generation succeeds another) are
conferred on the descendants of every emperor; in the thirteenth
generation the descendants of emperors are merged in the general
population, save that they retain the yellow girdle. The heads of
eight houses, the " Iron-capped " (or helmeted) princes, maintain
their titles in perpetuity by rule of primogeniture in virtue of having
helped the Manchu in the conquest of China. Imperial princes
apart, the highest class is that forming the civil service. (See also
§ Government and Administration.) The peasant class forms the bulk of
the population. The majority of Chinese are small landowners; their
standard of living is very low in comparison with European standards.
This is in part due to the system of land tenure. A parent cannot,
even if he wished to do so, leave all his land to one son. There must
be substantially an equal division, the will of the father notwith-
standing. As early marriages and large families are the rule, this
process of continual division and subdivision has brought things down
to the irreducible minimum in many places. Small patches of one-
tenth or even one-twentieth of an acre are to be found as the
estate of an individual landowner, and the vast majority of holdings
run between one and three acres. With three acres a family is
deemed very comfortable, and the possession of ten acres means
luxury.

The only class which at all resembles the territorial magnates of
other countries is the class of retired officials. The wealth of an
official is not infrequently invested in land, and consequently there
are in most provinces several families with a country seat and the
usual insignia of local rank and influence. On the decease of the
heads or founders of such families it is considered dignified for the
sons to live together, sharing the rents and profits in common. This
is sometimes continued for several generations, until the country seat
becomes an agglomeration of households and the family a sort of
clan. A family of this kind, with literary traditions, and with the
means to educate the young men, is constantly sending its scions
into the public service. These in turn bring their earnings to
swell the common funds, while the rank and dignity which they
may earn add to the importance and standing of the group as a
whole. The members of this class are usually termed the literati or
gentry.

The complex character of the Chinese is shown in various ways.
Side by side with the reverence of ancestors the law recognizes the
right of the parent to sell his offspring into slavery and among the
poor this is not an uncommon practice, though in comparison with
the total population the number of slaves is few. The kidnapping of
children for sale as slaves is carried on, but there is no slave raiding.
There are more female than male slaves; the descendants of male
slaves acquire freedom in the fifth generation. While every Chinese
man is anxious to have male children, girls are often considered
superfluous.

The position of women is one of distinct inferiority; a woman is
always subject to the men of her family — before marriage to her
father, during marriage to her husband, in widowhood to her son;
these states being known as " the three obediences." Sons who do
not, however, honour their mothers outrage public opinion. Polygamy
is tolerated, secondary wives being sometimes provided by the
first wife when she is growing old. Secondary wives are subordinate
to first wives. A wife may be divorced for any one of seven reasons.
The sale of wives is practised, but is not recognized by law. Women
of the upper classes are treated with much respect. The home of a
Chinese man is often in reality ruled by his mother, or by his wife as
she approaches old age, a state held in veneration. Chinese women
frequently prove of excellent business capacity, and those of high
rank — as the recent history of China has conspicuously proved —
exercise considerable influence on public affairs.

Deforming the feet of girls by binding and stopping their growth has
been common for centuries. The tottering walk of the Chinese lady
resulting from this deformation of the feet is the admiration of her
husband and friends. Foot-binding is practised by rich and poor in all
parts of the country, but is not universal. In southern and western
China Hakka women and certain others never have their feet bound.
It has been noted that officials (who all serve on the itinerary system)
take for secondary wives natural-footed women, who are frequently

slaves.1 Every child is one at birth, and two on what Europeans
call its first birthday, the period of gestation counting as one year.

In their social intercourse the Chinese are polite and ceremonious;
they do not shake hands or kiss, but prostrations (kotowing), salu-
tations with joined hands and congratulations are common. They
have no weekly day of rest, but keep many festivals, the most im-
portant being that of New Year's Day. Debts are supposed to be
paid before New Year's Day begins and for the occasion new clothes
are bought. Other notable holidays are the Festival of the First
Full Moon, the Feast of Lanterns and the Festival of the Dragon
Boat. A feature of the festivals is the employment of thousands
of lanterns made of paper, covered with landscapes and other scenes
in gorgeous colours. Of outdoor sports kita-flying is the most
popular and is engaged in by adults; shuttle-cock is also a favourite
game, while cards and dominoes are indoor amusements. The
theatre and marionette shows are largely patronized. The habit of
opium smoking is referred to elsewhere; tobacco smoking is general
among both sexes.

Except in their head-dress and their shoes little distinction is made
between the costumes of men and women.1 Both sexes wear a long
loose jacket or robe which fits closely round the neck and has wide
sleeves, and wide short trousers. Over the robe shorter jackets —
often sleeveless — are worn, according to the weather. For winter
wear the jackets are wadded, and a Chinaman will speak of " a
three, four or six coat cold day." A man's robe is generally longer
than that of a woman. Petticoats are worn by ladies on ceremonial
occasions and the long robe is removed when in the house. " It is
considered very unwomanly not to wear trousers, and very indelicate
for a man not to have skirts to his coat." No Chinese woman ever
bares any part of her body in public — even the hands are concealed
in the large sleeves — and the evening dress of European ladies is
considered indelicate; but Hakka women move about freely without
shoes or stockings. A Chinese man will, however, in warm weather
often strip naked to the waist. Coolies frequently go bare-legged;
they use sandals made of rope and possess rain-coats made of palm
leaves. The garments of the poorer classes are made of cotton,
generally dyed blue. Wealthy people have their clothes made of silk.
Skirts and jackets are elaborately embroidered. Costly furs and fur-
lined clothes are much prized, and many wealthy Chinese have fine
collections of furs. Certain colours may only be used with official
permission as denoting a definite rank or distinction, e.g. the yellow
jacket. The colours used harmonize — the contrasts in colour seen in
the clothes of Europeans is avoided. Dark purple over blue are usual
colour combinations. The mourning colour is white. Common shoes
are made of cotton or silk and have thick felt soles; all officials wear
boots of satin into which is thrust the pipe or the fan — the latter
carried equally by men and women. The fan is otherwise stuck at
the back of the neck, or attached to the girdle, which may also hold
the purse, watch, snuff-box and a pair of chop-sticks.

Formerly Chinese men let their hair grow sufficiently long to gather
it in a knot at the top ; on the conquest of the country by the Manchu
they were compelled to adopt the queue or pigtail, which is often
artificially lengthened by the employment of silk thread, usually
black in colour. The front part of the head is shaved. As no
Chinese dress their own hair, barbers are numerous and do a thriving
trade. Women do not shave the head nor adopt the queue. Men
wear in general a close-fitting cap, and the peasants large straw hats.
Circular caps, larger at the crown than round the head and with an
outward slope are worn in winter by mandarins, conical straw hats in
summer. Women have elaborate head ornaments, decking their hair
with artificial flowers, butterflies made of jade, gold pins and pearls.
The faces of Chinese ladies are habitually rouged, their eyebrows
painted. Pearl or bead necklaces are worn both by men and women.
Officials and men of leisure let one or two finger nails grow long and
protect them with a metal case.

The staple food of the majority of the Chinese in the south and
central provinces is rice; in the northern provinces millet as well
as rice is much eaten. In separate bowls are placed morsels of pork,
fish, chicken, vegetables and other relishes. Rice-flour, bean-meal,
macaroni, and shell fish are all largely used. Flour balls cooked in
sugar are esteemed. Beef is never eaten, but Mahommedans eat
mutton, and there is hardly any limit to the things the Chinese use
as food. In Canton dogs which have been specially fed are an article
of diet. Eggs are preserved for years in a solution of salt, lime and
wood-ash, or in spirits made from rice. Condiments are highly
prized, as are also preserved fruits. Special Chinese dishes are
soups made from sea-slugs and a glutinous substance found in
certain birds' nests, ducks' tongues, sharks' fins, the brains of
chickens and of fish, the sinews of deer and of whales, fish with
pickled fir-tree cones, and roots of the lotus lily. A kind of beer
brewed from rice is a usual drink; samshu is a spirit distilled from
the same grain and at dinners is served hot in small bowls. Excellent

1 Evidences of the social changes taking place in China are to be
found in the strong movement for the education of girls, and in the
formation of societies, under official patronage, to prevent the bind-
ing of women's feet.

J It must be remembered that there is great variety in the
costumes worn in the various provinces. The particulars here given
are of the most general styles of dress.

174

CHINA

[RELIGION

native wines are made. The Chinese are, however, abstemious with
regard to alcoholic liquors. Water is drunk hot by the very poor, as
a substitute for tea. Tea is drunk before and after meals in cups
without handle or saucer; the cups are always provided with a cover.
Two substantial meals are taken during the day — luncheon and
dinner; the last named at varying hours from four till seven o'clock.
At dinner a rich man will offer his guest twenty-four or more dishes
(always a multiple of 4), four to six dishes being served at a time.
Food is eaten from bowls and with chop-sticks (q.v.) and little
porcelain spoons. Men dine by themselves when any guests are
present; dinner parties are sometimes given by ladies to ladies.
Chinese cookery is excellent; in the culinary art the Chinese are
reputed to be second only to the French.

Ethnologically the Chinese are classed among the Mongolian races
(in which division the Manchus are also included), although they
present many marked contrasts to the Mongols. The Tatars,
Tibetans, Burmese, Shans, Manchu and other races — including the
Arab and Japanese — have mingled with the indigenous population to
form the Chinese type, while aboriginal tribes still resist the pressure
of absorption by the dominant race (see ante, Population). The
Chinese are in fact ethnically a very mixed people, and the pure
Mongol type is uncommon among them. Moreover, natives of
different provinces still present striking contrasts one to another,
and their common culture is probably the strongest national link.
By some authorities it is held that the parent stock of the Chinese
came from the north-west, beyond the alluvial plain; others hold
that it was indigenous in eastern China. Notwithstanding the
marked differences between the inhabitants of different provinces
and even between those livingin the same province, certain features
are common to the race. "The stature is below the average and
seldom exceeds 5 ft. 4 in., except in the North. The head is normally
brachycephalic or round horizontally, and the forehead low and
narrow. The face is round, the mouth large, and the chin small and
receding. The cheek-bones are prominent, the eyes almond-shaped,
oblique upwards and outwards, and the hair coarse, lank and inva-
riably black. The beard appears late in life, and ^remains gener-
ally scanty. The eyebrows are straight and the iris of the eye is
black. The nose is generally short, broad and flat. The hands and
feet are disproportionately small, and the body early inclines to
obesity. The complexion varies from an almost pale-yellow to a
dark-brown, without any red or ruddy tinge. Yellow, however,
predominates." l

A few words may be added concerning the Manchus, who are the
ruling race in China. Their ethnic affinities are not precisely known,
but they may be classed among the Ural-Altaic tribes, although the
term Ural-Altaic (q.v.) denotes a linguistic rather than a racial group.
By some authorities they are called Tung-tatze, i.e. Eastern Tatars —
the Tatars of to-day being of true Mongol descent. Manchu is the
name adopted in the I3th century by one of several tribes which
led a nomadic life in Manchuria and were known collectively in the
nth century as Niichihs. Some authorities regard the Khitans
(whence the European form Cathay), who in the 9th and loth
centuries dwelt in the upper Liao region, as the ancestors of this race.
It was not until the i6th century that the people became known
generally as Manchus and obtained possession of the whole of the
country now bearing their name (see MANCHURIA). They had then a
considerable mixture of Chinese and Korean blood, but had developed
a distinct nationality and kept their ancient Ural-Altaic language.
In China the Manchus retained their separate nationality and semi-
military organization. It was not until the early years of the 2oth
century that steps were officially taken to obliterate the distinction
between the two races. The Manchus are a more robust race than the
inhabitants of central and southern China, but resemble those of
northern China save that their eyes are horizontally set. They are a
lively and enterprising people, but have not in general the intellectual
or business ability of the Chinese. They are courteous in their
relations with strangers. The common people are frugal and
industrious. The Manchu family is generally large. The women's
feet are unbound; they twist their hair round a silver bangle placed
cross-wise on the top of the head. The Manchus have no literature
of their own, but as the language of the court Manchu has been
extensively studied in China.

AUTHORITIES. — Sir John F. Davies, China (2 vols., London, 1857);
E. Reclus, The Universal Geography.vol. vii. (Eng. trans, ed. by E. G.
Ravenstein and A. H. Keane); E. and O. Reclus, L' Empire du
milieu (Paris, 1902); Sir R. K. Douglas, Society in China (London,
I895): J- Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese (2 vols.. New York,
1867); H. A. Giles, China and the Chinese (1902); E. Bard, Les
Chinois chez eux (Paris, 1900); A. G. Jones, Desultory Notes on
Chinese Etiquette (Shanghai, 1906); Mrs Archibald Little, Intimate
China (London, 1899) and The Land of the Blue Gown (London,
1902); E. H. Parker, John Chinaman and a Few Others (London,
loo:); J. Dyer-Ball, Things Chinese (Shanghai, 1903); Chen,
Kitung, The Chinese Painted by Themselves (Eng. trans, by

Millington, London, 1885); L. Richard, Comprehensive Geography

of the Chinese Empire (Shanghai, 1908).

[x:

1 Richard's Comprehensive Geography, &c. (1908 edition), pp.
340-34I-

Religion.

The earliest traces of religious thought and practice in China
point to a simple monotheism. There was a Divine Ruler of
the universe, abiding on high, beyond the ken of man.
This Power was not regarded as the Creator of the
human race, but as a Supreme Being to whom wicked-
ness was abhorrent and virtuous conduct a source of
joy, and who dealt out rewards and punishments with unerring
justice, claiming neither love nor reverence from mankind. If
a man did his duty towards his neighbour, he might pass his
whole time on earth oblivious of the fact that such a Power was
in existence; unless perchance he wished to obtain some good
or attain some end, in which case he might seek to propitiate
Him by sacrifice and prayer. There was no Devil to tempt man
astray, and to rejoice in his fall; neither was there any belief
that righteous behaviour in this world would lead at death to
absorption in the Deity. To God, understood hi this sense, the
people gave the name Tien, which in the colloquial language
was used of the sky; and when, in the first stages of the written
character, it became necessary to express the idea of Tien, they
did not attempt any vague picture of the heavens, but set down
the rude outline of a man. Perhaps about this period the title
Shang Ti, or Supreme Ruler, came into vogue as synonymous
with Tien. But although the two terms were synonyms, and
both may be equally rendered by " God," there is nevertheless
an important distinction to be observed, much as though Tien
and Shang Ti were two Persons in one substance. Tien is far
more an abstract Being, while Shang Ti partakes rather of the
nature of a personal God, whose anthropomorphic nature is
much more strongly accentuated. Shang Ti is described as
walking and talking, as enjoying the flavour of sacrifices, as
pleased with music and dancing in his honour, and even as taking
sides in warfare; whereas T ten holds aloof, wrapped in an
impenetrable majesty, an ignolum pro mirifico. So much for
religion in primeval days, gathered scrap by scrap from many
sources; for nothing like a history of religion is to be found in
Chinese literature.

Gradually to this monotheistic conception was added a worship
of the sun, moon and constellations, of the five planets, and of
such noticeable individual stars as (e.g.) Canopus, which is now
looked upon as the home of the God of Longevity. Earth, too —
Mother Earth — came in for her share of worship, indicated
especially by the God of the Soil, and further distributed among
rivers and hills. Wind, rain, heat, cold, thunder and lightning,
as each became objects of desire or aversion, were invested with
the attributes of deities. The various parts of the house — door,
kitchen-stove, courtyard, &c. — were also conceived of as shelter-
ing some spirit whose influence might be benign or the reverse.
The spirits of the land and of grain came to mean one's country,
the commonwealth, the state; and the sacrifices of these spirits
by the emperor formed a public announcement of his accession,
or of his continued right to the throne. Side by side with such
sacrificial rites was the worship of ancestors, stretching so far
back that its origin is not discernible in such historical documents
as we possess. In early times only the emperor, or the feudal
nobles, or certain high officials, could sacrifice to the spirits
of nature; the common people sacrificed to their own ancestors
and to the spirits of their own homes. For three days before
performing such sacrifices, a strict vigil with purification was
maintained; and by the expiration of that time, from sheer
concentration of thought, the mourner was able to see the spirits
of the departed, and at the sacrifice next day seemed to hear their
movements and even the murmur of their sighs. Ancestral
worship in China has always been, and still is, worship in the
strict sense of the term. It is not a memorial service in simple
honour of the dead; but sacrifices are offered, and the whole
ceremonial is performed that the spirits of former ancestors may
be induced to extend their protection to the living and secure to
them as many as possible of the good things of this world.

For Confucianism, which cannot, strictly speaking, be classed
as a religion, see CONFUCIUS.

RELIGION]

CHINA

Around the scanty utterances of Lao Tzu or Lao-tsze (q.v. ;
see also § Chinese Literature, §§ Philosophy) an attempt was made
by later writers to weave a scheme of thought which
Taoism. should serve to satisfy the cravings of mortals for some
definite solution of the puzzle of life. Lao Tzu himself had enunciated
a criterion which he called Tao,or the Way, from which is derived the
word Taoism; and in his usual paradoxical style he had asserted
that the secret of this Way, which was at the beginning apparently
nothing more than a line of right conduct, could not possibly be im-
parted, even by those who understood it. His disciples, however, of
later days proceeded to interpret the term in the sense of the Absolute,
the First Cause, and finally as One, in whose obliterating unity all
seemingly opposed conditions of time and space were indistinguish-
ably blended. This One, the source of human life, was placed beyond
the limits of the visible universe; and for human life to return
thither at death and to enjoy immortality, it was only necessary to
refine away all corporeal grossness by following the doctrines of Lao
Tzu. By and by, this One came to be regarded as a fixed point of
dazzling luminosity in remote ether, around which circled for ever
and ever, in the supremest glorv of motion, the souls of those who
had left the slough of humanity behind them. These transcendental
notions were entirely corrupted at a very early date by the intro-
duction of belief in an elixir of life, and later still by the practice of
alchemistic experiments. Opposed by Buddhism, which next laid a
claim for a share in the profits of popular patronage, Taoism rapidly
underwent a radical transformation. It became a religion, borrowing
certain ceremonial, vestments, liturgies, the idea of a hell, arrange-
ment of temples, &c., from its rival; which rival was not slow in re-
turning the compliment. As Chu Hsi said, " Buddhism stole the best
features of Taoism; Taoism stole the worst features of Buddhism.
It is as though one took a jewel from the other, and the loser
recouped the loss with a stone." At the present day there is not
much to choose between the two religions, which flourish peaceably
together. As to their temples, priests and ceremonial, it takes an
expert to distinguish one from the other.

There is no trustworthy information as to the exact date at which
Buddhism first reached China. It is related that the emperor Ming
Ti (A.D. 58-76) had a dream in which a golden man ap-
""• peared to him, and this mysterious visitant was interpreted
by the emperor's brother to be none other than Shakyamuni Buddha,
the far-famed divinity of the West. This shows that Buddhism must
then have been known to the Chinese, at any rate by hearsay. The
earliest alleged appearance of Buddhism in China dates from 217 B.C.,
when certain Shamans who came to proselytize were seized and
thrown into prison. They escaped through the miraculous inter-
vention of a golden man, who came to them in the middle of the night
and opened their prison doors. Hsu Kuan, a writer of the Sung
dynasty, quotes in his Tung Chai, Chi passages to support the view
that Buddhism was known in China some centuries before the reign
of Ming Ti; among others, the following from the Sui Shu Ching
Chi Chih: " These Buddhist writings had long been circulated far
and wide, but disappeared with the advent of the Ch'in dynasty,"
under which (see § Chinese Literature, §§ //ii/ory)occurred the Burn-
ing of the Books. It is, however, convenient to begin with the alleged
dream of Ming Ti, as it was only subsequent to that date that
Buddhism became a recognized religion of the people. It is certain
that in A.D. 65 a mission of eighteen members was despatched to
Khotan to make inquiries on the subject, and that in 67 the mission
returned, bringing Buddhist writings and images, and accompanied
by an Indian priest, Kashiapmadanga, who was followed shortly
afterwards by another priest, Gobharana. A temple was built for
these two at Lo-yang, then the capital of China, and they settled
down to the work of translating portions of the Buddhist scriptures
into Chinese; but all that now remains of their work is the Sutra of
Forty-two Sections, translated by Kashiapmadanga. During the
next two hundred and fifty years an unbroken line of foreign priests
came to China to continue the task of translation, and to assist in
spreading the faith. Such work was indeed entirely in their hands,
for until the 4th century the Chinese people were prohibited from
taking orders as priests; but by that date Buddhism had taken a
firm hold upon the masses, and many Chinese priests were attracted
towards India, despite the long and dangerous journey, partly to
visit the birthplace of the creed and to see with their own eyes the
scenes which had so fired their imaginations, and partly in the hope
of addingfto the store of books and images already available in China
(see § Chinese Literature, §§ Geography and Travel). Still, the train
of Indian missionaries, moving in the opposite direction, did not
cease. In 401 , Kumarajiva, the nineteenth of the Western Patriarchs
and translator of the Diamond Sutra, finally took up his residence
at the court of the soi-disant emperor, Yao Hsing. In 405 he became
State Preceptor and dictated his commentaries on the sacred books
of Buddhism to some eight hundred priests, besides composing a
shastra on Reality and Semblance. Dying in 417, his body was
cremated, as is stilj usual with priests, but his tongue, which had done
such eminent service during life, remained unharmed in the midst of
the flames. In the year 520 Bodhidharma, or Ta-mo, as he is
affectionately known to the Chinese, being also called the White
Buddha, reached Canton, bringing with him the sacred bowl of the
Buddhist Patriarchate, of which he was the last representative in the
west and the first to hold office in the east. Summoned to Nanking,

he offended the emperor by asserting that real merit lay, not in works,
but solely in purity and wisdom combined. He therefore retired to
Lo-yang, crossing the swollen waters of the Yangtsze on a reed, a
feat which has ever since had a great fascination for Chinese painters
and poets. There he spent the rest of his life, teaching that religion
was not to be learnt from books, but that man shouhf seek ?nd find
the Buddha in his own heart. Thus Buddhism gradually made its
way. It had to meet first of all the bitter hostility of the Taoists;
and secondly, the fitful patronage and opposition of the court.
Several emperors and empresses were infatuated supporters of the
faith; one even went so far as to take vows and lead the life of an
ascetiCj further insisting that to render full obedience to the Buddhist
commandment, " Thou shalt not kill," the sacrificial animals were to
be made of dough. Other emperors, instigated by Confucian advisers,
went to the opposite _ extreme of persecution, closed all religious
houses, confiscated their property, and forced the priests and nuns to
return to the world. From about the nth century onwards Buddhism
has enjoyed comparative immunity from attack or restriction, and it
now covers the Chinese empire from end to end. The form under
which it apoears in China is to some extent of local growth ; that is to
say, the Chinese have added and subtracted not a Rttle to and from
the parent stock. The cleavage which took place under Kanishka,
ruler of the Indo-Scythian empire, about the 1st century A.D.,
divided Buddhism into the Mahayana, or Greater Vehicle, and the
Hinayana, as it is somewhat contemptuously styled, or Lesser
Vehicle. The latter was the nearer of the two to the Buddhism of
Shakyamuni, and exhibits rather the mystic and esoteric sides of the
faith. The former, which spread northwards and on to Nepaul,
Tibet, China, Mongolia and Japan, leaving southern India, Burma
and Siam to its rival, began early to lean towards the deification of
Buddha as a personal Saviour. New Buddhas and BOdhisatvas were
added, and new worlds were provided for them to live in; in China,
especially, there was an enormous extension of the mythological
element. In fact, the Mahayana system of Buddhism, inspired, as
has been observed, by a progressive spirit, but without contradicting
the inner significance of the teachings of Buddha, broadened its scope
and assimilated other religio-philosophical beliefs, .whenever this
could be done to the advantage of those who came within its influ-
ence. Such is the form of this religion which prevails in China, of
which, however, the Chinese layman understands nothing. He goes
to a temple, worships the gods with prostrations, lighted candles,
incense, &c., to secure his particular ends at the moment; he may
even listen to a service chanted in a foreign tongue and just as in-
comprehensible to the priests as to himself. He pays his fees and
departs, absolutely ignorant of the history or dogmas of the religion
to which he looks for salvation in a future state. All such knowledge,
and there is now not much of it, is confined to a few of the more
cultured priests.

The 7th century seems to have been notable in the religious
history of China. Early in that century, Mazdaism, or the religion
of Zoroaster, based upon the worship of fire, was intro-
duced into China, and in 621 the first temple under that n*taalsm-
denomination was built at Ch'ang-an in Shensi, then the capital.
But the_ harvest of converts was insignificant; the religion failed
to hold its ground, and in the'gth century disappeared altogether.

Mahommedans first settled in China in the Year of the Mission,
A.D. 628, under Wahb-Abi-Kabha, a maternal uncle of Mahomet,
who was sent with presents to the emperor. Wahb-Abi-
Kabha travelled by sea to Canton, and thence over-'"'
land to Ch'ang-an, the capital, where he was well re- medaal
ceived. The first mosque was built at Canton, where after several
restorations, it still exists. Another mosque was erected in 742 ;
but many of the Mahommedans went to China merely as traders,
and afterwards returned to their own country. The true stock of

they married native wives; and four centuries later, with the
conquests of Jenghiz Khan, large numbers of Arabs penetrated
into the empire and swelled the Mahommedan community. Its
members are now indistinguishable from the general population;
they are under no civic disabilities, and are free to open mosques
wherever they please, so long as, in common with Buddhists and
Taoists, they exhibit the tablet of the emperor's sovereignty in
some conspicuous position.

In A.D. 631 the Nestorians sent a mission to China and intro-
duced Christianity under the name of the Luminous Doctrine.
In 636 they were allowed to settle at Ch'ang-an; and in
638 an Imperial Decree was issued, stating that Olopun,
a Nestorian priest who is casually mentioned as a Persian, tonum.
had presented a form of religion which his Majesty had carefully
examined and had found to be in every way satisfactory, and that
it would henceforth be permissible to preach this new doctrine within
the boundaries of the empire. Further, the establishment of a
monastery was authorized, to be served by twenty-one priests.
For more than a century after this, Nestorian Christianity seems to
have flourished in China. In 781 the famous Nestorian Tablet,

1 Otherwise Abu Ja'far Ibn Mahommed al-Mansur (see CALIPHATE,
C. § 2).

176

CHINA

[EDUCATION

giving a rough outline of the object and scope of the faith, was se
up at Ch'ang-an (the modern Si-gan Fu), disappearing soon after
wards in the political troubles which laid the city in ruins, to be
brought to light again in 1625 by Father Semedo, S. I. " The genuine
ness of this tablet was for many years in dispute, Voltaire, Renan
and others of lesser fame regarding it as a pious Jesuit fraud; bu
all doubts on the subject have now been dispelled by the exhaustivi
monograph of Pere Havret, S. J., entitled La Stile de Si-ngan. The
date of the tablet seems to mark the zenith of Nestorian Christianity
in China; after this date it began to decay. Marco Polo refers
to it as existing in the I3th century; but then it fades out o
sight, leaving scant traces in Chinese literature of ever having
existed.

The Manichaeans, worshippers of the Chaidaean Mani or Manes,
who died about A.D. 274, appear to have found their way to China
Maaich *n tne year 694- In 719 an envoy from Tokharestan
reached Ch'ang-an, bringing a letter to the emperor, in
which a request was made that an astronomer who
accompanied the mission might be permitted to establish places ol
worship for persons of the Manichaean faith. Subsequently, a
number of such chapels were_ opened at various centres; but little
is known of the history of this religion, which is often confounded
by Chinese writers with Mazdeism, the fate of which it seems to have
shared, also disappearing about the middle of the gth century.

By " the sect of those who take out the sinew," the Chinese refer
to the Jews and their peculiar method of preparing meat in order
Judaism to mak? il k<?sfler- wild stories have been told of their
arrival in China seven centuries before the Christian era,
after one of the numerous upheavals mentioned in the Old Testa-
ment; and again, of their having carried the Pentateuch to China
shortly after the Babylonish captivity, and having founded a
colony in Ho-nan in A.D. 72. The Jews really reached China for the
first time in the year A.D. 1163, and were permitted to open a syna-
gogue at the modern K'ai-fSng Fu in 1164. There they seem to
have lived peaceably, enjoying the protection of the authorities
and making some slight efforts to spread their tenets. There their
descendants were found, a dwindling community, by the Jesuit
Fathers of the I7th century; and there again they were visited in
1850 by a Protestant mission, which succeeded in obtaining from
them Hebrew rolls of parts of the Pentateuch in the square character,
with vowel points. After this, it was generally believed that the
few remaining stragglers, who seemed to be entirely ignorant of
everything connected with their faith, had become merged in the
ordinary population. A recent traveller, however, asserts that in
1909 he found at K'ai-fSng Fu a Jewish community, the members
of which keep as much as possible to themselves, worshipping in
secret, and preserving their ancient ritual and formulary.

See H. Hackmann, Buddhism as a Religion (1910); H. A. Giles,
Religions of Ancient China (1905) ; G. Smith, The Jews at K'ae-fung-
foo (1851); Dabry de Thiersant, Le Mahometisme en Chine (1878);
P. Havret, S.J., La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan fou (1895).

(H. A. Gi.)

[Christian missions, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, are
established in every province in China. Freedom to embrace the
Christian Christian faith has been guaranteed by the Chinese govern-
i/ missions ment since 1 860, and as a rule the missionaries have free
/ ' scope in teaching and preaching, though local disturbances

are not infrequent. The number of members of the Roman Catholic
Church in China was reckoned by the Jesuit fathers at Shanghai to
be, in 1907, " about one million ; in the same year the Protestant
societies reckoned in all 250,000 church members. By the Chinese,
Roman Catholicism is called the " Religion of the Lord of Heaven " ;
Protestantism the " Religion of Jesus." For the progress and effects
of Christianity in China see § History, and MISSIONS, § China. ED.]

Education and the Press.

The educational system of China till nearly the close of the
igth century was confined in its scope to the study of Chinese
classics. Elementary instruction was not provided by the state.
The well-to-do engaged private tutors for their sons; the poorer
boys were taught in small schools on a voluntary basis. No
curriculum was compulsory, but the books used and the pro-
gramme pursued followed a traditional rule. The boys (there
were no schools for girls) began by memorizing the classics for
four or five years. Then followed letter-writing and easy
composition. This completed the education of the vast majority
of the boys not intended for the public service. The chief
merit of the system was that it developed the memory
and the imitative faculty. For secondary education some-
what better provision was made, practically the only method
of attaining eminence in the state being through the schools
(see § Civil Service). At prefectural cities and provincial
capitals colleges were maintained at the public expense, and
at these institutions a more or less thorough knowledge of
the classics might be obtained. At the public examinations

held periodically the exercises proposed were original poems
and literary essays. Three degrees were conferred, Siu-ts'ai

(budding talent), ChU-jen (promoted scholar) and Chin-skik

(entered scholar). The last degree was given to those who
passed the final examination at Peking, and the successful can-
didates were also called metropolitan graduates.

^ The first education on western lines wag given by the Roman
Catholic missionaries. In 1852 they founded a college for the
education of native priests; they also founded and maintained many
primary and some higher schools — mainly if not exclusively for the
benefit of their converts. The Protestant missions followed the ex-
ample of the Roman Catholics, but a new departure, which has had
a wide success, was initiated by the American Protestant missionary
societies in founding schools — primary and higher — and colleges in
which western education was given equally to all comers, Christian
or non-Christian. Universities and medical schools have also been
established by the missionary societies. They also initiated a move-
ment for the education of girls and opened special schools for their
instruction.

Missionary effort apart, the first step towards western education
was the establishment of two colleges in 1861, one at Peking, the
other at Canton in connexion with the imperial maritime customs.
These institutions were known as T'ung Wen Kwan, and were pro-
vided with a staff of foreign professors and teachers. These colleges
were mainly schools of languages to enable young Chinese to qualify
as interpreters in English, French, &c. Similar schools were
established at Canton, Fuchow and one or two other places, with but
indifferent results. A more promising plan was conceived in 1880,
or thereabouts, by the then viceroy ofNanking, who sent a batch of
thirty or forty students to America to receive a regular training on
the understanding that on their return they would receive official
appointments. The promise was not kept. A report was spread that
these students were becoming too much Americanized. They were
hastily recalled, and when they returned they were left in obscurity.
The next step was taken by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the
Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95. The viceroy wrote a book, China's
Only Hope, which he circulated throughout the empire, and in which
he strongly advocated a reform of the traditional educational
system. His scheme was to make Chinese learning the foundation
on which a western education should be imparted.1 The book was
one of the factors in the 1898 reform movement, and Chang Chih-
tung's proposals were condemned when that movement was sup-
pressed. But after the Boxer rising the Peking government adopted
nis views, and in 1902 regulations were issued for the reform of the old
system of public instruction. A university on western lines was
established in that year at Peking, the T'ung Wen Kwan at
the capital being incorporated in it. The new educational move-
ment gained enormously in strength as the result of the Russo-
Japanese War, and in 1906 a new system, theoretically almost
perfect, was established. The new system comprises the study
of the Chinese language, literature and composition, modern
sciences, history and geography, foreign languages,1 gymnastics,
drill and, in the higher grades, political economy, and civil and
international law.

By 1910 primary and secondary government schools and schools
'or special subjects (such as agriculture and engineering) had been
;stablished in considerable numbers. In every province an Imperial
University was also established. The Imperial University at Peking
now teaches not only languages and Chinese subjects but also law,
:hemistry, mathematics, &c. A medical school was founded at
Peking in 1906 through the energy of British Protestant missionaries,
and is called the Union Medical College. When in 1908, the United
States, finding that the indemnity for the Boxer outrages awarded her
was excessive, agreed to forgo the payment of £2,500,000, China
undertook to spend an equal amount in sending students to America.

The general verdict of foreign observers on tne working of the new

system up to 1910 was that in many instances the teaching was

Ineffective, but there were notable exceptions. The best teachers,

lext to Europeans, were foreign or mission-trained Chinese. The

fapanese employed as teachers were often ignorant of Chinese and

were not as a rule very successful. (See further § History.) A

remarkable indication of the thirst for western learning and cul-

ure was the translation into Chinese and their diffusion throughout

he country of numerous foreign standard and other works, including

modern fiction.

The Peking Gazette, which is sometimes called the oldest paper in
he world, is not a newspaper in the ordinary sense, but merely a
:ourt gazette for publishing imperial decrees and such public docu-
ments as the government may wish to give out. It never contains
original articles nor any discussion of public affairs. The first

1 For a summary of Chang Chih-tung's treatise, see Changing
'hina (1910 edition), chap. xxii.

1 It was announced in June 1910 that the throne had approved

a recommendation of the Board of Education that English should

be the official language for scientific and technical education, and

hat the study of English should be compulsory in all provincial

scientific and technical schools.

AGRICULTURE]

CHINA

77

genuine native newspaper was published at Shanghai about 1870. It

was termed the Shen Poo or Shanghai News, and was a Chinese

speculation under foreign protection, the first editor being

an Englishman. It was some years before it made much

headway, but success came, and it was followed by various

imitators, some published at Shanghai, some at other treaty ports

and at Hong-Kong. In 1910 there were over 200 daily, weekly or

monthly journals in China. The effect of this mass of literature on

the public mind of China is of first-rate importance.

The attitude of the central government towards the native
press is somewhat undefined. Official registration of a newspaper is
required before postal facilities are given. There are no press laws,
but as every official is a law unto himself in these matters, there is
nothing to prevent him from summarily suppressing an obnoxious
newspaper and putting the editor in prison. The emperor, among
other reform edicts which provoked the coup d'etat of 1898, declared
that newspapers were a boon to the public and appointed one of them
a government organ. The empress-dowager revoked this decree, and
declared that the public discussion of affairs of state in the news-
papers was an impertinence, and ought to be suppressed. Neverthe-
less the newspapers continued to flourish, and their outspoken
criticism had a salutary effect on the public and on the government.
The official classes seem to have become alarmed at the independent
attitude of the newspapers, but instead of a campaign of suppression
the method was adopted, about 1908, of bringing the vernacular
press under official control. This was accomplished chiefly by the
purchase of the newspapers by the mandarins, with the result that at
the beginning of 1910 there was said to be hardly an independent
native daily newspaper left in China. The use of government funds
to subsidize or to purchase newspapers and thus to stifle or mislead
public opinion provoked strong protests from members of the Nanking
provincial council at its first sitting in the autumn of 1909. The
appropriation by the Shanghai Taot'ai of moneys belonging to the
Huangpu conservancy fund for subsidizing papers led to his im-
peachment by a censor and to the return of the moneys.1 (X.)

III. ECONOMICS
Agriculture and Industry.

China is pre-eminently an agricultural country. The great
majority of its inhabitants are cultivators of the soil. The
holdings are in general very small, and the methods of farming
primitive. Water is abundant and irrigation common over
large areas. Stock-raising, except in Sze-ch'uen and Kwang-tung,
is only practised to a small extent; there are few large herds of
cattle or flocks of sheep, nor are there any large meadows, natural
or cultivated. In Sze-ch'uen yaks, sheep and goats are reared
in the mountains, and buffaloes and a fine breed of ponies on
the plateau. Cattle are extensively reared in the mountainous
districts of Kwang-tung. The camel, horse and donkey are
reared in Chih-li. Forestry is likewise neglected. While the
existing forests, found mainly in high regions in the provinces
of Hu-nan, Fu-kien and Kwei-chow, are disappearing and timber
has to be imported, few trees are planted. This does not apply
to fruit trees, which are grown in great variety, while horticulture
is also a favourite pursuit.

The Chinese farmer, if his methods be primitive, is diligent
and persevering. In the richer and most thickly populated
districts terraces are raised on the mountain sides, £nd even
the tops of lofty hills are cultivated. The nature of the soil and
means of irrigation as well as climate are determining factors in
the nature of the crops grown; rice and cotton, for example,
are grown in the most northern as well as the most southern
districts of China. This is, however, exceptional and each climatic
region has its characteristic cultures.

The Joess soil (see § Geology) is the chief element in determining
the agricultural products of north China. Loess soil bears excellent
•g0Hf crops, and not merely on the lower grounds, but at

altitudes of 6000 and 8000 ft. Wherever loess is found the
peasant can live and thrive. Only one thing is essential, and that
is the annual rainfall. As, owing to the porous nature of loess, no
artificial irrigation is possible, if the rain fails the crops must neces-
sarily fail. Thus seasons of great famine alternate with seasons of
' great plenty. It appears, also, that the soil needs little or no manur-
ing and very little tillage. From its extremely friable nature it is
easily broken up, and thus a less amount of labour is required than
in other parts The extreme porosity of the soil probably also
accounts for the length of time it will go on bearing crops without
becoming exhausted. The rainfall, penetrating deeply into the soil
in the absence of stratification, comes into contact with the moisture
retained below, which holds in solution whatever inorganic salts

1 Sec The Times of the igth of February and the 3rd of May 1910.

the soil may contain, and thus the vegetation has an indefinite store
to draw upon.1

There is no one dominant deposit in south China, where red sand-
stone and limestone formations are frequent. Cultivation here is
not possible on the high elevations as in the north, but in the plains
and river valleys the soil is exceedingly fertile, while the lower
slopes of the mountains are also cultivated. In the north, moreover,
but one crop, in general, can be raised in the year. In the centre
two and sometimes three crops are raised yearly, and in the south,
especially in the lower basin of the Si-kiang, three crops are normally
gathered. In the north, too, the farmer has frequently to contend
with drought or with rain or floods; in the central and southern
regions the weather is more settled.

In the north of China wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat and maize
are the staple crops. Beans and peas are also cultivated. Rice
thrives in north-east Kan-suh, in some districts of Shan-
si, in the extreme south of Shan-tung and in parts of
the Wei-ho plain in Shen-si. Cotton is grown in Shen-si
and Shan-tung. In Kan-suh and Shen-si two crops are
raised in favoured localities, cereals in spring and cotton or rice in
summer. Tobacco and the poppy are also grown in several of the
northern provinces. Rhubarb and fruit trees are largely cultivated
in the western part of north China.

In the central provinces tea, cotton, rice and ramie fibre are the
chief crops. Tea is most largely cultivated in Ngan-hui, Kiang-si,
Hu-peh, Hu-nan, Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan. Cotton is chiefly grown
in Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Hu-peh. The seed is sown in May and
the crops gathered in September. The cotton is known as white
and yellow, the white variety being the better and the most cultivated.
The poppy is largely cultivated and, in connexion with the silk
industry, the mulberry tree. The mulberry is found principally in
the provinces of Sze-ch'uen, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang. The central
provinces are also noted for their gum-lac, varnish and tallow trees.

The crops of the south-eastern provinces are much the same as
those of the central provinces, but are predominantly rice, the sugar-
cane, ground-nuts and cinnamon. Tea is the chief crop in Fu-kien.
The sugar-cane is principally cultivated in Kwang-tung, Fu-!den
and Sze-ch'uen. In the south-western provinces the poppy, tea,
tobacco and rice are the chief crops. Wheat, maize and barley are
also largely raised.

While rice does not, unlike tea and cotton, form the principal
crop of any one province it is more universally cultivated than any
other plant and forms an important item in the products of all the
central and southern provinces. Regarding China as a whole it
forms the staple product and food of the country. Two chief
varieties are grown, that suited only to low-lying regions requiring
ample water and the red rice cultivated in the uplands. Next to
rice the most extensively cultivated plants are tea and cotton, the
sugar-cane, poppy and bamboo. Besides the infinite variety of
uses to which the wood of the bamboo is applied, its tender snoots
and its fruit are articles of diet.

Fruit is extensively cultivated throughout China. In the northern
provinces the chief fruits grov/n are pears, plums, apples, apricots,
peaches, medlars, wajnuts and chestnuts, and in Kan-suh „ ..
and Shan-tung the jujube (q.v.). Strawberries are an
important crop in Kan-suh. In Shan-si, S.W. Chih-li and Shan-tung
the vine is cultivated ; the grapes of Shan-si are reputed to produce
the best wine of China. Oranges are also grown in favoured localities
in the north. The chief fruits of the central and southern provinces
are the orange, lichi, mango, persimmon, banana, vine and pine-
apple, but the fruits of the northern regions are also grown. The
coco-nut and other palms flourish on the southern coast.

As shown above, the poppy nas been grown .in almost every
district of China. In 1906 it was chiefly cultivated in the following
provinces: Yun-nan, Kwei-chow, Sze-ch'uen, Kan-suh, _.
Shen-si, Shan-si, Shan-tung, Ho-nan, Kiang-su (northern poop
part) and Cheh-kiang. The poppy is first mentioned in
Chinese literature in a book written in the first half of the 8th
century A.D., and its medicinal qualities are referred to in the Her-
balist's Treasury of 973. It was not than nor for centuries later
grown in China for the preparation of opium.3 There is no evidence
to show that the Chinese ever took opium in the shape of pills
(otherwise than medicinally). The cultivation of the poppy for the
manufacture of opium began in China in the i?th century, but it
was not until after 1796, when the importation of foreign opium was
declared illegal, that the plant was cultivated on an extensive scale.
After 1906 large areas which had been devoted to the poppy were
given over to other crops, in consequence of the imperial edict aimed
at the suppression of opium-smoking (see § History).

Mining. — The mineral resources of China are great, but the
government has shown a marked repugnance to allow foreigners

1 Another peculiarity of loess in China is that it lends itself
readily to the excavation of dwellings for the people. In many
places whole villages live in cave dwellings dug out in the vertical
wall of loess. They construct spiral staircases, selecting places
where the ground is firm, and excavate endless chambers and
recesses which are said to be very comfortable and salubrious.

' See J. Edktns, The Poppy in China, and H. B. Morse, The Trade
and A dministration of the Chinese Empire, chap. xi.

178

CHINA

[COMMERCE

to work mines, and'the mineral wealth has been very inadequately
exploited. Mining operations are controlled by the Board of
Commerce. In 1907 this board drew up regulations respecting
the constitution of mining and other companies. They contained
many features against which foreign powers protested.

Coal, iron, copper and tin are the principal minerals found in
China ; there are also extensive deposits of coal and other minerals
in Manchuria. In China proper the largest coal measures
are found in Shan-si, Hu-nan, Kwei-chow and Sze-ch'uen.
There are also important coalfields in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shen-si,
Ho-nan, Yun-nan, Hu-peh and Kwang-tung — and almost all of the
seven other provinces have also coal measures of more or less value.
The lack of transport facilities as well as the aversion from the
employment of foreign capital has greatly hindered the development
of mining. Numerous small mines have been worked for a long
period by the natives in the province of Hu-nan. There are two
principal local fields in this province, one lying in the basin of the
Lei river and yielding anthracite, and the other in the basin of the
Siang river yielding tituminous coal. Both rivers drain into the
Yangtsze, and there is thus an easy outlet by water to Hankow.
The quality of the coal, however, is inferior, as the stratification has
been much disturbed, and the coal-seams have been in consequence
crushed and broken. The largest coalfield in China lies in the province
of Shan-si. Coal and iron have here been worked by the natives
from time immemorial, but owing to the difficulty of transport they
have attained only a limited local circulation. The whole of southern
Shan-si, extending over 30,000 sq. m., is one vast coalfield, and
contains, according to the estimate of Baron von Richthofen, enough
coal to last the world at the present rate of consumption for several
thousand years. The coal-seams, which are from 20 to 36 ft. in
thickness, rest conformably on a substructure of limestone. The
stratification is throughout undisturbed and practically horizontal.
As the limestone bed is raised some 2000 ft. above the neighbouring
plain the coal-seams crop out in all directions. Mining is thus carried
on by adits driven into the face of the formation, rendering the
mining of the coal extremely easy. The coalfield is divided into two
by a mountain range of ancient granitic formation running north-
east and south-west, termed the Ho-shan. It is of anterior date to
the limestone and coal formations, and has not affected the uni-
formity of the stratification, but it has this peculiarity, that the coal
on the east side is anthracite, and that on the west side is bituminous.
A concession to work coal and iron in certain specified districts in
this area was granted to a British company, the Peking Syndicate,
together with the right to connect the mines by railway with water
navigation. The syndicate built a railway in Shan-si from P'ingyang
to Tsi-chow-fu, the centre of a vast coalfield, and connected with
the main Peking- Hankow line; lines to serve coal mines have also
been built in Hu-nan and other provinces. The earliest in date was
that to the Ka'ip'ing collieries in the east of the province of Chih-li,
the railway connecting the mines with the seaport of Taku. The
coal at K'aip'ing is a soft bituminous coal with a large proportion
of dust. The output is about 1,500,000 tons per annum. A
mine has also been opened in the province of Hu-peh, about 6p m.
below Hankow, and near the Yangtsze, in connexion with iron-
works.

Iron ore of various qualities is found almost as widely diffused
as coal. The districts where it is most worked at present lie within
Iron ^e coa'field of Shan-si, viz. at Tsi-chow-fu and P'ing-

ting-chow. The ore is a mixture of clay iron ore and
spathic ore, together with limonite and hematite. It is found
abundantly in irregular deposits in the Coal Measures, and is easily
smelted by the natives in crucibles laid in open furnaces. -This
region supplies nearly the whole of north China with the iron required
for agricultural and domestic use. The out-turn must be very
considerable, but no data are available for forming an accurate
estimate. The province of Sze-ch'uen also yields an abundance of
iron ores of various kinds. They are worked by the natives in
numerous places, but always on a small scale and for local con-
sumption only. The ores occur in the Coal Measures, predominant
among them being a clay iron ore. Hu-nan, Fu-kien, Cheh-kiang and
Shan-tung all furnish iron ores. Iron (found in conjunction with
coal) is worked in Manchuria.

Copper is found chiefly in the provinces of Kwei-chow and Yun-nan,
where a rich belt of copper-bearing ores runs east and west across
_ both provinces, and including south Sze-ch'uen. The

aa&L chief centres of production are at the cities of Tung-
ch'uen-fu, Chow-t'ung and Ning-yuen. The mines are
worked as a government monopoly, private mining being nominally
prohibited. The output is considerable, but no statistics are pub-
lished by government. Rich veins of copper ore are also worked
near Kiu-kiang. Tin is mined in Yun-nan, the headquarters of the
industry being the city of Meng-tsze, which since 1909 has been
connected with Hanoi by railway. This is an important industry,
the value of tin exported in 1908 being £600,000. Tin is also mined
in Hai-nan and lead in Yun-nan. Antimony ore is exported from
Hu-nan; petroleum is found in the upper Yangtsze region. Quick-
silver is obtained in Kwei-chow. Salt is obtained from brine wells
in Shan-si and Sre-ch'uen, and by evaporation from sea water.

Excellent kaolin abounds in the north-eastern part of Kiang-si, and
is largely used in the manufacture of porcelain.

The Chinese government has opened small gold mines at Hai-nan,
in which island silver is also found. A little gold-washing is done
in the sandy beds of certain rivers, for instance, the Han ^^
river and the upper Yangtsze, above Su-chow (Suifu),
which here goes by the name of the "Goldsand" river.
The amount so extracted is extremely small and hardly pays the
labour of washing, but the existence of gold grains points to a matrix
higher up. The whole of south-western China has the reputation of
being highly metalliferous. Gold is obtained in some quantities on
the upper waters of the Amur river, on the frontier between China
and Siberia. The washings are carried on by Chinese. Gold has
also been found in quartz veins at P'ing-tu, in Shan-tung, but hardly
in paying quantities. There are silver mines in Yun-nan.

Manufactures. — The principal native manufactures before the
competition of western nations made itself felt were — apart from
the preparation of tea and other produce for the market —
those of porcelain and silk. The silks and gauzes of Su- s"* a*"
chow and Nanking in the province of Kiang-su, and those Porcelain.
of Hang-chow in Cheh-kiang, are highly esteemed throughout China.
Silk-weaving is still carried on solely in native looms and chiefly in
the cities named. The greater part of the silk spun is used in China,
but a considerable export trade has grown up and 27 % of the world's
supply of raw silk is from China. The reeling of silk cocoons by
steam-machinery is supplanting native methods. There are filatures
for winding silk at Shanghai, Canton, Chifu and other cities.

The most famous porcelain came from the province of Kiang-si,
the seat of the industry being the city of King-te-chen. Imperial
works were established here about the year A. D. looo.and the finest
porcelain is sent to Peking for the use of the emperor. At one time
1,000,000 work-people were said to be employed, and the kilns
numbered 600. The Taiping rebels destroyed the kilns in 1850.
Some of them have been rebuilt. " Activity begins to reign anew,
but the porcelain turned out is far from equalling in colour and finish
that of former times. At the present day King-te-chen has but 1 60
furnaces and employs 160,000 workmen."1 The common rice bowls
sold throughout China are manufactured here. The value of the
export sales is said to be about £500,000 yearly.

The spinning and weaving of cotton on hand-looms is carried on
almost universally. Besides that locally manufactured, the whole of
the large import of Indian yarn is worked up into cloth by
the women of the household. Four-fifths of the clothing Cotton,
of the lower classes is supplied by this domestic industry. ""

Of minor industries Indian ink is manufactured in Ngan-hui and Sze-
ch'uen, fans, furniture, lacquer ware and matting in Kwang-tung,
dyes in Cheh-kiang and Chih-li, and varnished tiles in Hu-nan.
Paper, bricks and earthenware are made in almost all the provinces.

Of industries on a large scale^other than those indicated — the
most important are cotton-spinning and weaving mills established
by foreign companies at Shanghai. Permission to carry on this
industry was refused to foreigners until the right was secured by
the Japanese treaty following the war of 1894-95. Some native-
owned mills had been working before that "date, and were reported
to have made large profits. Nine mills, with an aggregate of 400,000
spindles, were working in 1906, five of them under foreign manage-
ment. There are also four or five mills at one or other of the ports
working 80,000 spindles more. These mills are all engaged in the
manufacture of yarn for the Chinese market, very little weaving
being done. Chinese-grown cotton is used, the staple of which is
short ; only the coarser counts can be spun.

At certain large centres flour and rice mills have been erected and
are superseding native methods of treating wheat and rice; at
Canton there are sugar refineries. At Hanyang near Hankow are
large iron- works owned by Chinese. They are supplied with ore from
the mines at Ta-ye, 60 m. distant, and turn out (1909) about 300 steel
rails a day.

Commerce.

The foreign trade of China is conducted through the " treaty
ports," i.e. sea and river ports and a few inland cities which by the
treaty of Nanking (1842) that of Tientsin (1860) and subsequent
treaties have been thrown open to foreigners for purposes of trade.
(The Nanking treaty recognized five ports only as open to foreigners —
Canton,* Amoy, Fu-chow, Ning-po and Shanghai.) These places are
as follows, treaty ports in Manchuria being included: Amoy,
Antung, Canton, Chang-sha, Dairen, Chin-kiang, Chinwantao,
Ch'ungk'ing, Chifu, Fu-chow, Funing (Santuao), Hang-chow,
Hankow, I-ch'ang, Kang-moon, Kiao-chow, Kiu-kiang, K'iung-chow,
Kow-loon, Lappa, Lung-chow, Mengtsze, Mukden, Nanking, Nan-
ning, Ning-po, Niu-chwang, Pakhoi, Sanshui, Shanghai, Shasi, Su-
chow, Swatow, Szemao, Tatungkow, Tientsin, Teng-yueh, W6n-
chow, Wu-chow, Wuhu, Yo-chow.

1 Richard's Comprehensive Geography, &c. (1908 edition), p. 144.

* In the 1 8th century foreign trade was restricted to Canton.
In the I7th century, however, the Dutch traded to Formosa and
Amoy, and the English to Amoy also. The Portuguese traded with
Canton as early as 1517. For the early intercourse between Portugal
and China see the introductory chapter in Donald Ferguson's
Letters from Portuguese Captives in Canton (Bombay, 1902).

COMMERCE]

CHINA

179

The progress of the foreign trade of China is set out in the following
table. The values are given both in currency and sterling, but it
is to be remarked that during the period when silver was falling,
that is, from 1875 to 1893, the silver valuation represents much more
accurately variations in the volume of trade than does the gold
valuation. Gold prices fell continuously during this period, while
silver prices were nearly constant. Since 1893 silver prices have
tended to rise, and the gold valuation is then mere accurate. The
conversion from silver to gold is made at the rate of exchange of
the day, and therefore varies from year to year.

Table of Imports and Exports, exclusive of Bullion.

Year.

Imports.

Exports.

Value in
Taels.

Equivalent in
Sterling.

Value in
Taels.

Equivalent in
Sterling.

1875
1885
1890

1895
1898
•1904
•1905

66,344,000
84,803,000
113,082,000
154,685,000
189,991,000
344,060.000
447,100,791

£19,903,000
22,618,000
29,213,000
25,136,000
28,498,000
49,315,000
67,065,118

77,308,000
73,899,000
96,695,000
154,964,000
170,743:000
239,486 ooo
227,888,197

£23,193,000
19,206,000
24,980,000
25,181,000
25,612,000
34,326,000
34,183,229

* This marked increase is partly owing to a more complete pre-
sentation of statistics; in 1903 an additional number of vessels were
placed under the control of the imperial maritime customs.

In 1907 the net imports were valued at £67,664,222 and the exports
at £42,961,863. In 1908 China suffered from the general depression
in trade. In that year the imports were valued at £52,600,730, the
exports at £36,888,050. The distribution of the trade among the
various countries of the world is shown in the table which is given
below. Hong-Kong is a port for trans-shipment. The imports
into China from it come originally from Great Britain, India,

Imports into China, (ooo's omitted.)

35,000,000 ft and in 1904 it reached 217,171,066 ft. The imports
into China from all countries for 1908 were as follows: —

Opium . . . £4,563,000 Coal and coke . £1,124,000
Cotton goods . 14,786,000 Oil, kerosene . 2,666,000
Raw cotton . . 232,000 Rice .... 3,543,000
Woollen goods . 717,000 Sugar . . . 3,514,000
Metals . . . 2,956,000 Fish, &c. . . 1,028,000

The principal exports from China are silk and tea. These two
articles, indeed, up to 1880 constituted more than 80% of the whole
export. Owing, however, mainly to the fall in silver, and partly also
to cheap ocean freights, it has become profitable to place on the
European market a vast number of miscellaneous articles of Chinese
produce which formerly found no place in the returns of trade. The
silver prices in China did not change materially with the fall in silver,
and Chinese produce was thus able to compete favourably with the
produce of other countries. The following table shows the relative
condition of the export trade in 1880 and 1908: —

Exports of

1880.

1908.

Silk

/q,7eo.OOO

£1 1 O'v'x OOO

Tea . . . . .
Miscellaneous

11,774,000
4,058,000

4,384,000
21,448,000

Total . . .

£25,582,000

£36,888,000

arts in 1908 were
,379,000; hides,

Imports from

I875-

1880.

1885.

1890.

1895-

1905.

IOX)8.

United Kingdom
Hong-Kong ....
India
Other British possessions
United States . .
Continent of Europe (ex-
cept Russia)
Russian Empire .
Japan

£6340
8282

4451
396
304-

230

746

£6382
8829
6039
346
351

671

IO2I

£6396
9404
4306

542
884

67I
1404

£6,357
18,615
2,661
571
949

638
231
1,909

£5-518
H-33I
2,753
732
827

1,227
309
2,794

£i-97i
22,240

5,220
963
11.538

4-295
302

9,197

£9-647
20,033
4,O66

5-499

3,332 1
422
7,000

Exports from China, (ooo's omitted.)

Exports to

1875-

1880.

1885.

1890.

I895-

1905-

1908.

United Kingdom

£8749

£8125

£5864

£3383

£l?l8

£2,710

£i.673

Hong-Kong ....

3824

4844

4232

8507

5651

12,218

12,281

India

72

323

157

273

449

408

545

Other British possessions

948

874

818

886

586

647

United States

2302

2906

2213

2109

2499

4,055

3,176

Continent of Europe (ex-

cept Russia)

2524

376o

1948

3004

3440

4.697

7,i28t

Russian Empire .

1339

' 1260

1293

2288

2535

I-4I9

1,123

Japan

586

642

398

1248

2408

5,320

4,949

t Germany, France, Belgium and Italy only.

Germany, France, America, Australia, the Straits Settlements, &c.,
and the exports from China to it go ultimately to the same
countries.

_ The chief imports are cotton goods, opium, rice and sugar, metals,
oil, coal and coke, woollen goods and raw cotton, and fish. Cotton
goods are by far the most important of the imports. They come
chiefly from the United Kingdom, which also exports to China
woollen manufactures, metals and machinery. China is next to
India the greatest consumer of Manchester goods. The export of
plain cotton cloths to China and Hong-Kong has for some years
averaged 500,000,000 yds. per annum. The only competitor which
Great Britain has in this particular branch of trade is the United
States of America, which has been supplying China with increasing
quantities of cotton goods. The value in sterling of the total imports
into China from the United Kingdom long remained nearly constant,
but inasmuch as the gold prices were falling the volume of the export
was in reality steadily growing. The imports into England, however,
of Chinese produce have fallen off, mainly because China tea has
been driven out of the English market by the growth of the India
and Ceylon tea trade, and also because the bulk of the China silk is
now shipped directly to Lyons and other continental ports instead
of to London, as formerly was the rule. The growth of the import of
Indian yarn into China has been very rapid. In 1884 the import was

In the miscellaneous class the chief items of expor
beans and bcancakc, £3,142,000; raw cotton, £1,3;
£1,028,000; straw braid, £1,002,000; furs and skin rugs, £760,000;
paper, £458,000; and clothing, £177,000. Sugar, tobacco, mats
and matting are also exported. The export of all cereals except
pulse is forbidden. Of the tea exported in 1908 the greater part
went to Russia and Siberia, the United States and Great Britain.
There is a regular export of gold amounting on an average to about
a million sterling per annum. A part of it would seem to be the
hoardings of the nation brought out by the high price of gold in

terms of silver, but a part is virgin
gold derived from gold workings
in Manchuria on the upper waters
of the Amur river.

Customs duty is levied on ex-
ports as well as imports, both
being assessed at rates based on a
nominal 5 % ad val.

Shipping and Navigation. —
Besides the over-sea trade China
has a large coasting and river
trade which is largely carried on
by British and other foreign
vessels. During the year 1908,
207,605 vessels, of 83,991,289
tons (86,600 being steamers of
77,955,525 tons), entered and
cleared Chinese ports.1 Of these
28,445 vessels of 34,405,761 tons
were Brit jsh ; 33,539 of 1 1 ,998,588
tons, Chinese vessels of foreign
pe; 103,124 of 4,947,272 tons,
inese junks; 5496 vessels of
6,585,671 tons, German; 30,708
of 18,055,138 tons, Japanese; 653
of 998,775 tons, American; 3901
of 5,071,689 tons, French; 1033
of 980,635 tons, Norwegian.

Of vessels engaged in the foreign
trade only the entrances during

the year numbered 38,556 of 12,187,140 tons, and the clearances
36,602 of 12,057,126 tons. The nationality of the vessels (direct
foreign trade) was mainly as follows: —

type

Chir

Nationality
1908.

Entrances.

Clearances.

No.

Tons.

No.

Tons.

British . . .
German
Norwegian
French
American
Japanese
Chinese

4.569
891

255
468

136

2,187

29,775

4,678,094
1-195,775
254,211
629,680
440,602
2,587,818
2,001,872

4,614
928

259
468

131
2,046
27,888

4,754,087
1,124,872

255,295
616,883

439,947
2,461,132

1.915.258'

The tonnage of the Dutch, Austrian and Russian vessels cleared
and entered was in each case between 102,000 and 127,000.

Communications.

External communication is carried on by ancient caravan routes
crossing Central Asia, by the trans-Siberian railway, which is

1 From The Statesman's Year Book, 1910 edition.

i8o

CHINA

[COMMUNICATIONS

The

Pioneer
Line de-
stroyed.

increasingly used for passenger traffic, but chiefly by steamship, the
steamers being almost entirely owned by foreign companies. There is
regular and rapid communication with Europe (via the Suez canal
route) and with Japan and the Pacific coast of America. Other lines
serve the African and the Australasian trade. The only important
Chinese-owned steamers are those of the Chinese Merchants Steam
Navigation Company, which has its headquarters at Shanghai.

Internal communications are by river, canal, road and railway, the
railways since the beginning of the 2oth century having become a very
important factor. In 1898 the Chinese government agreed that all
internal waterways should be open to foreign and native steamers,
and in 1907 there were on the registers of the river ports for inland
water traffic 609 steamers under the Chinese flag and 255 under
foreign flags.

Railways. — A short line of railway between Shanghai and Wusung
was opened in 1875. The fate of this pioneer railway may be
mentioned as an introduction to what follows. The railway was
really built without any regular permission from the Chinese govern-
ment, but it was hoped that, once finished and working, the
irregularity would be overlooked in view of the manifest
benefit to the people. This might have been accomplished
but for an unfortunate accident which happened on the
line a few months after it was opened. A Chinaman was
run over and killed, and this event, of course, intensi-
fied the official opposition, and indeed threatened to bring about a
riot. The working of the line was stopped by order of the British
minister, and thereupon negotiations were entered into with a view
to selling the line to the Chinese government. A bargain was struck
sufficiently favourable to the foreign promoters of the line, and it
was further agreed that, pending payment of the instalments which
were spread over a year, the line should continue to be worked by
the cpmoany. The expectation was that when the officials once got
the line into their own hands, and found it a paying concern, they
would continue to run it in their own interest. Not so, however,
did things fall out. The very day that the twelve months were
up the line was closed; the engines were dismantled, the rails and
sleepers were torn up, and the whole concern was shipped off to the
distant island of Formosa, where carriages, axles and all the rest
of the gear were dumped on the shore and left lor the most part to
disappear in the mud. The spacious area of the Shanghai station
was cleared of its buildings, and thereon was erected a temple to
the queen of heaven by way of purifying the sacred soil of China
from such abomination. This put a stop for nearly twenty years
to all efforts on the part of foreigners to introduce railways into
China. The next step in railway construction was taken by the
Chinese themselves, and on the initiative of Li Hung-
chang. IA 1886 a company was formed under official
patronage, and it built a short line, to connect the coal-
mines of K'aip'ing in Chih-li with the mouth of the
Peiho river at Taku. The government next authorized the formation
of a Native Merchants' Company, under official control, to build a
line from Taku to Tientsin, which was opened to traffic in 1888.
It was not, however, till nine years later, viz. in 1897, that the line
was completed as far as Peking. A British engineer, Mr Kinder,
was responsible for the construction of the railway. Meantime,
however, the extension had been continued north-east along the
coast as far as Shanhai-Kwan, and a farther extension subsequently
connected with the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The money for
these extensions was mostly found by the government, and the
whole line is now known as the Imperial Northern railway. The
length of the line is 600 m. Meanwhile the high officials of the empire
had gradually been brought round to the idea that railway develop-
ment was in itself a good thing. Chang Chih-tung, then viceroy of
the Canton provinces, memorialized strongly in this sense, with the
condition, however, that the railways should be built with Chinese
capital and of Chinese materials. In particular, he urged the
The era making of a line to connect Peking with Hankow for
of coo- strategic purposes. The government took him at his
cessions. W9rd, and he was transferred from Canton to Hankow,
_with authority to proceed forthwith with his railway.
True to his purpose, he at once set to work to construct iron-works
at Hankow. Smelting furnaces, rolling mills, and all the machinery
necessary for turning out steel rails, locomotives, &c., were erected.
Several years were wasted over this preliminary work, and over
£1,000.000 sterling was spent, only to find that the works after all
were a practical failure. Steel rails could be made, but at a cost
two or three times what they could be procured for in Europe.
After the Japanese War the hope of building railways with Chinese
capital was abandoned. A prominent official named Sheng Hsuan-
hwai was appointed director-general of railways, and empowered to
enter into negotiations with foreign financiers for the purpose of
raising loans. It was still hoped that at least the main control
would remain in Chinese hands, but the diplomatic pressure of
France and Russia caused even that to be given up, and Great
Britain insisting on equal privileges for her subjects, the future of
railways in China remained in the hands of the various concession-
aires. But after the defeat of Russia by Japan (1904-1905) the
theory of the undivided Chinese control of railways was resuscitated.
The new spirit was exemplified in the contracts for the financing
and construction of three railways — the Canton-Kowloon line in

China's

first

efforts.

1907, and the Tientsin-Yangtsze and the Shanghai-Hangchow-
Ning-po lines in 1908. In the first of these instances the railway
was mortgaged as security for the loan raised for its construction,
and its finance and working were to be modelled on the arrangements
obtaining in the case of the Imperial Northern railway, under which
the administration, while vested in the Chinese government, was
supervised by a British accountant and chief engineer. In the other
two instances, however, no such security was offered; the Chinese
government undertook the unfettered administration of the foreign
capital invested in the lines, and the Europeans connected with
these works became simply Chinese employes. Moreover, in 1908
the Peking-Hankow line was redeemed from Belgian concessionaires,
a 5% loan of £5,000,000 being raised for the purpose in London
and Paris. In that year there was much popular outcry against
foreign concessionaires being allowed to carry out the terms of their
contract, and the British and Chinese corporation in consequence
parted with their concession for the Su-chow, Ning-po and Hang-chow
railway, making instead a loan of £1,500,000 to the ministry of
communications for the provinces through which the line would run.
A double difficulty was encountered in the construction and manage-
ment of the railways ; the reconciliation of the privileges accorded
to foreign syndicates and governments with the " Recovery of
Rights ' campaign, and the reconciliation of the claims of the
central government at Peking with the demands of the
provincial authorities. As to the foreigners. Great V. "!
Britain, France, Germany, the United States, Russia and
Japan, all had claims and concessions, many of them conflicting;
while as between Peking and the provinces there was a quarrel
mainly concerned with the spoils and " squeezes " to be obtained
by railway construction; in some instances the provinces proved
more powerful than the central government, as in the case of the
Su-chow-Ning-po line, and notably in the matter of the Tientsin-
Pukau (Nanking) railway. In that case the provincial authorities
overrode the central government, with the result that " for whole-
sale jobbery, waste and mismanagement the enterprise acquired
unenviable notoriety in a land where these things are generally
condoned." The good record of one or two lines notwithstanding, the
management of the railways under Chinese control had proved, up
to 1910, inefficient and corrupt.1 Nevertheless, so great was the
economic development following the opening of the line, that in
Chinese hands the Peking-Hankow railway yielded a profit.

The main scheme of the railway systems of China is simple. It
consists of lines, more or less parallel, running roughly north and
south, linked by cross lines with coast ports, or abutting _.
on navigable rivers. One great east and west line will L *..
run through central China, from Hankow to Sze-ch'uen.
Connexion with Europe is afforded by the Manchuria-
trans-Siberia main line, which has a general east and west direction.
From Harbin on this railway a branch runs south to Mukden, which
since 1908 has become an important railway centre. Thence one
line goes due south to Port Arthur; another south-east to An-tung
(on the Yalu) and Korea; a third south and west to Tientsin and
Peking. A branch from the Mukden-Tientsin line goes round the
head of the Gulf of Liao-tung and connects Niu-chwang with the
Mukden-Port Arthur line. By this route it is 470 m. from Peking
to Niu-chwang.

From Peking the trunk line (completed in 1905) runs south
through the heart of China to Hankow on the Yangtsze-kiang.
This section (754 m. long) is popularly known as " the Lu-Han
line," from the first part of the names of the terminal stations.
The continuation south of this line from Hankow to Canton was in
1910 under construction. Thus a great north and south connexion
nearly 2000 m. long is established from Canton to Harbin. From
Mukden southward the line is owned and worked by China.

A railway (German concession) starts from Kiao-chow and runs
westward through Shan-tung to Chinan Fu, whence an extension
farther west to join the main Lu-Han line at Cheng-ting Fu in
Chih-li was undertaken. Westward from Cheng-ting Fu a line
financed by the Russo-Chinese Bank runs to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si.

Another main north and south railway parallel to, but east of,
the Lu-Han line and following more or less the route of the Grand
Canal, is designed to connect Tientsin, Su-chow (in Kiang-su),
Chin-kiang, Nanking, Shanghai, Hang-chow and Ning-po. The
southern section (Nanking, Shanghai, &c.) was open in 1909. This
Tientsin-Ning-po railway connects at Chinan-Fu with the Shan-
tung lines.

A third north and south line starts from Kiu-Kiang on the Yangtsze
below Hankow and traversing the centre of Kiang-si province will
join the Canton-Hankow line at Shao-Chow in Kwang-tung province.
The construction of the first section, Kiu-Kiang to Nanchang
(76 m.), began in 1910.

In southern China besides the main Canton to Hankow railway
(under construction) a line (120 m. long) runs from Canton to
Kowloon (opposite Hong- Kong), and there are local lines running
inland from Swatow and Fuchow. The French completed in 1909
a trunk line (500 m. long) from Haiphong in Tong King to Yun-nan Fu,
the capital of Yun-nan, some 200 m. being in Chinese territoiy. The
French hold concessions for railways in Kwang-si and Kwang-tung.

1 See The Times of the 28th of March 1910.

GOVERNMENT]

CHINA

181

The British government has the right to extend the Burma railway
system through Yun-nan and north to the Yangtsze.

There are local lines in Hu-nan and Ho-nan which connect with
the trunk line from Canton to Peking. The Peking-Kalgan line
(122 m. long) is a distinct undertaking. The Chinese propose to
continue it another 530 m. north-westward to Urga in Mongolia,
and an eventual junction with the trans-Siberian railway in the
neighbourhood of Lake Baikal is contemplated. This line • would
greatly shorten the distance between Moscow and Peking.

In 1910 there were open for traffic in China (not reckoning the
Russian and Japanese systems in Manchuria, q.v.) over 3000 m. of
railway, and 1500 m. of trunk lines were under construction.

China is traversed in all directions by roads. Very few are paved
of metalled and nearly ail are badly kept; speaking generally, the
„ . government spends nothing in keeping either the roads

| . or canals in repair. The roads in several instances are
subsidiary to the canals and navigable rivers as a means
of communication. The ancient trade routes were twelve
in number, viz.1: —

1. The West river route (W. from Canton).

2. The Cheling Pass route (N.\V, from Canton).

3. The Meiling Pass route (N. from Canton).

4. The Min river route (N.W. from Fu-chow).

5. The Lower Yangtsze route (as far W. as Hu-peh and Hu-nan).

6. The Upper Yangtsze route (from I'chang to Sze-ch'uen).

7. The Kwei-chow route.

8. The Han river route (Hankow to Shen-si).

9. The Grand Canal (already described).
10. The Shan-si route.

n. The Kiakhta route.
12. The Manchurian route.

Of the routes named, that by the West river commands the trade
of Kwang-si and penetrates to Yun-nan (where it now has to meet
the competition of the French railway from Tong King) and Kwei-
chow. The Cheling Pass route from Canton is so named as it crosses
that pass (1500 ft. high) to reach the water-ways of Hu-nan at Chen-
chow on an affluent ofthe Siang, and thus connects with the Yangtsze.
The trade of this route — whence in former times the teas of Hu-nan
(Oonam) and Hu-peh (Oopaek) reached Canton — has been largely
diverted via Shanghai and up the Yangtsze. The Canton-Hankow
railway also supersedes it for through traffic. The route by the
Meiling Pass (1000 ft. high) links Canton and Kiu-kiang. This route
is used by the King-te Chen porcelain works to send to Canton the
commoner ware, there to be painted with florid and multicoloured
designs. The Min river route serves mainly the province of Fu-kien.
The Lower Yangtsze is a river route, now mainly served by steamers
(though the salt is still carried by junks), and the Upper Yangtsze
is a river route also, but much more difficult of navigation. The
Kwei-chow route is up the river Yuen from Changte and the Tung-
t'ing lake. The Han river route becomes beyong Smg-nagn Fu a land
route over the Tsingling mountains to the capital of Shen-si, and
thence on to Kan-suh, Mongolia and Siberia. The Shan-si route from
Peking, wholly by road, calls for no detailed account ; the Man-
churian route is now adequately served by railways. There remains
the important Kiakhta route. From Peking it goes to Kalgan (this
section is now served by a railway), whence the main route traverses
Mongolia, while branches serve Shan-si, Shen-si, Kan-suh, Turkestan,
•&c. By this route go the caravans bearing tea to Siberia and
Russia. Other routes are from Yun-nan to Burma and from Sze-
ch'uen province to Tibet.

The government maintains a number of courier roads, which,
like the main trade roads, keep approximately to a straight line.
These courier roads are sometimes cut in the steep sides of mountains
or run through them in tunnels. They are, in the plains, 20 to 25 ft.
wide and are occasionally paved. The chief courier roads starting
from Peking go to Sze-chu'en, Yun-nan, Kweilin (in Kwang-si),
Canton and Fu-chow. Canals are numerous, especially in the deltas
of the Yangtsze and Si-kiang.

In the centre and south of China the roads are rarely more than
5 ft. broad and wheeled traffic is seldom possible. Bridges are
generally of stone, sometimes of wood ; large rivers are crossed by
bridges of boats. In the north carts drawn by ponies, mules or oxen
are employed; in the centre and south passengers travel in sedan-
chairs or in wheelbarrows, or ride on ponies. Occasionally the local
authorities employ the corvee system to dig out the bed of a canal,
but as a rule roads are left to take care of themselves.

Posts and Telegraphs. — Every important city is now connected
by telegraph with the capital, and the service is reasonably efficient.
In 1907 there were 25,913 m. of telegraph lines. Connexion is also
established with the British lines in Burma and the Russian lines in
Siberia. The Great Northern Telegraph Company (Danish) and the
Eastern Extension Telegraph Company (British) connect Shanghai by
cable with Hong-Kong, Japan, Singapore and Europe. An imperial
postal service was established in 1896 under the general control of
the maritime customs,2 By an edict of November 1906 the control

1 See Morse, op. cit. chap. x.

1 The maritime customs had established a postal service for its
own convenience in 1861, and it first gave facilities to the general

of the postal services was transferred to the Board of Communication.
The Post Office serves all the open ports, and every important city
in the interior. There were in 1910 some 4000 native post offices,
employing 15,000 persons, of whom about 200 only were foreigners.
The treaty powers, however, still maintain their separate post offices
at Shanghai, and several other treaty ports for the despatch and
receipt of mails from Europe. During the years 1901-1908 mail
matters increased from ten millions to two hundred and fifty-two
millions of items; and_the 250 tons of parcels handled to 27, 155 tons.
In postal matters China has adopted a most progressive attitude.
The imperial post conforms in ail respects to the universal Postal
Union regulations. (G. J.; X.)

IV. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
Changes in the traditional form of government in China — an
autocracy based on parental rule — were initiated in 1905 when a
commission was appointed to study the forms of government in
other countries.3 On the ist of September 1006 an imperial
edict was issued in which the establishment of parliamentary
institutions in China was foreshadowed. In 1907 an advisory
council — as a sort of stepping-stone to representative government
— was established by another edict. On the ayth of August
1908 an edict announced the convocation of a parliament in
the ninth year from that date. An edict of the 3rd of December
1908 reaffirmed that of the 2yth of August. An edict of the 3ist
of October 1909 fixed the classes from which an Imperial
Assembly (or Senate) was to be selected, and an edict of the
9th of May 1910 gave the names of the senators, all of whom
had been nominated by the throne. The assembly as thus con-
stituted consisted of 200 members drawn from eight classes: (i)
princes and nobles of the imperial house — 16 members; (2)
Manchu and Chinese nobles — 12 members; (3) princes and nobles
of dependencies — 14 members; (4) imperial clansmen other
than those mentioned — 6 members; (5) Peking officials — 32
members; (6) eminent scholars — 10 members; (7) exceptional
property owners — 10 members; (8) representatives of provincial
assemblies — 100 members. The national assembly, which was
opened by the regent on the 3rd of October 1910, thus contained
the elements of a two-chambered parliament. The edict sum-
moning the assembly contained the following exhortations: —

The members should understand that this assemblage of the senate
is an unprecedented undertaking in China and will be the fore-
runner of the creation of a parliament. They are earnestly desired
to devote to it their patriotism and sincerity, to observe proper
order, and to fulfil their duties in representing public opinion. Thus
it is hoped that our sincere wish to effect constitutional reforms in
their proper order and to aim at success may be duly satisfied.

Concurrently with these steps towards a fundamental altera-
tion in the method of government, changes were made in
many departments of the state, and an elective element was intro-
duced into the provincial administrations. The old conception
of government with such modifications as had been made up to
1910 are set forth below.

The laws of the state prescribe the government of the country to
be based on the government of the family.4 The emperor is the sole
and supreme head of the state, his will being absolute
alike in the highest affairs and in the humblest details of Cl^aise
private life. The highest form of legislation was an coniXDtioa
imperial decree, whether promulgated in general terms or
to meet a special case. In either form it was the law of m^t
the land, and no privilege or prescriptive right could be
pleaded against it. All officers of state, all judges and magistrates,
hold their offices entirely at the imperial pleasure. They can be
dismissed, degraded, punished, without reason assigned and without
form of trial — even without knowing by whom or of what they are
accused. The monarch has an advisory council, but he is not bound
by its advice, nor need he pretend that he is acting by and with its
advice and concurrence. This condition of affairs dates back to a
primitive state of society, which probably existed among the Chinese
who first developed a civilized form of government. That this
system should have been maintained in China through many centuries

public in 1876. An organized service for the conveyance of govern-
ment despatches has existed in China for many centuries, and the
commercial classes maintain at their own expense a system (" letter
hongs") for the transmission of correspondence.

' For the causes leading to this movement and the progress of
reform see § History.

4 For recent authoritative accounts of the government of China
see H. B. Morse, The Trade and Administration ofthe Chinese Empire,
chap. iii. ; Richard's Comprehensive Geography, &c., Bk. I. § v., and
The Statesman's Year Book.

CHINA

[GOVERNMENT

is a fact into the causes of which it is worth while to inquire. We
find it pictured in the records which make up the Rook of History,
and we find it enforced in the writings of the great apostle of patri-
archal institutions, Confucius, and in all the other works which
go to make up the Confucian Canon. The reverence with which
these scriptures are viewed was the principal means of perpetuating
the primitive form of Chinese imperialism. The contents of their
pages formed the study of every schoolboy, and supplied the themes
at the competitive examinations through which every one had to
pass who sought an official career. Thus the mind of the nation
was constantly and almost exclusively turned towards them, and
their dogmas became part and parcel of the national training. The
whole theory of government is the embodiment of parental love and
filial piety. As the people are the children of the emperor, so is he
the Tien-tsze or the Son of Heaven.

In practice the arbitrary power of the emperor is tempered in
several ways. Firstly, although the constitution conferred this
_. absolute and unchecked power on the emperor, it was not

^ for his gratification but that he might exercise it for the

good of his people. He rules by divine authority, and
as the vicegerent of heaven upon earth. If he rules corruptly or
unjustly, heaven will send disasters and calamity on the people as
a reproof; if the rule becomes tyrannical, heaven may withdraw its
favour entirely, and then rebellion may be justified. The Manchu
dynasty came to the throne as foreign conquerors, nevertheless they
base their right to rule, not on the power of the sword, but on divine
approval. On this moral ground they claim the obedience of their
subjects, and submit themselves to the corresponding obligations.
The emperor, unless he has gained the throne by conquest, is selected
by his predecessor or by the imperial family in conclave. He is
usually a son (but seldom the eldest son) of his predecessor, and need
not be the child of the empress-consort,1 though (other things being
equal) a son of the empress is preferred. Failing a son another prince
of the imperial house is chosen, the choice being properly among the
princes of a generation below that of the preceding emperor, so that
the new emperor may be adopted as the son of his predecessor, and
perform for him the due ceremonies at the ancestral tablets. Apart
from this ancestor-worship the emperor worships only at the Altar
of Heaven, leaving Buddhism, Taoism, and any other form of worship
to his subjects. The emperor's sacrifices and prayers to heaven are
conducted with great parade and ceremony. The chief of these state
observances is the sacrifice at the winter solstice, which is performed
before sunrise on the morning of the 2ist ot December at the Temple
of Heaven. The form of the altar is peculiar.

" It consists of a triple circular terrace, 210 ft. wide at the base,
150 in the middle, and 90 at the top. . . . The emperor, with his
immediate suite, kneels in front of the tablet of Shang-ti (The
Supreme Being, or Heaven), and faces the north. The platform is
laid with marble stones, forming nine concentric circles; the inner
circle consists of nine stones, cut so as to fit with close edges round
the central stone, which is a perfect circle. Hers the emperor kneels,
and is surrounded first by the circles of the terraces and their
enclosing walls, and then by the circle of the horizon. He then seems
to himself and to his court to be in the centre of the universe, and
turning to the north, assuming the attitude of a subject, he acknow-
ledges in prayer and by his position that he is inferior to heaven,
and to heaven alone. Round him on the pavement are the nine
circles of as many heavens, consisting of nine stones, then eighteen,
then twenty-seven, and so on in successive multiples of nine till the
square of nine, the favourite number of Chinese philosophy, is
reached in the outermost circle of eighty-one stones."

On this occasion, also, a bullock of two years old, and without
blemish, is offered as a whole burnt-offering in a green porcelain
furnace which stands close beside the altar. The emperor's life is
largely occupied with ceremonial observances, and custom ordains
that except on state occasions he should not leave the walls of the
palace.

For his knowledge of public affairs the emperor is thus largely
dependent upon such information as courtiers and high officers of
state permit to reach him.2 The palace eunuchs have often exercised
great power, though their influence has been less under the Manchus
than was the case during previous dynasties. Though in theory the
throne commands the services and money of all its subjects yet the
crown as such has no revenues peculiarly its own. It is dependent
on contributions levied through the high officials on the several
provinces, subject always to the will of the people, and without their
concurrence and co-operation nothing can be done.3 The power of
the purse and the power of the sword are thus exercised mediately,
and the autocratic power is in practice transferred to the general body
of high functionaries, or to that clique which for the time being has

1 The empress-consort is chosen by the emperor from a number
of girls selected by his ministers from the families of Manchu nobles.
From the same candidates the emperor also selects secondary-
empresses (usually not more than four). Concubines, not limited in
number, are chosen from the daughters of Manchu nobles and free-
men. All the children are equally legitimate.

J Recent emperore have been children at accession and have been
kept in seclusion.

• See " Democratic China " in H. A. Giles, China, and the Chinese.

China
governed
by It*
civil
service.

of the
central

the ear of the emperor, and is united enough and powerful enough
to impose its will on the others.

The functionaries who thus really wield the supreme power are
almost without exception civil officials. Naturally the court has
shown an inclination to choose Manchu rather thanChinese,
but of late years this preference has become less marked,
and in the imperial appointments to provincial administra-
tions the proportion of Manchus chosen was at the begin-
ning of the aoth century not more than one-fifth of the
whole number. The real reason for this change is the
marked superiority of the Chinese, in whose hands the administration
is stated to be safer for the Manchu dynasty. Practically all the
high Chinese officials have risen through the junior ranks of the civil
service, and obtained their high position as the reward — so it must
be presumed — of long and distinguished public service.

Through the weakness of some of the emperors the functions of
the central government gradually came to be to check the action
of the provincial governments rather than assume a _ ..
direct initiative in the conduct of affairs. " The central
government may be said to criticize rather than to
control the action of the provincial administrations, ..nver
wielding, however, at all times the power of immediate ment
removal from his post of any official whose conduct may
be found irregular or considered dangerous to the stability of the
state." 4 This was written in 1877, and since then the pressure of
foreign nations has compelled the central government to assume
greater responsibilities, and the empire is now ruled from Peking in
a much more effective manner than was the case when Lord Napier in
1834 could find no representative of the central government with
whom to transact business.

If the central authorities take the initiative, and issue orders to
the provincial authorities, it, however, does not follow that they will
be carried out. The orders, if unwelcome, are not directly disobeyed,
but rather ignored, or specious pleas are put forward, showing the
difficulty or impossibility of carrying them out at that particular
juncture. The central government always wields the power of
removing or degrading a recalcitrant governor, and no case has
been known where such an order was not promptly obeyed. But
the central government, being composed of officials, stand by their
order, and are extremely reluctant to issue such a command,
especially at the bidding of a foreign power. Generally the opinion
of the governors and viceroys has great weight with the central
government.

Under the Ming dynasty the Nuiko or Grand Secretariat formed
the supreme council of the empire. It is now of more honorific
than actual importance. Active membership is limited
to six persons, namely, four grand secretaries and two
assistant grand secretaries, half of whom, according to a
general rule formerly applicable to nearly all the high
offices in Peking, must be Manchu and half Chinese. It
constitutes the imperial chancery or court of archives,
and admission to its ranks confers the highest distinction
attainable by Chinese officials, though with functions that are almost
purely nominal. Members of the grand secretariat are distinguished
by the honorary title of Chung-t'ang. The most distinguished
viceroys are usually advanced to the dignity of grand secretary while
continuing to occupy their posts in the provinces. The best known
of recent grand secretaries was Li Hung-chang.

Under the Manchu dynasty the Grand Council (Chun Chi Ch'u)
became the actual privy council of the sovereign, in whose presence
its members daily transacted the business of the state. This council
is composed of a small knot of men holding various high offices in
the government boards at Peking. The literal meaning of Chun
Chi Ch'u is " place of plans for the army," and the institution derives
its name from the practice established by the early emperors of the
Manchu dynasty of treating public affairs on the footing of a military
council. The usual time of transacting business is from 4 to 6 a.m.
In addition to the grand council and the grand secretariat there were
boards to supervise particular departments. By a decree of the 6th
of November 1906 the central administration was remodelled, subse-
quent decrees making other changes. The administration in 1910
was carried on by the following agencies : —

A. Councils. — (i) The grand council. Its title was modified in
1906 and it is now known as the Grand Council of State Affairs or
Privy Council. It has no special function, but deals with all matters
of general administration and is presided over by the emperor (or
regent). (2) The Grand Secretariat. This body gained no increase
of power in 1906. (3) The advisory council or senate (Tu CMng
Yuen) created in 1907 and containing representatives of each
province. It includes all members of the grand council and the
grand secretariat and the heads of all the executive departments.*
The members of these three bodies form advisory cabinets to the
emperor.

B. Boards. — Besides boards concerned with the affairs of the court
there were, before the pressure of foreign nations and the movement
for reform caused changes to be made, six boards charged with the

Depart-
ments
of toe
central
adminis-
tration.

4 W. F. Mayers, The Chinese Government (1878).
1 This body is superseded by the Imperial Senate summoned to
meet for the first time on the 3rd of October 1910.

PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT]

CHINA

183

conduct of public affairs. They were: (i) Li Pu, the Board of Civil
Appointments, controlling all appointments in the civil service from
the rank of district magistrate upwards. (2) Hu Pu, the Board of
Revenue, dealing with all revenues which reached the central
government. (3) Li Pu, the Board of Ceremonies. (4) Ping Pu, the
Board of War. It controlled the provincial forces. The Manchu
forces were an independent organization attached to the palace.
(5) Hsing Pu, the Board of Punishments. It dealt with the crim-
inal law only, especially the punishment of officials guilty of
malpractices. (6) Kung Pu, the Board of Works. Its work was
limited to the control of the construction and repair of official
residences.

As rearranged and enlarged there are now the following boards,
given in order of precedence : —

1. Wai-wu Pu. — This was established in 1901 in succession to the
Tsung-li Yamen,1 which was created in 1861 after the Anglo-Chinese
War in 1 860 as a board for foreign affairs. Previous to that war, which
established the right of foreign powers to have their representatives
in Peking, all business with Western nations was transacted by
provincial authorities, chiefly the viceroy at Canton. The only
department at Peking which dealt specially with foreign affairs was
the Li Fan Yuen, or board of control for the dependencies, wliich
regulated the affairs of Mongolia, Tibet and the tributary states
generally. With the advent of formally accredited ambassadors
From the European powers something more than this was required,
and a special board was appointed to discuss all questions with the
foreign envoys. The number was originally four, with Prince Kung,
a brother of the emperor Hien F6ng, at their head. It was subse-
quently raised to ten, another prince of the blood, Prince Ching,
becoming president. The members were spoken of collectively as
the prince and ministers. For a long time the board had no real
power, and was looked on rather as a buffer between the foreign
envoys and the real government. The importance of foreign affairs,
however, especially since the Japanese War, identified the Yamfai
more with the grand council, several of the most prominent men being
members of both. At the same time that the Tsung-li YamSn was
created, two important offices were established in the provinces for
dealing with foreign commercial questions, viz. the superintendencies
of trade for the northern and southern ports. The negotiations con-
nected with the Boxer outbreak proved so conclusively that the
machinery to the Tsung-li Yamen was of too antiquated a nature to
serve the new requirements, that it was determined to abolish the
Yam£n and to substitute for it a board (Pu) to be styled the Wai-wu
Pu, or " board of foreign affairs."

2. Board of Civil Appointments.

3. Board of Home Affairs.

4. Board of Finance and Paymaster General's Department.

5. Board of Ceremonies.

6. Army Board or Ministry of War (instituted 1906).*

7. Board of Judicature.

8. Board of Agriculture, Works and Commerce (instituted 1903).

9. Board of dependencies.

10. Board of Education (instituted 1903).

11. Board of Communications (instituted 1906).

Each board has one president and two vice-presidents, with the
exception of the Wai-wu Pu, which has a comptroller-general and
two presidents, and the Boards of War and Education, each of which
has a comptroller-general in addition to the president. According
to the decree of 1906 no distinction, in filling up the various boards,
is to be made between Manchu and Chinese.

Besides the boards named there are other departments of state,
some of them not limited to any one branch of the public service.
The more important are those that folllpw : —

The Censorate (Tu Ch*u Yuen). — An institution peculiar to China.
The constitution provides a paid body of men whose duty it is to in-
form the emperor of all facts affecting the welfare of the people and
the conduct of government, and in particular to keep an eye on the
malfeasance of his officers. These men are termed Yii shih (imperial
recorder), generally translated censors. Their office has existed since
the 3rd century B.C. The body consists of two presidents, a Chinese
and a Manchu, 24 supervising censors attached to the ministries at
Peking, and 56 censors, divided into fifteen divisions, each division
taking a particular province or area, so as to embrace the whole
eighteen provinces, besides one metropolitan division. The censors
are privileged to animadvert on the conduct even of the emperor
himself; to censure the manner in which all other officials perform or
neglect their duties and to denounce them to the throne. They
receive appeals made to the emperor, either by the people against the
officials or by subordinate officials against their superiors. They
exercise, in accord with the Board of Justice, an oversight over all
criminal cases and give their opinion whenever the death penalty is

1 Yamfin is the name given to the residences of all high officials.
Tsung-li Yam§n=the bureau for managing each (foreign) kingdom's
affairs.

1 An edict of the isth of July 1909 created a naval and military
advisory board. Up to that time the navy was controlled by the
viceroys at Canton, Nanking, Fu-chow and Tientsin; the viceroys
at Canton and Tientsin being ministers superintendent of the
southern and northern ports respectively.

to be pronounced. They superintend the working of the different
boards and are sometimes sent to various places as imperial in-
spectors, hence they are called irk mu kuan (the eyes and ears of the
emperor). The censors exercise their office at times with great
boldness; * their advice if unpalatable may be disregarded and the
censor in question degraded. The system of the censorate lends itself
to espionage and to bribery, and it is said to be more powerful for
mischief than for good. With the growth in influence of the native
press the institution appears to lose its raison d'itre.

The grand court of revision (Ta-li sze) or Court of Cassation exer-
cises, in conjunction with the Board of Justice and the Censorate, a
general supervision over the administration of the criminal law.
These bodies are styled collectively San-fah sze (the Three High
Justices).

The Hanlin College (Hanlin Yuen, literally Forest of Pencils) is
composed of all the literate who have passed the palace examination
and obtained the title of Hanlin or imperial academist. It has two
chancellors — a Manchu and a Chinese. Its functions are of a purely
literary character and it is of importance chiefly because the heads of
the college, who are presumably the most eminent scholars of the
empire, have the right of advising the throne on all public affairs,
and are eligible as members of the grand council or of the Wai-wu
Pu. The Chinese set fire to it during the fighting in Peking in June
1900 in the hope of burning out the adjoining British legation.
The whole of the library, containing some of the most valuable
manuscripts in the world, was destroyed.

Each of the eighteen provinces of China proper, the three provinces
of Manchuria and the province of Sin-kiang are ruled by a viceroy
placed over one, two and in one instance three provinces,
or by a governor over a single province either under a
viceroy or depending directly on the central government, €*!
the viceroy or the governor being held responsible to the
emperor for the entire administration, political, judicial, military and
fiscal. The most important viceroyalties are those of Chih-li, Liang-
kiang and Liang-kwang. The viceroyalty of Liang-kiang comprises
the provinces of Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Kiang-si. The viceroy
resides at Nanking and hence is sometimes called the viceroy of
Nanking. Similarly the viceroy of Liang-kwang (comprising the
provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si) through having his residence
at Canton is sometimes styled the viceroy of Canton. The three
provinces adjoining the metropolitan province of Chih-li — Shan-tung,
Shan-si and Hon-an — have no viceroys over them ; seven provinces —
including Chih-li — have no governors, the viceroy officiating as
governor. In provinces where there are both a viceroy and a
governor they act conjointly, but special departments are ad-
ministered by the one rather than the other. The viceroy controls
the military and the salt tax; the governor the civil service
generally.

The viceroy or governor is assisted by various other high officials,
all of whom down to the district magistrate are nominated from
Peking. The chief officials are the treasurer, the judicial com-
missioner or provincial judge, and the commissioner of education
(this last post being created in 1903). The treasurer controls the
finances of the whole province, receiving the taxes and paying the
salaries of the officials. The judge, the salt commissioner, and the
grain collector are the only other officials whose authority extends
over the whole province. Each province is subdivided into pre-
fectures ruled by prefects, and each prefecture into districts ruled
by a district magistrate, Chih-hsien, the official through whom the
people in general receive the orders of the government. Two or
more prefectures are united into a tao or circuit, the official at the
head of which is called a Taot'ai. Each town and village has also
its unofficial governing body of " gentry."4 The officials appointed
from Peking hold office for three years, but they maybe re-appointed
once, and in the case of powerful viceroys they may hold office for
a prolonged period. Another rule is that no official is ever appointed
to a post in the province of his birth; a rule which, however, did
not apply to Manchuria. The Peking authorities take care also in
making the high appointments to send men of different political
parties to posts in the same province.

The edict of the 6th of November 1906 initiating changes in the
central administration was accompanied by another edict outlining
changes in the provincial government, _and an edict of the 22nd of
July 1908 ordered the election of provincial assemblies. The edict
made it clear that the functions of the assemblies were to be purely
consultative. The elections took place according to the regulations,
the number of members allotted to each province varying from 30
(Kirin province, Manchuria, and two others) to 140 in Chih-li. The
franchise was restricted, but the returns for the first elections showed
nearly 1000 voters for each representative. The first meetings of
the assemblies were held in October 1909.

3 Thus in 1910 Prince Ching, president of the grand council, was,
for the third time, impeached by censors, being denounced as an
" old treacherous minister," who filled the public service with a
crowd of men as unworthy as himself. The censor who made the
charge was stripped of his office (see The Times of the 3Oth of March
1910).

* For details of local government see Richard's Comprehensive
Geography, 1908 edition, pp. 301 et seq.

184

CHINA

[CIVIL SERVICE

The Civil Service. — The bureaucratic element is a vital feature
in the government of China, the holding of office being almost
the only road to distinction. Officials are by the Chinese called
collectively Kwan (rulers or magistrates) but are known to
foreigners as mandarins (?.».). The mandarins are divided into
nine degrees, distinguished by the buttons worn on the top of
their caps. These are as follows: — first and highest, a plain
red button; second, a flowered red button; third, a transparent
blue button; fourth, an opaque blue button; fifth, an un-
coloured glass button; sixth, an opaque white shell button;
seventh, a plain gilt button; eighth, a gilt button with flowers in
relief; ninth, a gilt button with engraved flowers. The buttons
indicate simply rank, not office. The peacock feathers worn in
their hats are an order granted as reward of merit, and indicate
neither rank nor office. The Yellow Jacket similarly is a decora-
tion, the most important in China.

The ranks of the civil service are recruited by means of examina-
tions. Up to the beginning of 1906 the subjects in which candi-
dates were examined were purely Chinese and literary with a
smattering of history. In 1906 this system was modified and
an official career was opened to candidates who had obtained
honours in an examination in western subjects (see § Education).
The old system is so closely identified with the life of China that
some space must be devoted to a description of it.

As a general rule students preparing for the public examination
read with private tutors. There were neither high schools nor uni-
versities where a regular training could be got. In most of the pro-
vincial capitals, and at some other places, there were indeed institu-
tions termed colleges, supported to some extent from public funds,
where advanced students could prosecute their studies; but before
the movement initiated by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the
China-Japan War of 1894, they hardly counted as factors in the
national education. The private tutors, on the other hand, were
plentiful and cheap. After a series of preliminary trials the student
obtained his first qualification by examination held before the
literary chancellor in the prefecture to which he belonged. This was
termed the Siuts'ai, or licentiate's degree, and was merely a quali-
fication to enter for the higher examinations. The number of
licentiate degrees to be given was, however, strictly limited; those
who failed to get in were set back to try again, which they might do
as often as they pleased. There was no limit of age. Those selected
next proceeded to the great examination held at the capital of each
province, once in three years, before examiners sent from Peking
for the purpose. Here again the number who passed was strictly
limited. Out of 10,000 or 12,000 competitors only some 300 or 350
could obtain degrees. The others, as before, must go back and try
again. This degree, termed Chtijen, or provincial graduate, was the
first substantial reward of the student's ambition, and of itself
qualified for the public service, though it did not immediately _nor
necessarily lead to active employment. The third and final examina-
tion took place at Peking, and was open to provincial graduates from
all parts of the empire. Out of 6000 competitors entering for this
final test, which was held triennially, some 325 to 350 succeeded in
obtaining the degree of Chin Mh, or metropolitan graduate. These
were the finally selected men who became the officials of the empire.

Several other doors were, however, open by which admission to the
ranks of bureaucracy could be obtained. In the first place, to en-
courage scholars to persevere, a certain number of those who failed to
reach the chii jen, or second degree, were allowed, _ as a reward of
repeated efforts, to get into a special class from which selection for
office might be made. Further, the government reserved to itself the
right to nominate the sons and grandsons of distinguished deceased
public servants without examination. And, lastly, _by a system of

recommendation," young men from favoured institutions or men
who had served as clerks in the boards, might be put on the roster
for substantive appointment. The necessities of the Chinese govern-
ment also from time to time compelled it to throw open a still wider
door of entry into the civil service, namely, admission by purchase.
During the T'aip'ing rebellion, when the government was at its wits'
end for money, formal sanction was given to what had previously-
been only intermittently resorted to, and since then immense sums
of money have been received by the sale of patents of rank, to secure
either admission to office or more rapid promotion of those already
employed. As a result of this policy, the country has been saddled
with thousands of titular officials far in excess of the number_ of
appointments to be given away. Deserving men were kept waiting
for years, while inferior and less capable officials were pushed ahead,
because they had money wherewith to bribe their way. Nevertheless
the purchase system admitted into the-service_ a number of men
free from that bigoted adherence to Confucian doctrine which
characterizes the literary classes, and more in touch with modern
progress.

All candidates who succeed in entering the official ranks are eligible

Bribery

and

torture.

for active employment, but as the number of candidates is far in
excess of the number of appointments a period of weary waiting
ensues. A few of the best scholars get admitted at once into the
Hanlin college or into one or other of the boards at Peking. The rest
are drafted off in batches to the various provinces to await their turn
for appointment as vacancies occur. During this period of waiting
they are termed " expectants " and draw no regular pay. Occasional
service, however, falls in their way, as when they are commissioned
for special duty in outlying districts, which they perform as Wei
yuens, or deputies of the regular officials. The period of expectancy
may be abridged by recommendation or purchase, and it is generally
supposed that this last lever must invariably be resorted to to secure
any lucrative local appointment. A poor but promising official is
often, it is said, financed by a syndicate of relations and friends,
who look to recoup themselves put of the customary perquisites
which attach to the post. Appointments to the junior provincial
posts are usually left to the provincial government, but the central
government can always interfere directly. Appointments to the
lucrative posts of customs, taot'ai, at the treaty ports are usually
made direct from Peking, and the officer selected is neither necessarily
nor usually from the provincial staff. It would perhaps be safe to
say that this appointment has hitherto always been the result of a
pecuniary arrangement of greater or less magnitude.

During the first five years (1906-1910) of the new method, by
which candidates for the civil service were required, in addition to
Chinese classics, to have a knowledge of western science,
great efforts were made in severalprovinces to train up
a better class of public officiaj. The old system of ad-
ministration had many theoretical excellencies, and there
had been notable instances of upright administration, but the
regulation which forbade a mandarin to hold any office for more than
three years made it the selfish interest of every office-holder to get
as much out of the people within his jurisdiction as he possibly
could in that time. This corruption in high places had a thoroughly
demoralizing effect. While among the better commercial classes
Chinese probity in business relations with foreigners is proverbial,
the people generally set little or no value upon truth, and this has
led to the use of torture in their courts of justice; for it is argued
that where the value of an oath is not understood, some other
means must be resorted to to extract evidence.

Justice. — The Chih-Hsien or district magistrate decides ordinary
police cases ; he is also coroner and sheriff, he hears suits for divorce
and breach of promise, and is a court of first instance in all civil cases ;
" the penalty for taking a case first to a higher court is fifty blows
with the bamboo on the naked thigh." * Appeal from the Hsien -
court lies to the Fu, or prefectural court, and thence cases may be
taken to the provincial judge, who signs death warrants, while there
are final courts of appeal at Peking. Civil cases are usually settled
by trade gilds in towns and by village elders, or by arbitration in
rural districts. Reference has been made to the use of torture.
Flogging is the only form of torture which has been allowed under
the Manchus. The obdurate witness is laid on his face, and the
executioner delivers his blows on the upper part of the thighs with
the concave side of a split bamboo, the sharp edges of which muti-
late the sufferer terribly. The punishment is continued until the
man either supplies the evidence required or becomes insensible.
Punishment by bamboo was formally abolished by imperial edict
in 1905, and other judicial reforms were instituted. They remained
largely inoperative, and even in Shanghai, under the eyes of foreign
residents, gross cases of the infliction of torture occurred in 1909.*

For capital offences the usual modes of inflicting the extreme
penalty of the law are — in bad cases, such as parricides, " cutting to
pieces, and for less aggravated crimes either strangulation or
decapitation. The culprit who is condemned to be " cut to pieces "
is fastened to a cross, and while thus suspended cuts are made by the
executioner on the fleshy parts of the body ; and he is then beheaded.
Strangulation is reserved for lesser degrees of guilt, it being con-
sidered a privilege to pass out of life with a whole body. When it has
been granted to a criminal of rank thus to meet his end, a silken cord
is sent to him at his own home. No explanatory message is con-
sidered necessary, and he is left to consummate his own doom.
Popular sentiment regards decapitation as a peculiarly disgraceful
mode of death. Constant practice makes the executioners wonder-
fully expert in the performance of their office. No block or resting-
place for the head is used. The neck is simply outstretched to its
full length by the aid of an assistant, and one blow invariably leaves
the body headless.

The laws are in accord with the principle which regards the
family as a unit. Thus there is no bankruptcy law — if a debtor's own
estate will not suffice to pay his debts the deficiency must consular
be made good by his relatives; if a debtor absconds his
immediate family are imprisoned. By analogy if one
member of a party commits an offence and the guilty
person cannot be detected, the whole party must suffer. Foreigners
residing in China resented the application of this principle of law
to themselves. As a result extra-territorial rights were sought by
European powers. They were secured by Russia as early as 1689,

1 Morse, op. cit., 1908 edition, p. 70.

* See The Times of the 28th of February 1910.

FINANCE]

CHINA

185

but it was not until 1843 that any other nation acquired them. In
that year Great Britain obtained the right to try British subjects by
its own consuls, a right secured in more explicit terms by the United
States and France in 1844. Now eighteen powers, including Japan,
have consular courts for the trial of their own subjects according to
the laws of their native lands. Mixed courts have also been estab-
lished, that is, a defendant is tried in the court of his own nationality,
the court giving its decision under the supervision of a representative
of the plaintiff s nationality. In practice the Chinese have seldom
sent representatives to sit on the bench of consular courts, but, as the
Europeans lack confidence in the administration of Chinese justice, no
suit brought by a foreigner against a Chinese is decided without the
presence of an assessor of the plaintiff's nationality.

Defence. — The Chinese constitution in the period before the
reform edicts of 1905-1906 provided for two independent sets of
military organizations — namely, the Manchu army and
Army. tne several provincial armies. On the establishment
of the dynasty in 1644 the victorious troops, composed mainly of
Manchus, but including also Mongols and Chinese, were permanently
quartered in Peking, and constituted a hereditary national army.
The force was divided into eight banners, and under one or other of
these all Manchus and all the descendants of the members of other
nationalities were enrolled. They form the bulk of the population
of the " Tatar city " of Peking. Each adult male was by birth
entitled to be enrolled as a soldier, and by virtue of his enrolment
had a right to draw rations — i.e. his allowance of the tribute rice,
whether on active service or not. Detachments from one or other
of the banners were stationed as garrisons in the chief provincial
centres, as at Canton, Fuchow and Hang-chow, &c., and their
descendants still occupy the same position. As a fighting force
the Manchu garrisons both in the capital and in the provinces
had long become quite effete. In the capital, however, the elite of
the Manchu soldiery were formed into a special corps termed the
Peking Field Force. Its nominal strength was 20,000, the men were
armed and drilled after the European fashion, and fairly well paid.
There were other corps of picked Manchus better paid and better
armed than the ordinary soldier, and it was computed that in 1901
the Manchu army in or near Peking could muster 40,000, all more
or less efficient.

The second organization was termed the army of the Green
Standard, being the Chinese provincial forces. The nominal strength
was from 20,000 to 30,000 for each province, or about 500,000 in all ;
the actual strength was about one-third of this. They were enrolled
to keep the peace within their own province, and resembled a militia
or local constabulary rather than a national army. They were
generally poorly paid and equally badly drilled and armed.

The only real fighting force which China possessed at the beginning
of the 2Oth century was made up of certain special corps which were
not provided for in the constitution, and consequently used to be
termed yung, " braves," or irregulars, but had acquired various
distinctive names. They were enlisted by provincial governors, and
all had some smattering of foreign drill. They were also fairly well
paid and armed. After the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95 some
of these corps were quartered near Peking and Tientsin, and came
generally to be spoken of as the Army of the North.

An imperial decree issued in 1901 after the Boxer rising ordered
the reorganization of the military forces of the empire, and on pro-
vincial Tines something was accomplished — especially in Chih-li
under Yuan Shih-k'ai, who practically created " the Army of the
North." It was not, however, until after the Russo-Japanese War
that determined efforts were made to organize a national army on
western lines; an army which should be responsible to the central
government and not dependent upon the provincial administrations.
A decree of 1905 provided (on paper) for training schools for officers
in each of the provinces, middle grade military schools in selected
provinces, and a training college and military high school in Peking.
The Army Board was reorganized and steps taken to form a general
staff. Considerable progress had been made by 1910 in the evolution
of a body of efficient officers. In practice the administration re-
mained largely provincial — for instance the armament of the troops
was provided by the provincial governors and was far from uniform.
The scheme * contemplated the creation of a force about 400,000
strong in 36 divisions and in two armies, the northern and the
southern. Recruitment is on the voluntary principle, except in
the case of the Manchus, who apparently enter the new army instead'
of the " eight banners." The terms of service are three years with
the colours, three in the reserve and four in the territorial army.
The Japanese system of training is followed. Reservists are called
out for 30 days every year and the territorialists for 30 days every
other year.

Up to 1909 six divisions and one mixed brigade of the northern
army had been organized in Shan-tung, Chih-li and Ho-nan; else-
where three divisions and six mixed brigades; total strength about
60,000 with 350 guns. (These figures dp not include all the pro-
vincial foreign trained troops.) The efficiency of the troops varied ;
the northern army was superior to the others in training and arma-
ment. About a third of the 60,000 men of the new army were in
1909 stationed in Manchuria. (See also § History.)

'See The Statesman's Year-Book (1910 edition).

An imperial edict of the istfc of September 1907 reorganized the
army of the Green Standard. It was placed under the control of
the minister of war and formed in battalions and squadrons. The
duty of the troops in peace time remained much as previously. In
war they pass under the control of regular officers, though their use
outside their own provinces does not seem to be contemplated.

The Chinese navy in 1909 consisted of the 4300 ton cruiser " Hai
Chi (two 8-in., ten 4-7-in. guns) of 24 knot original speed, three
3000 ton cruisers, "Hai Yung," "Hai Schew and
' Hai Shen " (three 6-in., eight 4-in. guns) of 19-5 knot Nuvy.
original speed, some modern gunboats built in Japan, a few mis-
cellaneous vessels and some old torpedo boats. With the destruction
of the northern fleet by the Japanese at the capture of Wei-hai-wei
in 1895, the Chinese navy may be said to have ceased to exist.
Previously it consisted of two divisions, the northern and southern,
of which the former was by far the more formidable. The southern
was under the control of the viceroy of Nanking, and took no part
in the Chino-Japanese War. While the northern fleet was grappling
in a death-struggle, the southern was lying snugly in the Yangtsze
waters, the viceroy of Nanking apparently thinking that as the
Japanese had not attacked him there was no reason why he should
risk his ships.

The New Scheme. — An edict of the isth of July 1909 created a
naval and military advisory board. Nimrod Sound, centrally
situated on the coast of Cheh-kiang, was chosen as naval base, and
four naval schools were ordered to be established; a navigation
school at Chifu, an engineering school at Whampoa, a school for
naval artificers at Fuchow, and a gunnery and musketry school at
Nimrod Sound. A superior naval college was founded at Peking.
The coast defences were placed under the control of the naval
department, and the reorganization of the dockyards undertaken.
During 1910 orders for cruisers were placed abroad.

Arsenals and Dockyards. — After the loss of Port Arthur, China
possessed no dockyard which could dock vessels over 3000 tons.
Many years ago the Chinese government established at Fuchow a
shipbuilding yard, placing it in the hands of French engineers.
Training schools both for languages and practical. navigation were
at the same time organized, and a training ship was procured and
put under the command of a British naval officer. Some twenty-
five or thirty small vessels were built in the course of as many years,
but gradually the whole organization was allowed to fall into decay.
Except for petty repairs this establishment was in 1909 valueless
to the Chinese government. There were also small dockyards at
Kiang-nan (near Shanghai), Whampoa and Taku. There are well-
equipped arsenals at Shanghai and at Tientsin, but as they are both
placed up shallow rivers they are useless for naval repairs. Both
are capable o/ turning out heavy guns, and also rifles and ammunition
in large quantities. There are also military arsenals at Nanking,
Wuchang, Canton and Ch§ngtu.

Forts. — A great number efforts and batteries have been erected
along the coast and at the entrance to the principal rivers. Chief
among these, now that the Taku forts formerly commanding the
entrance to Tientsin have been demolished, are the Kiangyin forts
commanding the entrance to the Yangtsze, the Min forts at the
entrance of the Fuchow river, and the Bogue forts at the entrance
to the Canton river. These are supplied with heavy armament from
the Krupp and Armstrong factories.

Finance.

In fiscal matters, as for many other purposes, the Chinese
empire is an agglomeration of a number of quasi-independent
units. Each province has a complete administrative staff,
collects its own revenue, pays its own civil service, and other
charges placed upon it, and out of the surplus contributes
towards the expenses of the imperial government' a sum which
varies with the imperiousness of the needs of the latter and with
its own comparative wealth or poverty. The imperial govern-
ment does not collect directly any part of the revenues, unless
the imperial maritime customs be exoepted, though these, too,
pass through the books of the provincial authorities.1

It has hitherto been extremely difficult to obtain anything
like trustworthy figures for the whole revenue of China, for the
reason that no complete statistics are published by the central
government at Peking.3 The only available data are, first, the
returns published by the imperial maritime customs for the duties
levied on foreign trade; and, secondly, the memorials sent to
Peking by the provincial authorities on revenue matters, certain
of which are published from time to time in the Peking Gazette.

1 A few of the- ojd native customs stations, which are deemed
perquisites of the imperial court, may also be excepted, as, for
instance, the native custom-house at Canton, Hwei Kwan on the
Grand Canal, and various stations in the neighbourhood of Peking.

* The production of a budget in 1915 was promised in one of the
reform edicts of 1908.

i86

CHINA

[FINANCE

These are usually fragmentary, being merely reports which the
governor has received from his subordinates, detailing, as the case
may be, the yield of the land tax or the likin for his particular
district, with a dissertation on the causes which have made it
more or less than for the previous period. Or the return may be
one detailing the expenditure of such and such a department,
or reporting the transmission of a sum in reply to a requisition
of the board of revenue, with a statement of the source from
which it has been met. It is only by collating these returns
over a long period that anything like a complete statement can
be made up. And even then these returns do not represent any-
thing like the total of taxation paid by the people, but, as far
as they go, they may be taken to represent the volume of taxa-
tion on which the Peking government can draw revenue.

The following table, taken from a memorandum by Sir Robert
Hart, dated the zsth of March 1901, shows the latest official
estimate (up to 1910) of the revenue and expenditure of China: —

Revenue,

Land tax ....
Provincial duties .

„ receipts (various)
Grain commutation
Salt gabelle ....

l.i-kin

Native customs .
Maritime customs: —

General cargo .

Foreign opium .

Native opium .

Taels.1
26,500,000
1,600,000

1,000,000

3,100,000
13.500,000
16,000,000

2,700,000

17,000,000
5,000,000
1,800,000

Total .

. 88,200,000

Expenditure.

Taels.

Provincial 20,000,000

Military and naval 35,000,000

Metropolitan 10,000,000

Bannermen (Manchu " soldiers ") . . . 1,380,000

Palace 1,100,000

Customs 3,600,000

Legations 1,000,000

River works 940,000

Railways 800,000

Loans 24,000,000

Contingent reserve 3,300,000

Total

101,120,000

A calculation of revenue from all sources published by the
Shanghai Shen Pao in 1908, apparently derived from official
sources, gave a total revenue of 105,000,000 taels, or about
15 million sterling. This sum is obviously less than the actual
figures. In 1907 Mr H. B. Morse, commissioner of customs and
statistical secretary in the inspectorate general of customs,
drew up the following table based on the amounts presumed to
be paid by the tax payer: —

Imperial
Adminis-
tration. '

Provincial
Adminis-
tration. '

Local
Adminis-
tration.

I. Land Tax . . .
II. Tribute ....
III. Native Customs .
IV. Salt Gabelle . . .
V. Miscellaneous
VI. Foreign Customs
VII. Li-kin

Taels.
25,887,000
7,420,000
3,790,000
13,050.000
3,856,000
31,169,000
13,890,000

Taels.
67,060,000
15,582,000
1,290,000
26,000,000
5,998,000
3,942,000
22,502,000

Taels.
9.315.000
2,300,000
249,000
25,000,000
985,000
1,230,000
3,639,000

Total ....

99,062,000

142,374,000

42,718,000

Mr Morse adds that the grand total shown, taels 284,iso,ooo,2
" is an obviously insufficient sum on which to maintain the
fabric of government in an empire like China, but it has been
reached by calculations based on a few known facts and ... is
offered as throwing some light on a subject veiled in obscurity."3

1 In this article the tael used as a standard is the Haikwan (i.e.
customs) tael, worth about 35. It fluctuates with the value of silver.
1 Roughly £43,000,000.
' Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire (1910), p. 118.

The service of the foreign debt, together with the pressure of
other needs — such as the cost of education and the army — made
more manifest than previously the chaos of the Chinese fiscal
system. A scheme to reform the national finances was pro-
mulgated under an edict of the nth of January 1909, but it did
not appear to be of a practical character.

Sources of Revenue, i. Land Tax. — In China, as in most oriental
countries, the land has from time immemorial been the mainstay
of the revenue. In the early years of the present dynasty there was
levied along with the land tax a poll tax on all adult males, but in
1712 the two were amalgamated, and the whole burden was thrown
upon land, families not possessing land being thereafter exempted
from taxation. At the same time it was decreed that the amount
of the land tax as then fixed should be permanent and settled for all
time coming. It would appear from the records that this promise
has been kept as far as the central government has been concerned.
In all its many financial difficulties it does not seem ever to have
tried to increase the revenue by raising the land tax. The amount
of tax leviable on each plot is entered on the title deed, and, once
entered, it cannot be changed.4 The tax on almost all lands is thus
stated to be so much in silver and so much in rice, wheat or what-
ever the principal crop may be. Except in two provinces, however,
the grain tax is now commuted and paid in silver. The exceptions
are Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang, which still send forward their taxes in
grain. The value of the grain forwarded (generally called tribute
rice) is estimated at taels 6,500,000. The total collection in silver,
as reported by the responsible officials, amounts in round numbers
to taels 25,000,000. The total yield of the land tax, therefore,
is taels 31,500,000, or say £4,725,000. It will readily be granted
that for such a large country as China this is a very insignificant
one. In India the land tax yields about £20,000,000, and China
has undoubtedly a larger cultivated area, a larger population,
and soil that is on the whole more fertile ; but it is certain that this
sum by no means represents the amounts actually paid by the
cultivators. It is the sum which the various magistrates and
collectors have to account for and remit in hard cash. But as
nothing is allowed them for the costs of collection, they add on a
percentage beforehand to cover the cost. This they usually do by
declaring the taxes leviable not in silver, but in copper " cash,
which indeed is the only currency that circulates in country places,
and by fixing the rate of exchange to suit themselves. Thus while
the market rate is, say, 1500 cash to the tael, they declare by general
proclamation that for tax-paying purposes cash will be received at
the rate of 3500 or 4000 to the tael. Thus while the nominal land
tax in silver remains the same it is in effect doubled or trebled, and,
what is worse, no return is made or account required of the extra
sums thus levied. Each magistrate or collector is in effect a farmer.
The sum standing opposite the name of his district is the sum
which he is bound to return under penalty of dismissal, but all
sums which he can scrape together over and above are the per-
quisites of office less his necessary expenses. Custom, no doubt, sets
bounds to his rapacity. If he went too far he would provoke a riot ;
but one may safely say there never is any reduction, what change
can be effected being in the upward direction. According to the
best information obtainable a moderate estimate of the sums actually
paid by the cultivators would give two shillings per acre. This on
an estimate of the area under cultivation should give for the eighteen
provinces £19,000,000 as being actually levied, or more than four
times what is returned.

2. The Salt Duty. — The trade in salt is a government monopoly.
Only licensed merchants are allowed to deal in it, and the import
of foreign salt is forbidden by the treaties. For the purpose of salt
administration China is divided into seven or eight main circuits,
each of which has its own sources of production. Each circuit has
carefully defined boundaries, and salt produced in one circuit is not
allowed to be consigned into or sold m- another. There are great
differences in price between the several circuits, but the consumer
is not allowed to buy in the cheapest market. He can only buy
from the licensed merchants in his own circuit, who in turn are
debarred from procuring supplies except at the depot to which
they belong. Conveyance from one circuit to another is deemed
smuggling, and subjects the article to confiscation.

Duty is levied under two heads, the first being a duty proper,
payable on the issue of salt from the depot, and the second being
likin levied on transit or at the place of destination. The two
together amount on an average to about taels 1-50 per picul of
I33i ft or 33. gd. per cwt. The total collection returned by the
various salt collectorates amounts to taels 13,500,000 (£2,025,000)
per annum. The total consumption of salt for all China is estimated
at 25 million piculs, or nearly ij million tons, which is at the rate
of gib per annum per head of the population. If the above amount
of taels 1-50 were uniformly levied and returned, the revenue would
be 37 J million taels instead of 13$. In this calculation, however,
no allowance is made for the cost of collection.

3. Likin on General Merchandise.— By the term likin is meant

4 Temporary reductions are granted in provinces affected by
rebellion, drought or flood.

FINANCE]

CHINA

187

a tax on inland trade levied while in transit from one district to
another. It was originally a war tax imposed as a temporary
measure to meet the military expenditure required bytheT'aip'ing
and Mahommedan rebellions of 1850-1870. It is now one of the
permanent sources of income, but at the same time it is in form as
objectionable as a tax can be, and is equally obnoxious to the native
and to the foreign merchant. Tolls or barriers are erected at frequent
intervals along all the principal routes of trade, whether by land or
water, and a small levy is made at each on every conceivable
article of commerce. The individual levy is small, but over a long
transit it may amount to IS or 20%. The objectionable feature is
the frequent stoppages with overhauling of cargo and consequent
delays. By treaty, foreign goods may commute all transit dues for
a single payment of one-halfthe import tariff duty, but this stipula-
tion is but indifferently observed. It must also be remembered, per
contra, that dishonest foreign merchants will take out passes to cover
native-owned goods. The difficulty in securing due observance of
treaty rights lies in the fact that the likin revenue is claimed by the
provincial authorities, and the transit dues when commuted belong
to the central government, so that the former are interested in
opposing the commutation by every means in their power. As
a further means of neutralizing the commutation they have devised
a new form of impost, viz. a terminal tax which is levied on the
goods after the termination of the transit. The amount and fre-
quency of likin taxation are fixed by provincial legislation — that is,
by a proclamation of the governor. The levy is authorized in geYieral
terms by an imperial decree, but all details are left to the local
authorities. The yield of this tax is estimated at taels 13,000,000
(£1,950,000), a sum which probably represents one-third of what is
actually paid by the merchants, the balance being costs of collection.

4. Imperial Maritime Customs. — The maritime customs is the
one department of finance in China which is managed with probity
and honesty, and this it owes to the fact that it is worked under
foreign control. It collects all the duties leviable under the treaties
on the foreign trade of China, and also all duties on the coasting
trade so far as carried on by vessels of foreign build, whether Chinese
or foreign owned. It does not control the trade in native craft, the
so-called junk trade, the duties on which are still levied by the native
custom-house officials. By arrangement between the British and
Chinese governments the foreign customs levy at the port of entry
a likin on Indian opium of taels 80 per chest, in addition to the tariff
duty of taels 30. This levy frees the opium from any further duty on
transit into the interior. The revenue of the maritime customs rose
from taels 8,200,000 in 1865 to taels 35,111,000 in 1905.

5. Native Customs. — The administration of the native customs
continues to be similar to what prevailed in the maritime customs
before the introduction of foreign supervision. Each collector is
constituted a farmer, bound to account for a fixed minimum sum,
but practically at liberty to retain all he may collect over and
above. If he returns more he may claim certain honorary rewards
as for extra diligence, but he generally manages to make out his
accounts so as to show a small surplus, and no more. Only imperfect
and fragmentary returns of the native collectorates have been
published, but the total revenue accruing to the Chinese government
from this source did not appear up to 1900 much to exceed two
million taels (£300,000). In November 1901 native customs offices
within 15 m. of a treaty port were placed under the control of the
maritime customs, their revenues having been hypothecated for
the service of the Boxer indemnity. The result was that the amount
of the native customs collected by the commissioners of customs
increased from taels 2,206,000 in 1902 to taels 3,699,000 in 1906.

6. Duty on Native Opium. — The collection of the duty on opium
is in the hands of the provincial officials, but they are required to
render a separate account of duty and likin collected on the drug,
and to hold the sum at the disposal of the board of revenue at
Peking. The annual import into China of Indian opium used
to amount to about 50,000 chests, the exact amount of opium
imported in 1904 being 54,750 piculs, on which the Chinese govern-
ment received from duty and likin combined about 5$ million taels
(£825,000). The total amount of native-grown opium was estimated
in 1901 at about 400,000 chests (53,000,000 Ib), and if this were
taxed at taels 60 per chest, which in proportion to its price was
a similar rate to that levied on Indian opium, it should give a revenue
of 24 million taels. Compared with this the sums actually levied,
or at least returned by the local officials as levied, were insignificant.
The returns gave a total levy for all the eighteen provinces of only
taels 2,200,000 (£330,000). The anti-opium smoking campaign
initiated by the Chinese government in 1905 affected the revenue
both by the decreased importation of the drug and the decrease in
the area under poppy cultivation in China. In 1908 the opium likin
revenue had fallen to taels 3,800,000.

7. Miscellaneous. — Besides the main and regular sources of in-
come, the provincial officials levy sums which must in the aggregate
amount to a very large figure, but which hardly find a place in the
returns. The principal are land transfer fees, pawnbrokers' and
other licences, duties on reed flats, commutation of corvee and
personal services, &c. The fee on land transfers is 3 %, and it could
be shown, from a calculation based on the extent and value of the
arable land and the probable number of sales, that this item alone
ought to yield an annual return of between one and two millions

sterling. Practically the whole of this is absorbed in office expenses.
Under this heading should also be included certain items which
though not deemed part of the regular revenue, have been so often
resorted to that they cannot be left out of account. These are the
sums derived from sale of office or of brevet rank, and the sub-
scriptions and benevolences which under one plea or another the
government succeeds in levying from the wealthy. Excluding these,
the government is always ready to receive subscriptions, rewarding
the donor with a grant of official rank entitling him to wear the appro-
priate " button.' The right is much sought after, and indeed there
are very few Chinamen ofany standing that are not thus decorated,
for not only does the button confer social standing, but it gives the
wearer certain very substantial advantages in case he should come
into contact with the law courts. The minimum price for the lowest
grade is taels 120 (£i 8), and more of course for higher grades. The
proceeds of these sales go directly to the Peking government, and
do not as a rule figure in the provincial returns. The total of the
miscellaneous items accruing for the benefit of the government is
estimated at taels 5,500,000.

Expenditure. — In regard to expenditure a distinction has to be
drawn between that portion of the revenue which is controlled by
the central government, and that controlled by the several provincial
authorities. As the provinces collect the revenue, and as the
authorities there are held responsible for the peace, order and good
government of their respective territories, it foHows that the necessary
expenses of the provinces form a sort of first charge on the revenue.
(As the tables given show, the provinces spend the greater part of the
revenue collected.) The board of revenue at Peking, which is charged
with a general supervision of finance matters all over the empire,
makes up at the end of the year a general estimate of the funds
that will be required for imperial purposes during the ensuing year,
and apportions the amount among the several provinces and the
several collectorates in each province. The estimate is submitted
to the emperor, and, when sanctioned, instructions are sent to all the
viceroys and governors in that sense, who, in turn, pass them on to
their subordinate officers. In ordinary times these demands do not
materially vary from year to year, and long practice has created
a sort of equilibrium between imperial and provincial demands.
The remittances to the capital are, as a rule, forwarded with reason-
able regularity, mostly in the form of hard cash. There is, however, a
constant pull going on between Peking and the provinces — the
former always asking for more, the latter resisting and pleading
impecuniosity, yet generally able to find the amounts required.
The expenses which the central government has to meet are: —
(i) Imperial household ; (2) pay of the Manchu garrison in and about
Peking; (3) costs of the civil administration in the capital; (4)
cost of the army so far as the expenses are not borne by the pro-
vinces; (5) naval expenses;1 (6) foreign loans — interest and
sinking fund. To meet all these charges the Peking government
for several years up to 1900 drew on the provinces for about taels
20,000,000 (£3,000,000), including the value of the tribute rice,
which goes to the support of the Manchu bannermen.* No estimates
are furnished of the sums allowed under such heading. The imperial
household appears to receive in silver about taels i ,500,000 (£225,000)
but it draws besides large supplies in kind from the provinces, e.g.
silks and satins from the imperial factories at Su-chow and Hang-
chow, porcelain from the Kiang-si potteries, &c., the cost of which is
defrayed by the provinces. The jmperial government has also at its
disposal the revenue of the foreign customs. Prior to the Chino-
Japanese war of 1894-95 this revenue, which, after allowing for the
costs of collection, amounted to about 20,000,000 taels (£3,000,000),
was nominally shared with the provinces in the proportion of four-
tenths and six-tenths. The whole of the customs revenue is now
pledged to foreign bondholders and absorbed by the service of the
several loans. Besides supplying its own wants the imperial govern-
ment has to provide for outlying portions of the empire which are
unable to maintain themselves — (i) Manchuria, (2) Kan-suh and the
central Asian dominion, (3) the south-western provinces of Yun-nan,
Kwei-chow and Kwang-si. Manchuria, or, as it is termed, the
north-east frontier defence, costs about taels 2,000,000 over and
above its own resources. The central Asian territories constitute a
drain on the imperial government of about taels 4,000,000 a year.
This is met by subsidies from Sze-ch'uen, Shan-si, Ho-nan and other
wealthy provinces. Yun-nan, Kwei-chow and Kwang-si require aids
aggregating taels 2,000,000 to keep things going.

External Debt. — Prior to the war with Japan in 1894 the foreign
debt of China was almost nil. A few trifling loans had been con-
tracted at 7 and 8 %, but they had been punctually paid off, and
only a fraction of one remained. The expenses of the war, however,
and the large indemnity of taels 230,000,000 (£54,500,000) which
Japan exacted, forced China for the first time into the European
market as a serious borrower. The sum of £6,635,000 was raised in
1894-1895 in four small loans at 6 or 7% interest. In 1895 a

1 Information as to what extent the expenses of the new army
and navy are met by the central government is lacking.

* To meet the expenditure on interest and redemption of the
indemnities for the Boxer outrages the Peking government required
the provincial authorities to increase their annual remittances by
taels 18,700,000 during the years 1902-1910.

CHINA

[HISTORY

Franco-Russian loan of fr. 440,000,000 (£15,820,000) was raised in
Paris. Two Anglo-German loans, each of £16,000,000 (one in 1896,
the other in 1808) were raised through the Hong Kong and Shanghai
Bank. The Franco-Russian loan bears 4 % interest, the first
Anglo-German 5 %, the second 4$ %. The foreign loans contracted
up to 1900 amounted altogether to £54,455,000. The charges for
interest and sinking fund, which amounted to over £5,000,000, were
secured on the revenue of the maritime customs, and on the likin
taxes of certain specified provinces. The net income from these
two sources amounted to over taels 24,000,000, equivalent at
existing rate of exchange to £3,400,000, which was amply sufficient.

Between 1899 and 1907 (both years inclusive) £12,200,000 was
raised on loan for railway purposes. The charges on the first loan —
for £2,300,000 — were secured on the revenue of the Imperial
Northern railway, the interest being 5%. The same interest was
secured on the other loans, save one for £1,000,000 in which the
Hong Kong government was concerned, which bears 4 % interest.

The foreign debt also includes the indemnities exacted in 1901
by the powers for the Boxer outrages. These indemnities, secured
on imperial revenue, are divided into five series amounting alto-
gether to £67,500,000, the amount payable on these indemnities
(at 4 % interest) in 1907 being £2,824,425. The burden of meeting
this amount was apportioned between the eighteen provinces — the
sums allocated ranging from taeis 2,500,000 for Kiang-su to taels
300,000 for Kwei-chow. In 1909 the grand total of China's indebted-
ness exceeded £140,000,000 and the interest called for the payment
of £7,427,450 in gold.

Banks and Banking. — Native banks for purposes of inland ex-
change are to be found in most large cities. They are private banks
using their own capital, and seldom receiving deposits from the
public. The best known are the Shan-si banks, which have branches
all over the empire. They work on a small capital, seldom over
£50,000 each, and do a small but profitable business by selling their
drafts on distant places. None of them issues notes, although they
are not debarred from doing so by law. They lend money on personal
security, but do not advance against shipments of goods. In some
places there are small local banks, usually called cash shops, which
issue paper notes for small sums and lend money out on personal
security. The notes never reach more than a very limited local
circulation, and pass current merely on the credit of the institution.
There is no law regulating the formation of banks or the issue of
notes. Pawnshops occupy a prominent position in the internal
economy of China. They lend on deposit of personality at very high
rates, 18 and 24%, and they receive deposits of money from the
public, usually allowing 6 to 10%. They are the real banks of
deposit of the country, and the better class enjoy good credit.
Foreign Banks do a large business at Shanghai and other treaty
ports, and a Government Bank has been established at Peking.

Currency. — In the commercial treaty between Great Britain and
China of 1902 China agreed to provide a uniform national coinage.
An imperial decree of October 1908 commanded the introduction of
a uniform tael currency; but another decree of May 1910 established
a standard currency dollar weighing 72 candareens (a candareen is the
100th part of the tael ounce) and subsidiary coins of fixed values in
decimal ratio. This decree properly enforced would introduce a much
needed stability into the monetary system of China.

The actual currency (1910) consists .of (l) Silver, which may be
either uncoined ingots passing current by weight, or imported coins,
Mexican dollars and Brjtish dollars; and (2) Copper " cash, " which
has no fixed relation to silver. The standard is silver, the unit being
the Chinese ounce or tael, containing 565 grains. The tael is not a
coin, but a weight. Its value in sterling consequently fluctuates
with the value of silver; in 1870 it was worth about 6s. 8d., in 1907
it was worth 3s._ 3d.1 The name given in China to uncoined silver
in current use is " sycee." It is cast for convenience sake into
ingots weighing one to 50 taels. Its average fineness is 916-66
per 1000. When foreign silver is imported, say into Shanghai, it
can be converted into currency by a very simple process. The bars
of silver are sent to a quasi-public office termed the " Kung K'u, "
or public valuers, and by them melted down and cast into ingots of
the customary size. The fineness is estimated, and the premium or
betterness, together with the exact weight, is marked in ink on
each ingot. The whole process only occupies a few hours, and the
silver is then ready to be put into use. The Kung K'u is simply a
local office appointed by the bankers of the place, and the weight
and fineness are only good for that locality. The government takes
no responsibility in the matter, but leaves merchants and bankers
to adjust the currency as they please. For purposes of taxation
and payment of duties there is a standard or treasury tael, which is
about 10% heavier than the tael of commerce in use at Shanghai.
Every large commercial centre has its own customary tael, the
weight and therefore the value of which differ from that of every
other. Silver dollars coined in Mexico, and British dollars coined
in Bombay, also circulate freely at the open ports of trade and for
some distance inland, passing at a little above their intrinsic value.
Carplus dollars, introduced long ago and no longer coined, are
retained in current use in several parts of the interior, chiefly the
tea-growing districts. Being preferred by the people, and as the

1 It must be remembered that the Haikwan tael is here indicated.

supply cannot be added to, they have reached a considerable
premium above their intrinsic value. Provincial mints in Canton,
Wuchang, and other places have issued silver coins of the same
weight and touch as the Mexican dollar, but very few have gone into
use. As they possess no privilege in debt-paying power over im-
ported Mexican dollars there is no inducement for the people to take
them up unless they can be had at a cheaper rate than the latter,
and these are laid down at so small a cost above the intrinsic value
that no profit is left to the mint. The coinage has in consequence
been almost discontinued. Subsidiary coins, no wever, came largely
into use, being issued by the local minti. One coin " the hundredth
part of a dollar " proved very popular (the issue to the end of 1906
being computed at 12,500,000,000), but at rates corresponding closely
to the intrinsic value of the metal in it. The only coin officially
issued by the government — up to 1910 — was the so-called copper
cash. It is a small coin which by regulation should weigh fa of a
tael, and should contain 50 parts of copper, 40 of zinc, and 10 of
lead or tin, and it should bear a fixed ratio to silver of 1000 cash to
one tael of silver. _ In practice none of these conditions was observed.
Being issued from'a number of mints, mostly provincial, the standard
was never uniform, and in many cases debased. Excessive issues
lowered the value of the coins, and for many years the average
exchange was 1600 or more per tael. The rise in copper led to the
melting down of all the older and superior coins, and as for the same
reason coining was suspended, the result was an appreciation of the
" cash," so that a tael in 1909 exchanged for about 1220 cash or
about 35 to a penny English. Inasmuch as the " cash " bore no
fixed relation to silver, and was, moreover, of no uniform composition,
it formed a sort of mongrel standard of its own, varying with the
volume in circulation. (G. J. ; X.)

V. HISTORY
(A) — European Knowledge of China up to 1615.

China as known to the Ancients. — The spacious seat of ancient
civilization which we call China has been distinguished by
different appellations, according as it was reached by the southern
sea-route or by the northern land-route traversing the longitude
of Asia. In the former aspect the name has nearly always been
some form of the name Sin, Chin, Sinoe, China. In the latter
point of view the region in question was known to the ancients
as the land of the Seres, to the middle ages as the empire of
Cathay. The name of Chin has been supposed (doubtfully) to
be derived from the dynasty of Ts'in, which a little more than
two centuries before the Christian era enjoyed a vigorous exist-
ence, uniting all the Chinese provinces under its authority, and
extending its conquests far beyond those limits to the south and
the west. The mention of the Chinas in ancient Sanskrit
literature, both in the laws of Manu and in the Mahabharata,
has often been supposed to prove the application of the name
long before the predominance of the Ts'in dynasty. But the
coupling of that name with the Daradas, still surviving as the
people of Dardistan, on the Indus, suggests it as more probable
that those Chinas were a kindred race of mountaineers, whose
name as Shinas in fact likewise remains applied to a branch
of the Dard races. Whether the Sinim of the prophet Isaiah
should be interpreted of the Chinese is probably not susceptible
of any decision; by the context it appears certainly to indicate
a people of the extreme east or south. The name probably
came to Europe through the Arabs, who made the China of the
farther east into Sin, and perhaps sometimes into Thin. Hence
the Thtn of the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,
who appears to be the first extant writer to employ the name
in this form (i.e. assuming Max Muller's view that he belongs
to the ist century); hence also the Sinae and Thinae of Ptolemy.

It has often indeed been denied that the Sinae of Ptolemy really
represented the Chinese. But if we compare the statement of
Marciarms of Heraclea (a mere condenser of Ptolemy), when he tells
us that the " nations of the Sinae lie at the extremity of the habitable
world, and adjoin the eastern Terra Incognita," with that of Cosmas,
who says, in speaking of Tzinista, a name of which no one can
question the application to China, that " beyond this there is neither
habitation nor navigation " — we cannot doubt the same region to
be meant by both. The fundamental error of Ptolemy's conception
of the Indian Sea as a closed basin rendered it impossible but that he
should misplace the Chinese coast. But considering that the name of
Sin has come down among the Arabs from time immemorial as
applied to the Chinese, considering that in the work of Ptolemy this
name certainly represented the farthest known East, and considering
how inaccurate are Ptolemy's configurations and longitudes much
nearer home, it seems almost as reasonable to deny the identity of
his India with ours as to deny that his Sinae were Chinese.

If we now turn to the Seres we find this name mentioned by classic

CHINA

HISTORY]

authors much more frequently and at an earlier date, for the passages
of Eratosthenes (in Strabo), formerly supposed to speak of a paralle
passing through Thinae — 6id QivSiv — are now known to read correctly
aT'Aflijxwi'. The name Seres indeed is familiar to the Latin poets of the
Augustan age, hut always in a vague way, and usually with a general
reference to Central Asia and the farther East. We find, however,
that the first endeavours to assign more accurately the position of
this people, which are those of Mela and Pliny, gravitate distinctly
towards China in its northern aspect as the true ideal involved. Thus
Mela describes the remotest east of Asia as occupied by the three
races (proceeding from south to north), Indians, Seres and Scyths;
just as in a general way we might still say that eastern Asia is
occupied by the Indies, China and Tartary.

Ptolemy first uses the names of Sera and Sence, the former tor the
chief city, the latter for the country of the Seres, and as usual defines
their position with a precision far beyond what his knowledge
justified — the necessary result of his system. Yet even his definition
of Serice is most consistent with the view that this name indicated
the Chinese empire in its northern aspect, for he carries it eastward
to the iSoth degree of longitude, which is also, according to his
calculation, in a lower latitude the eastern boundary of the Sinae.

Ammianus Marcellinus devotes some paragraphs to a description
of the Seres and their country, one passage of which is startling at
first sight in its seeming allusion to the Great Wall, and in this sense
it has been rashly interpreted by Lassen and by Reinaud. But
Ammianus is merely converting Ptolemy's dry tables into fine
writing, and speaks only of an encircling rampart of mountains
within which the spacious and happy valley of the Seres lies. It is
true that Ptolemy makes his Serice extend westward to Imaus, i.e.
to Pamir. But the Chinese empire did so extend at that epoch, and
we find Lieut. John Wood in 1838 speaking of " China ' as lying
immediately beyond Pamir, just as the Arabs of the 8th century
spoke of the country beyond the Jaxartes as " Sin," and as Ptolemy
spoke of " Serice " as immediately beyond Imaus.

If we fuse into one the ancient notices of the Seres and their
country, omitting anomalous statements and manifest fables, the
result will be somewhat as follows: " The region of the Seres is a
vast and populous country, touching on the east the ocean and the
limits of the habitable world, and extending west to Imaus and the
confines of Bactria. The people are civilized, mild, just and frugal,
eschewing collisions with their neighbours, and even shy of close
intercourse, but not averse to dispose of their own products, of
which raw silk is the staple, but which included also silk-stuffs, fine
furs, and iron of remarkable quality." That is manifestly a definition
of the Chinese.

That Greek and Roman knowledge of the true position of_so
remote a nation should at best have been somewhat hazy is nothing
wonderful. And it is worthy of note that the view entertained by
the ancient Chinese of the Roman empire and its inhabitants, under
the name of Ta-lhsin, had some striking points of analogy to those
views of the Chinese which are indicated in the classical descriptions
of the Seres. There can be no mistaking the fact that in this case
also the great object was within the horizon of vision, yet the details
ascribed to it are often far from being true characteristics, being
only the accidents of its outer borders.

The Medieval Cathay. — " Cathay " is the name by which the
Chinese empire was known to medieval Europe, and it is in its
original form (Kitai) that China is still known in Russia and to
most of the nations of Central Asia. West of Russia this name
has long ceased to be a geographical expression, but it is asso-
ciated with a remarkable phase in the history of geography and
commerce. The name first became known to Europe in the I3th
century, when the vast conquests of Jenghiz Khan and his
house drew a new and vivid attention to Asia. For some three
centuries previously the northern provinces of China had been
detached from indigenous rule, and subject to northern con-
querors. The first of these . foreign dynasties was of a race
called Khit&n issuing from the basin of the Sungari river, and
supposed (but doubtfully) to have been of the blood of the
modern Tunguses. The rule of this race endured for two centuries
and originated the application of the name Khitdt or Khitd'i to
northern China. The dynasty itself, known in Chinese history
as Liao, or " Iron," disappeared from China 1123, but the name
remained attached to the territory which they had ruled.

The Khitan were displaced by the Niichih (Ny&che or Chfirche)
race, akin to the modern Manchus. These reigned, under the
title of Kin, or " Golden," till Jenghiz and his Mongols invaded
them in turn. In 1234 the conquest of the Kin empire was
completed, and the dynasty extinguished under Ogdai (Ogotai)
the son and successor of Jenghiz Khan. Forty years later, in
the reign of Kublai, grandson and ablest successor of Jenghiz
the Mongol rule was extended over southern China (1276)

189

which till then had remained under a native dynasty, the Sung,
mlding its royal residence in a vast and splendid city, now
tnown as Hang-chow, but then as Ling-nan, or more commonly
as King-sze, i.e. the court. The southern empire was usually
called by the conquerors Mantzi (or as some of the old travellers
write, Mangi), a name which western Asiatics seem to have
dentified with Mdchtn (from the Sanskrit Mahdchtn), one of
he names by whkh China was known to the traders from
Persian and Arabian ports.

The conquests of Jenghiz and his successors had spread not
only over China and the adjoining East, but westward also over
all northern Asia, Persia, Armenia, part of Asia Minor and
Russia, threatening to deluge Christendom. Though the Mongol
wave retired, as it seemed almost by an immediate act of Provi-
dence, when Europe lay at its feet, it had levelled or covered
all political barriers from the frontier of Poland to the Yellow
Sea, and when western Europe recovered from its alarm, Asia
:ay open, as never before or since, to the inspection of Christen-
dom. Princes, envoys, priests — half-missionary, half-envoy —
visited the court of the great khan in Mongolia; and besides
these, the accidents of war, commerce or opportunity carried
a variety of persons from various classes of human life into the
depths of Asia. " 'Tis worthy of the grateful remembrance
of all Christian people," says an able missionary friar of the next
age (Ricold of Monte Croce), " that just at the time when God
sent forth into the Eastern parts of the world the Tatars to slay
and to be slain, He also sent into the West his faithful and blessed
servants, Dominic and Francis, to enlighten, instruct and
build up in the faith." Whatever on the whole may be thought
of the world's debt to Dominic, it is to the two mendicant
orders, but especially to the Franciscans, that we owe a vast
amount of information about medieval Asia, and, among other
things, the first mention of Cathay. Among the many strangers
who reached Mongolia were (1245-1247) John de Piano Carpini
and (1253) William of Rubruk (Rubruquis) in French Flanders,
both Franciscan friars of high intelligence, who happily have
left behind them reports of their observations.

Carpini, after mentioning the wars of Jenghiz against the Kitai,
goes on to speak of that people as follows: " Now these Kitai are
heathen men, and have a written character of their own. . . . They
seem, indeed, to be kindly and polished folks enough. They have
no beard, and in character of countenance have a considerable
resemblance to the Mongols " [are Mongoloid, as our ethnologists
would say], " but are not so broad in the face. They have a peculiar
language. Their betters as craftsmen in every art practised by man
are not to be found in the whole world. Their country is very rich
in corn, in wine, in gold and silver, in silk, and in every kind of
produce tending to the support of mankind." The notice of Rubruk,
shrewder and more graphic, runs thus: " Farther on is Great
Cathay, which I take to be the country which was anciently called
the Land of the Seres. For the best silk stuffs are still got from
them. . . . The sea lies between it and India. Those Cathayans are
little fellows, speaking much through the nose, and, as is general with
all those eastern people, their eyes are very narrow. They are first-
rate artists in every kind, and their physicians have a thorough know-
ledge of the virtues of herbs, and an admirable skill in diagnosis by
the pulse. . . . The common money of Cathay consists of pieces
of cotton-paper, about a palm in length and breadth, upon which
certain lines are printed, resembling the seal of Mangu Khan. They
do their writing with a pencil, such as painters paint with, and a single
character of theirs comprehends several letters, so as to form a whole
word."

Here we have not only what is probably the first European notice
of paper-money, but a partial recognition of the peculiarity of
Chinese writing, and a perception that puts to shame the perverse
boggling of later critics over the identity of these Cathayans with
'the Seres of classic fame.

But though these travellers saw Cathayans in the bazaars
in the great khan's camps, the first actual visitors of Cathay
itself were the Polo family, and it is to the book of Marco
Polo's recollections mainly that Cathay owed the growing
familiarity of its name in Europe during the I4th and istb
centuries. It is, however, a great mistake to suppose, as has
often been assumed, that the residence of the Polos in that
country remained an isolated fact. They were but the pioneers
of a very considerable intercourse, which endured till the decay
of the Mongol dynasty in Cathay, i.e. for about half a century.

CHINA

[HISTORY

We have no evidence that either in the I3th or i4th century
Cathayans, i.e. Chinese, ever reached Europe, but it is possible
that some did, at least in the former century. For, during the
campaigns of Hulagu in Persia (1256-1265), and the reigns o
his successors, Chinese engineers were employed on the banks
of the Tigris, and Chinese astrologers and physicians could be
consulted at Tabriz. Many diplomatic communications passec
between the Hulaguid Ilkhans and the princes of Christendom
The former, as the great khan's liegemen, still received from
him their seals of state; and two of their letters which survive
in the archives of France exhibit the vermilion impressions ol
those seals in Chinese characters — perhaps affording the earliest
specimen of that character which reached western Europe.

Just as the Polos were reaching their native city (1295), after
an absence of a quarter of a century, the forerunner of a new
series of travellers was entering southern China by way of the
Indian seas. This was John of Monte Corvino, another Franciscan
who, already some fifty years of age, was plunging single-handed
into that great ocean of paganism to preach the gospel according
to his lights. After years of uphill and solitary toil converts
began to multiply; coadjutors joined him. The Papal See
became cognizant of the harvest that was being reaped in the
far East. It made Friar John archbishop in Cambaluc (or
Peking), with patriarchal authority, and sent him batches of
suffragan bishops and preachers of his own order. The Roman
Church spread; churches and Minorite houses were established
at Cambaluc, at Zayton or Tsuan-chow in Fu-kien, at Yang-
chow and elsewhere; and the missions flourished under the
smile of the great khan, as the Jesuit missions did for a time
under the Manchu emperors three centuries and a half later.
Archbishop John was followed to the grave, about 1328, by
mourning multitudes of pagans and Christians alike. Several
of the bishops and friars who served under him have left letters
or other memoranda of their experience, e.g. Andrew, bishop
of Zayton, John of Cora, afterwards archbishop of Sultania in
Persia, and Odoric of Pordenone, whose fame as a pious traveller
won from the vox populi at his funeral a beatification which
the church was fain to seal. The only ecclesiastical narrative
regarding Cathay, of which we are aware, subsequent to the time
of Archbishop John, is that which has been gathered from the
recollections of Giovanni de' Marignolli, a Florentine Franciscan,
who was sent by Pope Benedict XII. with a mission to the great
khan, in return for one from that potentate which arrived at
Avignon from Cathay in 1338, and who spent four years (1342-
1346) at the court of Cambaluc as legate of the Holy See. These
recollections are found dispersed incoherently over a chronicle
of Bohemia which the traveller wrote by order of the emperor
Charles IV., whose chaplain he was after his return.

But intercourse during the period in question was not confined
to ecclesiastical channels. Commerce also grew up, and flourished
for a time even along the vast line that stretches from Genoa
and Florence to the marts of Cheh-kiang and Fu-kien. The
record is very fragmentary and imperfect, but many circum-
stances and incidental notices show how frequently the remote
East was reached by European traders in the first half of the
i4th century — a state of things which it is very difficult to
realize when we see how all those regions, when reopened to
knowledge two centuries later, seemed to be discoveries as new
as the empires which, about the same time, Cortes and Pizarro
were conquering in the West.

This commercial intercourse probably began about 1310-1320.-
John of Monte Corvino, writing in 1305, says it was twelve years
since he had heard any news from Europe; the only Western
stranger who had arrived in all that time being a certain Lombard
chirurgeon (probably one of the Patarini who got hard measure at
home in those days), who had spread the most incredible blasphemies
about the Roman Curia and the order of St Francis. Yet even on
his first entrance to Cathay Friar John had been accompanied by one
Master Peter of Lucolongo, whom he describes as a faithful Christian
man and a great merchant, and who seems to have remained many
years at Peking. The letter of Andrew, bishop of Zayton (1326),
quotes the opinion of Genoese merchants at that port regarding a
question of exchanges. Odoric, who was in Cathay about 1323-1327,
refers for confirmation of the wonders which he related of the great
city of Cansay (i.e. King-sze, or Hang-chow) to the many persons

whom he had met at Venice since his return, who had themselves
been witnesses of those marvels. And Marignolli, some twenty years
later, found attached to one of the convents at Zayton, in Fu-kien, a
fondaco or factory for the accommodation of the Christian merchants.
But by far the most distinct and notable evidence of the import-
ance and frequency of European trade with Cathay, of which silk
and silk goods formed the staple, is to be found in the commercial
hand-book (c. 1340) of Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a clerk and
factor of the great Florentine house of the Bardi, which was brought
to the ground about that time by its dealings with Edward III. of
England. This book, called by its author Libra di divisamenti di
Paesi, is a sort of trade-guide, devoting successive chapters to the
various ports and markets of his time, detailing the nature of imports
and exports at each, the duties and exactions, the local customs of
business, weights, measures and money. The first two chapters of
this work contain instructions for the merchant proceeding to Cathay ;
and it is evident, from the terms used, that the road thither was
not unfrequently travelled by European merchants, from whom
Pegolotti had "derived his information. The route which he describes
lay by Azov, Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar (on the Jaxartes), Almalik
(Gulja in Hi), Kan-chow (in Kan-suh), and so to Hang-chow and
Peking. Particulars are given as to the silver ingots which formed
the currency of Tatary, and the paper-money of Cathay. That the
ventures on this trade were not insignificant is plain from the example
taken by the author to illustrate the question of expenses on the
journey, which is that of a merchant investing in goods there to the
amount of some £12,000 (i.e. in actual gold value, not as calculated
by any fanciful and fallacious equation of values).
_ Of the same remarkable phase of history that we are here con-
sidering we have also a number of notices by Mahommedan writers.
The establishment of the Mongol dynasty in Persia, by which the
great khan was acknowledged as lord paramount, led (as we have
already noticed in part) to a good deal of intercourse. And some of
the Persian historians, writing at Tabriz, under the patronage of the
Mongol princes, have told us much about Cathay, especially Rashi-
duddin, the great minister and historian of the dynasty (died 1318).
We have also in the book of the Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta, who
visited China about 1347-1348, very many curious and in great part
true notices, though it is not possible to give credence to the whole of
this episode in his extensive travels.

About the time of the traveller first named the throne of the
degenerate descendants of Jenghiz began to totter to its fall, and we
have no knowledge of any Frank visitor to Cathay in that age later
than Marignolli; missions and merchants alike disappear from the
field. We hear, indeed, once and again of ecclesiastics despatched
from Avignon, but they go forth into the darkness, and are heard
of no more. Islam, with all its jealousy and exclusiveness, had
recovered its grasp over Central Asia; the Nestorian Christianity
which once had prevailed so widely was vanishing, and the new rulers
of China reverted to the old national policy, and held the foreigner
at arm's length. Night descended upon the farther East, covering
Cathay with those cities of which the old travellers had told such
marvels, Cambaluc and Cansay, Zayton and Chinkalan. And when
the veil rose before the Portuguese and Spanish explorers of the l6th
century, those names are heard no more. In their stead we have
China, Peking, Hangchow, Chinchew, Canton. Not only were the old
names forgotten, but the fact that those places had ever been known
pefore was forgotten also. Gradually new missionaries went forth
rom Rome — Jesuits and Dominicans now; new converts were
made, and new vicariates constituted; but the old Franciscan
churches, and the Nestorianism with which they had battled, had
alike been swallowed up in the ocean of pagan indifference. In time
a wreck or two floated to the surface— -a. MS. Latin Bible or a piece
of Catholic sculpture; and when the intelligent missionaries called
Marco Polo to mind, and studied his story, one and another became
convinced that Cathay and China were one.

But for a long time all but a sagacious few continued to regard

'athay as a region distinct from any of the new-found Indies; whilst

map-makers, well on into the 1 7th century, continued to represent it

as a great country lying entirely to the north of China, and stretching

to the Arctic Sea.

It was Cathay, with its outlying island of Zipangu (Japan), that
Zolumbus sought to reach by sailing westward, penetratedas he was
>y his intense conviction of the smallness of the earth, and of the vast
extension of Asia eastward ; and to the day of his death he was full
of the imagination of the proximity of the domain of the great khan
p the islands and coasts which he had discovered. And such imagina-
tions are curiously embodied in some of the maps of the early i6th
:entury, which intermingle on the same coast-line the new discoveries
rom Labrador to Brazil with the provinces and rivers of Marco Polo's
Cathay.

Cathay had been the aim of the first voyage of the Cabots in 1496,
and it continued to be the object of many adventurous voyages by
English and Hollanders to the N.W. and N.E. till far on in the i6th
:entury. At least one memorable land-journey also was made by
Jnglishmen, of which the exploration of a trade-route to Cathay
vas a chief object — that in which Anthony Jenkinson and the two
Tohnsons reached Bokhara by way of Russia in 1558-1559. The
wintry of which they collected notices at that city was still known
to them only as Cathay, and its great capital only as Cambaluc.

HISTORY]

CHINA

191

Cathay as a supposed separate entity may be considered to come
to an end with the journey of Benedict Goes, the lay-Jesuit. This
admirable person was, in 1603, despatched through Central Asia by
his superiors in India with the specific object of determining whether
the Cathay of old European writers and of modern Mahommedans
was or was not a distinct region from that China of which parallel
marvels had now for some time been recounted. Benedict, as one
of his brethren pronounced his epitaph, " seeking Cathay found
Heaven." He died at Suchow, the frontier city of China, but not
before he had ascertained that China and Cathay were the same.
After the publication of the narrative of his journey (in the Expeditio
Christiana apud Smas of Trigault, 1615) inexcusable ignorance alone
could continue to distinguish between them, but such ignorance
lingered many years longer. (H. Y.)

(B) — Chinese Origins.

Chinese literature contains no record of any kind which
might justify us in assuming that the nucleus of the nation
may have immigrated from some other part of the world; and
the several ingenious theories pointing to Babylonia, Egypt,
India, Khotan, and other seats of ancient civilization as the
starting-points of ethnical wanderings must be dismissed as
untenable. Whether the Chinese were seated in their later
homes from times immemorial, as their own historians assume,
or whether they arrived there* from abroad, as some foreign
scholars have pretended, cannot be proved to the satisfaction
of historical critics. Indeed, anthropological arguments seem
to contradict the idea of any connexion with Babylonians,
Egyptians, Assyrians, or Indians. The earliest hieroglyphics
of the Chinese, ascribed by them to the Shang dynasty (second
millennium B.C.), betray the Mongol character of the nation
that invented them by the decided obliquity of the human eye
wherever it appears in an ideograph. In a pair of eyes as shown
in the most ancient pictorial or sculptural representations in
the west, the four corners may be connected by a horizontal
straight line; whereas lines drawn through the eyes of one of the
oldest Chinese hieroglyphics cross each other at a sharp angle,
as shown in the accompanying diagrams: —

Egyptian.

Chinese.

This does not seem to speak for racial consanguinity any more
than the well-known curled heads and bearded faces of Assyrian
sculptures as compared to the straight-haired and almost beardless
Chinese. Similarities in the creation of cultural elements may, it
is true, be shown to exist on either side, even at periods when
mutual intercourse was probably out of the question; but this
may be due to uniformity in the construction of the human brain,
which leads man in different parts of the world to arrive at
similar ideas under similar conditions, or to prehistoric connexions
which it is as impossible for us to trace now as is the origin of
mankind itself. Our standpoint as regards the origin of the
Chinese race is, therefore, that of the agnostic. All we can do is
to reproduce the tradition as it is found in Chinese literature.
This tradition, as applying to the very earliest periods, may
be nothing more than historical superstition, yet it has its
historical importance. Supposing it were possible to prove
that none of the persons mentioned in the Bible from Adam
down to the Apostles ever lived, even the most sceptical critic
would still have to admit that the history of a great portion of
the human race has been materially affected by the belief in the
examples of their alleged lives. Something similar may be said
of the alleged earliest history of the Chinese with its model
emperors and detestable tyrants, the accounts of which, whether
based on reality or not, have exercised much influence on the
development of the nation.
"The Chinese have developed their theories of prehistoric life.
Speculation as to the origin and gradual evolution of their
civilization has resulted in the expression of views by authors
who may have reconstructed their systems from remnants ol

ancestral life revealed by excavations, or from observation of
neighbouring nations living in a state of barbarism. This may
account for a good deal of the repetition found in the Chinese
mythological and legendary narratives, the personal and chrono-
logical part of which may have been invented merely as a frame-
work for illustrating social and cultural progress. The scene of
action of all the prehistoric figures from P'an-ku, the first human
being, down to the beginning of real history has been laid in a
part of the world which has never been anything but Chinese
territory. P'an-ku's epoch, millions of years ago, was followed
by ten distinct periods of sovereigns, including the " Heavenly
emperors," the " Terrestrial emperors," and the " Human
emperors," the Yu-ch'au or " Nest-builders," and Sui-jdn,
the " Fire Producer," the Prometheus of the Chinese, who
borrowed fire from the stars for the benefit of man. Several
of the characteristic phases of cultural progress and social
organization have been ascribed to this mythological period.
Authors of less fertile imagination refer them to later times,
when the heroes of their accounts appear in shapes somewhat
resembling human beings rather than as gods and demigods.

The Chinese themselves look upon Fu-hi as their first historical
emperor; and they place his lifetime in the years 2852-2738 B.C.
Some accounts represent him as a supernatural being; and we
see him depicted as a human figure with a fish tail something
like a mermaid. He is credited with having established social
order among his people, who, before him, had lived like animals
in the wilds. The social chaos out of which Chinese society
arose is described as being characterized by the absence of
family life; for " children knew only their mothers and not
their fathers." Fu-hi introduced matrimony; and in so doing
he placed man as the husband at the head of the family and
abolished the original matriarchate. This quite corresponds
with his views on the dualism in natural philosophy, of which
he is supposed to have laid the germs by the invention of the
so-called pa-kua, eight symbols, each consisting of three parallel
lines, broken or continuous. The continuous lines represented
the male element in nature; the broken ones, the female. It
is characteristic that the same ruler who assigned to man his
position as the head of the family is also credited with the
invention of that natural philosophy of the " male and female
principles," according to which all good things and qualities
were held to be male, while their less sympathetic opposites were
female, such as heaven and earth, sun and moon, day and night,
south and north. If these traditions really represent the oldest
prehistoric creations of the popular mind, it would almost seem
that the most ancient Chinese shared that naive sentiment
which caused our own forefathers to invent gender. The differ-
ence is that, with us, the conception survives merely in the
language, where the article or suffixes mark gender, whereas
with the Chinese, whose language does not express gender, it
survives in their system of metaphysics. For all their attempts
at fathoming the secrets of nature are based on the idea that
male or female powers are inherent in all matter.

To the same Emperor Fu-hi are ascribed many of the
elementary inventions which raise man from the life of a brute
to that of a social being. He taught his people to hunt, to fish,
and to keep flocks; he constructed musical instruments, and
replaced a kind of knot-writing previously in use by a system
of hieroglyphics. All this cannot of course be considered as
history; but it shows that the authors of later centuries who
credited Fu-hi with certain inventions were not quite illogical
in starting from the matriarchal chaos, after which he is said
to have organized society with occupations corresponding to
those of a period of hunting, fishing and herding. This period
was bound to be followed by a further step towards the final
development of the nation's social condition; and we find it
quite logically succeeded by a period of agricultural life, personi-
fied in the Emperor, Shon-nung, supposed to have lived in the
twenty-eighth century B.C. His name may be freely translated
as " Divine Labourer" ; and to him the Chinese ascribe the
invention of agricultural implements, and the discovery of the
medicinal properties of numerous plants.

192

CHINA

[HISTORY

The third historical emperor was Huang-ti, the " Yellow
emperor," according to the literal translation. Ssi-ma Ts'ien,
the Herodotus of the Chinese, begins his history with him; but
Fu-hi and Shon-nung are referred to in texts much older than
this historian, though many details relating to their alleged
reigns have been added in later times. Huang-ti extended the
boundaries of the empire, described as being originally confined
to a limited territory near the banks of the Yellow river and the
present city of Si-an-fu. Here were the sites of cities used as
capitals of the empire under various names during long periods
since remote antiquity. To Huang-ti, whose reign is said to have
commenced in 2704 according to one source and in 2491 according
to another, are ascribed most of the cultural innovations which
historians were not able otherwise to locate within historical
times. Under Huang-ti we find the first mention of a nation
called the Hun-yii, who occupied the north of his empire and with
whom he is represented to have engaged in warfare. The Chinese
identify this name with that of the Hiung-nu, their old hereditary
enemy and the ancestors of Attila's Huns. Even though the
details of these legendary accounts may deserve little confidence,
there must have been an old tradition that a nation called the
Hun-yii, occupying the northern confines of China, were the
ancestors of the Hiung-nu tribes, well known in historical times,
a scion of whose great khans settled in territory belonging to the
king of Sogdiana during the first century B.C., levied tribute from
his neighbours, the Alans, and with his small but warlike horde
initiated that era of migrations which led to the overrunning of
Europe with Central- Asiatic Tatars.

Fu-hi, Shon-nung and Huang-ti represent a group of rulers
comprised by the Chinese under the name of San-huang, i.e.
" The Three Emperors." Although we have no reason to deny
their existence, the details recorded concerning them contain
enough in the way of improbabilities to justify us in considering
them as mythical creations. The chronology, too, is apparently
quite fictitious; for the time allotted to their reigns is much
too long as a term of government for a single human life, and,
on the other hand, much too short, it we measure it by the
cultural progress said to have been brought about in it. Fu-hi's
period of hunting life must have lasted many generations before
it led to the agricultural period represented by the name Shon-
nung; and this period in turn could not possibly have led within
a little more than one hundred years to the enormous progress
ascribed to Huang-ti. Under the latter ruler a regular board
of historians is said to have been organized with Ts'ang-kie
as president, who is known also as Shi-huang, i.e. " the Emperor
of Historians," the reputed inventor of hieroglyphic writing
placed by some authors into the Fu-hi period and worshipped as
Tzi-shon, i.e. " God of writing," to the present day. Huang-ti
is supposed to have been the first builder of temples, houses and
cities; to have regulated the calendar, to which he added the
intercalary month; and to have devised means of traffic by
cars drawn by oxen and by boats to ply on the lakes and rivers
of his empire. His wife, known as " the lady of Si-ling," is
credited with the invention of the several manipulations in the
rearing of silkworms and the manufacture of silk. The invention
of certain flutes, combined to form a kind of reed organ, led to a
deeper study of music; and in order to construct these instru-
ments with the necessary accuracy a system of weights and
measures had to be devised. Huang-ti's successors, Shau-hau,
Chuan-hu, and Ti-k'u, were less prominent, though each of them
had their particular merits.

The Model Emperors. — Most of the stories regarding the " Three
Emperors " are told in comparatively late records. The Shu- king,
sometimes described as the " Canon of History, "our oldest sourceof
pre-Confucian history, supposed to have been edited by Confucius
himself, knows nothing of Fu-hi, Shon-nung and Huang-ti; but it
begins by extolling the virtues of the emperor Yau and his successor
Shun. Yau and Shun are probably the most popular names in
Chinese history as taught in China. Whatever good qualities may
be imagined of the rulers of a great nation have been heaped upon
their heads; and the example of their lives has at all times been held
up by Confucianists as the height of perfection in a sovereign's
character. Yau, whose reign has been placed by the fictitious stan-
dard chronology of the Chinese in the years 2357-2258, and about

200 years later by the less extravagant " Annals of the Bamboo
Books," is represented as the patron of certain astronomers who had
to watch the heavenly bodies; and much has been written about the
reputed astronomical knowledge of the Chinese in this remote period.
Names like Deguignes, Gaubil, Biot and Schlegel are among those of
the investigators. On the other side are the sceptics, who maintain
that later editors interpolated statements which could have been
made only with the astronomical knowledge possessed by their own
contemporaries. According to an old legend, Shun banished " the
four wicked ones " to distant territories. One of these bore the name
T'au-t'ie, i.e. " Glutton"; called also San-miau. Tau-fie is also the
name of an ornament, very common on the surface of the most
ancient bronze vessels, showing the distorted face of some ravenous
animal. The San-miau as a trfbe are said to have been the forefathers
of the Tangutans, the Tibetans and the Miau-tzi in the south-west of
China. This legend may be interpreted as indicating that the non-
Chinese races in the south-west have come to their present seats by
migration from Central China in remote antiquity. During Yau s
reign a catastrophe reminding one of the biblical deluge threatened
the Chinese world. The emperor held his minister of works, Kun,
responsible for this misfortune, probably an inundation of the Yellow
river such as has been witnessed by the present generation. Its
horrors are described with poetical exaggeration in the Shu-king.
When the efforts to stop the floods had proved futile for nine years,
Yau wished to abdicate, and he selected a virtuous young man of the
name of Shun as his successor. Among the legends told about this
second model emperor is the story that he had a board before his
palace on which every subject was permitted to note whatever faults
he had to find with his government, and that by means of a drum
suspended at his palace gate attention might be drawn to any com-
plaint that was to be made to him. Since TKun had not succeeded in
stopping the floods, he was dismissed and his son Yu was appointed
in his stead. Probably the waters began to subside of their own
accord, but Yu has been praised up as the national hero who, by his
engineering works, saved his people from utter destruction. His
labours in this direction are described in a special section of the Con-
fucian account known as Yii-kung, i.e. " Tribute of Yu." Yti's
merit has in the sequel been exaggerated so as to credit him with
more than human powers. He is supposed to have cut canals through
the hills, in order to furnish outlets to the floods, and to have per-
formed feat.a of engineering compared to which, according to Von
Richthofen, the construction of the St Gotthard tunnel without blast-
ing materials would be child's play, and all this within a few years.

The Hia Dynasty. — As a reward for his services Yu was
selected to succeed Shun as emperor. He divided the empire
into nine provinces, the description of which in the Yu-kung
chapter of the " Canon of History " bears a suspicious resemblance
to later accounts. Yii's reign has been assigned to the years
2205-2198, and the Hia Dynasty, of which he became the head,
has been made to extend to the overthrow in 1766 B.C. of Kie,
its eighteenth and last emperor, a cruel tyrant of the most
vicious and contemptible character. Among the Hia emperors
we find Chung-Pang (2159-2147), whose reign has attracted
the attention of European scholars by the mention of an eclipse
of the sun, which his court astronomers had failed to predict.
European astronomers and sinologues have brought much
acumen to bear on the problem involved in the Shu-king account
in trying to decide which of the several eclipses known to have
occurred about that time was identical with the one observed
in China under Chung-k'ang.

The Shang, or Yin, Dynasty. — This period, which preceded the
classical Ch6u dynasty, is made to extend from 1766 to 1122
B.C. We must now be prepared to see an energetic or virtuous
ruler at the head of a dynasty and either a cruel tyrant or a
contemptible weakling at the end of it. It seems natural that
.this should be so; but Chinese historians, like the writers of
Roman history, have a tendency to exaggerate both good and
bad qualities. Ch'ong-tang, its first sovereign, is represented
as a model of goodness and of humane feeling towards his
subjects. Even the animal world benefited by his kindness,
inasmuch as he abolished all useless torture in the chase. His
great minister I Yin, who had greatly assisted him in securing
the throne, served two of his successors. P'an-kong (1401)
and Wu-ting (1324) are described as good rulers among a some-
what indifferent set of monarchs. The Shang dynasty, like
the Hia, came to an end through the reckless vice and cruelty
of a tyrant (Chou-sin with his consort Ta-ki). China had even
in those days to maintain her position as a civilized nation by
keeping at bay the barbarous nations by which she was sur-
rounded. Chief among these were the ancestors of the Hiung-nu

HISTORY]

CHINA

193

tribes, or Huns, on the northern and western boundaries. To
fight them, to make pacts and compromises with them, and to
befriend them with gifts so as to keep them out of the Imperial
territories, had been the role of a palatinate on the western
frontier, the duchy of Chou, while the court of China with its
vicious emperor gave itself up to effeminate luxury. Ch6u-sin's
evil practices had aroused the indignation of the palatine,
subsequently known as Won-wang, who in vain remonstrated
with the emperor's criminal treatment of his subjects. The
strength and integrity of Won-wang's character had made him
the corner-stone of that important epoch; and his name is one
of the best known both in history and in literature. The courage
with which he spoke his mind in rebuking his unworthy liege
lord caused the emperor to imprison him, his great popularity
alone saving his life. During his incarceration, extending over
three years, he compiled the I-king, or " Canon of Changes,"
supposed to be the oldest book of Chinese literature, and certainly
the one most extensively studied by the nation. Won-wang's
son, known as Wu-wang, was destined to avenge his father and
the many victims of Chou-sin's cruelty. Under his leadership
the people rose against the emperor and, with the assistance of
his allies, " men of the west," possibly ancestors of the Huns,
overthrew the Shang dynasty after a decisive battle, whereupon
Ch6u-sin committed suicide by setting fire to his palace.

Clt6u Dynasty. — Wu-wang, the first emperor of the new
dynasty, named after his duchy of Ch6u on the western frontier,
was greatly assisted in consolidating the empire by his brother,
Chou-kung, i.e. " Duke of Chou." As the loyal prime-minister
of Wu-wang and his successor the duke of Chou laid the founda-
tion of the government institutions of the dynasty, which became
the prototype of most of the characteristic features in Chinese
public and social life down to recent times. The brothers and
adherents of the new sovereign were rewarded with fiefs which
in the sequel grew into as many states. China thus developed
into a confederation, resembling that of the German empire,
inasmuch as a number of independent states, each having its
own sovereign, were united under one liege lord, the emperor,
styled " The Son of Heaven," who as high priest of the nation
reigned in the name of Heaven. The emperor represented the
nation in sacrificing and praying to God. His relations with his
vassals and government officials, and those of the heads of the
vassal states with their subjects as well as of the people among
themselves were regulated by the most rigid ceremonial. The
dress to be worn, the speeches to be made, and the postures
to be assumed on all possible occasions, whether at court or in
private life, were subject to regulations. The duke of Chou,
or whoever may have been the creator of this system, showed
deep wisdom in his speculations, if he based that immutability
of government which in the sequel became a Chinese character-
istic, on the physical and moral immutability of individuals by
depriving them of all spontaneous action in public and private
life. Originally and nominally the emperor's power as the ruler
over his vassals, who again ruled in his name, was unquestion-
able ; and the first few generations of the dynasty saw no decline
of the original strength of central power. A certain loyalty
based on the traditional ancestral worship counteracted the
desire to revolt. The rightful heir to the throne was responsible
to his ancestors as his subjects were to theirs. " We have to
do as our ancestors did," the people argued; " and since they
obeyed the ancestors cf our present sovereign, we have to be
loyal to him." Interference with this time-honoured belief would
have amounted to a rupture, as it were, in the nation's religious
relations, and as long as the people looked upon the emperor as
the Son of Heaven, his moral power would outweigh strong armies
sent against him in rebellion. The tim'e came soon enough when
central power depended merely on this spontaneous loyalty.

Not all the successors of Wu-wang profited by the lessons
given them by past history. Incapacity, excessive severity and
undue weakness had created discontent and loosened the rela-
tions between the emperor and his vassals. Increase in the
extent of the empire greatly added to this decline of central
power. For the emperor's own dominion was centrally situated
vi. 7

and surrounded by the several confederate states; its geogra-
phical position prevented it from participating in the general
aggrandisement of China, and increase in territory, population
and prestige had become the privilege of boundary states.
Tatar tribes in the north and west and the aboriginal Man
barbarians in the south were forced by warfare to yield land,
or enticed to exchange it for goods, or induced to mingle with
their Chinese neighbours, thus producing a mixed population
combining the superior intelligence' of the Chinese race with the
energetic and warlike spirit of barbarians. These may be the
main reasons which gradually undermined the Imperial authority
and brought some of the confederate states to the front, so as to
overshadow the authority of the Son of Heaven himself, whose
military and financial resources were inferior to those of several
of his vassals. A few out of the thirty-five sovereigns of the
Chou dynasty were distinguished by extraordinary qualities.
Mu-wang of the loth century performed journeys far beyond
the western frontier of his empire, and was successful in warfare
against the Dog Barbarians, described as the ancestors of the
Hiung-nu, or Huns. The reign of Suan-wang (827-782 B.C.)
was filled with warfare against the Tangutans and the Huns,
called Hien-yun in a contemporaneous poem of the "Book of
Odes " ; but the most noteworthy reign in this century is that
of the lascivious Yu-wang, the oppressiveness of whose govern-
ment had caused a bard represented in the " Book of Odes "
to complain about the emperor's evil ways. The writer of this
poem refers to certain signs showing that Heaven itself is indig-
nant at Yu-wang's crimes. One of these signs was an eclipse
of the sun which had recently occurred, the date and month being
clearly stated. This date corresponds exactly with August 29,
776 B.C.; and astronomers have calculated that on that precise
date an eclipse of the sun was visible in North China. This,
of course, cannot be a mere accident; and since the date falls
into the sixth year of Yu-wang's reign, the coincidence is bound
to increase our confidence in that part of Chinese history.
Our knowledge of it, however, is due to mere chance; for the
record of the eclipse would probably not have been preserved
until our days had it not been interpreted as a kind of tekel
upharsin owing to the peculiarity of the political situation.
It does not follow, therefore, as some foreign critics assume,
that the historical period begins as late as Yu-wang's reign.
China has no architectural witnesses to testify to her antiquity
as Egypt has in her pyramids and temple ruins; but the sacri-
ficial bronze vessels of the Shang and Chou dynasties, with their
characteristic ornaments and hieroglyphic inscriptions, seem
to support the historical tradition inasmuch as natural develop-
ment may be traced by the analysis of their artistic and paleo-
graphic phases. Counterfeiters, say a thousand years later,
could not have resisted the temptation to introduce patterns and
hieroglyphic shapes of later periods; and whatever bronzes have
been assigned to the Shang dynasty, i.e. some time in the second
millennium B.C., exhibit the Shang characteristics. The words
occurring in their inscriptions, carefully collected, may be shown
to be confined to ideas peculiar to primitive states of cultural
life, not one of them pointing to an invention we may suspect
to be of later origin. But, apart from this, it seems a matter
of individual judgment how far back beyond that indisputable
year 776 B.C. a student will date the beginning of real history.

In the 7th century central authority had declined to such
an extent that the emperor was merely the nominal head of the
confederation, the hegemony in the empire falling in turn to
one of the five principal states, for which reason the Chinese
speak of a period of the " Five Leaders." The state of Ts/i,
corresponding to North Shan-tung, had begun to overshadow
the other states by unprecedented success in economic enterprise,
due to the prudent advice of its prime minister, the philosopher
Kuan-tzi. Other states attained leadership by success in warfare.
Among these leaders we see duke Mu of T'sin (659 B.C.), a
state on the western boundary which was so much influenced
by amalgamation with its Hunnic neighbours that the purely
Chinese states regarded it as a barbarian country. The emperor
was in those days a mere shadow; several of his vassals had

CHINA

[HISTORY

grown strong enough to claim and be granted the title " king,"
and they all tried to annihilate their neighbours by ruse in
diplomacy and by force of arms, without referring to their
common ruler for arbitration, as they were in duty bound. In
this helium omnium contra omnes the state of Ts'in, in spite of
repeated reverses, remained in possession of the field.

The period of this general struggle is spoken of by Chinese historians
as that of " The Contending States." Like that of the " Five
Leaders "it is full of romance; and the examples of heroism,
cowardice, diplomatic skill and philosophical equanimity which fill
the pages of its history have become the subject of elegant literature
in prose and poetry. The political development of the Chou dynasty
is the exact counterpart of that of its spiritual life as shown in the
contemporaneous literature. The orthodox conservative spirit which
reflects the ethical views of the emperor and his royal partisans is
represented by the name Confucius (551-479 B.C.). The great sage
had collected old traditions and formulated the moral principles
which had been dormant in the Chinese nation for centuries. His
doctrines tended to support the maintenance of central power; so
did those of other members of his school, especially Mencius. Filial
love showed itself as obedience to the parents in the family and as
loyalty to the emperor and his government in public life. It was the
highest virtue, according to the Confucian school. The history of the
nation as taught in the Shu-king was in its early part merely an
illustration of Confucianist ideas about good and bad government.
The perpetual advice to rulers was: " Be like Yau, Shun and Yu,
and you will be right." Confucianism was dominant during the
earlier centuries of the Chou dynasty, whose lucky star began to
wane when doctrines opposed to it got the upper hand. The philo-
sophical schools buiit up on the doctrines of Lau-tzi had in the course
of generations become antagonistic, and found favour with those who
did not endorse that loyalty to the emperor demanded by Mencius;
so had other thinkers, some of whom had preached morals which
were bound to break up all social relations, like the philosopher of
egotism, Yang Chu, according to Mencius disloyalty personified and
the very reverse of his ideal, the duke of Chou. The egotism recom-
mended by Yang Chu to the individual had begun to be practised
on a large scale by the contending states, their governments and
sovereigns, some of whom had long discarded Confucian rites under
the influence of Tatar neighbours. It appears that the anti-
Confucian spirit which paved the way towards the final extinction
of Wu-wang's dynasty received its chief nourishment from the Tatar
element in the population of the northern and western boundary
states. Among these Ts'in was the most prominent. Having placed
itself in the possession of the territories of nearly all of the remaining
states, Ts'in made war against the last shadow emperor, Nan-wang
who had attempted to form an alliance against the powerful usurper,
with the result that the western part of the Chou dominion was lost
to the aggressor.

Nan-wang died soon after (256 B.C.), and a relative whom he had
appointed regent was captured in 249 B.C., when the king of Ts'in

Cut an end to this last remnant of the once glorious Chou dynasty
y annexing its territory. The king had already secured the posses-
sion of the Nine Tripods, huge bronze vases said to have been cast
by the emperor Yii as representing the nine divisions of his empire
and since preserved in the treasuries of all the various emperors as a
symbol of Imperial power. With the loss of these tripods Nan-wang
had forfeited the right to call himself " Son of Heaven." Another
prerogative was the offering of sacrifice to Shang-ti, the Supreme
Ruler, or God, with whom only the emperor was supposed to com-
municate. The king of Ts'in had performed the ceremony as early
as 253 B.C. (F. H.*)

(C) — From the Ts'in Dynasty to 187$.

After the fall of the Chou dynasty a kind of interregnum
followed during which China was practically without an emperor.
Ts'la This was the time when the state of Ts'in asserted
dynasty itself as the leader and finally as the master of all the
249-210 contending states. Its king, Chau-siang, who died in
251 B.C., though virtually emperor, abstained from
adopting the imperial title. He was succeeded by his son, Hiao-
wen Wang, who died after a three days' reign. Chwan-siang
Wang, his son and successor, was a man of no mark. He died
in< 246 B.C. giving place to Shi Hwang-ti, " the first universal
emperor." This sovereign was then only thirteen, but he
speedily made his influence felt everywhere. He chose Hien-
yang, the modern Si-gan Fu, as his capital, and built there a
magnificent palace, which was the wonder and admira-
ti011 °f his contemporaries. He abolished the feudal
system, and divided the country into provinces over
whom he set officers directly responsible to himself. He con-
structed roads through the empire, he formed canals, and erected
numerous and handsome public buildings.

&hl

Haying settled the internal affairs of his kingdom, he turned his
attention to the enemies beyond his frontier. Chief among these
were the Hiung-nu Tatars, whose attacks had for years disquieted
the Chinese and neighbouring principalities. Against these foes he
marched with an army of 300,000 men, exterminating those in the
neighbourhood of China, and driving the rest into Mongolia. On his
return from this campaign he was called upon to face a formidable
rebellion in Ho-nan, which had been set on foot by the adherents
of the feudal princes whom he had dispossessed. Having crushed the
rebellion, he marched southwards and subdued the tribes on the
south of the Nan-shan ranges, i.e. the inhabitants of the modern
provinces of Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. The limits of
his empire were thus as nearly as possible those of modern China
proper. One monument remains to bear witness to his energy.
Finding that the northern states of Ts'in, Chao and Yen were
building lines of fortification along their northern frontier for pro-
tection against the Hiung-nu, he conceived the idea of building one
gigantic wall, which was to stretch across the whole northern limit
of the huge empire from the sea to the farthest western corner of the
modern province of Kan-suh. This work was begun under his
immediate supervision in 214 B.C. His reforming zeal made him
unpopular with the upper classes. Schoolmen and pedants held up
to the admiration of the people the heroes of the feudal times and
the advantages of the system they administered. Seeing in this
propaganda danger to the state Shi Hwang-ti determined to break
once and for all with the past. To this end he ordered the destruc-
tion of all books having reference to the past history of the empire,
and many scholars were put to death for failing in obedience to it.
(See infra § Chinese Literature, §§ History.) The measure was
unpopular and on his death (210 B.C.) rebellion broke out. His
son and successor Erh-shi, a weak and debauched youth, was
murdered after having offered a feeble resistance to his enemies.
His son Tsze-yung surrendered to Liu Pang, the prince of Han, one
of the two generals who were the leaders of the rebellion. He after-
wards fell into the hands of Hiang Yu, the other chieftain, who put
him and his family and associates to death, rliang Yu aspiring to
imperial honours, war broke out between him and Liu Pang.
After five years' conflict Hiang Yu was killed in a decisive battle
before Wu-kiang. Liu Pang was then proclaimed emperor (206 B.C.)
under the title of Kao-ti, and the new line was styled the Han
dynasty.

Kao-ti established his capital at Lo-yang in Ho-nan, and
afterwards removed it to Chang-an in Shen-si. Having founded
his right to rebel on the oppressive nature of the laws
promulgated by Shi Hwang-ti, he abolished the
ordinances of Ts'in, except that referring to the
destruction of the books — tor, like his great pre-
decessor, he dreaded the influence exercised by the literati— and
he exchanged the worship of the gods of the soil of Ts'in for that
of those of Han, his native state. His successor Hwei-ti (194-
179 B.C.), however, gave every encouragement to literature, and
appointed a commission to restore as far as possible the texts
which had been destroyed by Shi Hwang-ti. In this the com-
mission was very successful. It was discovered that in many
cases the law had been evaded, while in numerous instances
scholars were found to write down from memory the text of
books of which all copies had been destroyed, though in some
cases the purity of the text is doubtful and in other cases there
were undoubted forgeries. A period of repose was now enjoyed
by the empire. There was peace within its borders, and its
frontiers remained unchallenged, except by the Hiung-nu, who
suffered many severe defeats. Thwarted in their attacks on
China, these marauders attacked the kingdom of the Yueh-chi,
which had grown up in the western extremity of Kan-suh, and
after much fighting drove their victims along the T'ien-shan-
nan-lu to the territory between Turkestan and the Caspian Sea.
This position of affairs suggested to the emperor the idea of
forming an offensive and defensive alliance with the Yueh-chi
against the Hiung-nu. With this object the general Chang
K'ien was sent as an ambassador to western Tatary. After
having been twice imprisoned by the Hiung-nu he returned to
China. Chang K'ien had actually reached the court of the
Yueh-chi, or Indo-Scythians as they were called owing to their
having become masters of India later on, and paid a visit to the
kingdom of Bactria, recently conquered by the Yueh-chi. His
report on the several kingdoms of western Asia opened up a new
world to the Chinese, and numerous elements of culture, plants
and animals were then imported for the first time from the west
into China. While in Bactria Chan K'ien's attention was first
drawn to the existence of India, and attempts to send expeditions,

HISTORY]

CHINA

though at first fruitless, finally led to its discovery. Under
Wu-ti (140-86 B.C.) the power of the Hiung-nu was broken and
eastern Turkestan changed into a Chinese colony, through which
caravans could safely pass to bring back merchandise and art
treasures from Persia and the Roman market. By the Hans the
feudal system was restored in a modified form; 103 feudal
principalities were created, but they were more or less under
the jurisdiction of civil governors appointed to administer the
thirteen chows (provinces) into which the country was divided.
About the beginning of the Christian era Wan? Mang rose in
revolt against the infant successor of P'ing-ti (A.D. i), and in
A.D. 9 proclaimed himself emperor. He, however, only gained
the suffrages of a portion of the nation, and before long his
oppressive acts estranged his supporters. In A.D. 23 Liu Siu,
one of the princes of Han, completely defeated him. His head
was cut off, and his body was torn in pieces by his own soldiery.

Liu Siu, was proclaimed emperor under the title of Kwang-
wu-ti, reigned from A.D. 58 to 76. Having fixed on Lo-yang
Eastern m Ho-nan as his capital, the line of which he was the
Hao first emperor became known as the Eastern Han

dynasty, dynasty. It is also known as the Later Han dynasty.
A.D. 23. During the reign of his successor Ming-ti, A.D. 65,
Buddhism was introduced from India into China (see ante
^Religion). About the same time the celebrated general Pan
Ch'ao was sent on an embassy to the king of Shen-shen, a small
state of Turkestan, near the modern Pidjan. Before long he
added the states of Shen-shen, Khotan, Kucha and Kashgar as
apanages to the Chinese crown, and for a considerable period the
country enjoyed prosperity. The Han dynasty (including in
the term the Eastern Han dynasty) has been considered the first
national dynasty and is one of the most famous in China; nor
has any ruling family been more popular. The Chinese, espe-
cially the northern Chinese, still call themselves " the sons of
Han." The wealth and trade as well as the culture of the
country was greatly developed, and the competitive examina-
tions for literary degrees instituted. The homogeneity of the
nation was so nrmly established that subsequent dissensions
and conquests could not alter fundamentally the character of
the nation.

Towards the end of the 2nd century the power of the Eastern Hans
declined. In 173 a virulent pestilence, which continued for eleven
years, broke out. A magical cure for this plague was said to have
been discovered by a Taoist priest named Chang Chio, who in a
single month won a sufficiently large following to enable him to gain
possession of the northern provinces of the empire. He was, hcw-
ever, defeated by Ts'aou Ts'aou, another aspirant to imperial
honours, whose son, Ts'aou P'ei, on the death cf Hien-ti (A.D. 220),
proclaimed himself emperor, adopting the title of Wei as the appella-
tion of his dynasty. There were then, however, two other
?*' claimants to the throne, Liu Pei and Sun Ch'tian, and the

y' three adventurers agreed to divide the empire between
them. Ts'aou P'ei, under the title of Wen-ti, ruled over the kingdom
of Wei (220), which occupied the whole of the central and northern
portion of Chjna. Liu Pei established the Shuh .Han dynasty in the
modern province of Sze-ch'uen (221), and called himself Chao-
lieh-ti; and to Sun Ch'uan fell the southern provinces of the empire,
from the Yangtsze-kiang southwards, including the modern Tong-
king, which he formed into the kingdom of Wu with Nan-king for
his capital, adopting for himself the imperial style of Ta-te1 (A.D.

222).

China during the period of the " Three Kingdoms " was a house
divided against itself. Liu Pei, as a descendant of the house of
Han, looked upon himself as the rightful sovereign of
ki a ^ " t'ie wh°k empire, and he despatched an army under
Chu-ko Liang to support his claims. This army was met
by an opposing force under the Wei commander Sze-ma I,
of whom Chinese historians say that " he led armies like a god,"
and who, by adopting a Fabian policy, completely discomfited his
adversary. But the close of this campaign brought no peace to the
country. Wars became chronic, and the reins of power slipped out
of the hands of emperor'* into those of their generals. Foremost
among these were the members of the Sze-ma family of Wei. Sze-ma
I left a son, Sze-ma Chao, scarcely less distinguished than himself,
and when Sze-ma Chao died his honours descended to Sze-ma Yen,
who deposed the ruling sovereign of Wei, and proclaimed himself
emperor of China (A.D. 265). His dynasty he styled the Western
Tsin dynasty, and he adopted for himself the title of Wu-ti. The most
noticeable event in this reign was the advent of the ambassadors of
the emperor Diocletian in 284. For some years the neighbouring states
appear to have transferred their allegiance from the house of Wei to

that of Tsin. Wu-ti's successors proving, however, weak and incap-
able, the country soon fell again into disorder. The Hiung-nu renewed
incursions into the empire at the beginning of the 4th
century, and in the confusion which followed, an adventurer
named Liu Yuen established himself (in 311) as emperor, '""
first at P'ing-yang in Shan-si and afterwards in Lo- "fi***?.
yang and Chang-an. The history of this period is very chaotic.
Numerous states sprang into existence, some founded by the Hiung-
nu and others by the Sien-pi tribe, a Tungusic clan, inhabiting a
territory to the north of China, which afterwards established the
Liao dynasty in China. In 419 the Eastern Tsin dynasty came to
an end, and with it disappeared for nearly two hundred years all
semblance of united authority. The country became divided into
two parts, the_ north and the south. In the north four families
reigned successively, two of which were of Sien-pi origin, viz. the Wei
and the How Chow, the other two, the Pih Ts'i and the How Liang,
being Chinese. In the south five different houses supplied rulers,
who were all of Chinese descent.

This period of disorder was brought to a close by the establish-
ment of the Suy dynasty (590). Among the officials of the ephemeral
dynasty of Chow was one Yang Kien, who on his daughter
becoming empress (578) was created duke of Suy. Two
years later Yang Kien proclaimed himself emperor. The
country, weary of contention, was glad to acknowledge his undi-
vided authority; and during the sixteen years of his reign the
internal affairs of China were comparatively peaceably administered.
The emperor instituted an improved code of laws, and added 5000
volumes to the 10,000 which composed the imperial library. Abroad,
his policy was equally successful. He defeated the Tatars and
chastised the Koreans, who had for a long period recognized Chinese
suzerainty, but were torn by civil wars and were disposed to reject
her authority. After his death in 604 his second son forced the heir
to the throne to strangle himself, and then seized the throne. This
usurper, Yang-ti, sent expeditions against the Tatars, and himself
headed an expedition against the Uighurs, while one of his generals
annexed the Lu-chu Islands to the imperial crown. During his .
reign the volumes in the imperial library were increased to 54,000,
and he spent vast sums in erecting a magnificent palace at Lo-yang,
and in constructing unprofitable canals. These and other extrava-
gances laid so heavy a burden on the country that discontent began
again to prevail, and on the emperor's return from a successful
expedition against the Koreans, he found the empire divided into
rebellious factions. In the troubles which followed General Li
Yuen became prominent. On the death of the emperor by assassina-
tion this man set Kung-ti, the rightful heir, on the throne (617)
until such time as he should have matured his schemes.

Kung-ti was poisoned in the following year and Li Yuen
proclaimed himself as Kao-tsu, the first emperor of the T'ang
dynasty. At this time the Turks were at the height of
their power in Asia (see TURKS: History), and Kao-
tsu was glad to purchase their alliance with money.
But divisions weakened the power of the Turks, and T'ai-tsung
(reigned 627-650), Kao-tsu's son and successor, regained much of
the position in Central Asia which had formerly been held by
China. In 640 Hami, Turfan and the rest of the Turkish territory
were again included within the Chinese empire, and four military
governorships were appointed in Central Asia, viz. at Kucha,
Khotan, Kharastan and Kashgar. At the same time the frontier
was extended as far as eastern Persia and the Caspian Sea. So
great was now the fame of China, that ambassadors from Nepal,
Magadha, Persia and Constantinople (643) came to pay their
court to the emperor. Under T'ai-tsung there was national unity
and peace, and in consequence agriculture and commerce as well
as literature flourished. The emperor gave direct encourage-
ments to the Nestorians, and gave a favourable reception to an
embassy from Mahommed (see ante § Religion). On the accession
of Kao-tsung (650) his wife, Wu How, gained supreme influence,
and on the death of her husband in 683 she set aside his lawful
successor, Chung-tsung, and took possession of the throne. This
was the first occasion the country was ruled by a dowager
empress. She governed with discretion, and her armies defeated
the Khitan in the north-east and also the Tibetans, who had
latterly gained possession of Kucha, Khotan and Kashgar. On
her death, in 705, Chung-tsung partially left the obscurity in
which he had lived during his mother's reign. But his wife,
desiring to play a similar r61e to that enjoyed by her mother-in-
law, poisoned him and set his son, Jui-tsung (710), on the throne.
This monarch, who was weak and vicious, was succeeded by Yuen-
tsung (713), who introduced reform into the administration and
encouraged literature and learning. The king of Khokand
applied for aid against the Tibetans and Arabs, and Yuen-tsung

196

CHINA

[HISTORY

sent an army to his succour, but his general was completely
defeated. During the disorder which arose in consequence of
the invasion of the northern provinces by the Khitan, General
An Lu-shan, an officer of Turkish descent, placed himself at the
head of a revolt, and having secured Tung-kwan on the Yellow
river, advanced on Chang-an. Thereupon the emperor fled, and
placed his son, Su-tsung (756-762), on the throne. This
sovereign, with the help of the forces of Khotan, Khokand and
Bokhara, of the Uighurs and of some 4000 Arabs sent by the
caliph Mansur, completely defeated An Lu-shan. During the
following reigns the Tibetans made constant incursions into the
western provinces of the empire, and T'ai-tsung (763-780)
purchased the assistance of the Turks against those intruders by
giving a Chinese princess as wife to the khan.

At this epoch the eunuchs of the palace gained an unwonted degree
of power, and several of the subsequent emperors fell victims to their
plots. The T'ang dynasty, which for over a hundred years had
governed firmly and for the good of the nation, began to decline.
The history of the 8th and 9th centuries is for the most part a
monotonous record of feeble governments, oppressions and rebellions.
Almost the only event worth chronicling is the iconoclastic policy of
the emperor Wu-tsung (841-847). Viewing the increase of monasteries
and ecclesiastical establishments as an evil, he abolished all temples,
closed the monasteries and nunneries, and sent the inmates back to
their families. Foreign priests were subjected to the same repressive
legislation, and Christians, Buddhists and Magi were bidden to return
whence they came. Buddhism again revived during the reign of the
emperor I-tsung (860-874), who, having discovered a bone of
Buddha, brought it to the capital in great state. By internal dis-
sensions the empire became so weakened that the prince of Liang
found no difficulty in gaining possession of the throne (907). He
took the title of T'ai-tsu, being the first emperor of the Later Liang
dynasty. Thus ended the T'ang dynasty, which is regarded as being
the golden age of Chinese literature.

Five dynasties, viz. the Later Liang, the Later T'ang, the Later
Tsin, the Later Han and the Later Chow, followed each other between
the years 907 and 960. Though the monarchs of these lines nominally
held sway over the empire, their real power was confined to very
narrow limits. The disorders which were rife during the time when
the T'ang dynasty was tottering to its fall fostered the development
of independent states, and so arose Liang in Ho-nan and Shan-tung,
Ki in Shen-si, Hwai-nan in Kiang-nan, Chow in Sze-ch'uen and parts
of Shen-si and Hu-kwang, Wu-yue in Cheh-kiang, Tsu and King-nan
in Hu-kwang, Ling-nan in Kwang-tung and the Uighurs in Tangut.

A partial end was made to this recognized disorganization
when, in 960, General Chao Kw'ang-yin was proclaimed by
the army emperor in succession to the youthful
dynasty. Kung-ti, who was compelled to abdicate. The circum-
. stances of the time justified the change. It required
a strong hand to weld the empire together again, and to resist
the attacks of the Khitan Tatars, whose rule at this period
extended over the whole of Manchuria and Liao-tung. Against
these aggressive neighbours T'ai-tsu (ni Chao Kw'ang-yin)
directed his efforts with varying success, and he died in 976,
while the war was still being waged. His son T'ai-tsung (976-997)
entered on the campaign with energy, but in the end was com-
pelled to conclude a peace with the Khitan. His successor,
Chen-tsung (997-1022), paid them tribute to abstain from
further incursions. Probably this tribute was not sent regularly;
at all events, under Jen-tsung (1023-1064), the Khitan again
threatened to invade the empire, and were only bought off
by the promise of an annual tribute of taels 200,000 of silver,
besides a great quantity of silken piece goods. Neither was this
arrangement long binding, and so formidable were the advances
made by the Tatars in the following reigns, that Hwei-tsung
(1101-1126) invited the Ntichih Tatars to expel the Khitan from
Liao-tung. This they did, but having once possessed themselves
of the country they declined to yield it to the Chinese, and the
result was that a still more aggressive neighbour was established
on the north-eastern frontier of China. The Niichih or Kin,
as they now styled themselves, overran the provinces of Chih-li,
Shen-si, Shan-si and Ho-nan, and during the reign of Kao-tsung
(1127-1163) they advanced their conquests to the line of the
Yangtsze-kiang. From this time the Sung ruled only over
southern China; while the Kin or " Golden " dynasty reigned
in the north. The Kin made Chung-tu, which occupied in part
the site of the modern Peking, their usual residence. The Sung

fixed their capital at Nanking and afterwards at Hangchow.
Between them and the Kin there was almost constant war.

During this period the Mongols began to acquire power in
eastern Asia, and about the beginning of the I2th century the
forces of Jenghiz Khan (q.v.) invaded the north-western Mongol
frontier of China and the principality of Hia, which invasion:
at that time consisted of the modern provinces of ath
Shen-si and Kan-suh. To purchase the good-will ceatury-
of the Mongols the king of Hia agreed to pay them a tribute,
and gave a princess in marriage to their ruler. In consequence
of a dispute with the Kin emperor Wei-shao Wang, Jenghiz
Khan determined to invade Liao-tung. He was aided by the
followers of the Khitan leader Yeh-lii Ts'u-ts'ai, and in alliance
with this general he captured Liao-yang, the capital city.

After an unsuccessful invasion of China in 1212, Jenghiz Khan
renewed the attack in 1213. He divided his armies into four divi-
sions, and made a general advance southwards. His soldiers swept
over Ho-nan, Chih-li and Shan-tung, destroying upwards of ninety
cities. It was their boast that a horseman might ride without
stumbling over the sites where those cities had stood. Panic-
stricken, the emperor moved his court from Chung-tu to K'ai-fgng
Fu, much against the advice of his ministers, who foresaw the
disastrous effect this retreat would have on the fortunes of Kin.
The state of Sung, which up to this time had paid tribute, now
declined to recognize Kin as its feudal chief, and a short time after-
wards declared war against its quondam ally. Meanwhile, in 1215,
Yeh-lii Ts'u-ts'ai advanced into China by the Shan-hai Kwan, and
made himself master of Peking, one of the few cities in Chih-li which
remained to Kin. After this victory his nobles wished him to pro-
claim himself emperor, but he refused, being mindful of an oath
which he had sworn to Jenghiz Khan. In 1216 Tung-kwan, a
mountain pass on the frontiers of Ho-nan and Shen-si, and the scene
of numerous dynastic battles (as it is the only gateway between
north-eastern and north-western China), was taken by the invaders.
As the war dragged on the resistance offered by the Km grew weaker
and weaker. In 1220 Chi-nan Fu, the capital of Shan-tung, was
taken, and five years later Jenghiz Khan marched an army westward
into Hia and conquered the forces of the king. Two years later
(1227) Jenghiz Khan died.

With the view to the complete conquest of China by the Mongols,
Jenghiz declined to nominate either of the eldest two sons who had
been born to his Chinese wives as his heir, but chose his third son
Ogdai, whose mother was a Tatar. On hearing of the death of
Jenghiz Khan the Kin sent an embassy to his successor desiring
peace, but Ogdai told them there would be no peace for them until
their dynasty should be overthrown. Hitherto the Mongols had been
without any code of laws. But the consolidation of the nation by
the conquests of Jenghiz Khan made it necessary to establish a
recognized code of laws, and one of the first acts of Ogdai was to
form such a code. With the help also of Yeh-lii Ts'u-ts'ai, he estab-
lished custom-houses in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shan-si and Liao-tung;
and for this purpose divided these provinces into ten departments.
Meanwhile the war with the Kin was carried on with energy. In
1230 Si-gan Fu was taken, and sixty important posts were captured.
Two years later, Tu-16, brother of Ogdai, took Feng-siang Fu and
Han-chung Fu, in the flight from which last-named place 100,000
persons are said to have perished. Following the course of the river
Han in his victorious career, this general destroyed 140 towns and
fortresses, and defeated the army of Kin at Mount San-feng.

In 1232 the Mongols made an alliance with the state of Sung, by
which, on condition of Sung helping to destroy Kin, Ho-nan was to
be the property of Sung for ever. The effect of this
coalition soon became apparent. Barely had the Kin
emperor retreated from K'ai-feng Fu to Ju-ning Fu in Ho-
nan when the former place fell into the hands of the allies.
Next fell Loyang, and the victorious generals then marched
on to besiege Ju-ning Fu. The presence of the emperor gave energy
to the defenders, and they held out until every animal in the city
had been killed for food, until every old and useless person had
suffered death to lessen the number of hungry mouths, until so many
able-bodied men had fallen that the women manned the ramparts,
and then the allies stormed the walls. The emperor burned himself
to death in his palace, that his body might not fall into the hands of
his enemies. For a few days the shadow of the imperial crown rested
on the head of his heir Chang-lin, but in a tumult which broke out
amongst his followers he lost his life, and with him ended the
" Golden " dynasty.

Notwithstanding the treaty between Ogdai and Sung, no sooner
were the spoils of Kin to be divided than war broke out again
between them, in prosecuting which the Mongol armies swept over
the provinces of Sze-ch'uen, Hu-kwang, Kiang-nan and Ho-nan,
and were checked only when they reached the walls of Lu-chow Fu
in Ngan-hui. Ogdai died in 1241, and was nominally succeeded by
his grandson Cheliemgn. But one of his widows, Tolickona, took
possession of the throne, and after exercising rule for four years,
established her son Kwei-yew as great khan. In 1248 his life was

The Klo
dynasty
over-
thrown.

HISTORY]

CHINA

197

'blttl

cut short, and the nobles, disregarding the claims of Chelieme'n,
proclaimed as emperor Mangu, the eldest son of Tu-le. Under this
monarch the war against Sung was carried on with energy, and
Kublai, outstripping the bounds of Sung territory, made his way
into the province of Yun-nan, at that time divided into a number of
independent states, and having attached them to his brother's
crown he passed on into Tibet, Tongking and Cochin-China, and
thence striking northwards entered the province of Kwang-si.

On the death of Mangu in 1259 Kublai (g.v.) ascended the
throne. Never in the history of China was the nation more
illustrious, nor its power more widely felt, than under
his sovereignty. During the first twenty years of
his reign Sung kept up a resistance against his
authority. Their last emperor Ping-ti, seeing his
cause lost, drowned himself in the sea. The Sung dynasty,
which had ruled southern China 320 years, despite its misfortunes
is accounted one of the great dynasties of China. During its
sway arts and literature were cultivated and many eminent
writers flourished. His enemies subdued, Kublai Khan in 1 280
assumed complete jurisdiction as emperor of China. He took
the title of Shit-su and founded what is known as the Yuen
dynasty. He built a new capital close to Chung-tu, which
became known as Kaanbaligh (city of the khan), in medieval
European chronicles, Cambaluc, and later as Peking. At this
time his authority was acknowledged " from the Frozen Sea,
almost to the Straits of Malacca. With the exception of
Hindustan, Arabia and the westernmost parts of Asia, all the
Mongol princes as far as the Dnieper declared themselves his
vassals, and brought regularly their tribute." It was during
this reign that Marco Polo visited China, and he describes in
glowing colours the virtues and glories of the " great khan."
His rule was characterized by discretion and munificence.
He undertook public works, he patronized literature, and relieved
the distress of the poor, but the Chinese never forgot that he
was an alien and regarded him as a barbarian. He died un-
regretted in 1294. His son had died during his lifetime, and
after some contention his grandson Timur ascended the throne
under the title of Yuen-cheng. This monarch died in 1307 after
an uneventful reign, and, as he left no son, Wu-tsung, a Mongol
prince, became emperor. To him succeeded Jen-tsung in 1312,
who made himself conspicuous by the honour he showed to the
memory of Confucius, and by distributing offices more equally
between Mongols and Chinese than had hitherto been done.
This act of justice gave great satisfaction to the Chinese, and his
death ended a peaceful and prosperous reign in 1320. At this
time there appears to have been a considerable commercial
intercourse between Europe and China. But after Jen-tsung's
death the dynasty fell on evil days. The Mongols in adopting
Chinese civilization had lost much of their martial spirit. They
were still regarded as alien by the Chinese and numerous secret
societies were formed to achieve their overthrow. Jen-tsung's
successors were weak and incapable rulers, and in the person of
Shun-ti (1333-1368) were summed up the vices and faults of
his predecessors. Revolts broke out, and finally this descendant
of Jenghiz Khan was compelled to fly before Chu Yuen-chang,
the son of a Chinese labouring man. Deserted by his followers,
he sought refuge in Ying-chang Fu, and there the last of the
Yuen dynasty died. These Mongol emperors, whatever their
faults, had shown tolerance to Christian missionaries and Papal
legates (see ante § The Medieval Cathay) .

Chu Yuen-chang met with little opposition, more especially
as his first care on becoming possessed of a district was to
suppress lawlessness and to establish a settled govern-
dyn*sty. ment. In 1355 he captured Nanking, and proclaimed
himself duke of Wu, but carefully avoided adopting
any of the insignia of royalty. Even when master of the empire,
thirteen years later, he still professed to dislike the idea of
assuming the imperial title. His scruples were overcome, and
he declared himself emperor in 1368. He carried his arms
into Tatary, where he subdued the last semblance of Mongol
power in that direction, and then bent his steps towards Liao-
tung. Here the Mongols defended themselves with the bravery
of despair, but unavailingly, and the conquest of this province

left Hung-wu, as the founder of the new or Ming (" Bright" )
dynasty styled himself, without a foe in the empire.

All intercourse with Europe seems now to have ceased until the
Portuguese arrived in the l6th century, but Hung-wu cultivated
friendly relations with the neighbouring states. As a quondam
Buddhist priest he lent his countenance to that religion to the
exclusion of Taoism, whose priests had for centuries earned tho
contempt of all but the most ignorant by their pretended magical
arts and their search after the philosopher's stone. Hung-wu died
in 1398 and was succeeded by his grandson Kien-Wfin. Aware that
the appointment of this youth — his father was dead — would give
offence. to the young emperor's uncles, Hung-wu had dismissed them
to their respective governments. However, the prince of Yen, his
eldest surviving son, rose in revolt as soon as the news reached him
of his nephew's accession, and after gaining several victories over the
armies of Kien-wln he presented himself before the gates of Nanking,
the capital. _ Treachery opened the gates to him, and the emperor
having fled in the disguise of a monk, the victorious prince became
emperor and took the title of Yung-lo (1403). At home Yung-lo
devoted himself to the encouragement of literature and the fine arts,
and, possibly from a knowledge that Kien-we'n was among the
Buddhist priests, he renewed the law prohibiting Buddhism. Abroad
he swept Cochin-China and Tongking within the folds of his empire
and carried his arms into Tatary, where he made new conquests of
waste regions, and erected a monument of his victories. He died in
1425, and was succeeded by his son Hung-hi.

Hung-hi's reign was short and uneventful. He strove to promote
only such mandarins as had proved themselves to be able and honest,
and to further the welfare of the people. During the reign of his
successor, Suen-tS (1426-1436), the empire suffered the first loss of
territory since the commencement of the dynasty. Cochin-China
rebelled and gained her independence. The next emperor, Cheng-
t'ung (1436), was taken prisoner by a Tatar chieftain, a descendant
of the Yuen family named Yi-sien, who had invaded the northern
provinces. Having been completely defeated by a Chinese force
from Liao-tung, Yi-sien liberated his captive, who reoccupied the
throne, which during his imprisonment (1450-1457) had been held by
his brother King-ti. The two following reigns, those of Cheng-hwa
(1465-1488) and of Hung-chi (1488-1506). were quiet and peaceful.

The most notable event in the reign of the next monarch, ChSng-te
(1506-1522), was the arrival of the Portuguese at Canton (1517).
From this time dates modern European intercourse with China.
Che'ng-te suppressed a formidable insurrection headed by the prince
of Ning, but disorder caused by this civil war encouraged the foreign
enemies of China. From the north came a Tatar army under Ycn-ta
in 1542, during the reign of Kia-tsing, which laid waste the province
of Shen-si, and even threatened the capital, and a little later a
Japanese fleet ravaged the littoral provinces. Ill-blood had arisen
between the two peoples before this, and a Japanese colony had been
driven out of Ningpo by force and not without bloodshed a few years
previously. Kia-tsing (d. 1567) was not equal to such emergencies,
and his son Lung-king (i567-i573)sought to placate the Tatar Yen-ta
by making him a pnnce of the empire and giving him commercial
privileges, which were supplemented by the succeeding emperor
Wan-li (1573-1620) by the grant of land in Shen-si. During the reign
of this sovereign, in the year 1592, the Japanese successfully invaded
Korea, and Taikosama, the regent of Japan, was on the point of
proclaiming himself king of the peninsula.when a large Chinese force,
answering to the invitation of the king, appeared and completely
routed the Japanese army, at the same time that the Chinese fleet
cut off their retreat by sea. In this extremity the Japanese sued for
peace, and sent an embassy to Peking to arrange terms.
But the peace was of short duration. In 1597 the Japanese
again invaded Korea, defeated the Chinese army, destroyed
the Chinese fleet and ravaged the coast. Suddenly, how-
ever, when in the full tide of conquest, they evacuated Korea, which
again fell under the direction of China. Four years later the mission-
ary Matteo Ricci (q.v.) arrived at the Chinese court ; and though at
first the emperor was inclined to send him out of the country, his
abilities gradually won for him the esteem of the sovereign and his
ministers, and he remained the scientific adviser of the court until his
death in 1610.

About this time the Manchu Tatars, goaded into war by the
injustice they were constantly receiving at the hands of the
Chinese, led an army into China (in 1616) and completely defeated
the force which was sent against them. Three years later they
gained possession of the province of Liao-tung. These disasters
overwhelmed the emperor, and he died of a broken heart in 1620.

In the same year T'ien-ming, the Manchu sovereign, having
declared himself independent, moved the court to San-ku, to the
east of Mukden, which, five years later, he made his Manchu
capital. In 1627 Ts'ung-chtog, the last emperor of invasion:
the Ming dynasty, ascended the Chinese throne. In I7tl>
his reign English merchants first made their appearance '
at Canton. The empire was now torn by internal dissensions.

i98

CHINA

[HISTORY

Rebel bands, enriched by plunder, and grown bold by success,
. began to assume the proportion of armies. Two rebels, Li
Tsze-ch'Sng and Shang K'o-hi, decided to divide the empire
between them. Li besieged K'ai-fSng Fu, the capital of Ho-nan,
and so long and closely did he beleaguer it that in the consequent
famine human flesh was regularly sold in the markets. At
length an imperial force came to raise the siege, but fearful of
meeting Li's army, they cut through the dykes of the Yellow
River, " China's Sorrow," and flooded the whole country,
including the city. The rebels escaped to the mountains, but
upwards of 200,000 inhabitants perished in the flood, and the
city became a heap of ruins (1642). From K'ai-feng Fu Li
marched against the other strongholds of Ho-nan and Shen-si,
and was so completely successful that he determined to attack
Peking. A treacherous eunuch opened the gates to him, on
being informed of which the emperor committed suicide. When
the news of this disaster reached the general-commanding on the
frontier of Manchu Tatary, he, in an unguarded moment, con-
cluded a peace with the Manchus, and invited them to dispossess
Li Tsze-ch'eng. The Manchus entered China, and after defeating
a rebel army sent against them, they marched towards Peking.
On hearing of the approach of the invaders, Li Tsze-ch'eng,
after having set fire to the imperial palace, evacuated the city,
but was overtaken, and his force was completely routed.
The Chinese now wished the Manchus to retire, but, having
taken possession of Peking, they proclaimed the ninth son of

T'ien-ming emperor of China under the title of Shun-chi,
dynasty? and ad°Pted the name of Ta-ts'ing, or " Great Pure,"

for the dynasty (1644). Meanwhile the mandarins
at Nanking had chosen an imperial prince to ascend the throne.
At this most inopportune moment " a claimant " to the throne,
in the person of a pretended son of the last emperor, appeared
at court. While this contention prevailed inside Nanking the
Tatar army appeared at the walls. There was no need for them
to use force. The gates were thrown open, and they took
possession of the city without bloodshed. Following the con-
ciliatory policy they had everywhere pursued, they confirmed
the mandarins in their offices and granted a general amnesty
to all who would lay down their arms. As the Tatars entered the
city the emperor left it, and after wandering about for some
days in great misery, he drowned himself in the Yangtsze-kiang.
Thus ended the Ming dynasty, and the empire passed again under
a foreign yoke. By the Mings, who partly revived the feudal
system by making large territorial grants to members of the
reigning house, China was divided into fifteen provinces; the exist-
ing division into eighteen provinces was made by the Manchus.

AH accounts agree in stating that the Manchu conquerors are
descendants of a branch of the family which gave the Kin dynasty to
the north of China; and in lieu of any authentic account of their
early history, native writers have thrown a cloud of fable over their
origin (see MANCHURIA). In the i6th century they were strong
enough to cope with their Chinese neighbours. Doubtless the Mings
tried to check their ambition by cruel reprisals, but against this must
be put numerous Manchu raids into Liao-tung.

The accession to the throne of the emperor Shun-chi did not restore
peace to the country. In Kiang-si, Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and
Kwang-si the adherents of the Ming dynasty defended themselves
vigorously but unsuccessfully against the invaders, while the pirate
Ch£ng Chi-lung, the father of the celebrated Coxinga, kept up a
predatory warfare against them on the coast. Eventually he was
induced to visit Peking, where he was thrown into prison and died.
Coxinga, warned by his father's example, determined to leave the
mainland and to seek an empire elsewhere. His choice fell on
Formosa, and having driven out the Dutch, who had established
themselves in the island in 1624, he held possession until the reign of
K'ang-hi, when (1682) he resigned in favour of the imperial goyern-
ment. Meanwhile a prince of the house of Ming was proclaimed
emperor in Kwang-si, under the title of Yung-li. The Tatars having
reduced Fu-kien and Kiang-si, and having taken Canton after a
siege of eight months, completely routed his followers, and Yung-li
was compelled to fly to Pegu. Some years later, with the help of
adherents in Yun-nan and Kwei-chow, he tried to regain the throne,
but his army was scattered, and he was taken prisonerand strangled.
Gradually opposition to the new regime became weaker and weaker,
and the shaved head with the pig-tail — the symbol of Tatar
sovereignty — became more and more adopted. In 1651 died Ama
Wang, the uncle of Shun-chi, who had acted as regent during his
nephew's minority, and the emperor then assumed the government

of the state. He appears to have taken a great interest in science,
and to have patronized Adam Schaal, a German Jesuit, who was at
that time resident at Peking. It was during his reign (1656) that
the first Russian embassy arrived at the capital, but as the envoy
declined to kowtow before the emperor he was sent back without
having been admitted to an audience.

After an unquiet reign of seventeen years Shun-chi died (1661).
and was succeeded by his son K'ang-hi. He came intocollision with
the Russians, who had reached the Amur regions about 1640 and had
built a fort on the upper Amur; but by the Treaty of Nerchinsk, con-
cluded in 1689 (the first treaty made between China and a European
power), the dispute was settled, the Amur being taken as the frontier.
K'ang-hi was indefatigable in administering the affairs of the empire,
and he devoted much of his time to literary and scientific studies
under the guidance of the Jesuits. The dictionary of the Chinese
language, published under his superintendence, proves him to have
been as great a scholar as his conquests over the Eleuths show him
to have been famous as a general. During one of his hunting expe-
ditions to Mongolia he caught a fatal cold, and he died in 1721.
Under his rule Tibet was added to the empire, which extended from
the Siberian frontier to Cochin-China, and from the China Sea to
Turkestan. During his reign there was a great earthquake at Peking,
in which 400,000 people are said to have perished.

K'ien-lung, who began to reign in 1735, was ambitious and warlike.
He marched an army into Hi, which he converted into a Chinese
province, and he afterwards added eastern Turkestan to the empire.
Twice he invaded Burma, and once he penetrated into Cochin-China,
but in neither country were his arms successful. He is accused of
great cruelty towards his subjects, which they repaid by rebelling
against him. During his reign the Mahommedan standard was first
raised in Kan-suh. (Since the Mongol conquest in the I3th century
there had been a considerable immigration of Moslems into western
China; and numbers of Chinese had become converts). But the
Mussulmans were unable to stand against the imperial troops;
their armies were dispersed ; ten thousand of them were exiled ; and
an order was issued that every Mahommedan in Kan-suh above the
age of fifteen should be put to death (1784).

K'ien-lung wrote incessantly, both poetry and prose, collected
libraries and republished works of value. His campaigns furnished
him with themes for his verses, and in the Summer Palace was found
a handsome manuscript copy of a laudatory poem he composed on
the occasion of his war against the Gurkhas. This was one of the
most successful of his military undertakings. His generals marched
70,000 men into Nepal to within 60 miles of the British frontiers,
and having subjugated the Gurkhas they received the submission of
the Nepalese, and acquired an additional hold over Tibet (1792).
In other directions his arms were not so successful. There is no poem
commemorating the campaign against the rebellious Formosans,
nor lament over the loss of 100,000 men in that island, and the last
few years of his reign were disturbed by outbreaks among the Miao-
tsze, hill tribes living in the mountains in the provinces of Kwei-chow
and Kwang-si. In 1795, after a reign of sixty years, K'ien-lung
abdicated in favour of his fifteenth son, who adopted the title of
Kia-k'ing as the style of his reign. K'ien-lung died at the age of
eighty-eight in 1798.

During the reign of K'ien-lung commerce between Europe
and Canton — the only Chinese port then open to foreign trade —
had attained important dimensions. It was mainly
in the hands of the Portuguese, the British and the
Dutch. The British trade was then a monopoly of the
East India Company. The trade, largely in opium, tea and silk,
was subject to many exactions and restrictions,1 and many acts
of gross injustice were committed on the persons of Englishmen.
To obtain some redress the British government at length sent
an embassy to Peking (1793) and Lord Macartney was chosen
to represent George III. on the occasion. The mission was treated
as showing that Great Britain was a state tributary to China,
and Lord Macartney was received with every courtesy. But the
concessions he sought were not accorded, and in this sense his
mission was a failure.

Kia-k'ing's reign was disturbed and disastrous. In the
northern and western provinces, rebellion after rebellion broke
out, due in a great measure to the carelessness, incompetency
and obstinacy of the emperor, and the coasts were infested with
pirates, whose number and organization enabled them for a long
time to hold the imperial fleet in check. Meanwhile the condition
of the foreign merchants at Canton had not improved, and to set
matters on a better footing the British government despatched
a second ambassador in the person of Lord Amherst to Peking
in 1816. As he declined to kowtow before the emperor, he was
not admitted to the imperial presence and the mission proved

1 See Morse's Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire,
chap. ix.

HISTORY]

CHINA

199

abortive. Destitute of all royal qualities, a slave to his passions,
and the servant of caprice, Kia-k'ing died in 1820. The event
fraught with the greatest consequences to China which occurred
in his reign (though at the time it attracted little attention) was
the arrival of the first Protestant missionary, Dr R. Morrison
(q.v.), who reached Canton in 1807.

Tao-kwang (1820-1850), the new emperor, though possessed
in his early years of considerable energy, had no sooner ascended
the throne than he gave himself up to the pursuit of pleasure.
The reforms which his first manifestoes foreshadowed never
seriously occupied his attention. Insurrection occurred in
Formosa, Kwang-si, Ho-nan and other parts of the empire, and
the Triad Society, which had originated during the reign of
K'ang-hi, again became formidable.

More important to the future of the country than the internal
disturbances was the new attitude taken at this time towards
China by the nations of Europe. Hitherto the European
missionaries and traders in China had been dependent upon
the goodwill of the Chinese. The Portuguese had been allowed
to settle at Macao (g.v.) for some centuries; Roman Catholic
missionaries since the time of Ricci had been alternately patron-
ized and persecuted; Protestant missionaries had scarcely
gained a foothold; the Europeans allowed to trade at Canton
continued to suffer under vexatious regulations — the Chinese
in general regarded Europeans as barbarians, " foreign devils."
Of the armed strength of Europe they were ignorant. They were
now to be undeceived, Great Britain being the first power to
take action. The hardships inflicted on the British merchants
at Canton became so unbearable that when, in 1834, the mono-
poly of the East India Company ceased, the British government
sent Lord Napier as minister to superintend the foreign trade
at that port. Lord Napier was inadequately supported, and the
anxieties of his position brought on an attack of fever, from
which he died at Macao after a few months' residence in China.
The chief cause of complaint adduced by the mandarins was
the introduction of opium by the merchants, and for years
they attempted by every means in their power to put a stop
to its importation. At length Captain (afterwards Admiral
Sir Charjes) Elliot, the superintendent of trade, in 1839 agreed
that all the opium in the hands of Englishmen should be given
up to the native authorities, and he exacted a pledge from the
merchants that they would no longer deal in the drug. On the
3rd of April 20,283 chests of opium were banded over to the
mandarins and were by them destroyed. The surrender of the
War with opium led to further demands by Lin Tze-su, the
Great Chinese imperial commissioner, demands which were
Britain, considered by the British government to amount to
'**'• a casus belli, and in 1840 war was declared. In the
same year the fleet captured Chusan, and Li the following year
the Bogue Forts fell, in consequence of which operations the
Chinese agreed to cede Hong-Kong to the victors and to pay
them an indemnity of 6,000,000 dollars. As soon as this news
reached Peking, Ki Shen, who had succeeded Commissioner Lin,
was dismissed from his post and degraded, and Yi Shen, another
Tatar, was appointed in his room. Before the new commissioner
reached his post Canton had fallen into the hands of Sir Hugh
Gough, and shortly afterwards Amoy, Ning-po, Tinghai in
Chusan, Chapu, Shanghai and Chin-kiang Fu shared the same
fate. Nanking would also have been captured had not the
imperial government, dreading the loss of the " Southern
Capital," proposed terms of peace. Sir Henry Pottinger, who
had succeeded Captain Elliot, concluded, in 1842, a treaty with
the imperial commissioners, by which the four additional ports
of Amoy, Fu-chow, Ningpo and Shanghai were declared open to
foreign trade, and an indemnity of 21,000,000 dollars was to be
paid to the British.

On the accession of Hien-fSng in 1850, a demand was laised for
the reforms which had been hoped for under Tao-kwang, but Hien-
Hlen-teng ^nS possessed in an exaggerated form the selfish and
emperor, tyrannical nature of his father, together with a voluptu-
ary's craving for every kind of sensual pleasure. For some
time Kwang-si had been in a very disturbed state, and when the
people found that there was no hope of relief from the oppression

they endured, they proclaimed a youth, who was said to be the
representative of the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, as emperor,
under the title of T'ien-tfi or " Heavenly Virtue." From Kwang-si
the revolt spread into Hu-peh and Hu-nan, and then languished Irom
want of a leader and a definite political cry. When! however, there
appeared to be a possibility that, by force of arms and the per-
suasive influence of money, the imperialists would re-establish their
supremacy, a leader presented himself in Kwang-si, whose energy of
character, combined with great political and religious enthusiasm,
speedily gained for him the suffrages of the discontented. This was
Hung Siu-ts'uan. He proclaimed himself as sent by heaven to drive
out the Tatars, and to restore in his own person the succession to
China. At the same time, having been converted to Christianity and
professing to abhor the vices and sins of the age. he called on all the
virtuous of the land to extirpate rulers who were standing examples
of all that was base and vile in human nature. Crowds soon flocked
to his standard. T'ien-tS was deserted; and putting himself at the
head of his followers (who abandoned the practice of shaving the
head), Hung Siu-ts'uan marched northwards and captured Wu-
ch'ang on the Yangtsze-kiang, the capital of Hu-peh. Then, moving
down the river, he proceeded to the attack of Nanking. Without
much difficulty Hung Siu-ts'uan in 1853 established himself within
its walls, and proclaimed the inauguration of the T'ai-p'ing dynasty,
of which he nominated himself the first emperor under the title of
T'ien Wang or " Heavenly king." During the next few years his
armies penetrated victoriously as far north as Tientsin and as far east
as Chin-kiang and Su-chow, while bands of sympathizers with his
cause appeared jn the neighbourhood of Amoy. As if still -, , ,.
further to aid him in his schemes, Great Britain declared ' jlTm
war against the Tatar dynasty in 1857, in consequence of '
an outrage known as the "Arrow" affair (see PARKES, SIR HARRY
SMITH). In December 1857 Canton was taken by the British, and a
further blow was struck against the prestige of the Manchu dynasty
by the determination of Lord Elgin, who had been sent as special
ambassador, to go to Peking and communicate directly witn the
emperor. In May 1858 the Taku Forts were taken, and Lord Elgin
went up the Peiho to Tientsin en route for the capital.' At Tientsin,
however, imperial commissioners persuaded him to conclude a treaty
with them on the spot, which treaty it was agreed should be ratified
at Peking in the following^ year. When, however, Sir Frederick
Bruce, who had been appointed minister to the court of Peking,
attempted to pass Taku to carry out this arrangement, the vessels
escorting him were treacherously fired on from the forts and he was
compelled to return. Thereupon Lord Elgin was again sent out with
full powers, accompanied by a large force under the command of Sir
Hope Grant. The French (to seek reparation for the murder of a
missionary in Kwang-si) took part in the campaign, and on the 1st of
August 1860 the allies landed without meeting with any opposition
at Pei-tang, a village 12 m. north of Taku. A few days later the forts
at that place were taken, and thence the allies marched to Peking.
Finding _ further resistance to be hopeless, the Chinese opened
negotiations, and as a guarantee of their good faith surrendered the
An-ting gate of the capital to the allies. On the 24th of October
1860 the treaty of 1858 was ratified by Prince Kung and Lord Elgin,
and a convention was signed under the terms of which the Chinese
agreed to pay a war indemnity of 8,000,000 taels. The right of
Europeans to travei in the interior was granted and freedom guaran-
teed to the preaching of Christianity. The customs tariff then agreed
upon legalized the import of opium, though the treaty of 1858, like
that of 1842, was silent on the subject.

Great Britain and France were not the only powers of Europe with
whom Hien-fSng was called to deal. On the northern border of the
empire Russia began to exercise pressure. Russia had begun to
colonize the_ lower Amur region, and was pressing towards the
Pacific. This was a remote region, only part of the Chinese empire
since the Manchu conquest, and by treaties of 1858 and 1860 China
ceded _to Russia all its territory north of the Amur and between the
Ussuri and the Pacific (see AMUR, province). The Russians in their
newly acquired land founded the port of Vladivostok (q.v.).

Hien-fSng_ died in the summer of the year 1861, leaving the
throne to his son T'ung-chi (1861-1875), a child of five years old,
whose mother, Tsz'e Hsi (1834-1908), had been raised
from the place of favourite concubine to that of Imperial emt
Consort. The legitimate empress, Tsz'e An, was childless, ao^a
and the two dowagers became joint regents. The con- emor.
elusion of peace with the allies was the signal for a .

renewal of the campaign against the T'ai-p'ings, and, "
benefiting by the friendly feelings of the British authorities engen-
dered by the return of amicable relations, the Chinese government
succeeded in enlisting Major Charles George Gordon (q.v.) of the
Royal Engineers in their service. In a suprisingiy short space of
time this officer formed the troops, which had rormerly been under
the command of an American named Ward, into a formidable army,
and without delay took the field against the rebels. From that day
the fortunes of the T'ai-p'in^s declined. They lost city after city,
and, finally in July 1864, the imperialists, after an interval of twelve
years, once more gained possession of Nanking. T'ien Wang com-
mitted suicide on the capture of his capital, and with him fell his
cause. Those of his followers who escaped the sword dispersed
throughout the country, and the T'ai-p'ings ceased to be.

2OO

CHINA

[HISTORY

With the measure of peace which was then restored to the country
trade rapidly revived, except in Yun-nan, where the Mahommedan
rebels, known as Panthays, under Suleiman, still kept the imperial
forces at bay. Against these foes the government was careless to
take active measures, until in 1872 Prince Hassan, the adopted son
of Suleiman, was sent to England to gain the recognition of the
queen for his father's government. This step aroused the sus-
ceptibilities of the imperial government, and a large force was
despatched to the scene of the rebellion. Before the year was put
the Mahommedan capital Ta-li Fu fell into the hands of the im-
perialists, and the followers of Suleiman were mercilessly exter-
minated. In February 1 873 the two dowager empresses resigned their
powers as regents. This long-expected time was seized upon by the
foreign ministers to urge their right of audience with the emperor,
and on the zgth of June 1873 the privilege of gazing on the " sacred
countenance " was accorded them.

The emperor T'ung-chi died without issue, and the succession to
the throne, for the first time in the annals of theTs'ing dynasty,
passed out of the direct line. As already stated, the first
1 emperor of the Ts'ing dynasty, Shih-tsu Hwangti, on
MM** gaining possession of the throne on the fall of the Ming,
»u, US7S. or „ Great Bright " dynasty, adopted the title of Shun-
chi for his reign, which began in the year 1644. The legendary
progenitor of these Manchu rulers was Aisin Gioro, whose name is
said to point to the fact of his having been related to the race of
Nii-chih, or Kin, i.e. Golden Tatars, who reigned in northern China
during the I2th and I3th centuries. K'ang-hi (1661-1722) was the
third son of Shun-chi; Yung-chlng (1722-1735) was the fourth son
of K'ang-hi; K'ien-lung (1736-1795) was the fourth son of Yung-
chfing; Kia-k'ing (1796-1820) was the fifteenth son of K'ien-lung;
Tao-Kwang (1821-1850) was the second son of Kia-k'ing; Hien-
flng (1851—1861) was the fourth of the nine sons who were born to
the emperor Tao-kwang; and T'ung-chi (1862-1875) was the only
son of Hien-fSng. The choice now fell upon Tsai-t'ien (as he was
called at birth), the infant son (born August 2, 1872) of Yi-huan,
Prince Chun, the seventh son of the emperor Tao-kwang and brother
of the emperor Hien-fSng; his mother was a sister of the empress
Tsz'e Hsi, who, with the aid of Li Hung-chang, obtained his adoption
and proclamation as emperor, under the title of Kwang-su, " Suc-
cession of Glory."

In order to prevent the confusion which would arise among the
princes of the imperial house were they each to adopt an arbitrary
Hal name' the emperor K'ang-hi decreed that each of his
I mil twenty-four sons should have a personal name consisting

"omeacla- °^ two characters, the first of which should be Yung, and
tare and tn? se<;orld should be compounded with the determinative
rank shih, " to manifest," an arrangement which would, as has

been remarked, find an exact parallel in a system by which
the sons in an English family might be called Louis Edward, Louis
Edwin, Louis Edwy, Louis Edgar and so on. This device obtained also
in the next generation, all the princes of which had Hung for their
first name, and the emperor K'ien-lung (1736-1795) extended it into
a system, and directed that the succeeding generations should take
the four characters Yung, Mien Yih and Tsai respectively, as the
first part of their names. Eight other characters, namely, P'u, Yu,
Heng, K'i, Tao, K'ai, Tseng,Kt, were subsequently added, thus provid-
ing generic names for twelve generations. With the generation repre-
sented by Kwang-su the first four characters were exhausted, and
any sons of the emperor Kwang-su would therefore have been called
P'u. By the ceremonial law of the " Great Pure " dynasty, twelve
degrees of rank are distributed among the princes of the imperial
house, and are as follows: (i) Ho-shih Tsin Wang, prince of the
first order; (2) To-lo Keun Wang, prince of the second order;
(3) To-lo Beileh, prince of the third order; (4) Ku-shan Beitsze,
prince of the fourth order; 5 to 8, Kung, or duke (with distinctive
designations) ; 9 to 12, Tsiang-keun, general (with distinctive desig-
nations). The sons of emperors usually receive patents of the first
or second order on their reaching manhood, and on their sons is
bestowed the title of Beileh. A Beileh' s sons become Beitsze; a
Beitsze's sons become Kung, and so on. (R. K. D.; X.)

(D)— From 1875 t° 1901.

The accession to the throne of Kwang-su in January 1875
attracted little notice outside China, as the supreme power
continued to be vested in the two dowager-empresses
The two — |-ne empress Tsz'e An, principal wife of the emperor
Hien-feng, and the empress Tsz'e Hsi, secondary wife
of the same/ emperor, and mother of the emperor
T'ung-chi. Yet there were circumstances connected with the
emperor Kwang-su's accession which might well have arrested
attention. The emperor T'ung-chi, who had himself succumbed
to an ominously brief and mysterious illness, left a young widow
in an advanced state of pregnancy, and had she given birth to a
male child her son would have been the rightful heir to the throne.
But even before she sickened and died — of grief, it was officially

stated, at the loss of her imperial spouse — the dowager-empresses
had solved the question of the succession by placing Kwang-su
on the throne, a measure which was not only in itself arbitrary,
but also in direct conflict with one of the most sacred of Chinese
traditions. The solemn rites of ancestor-worship, incumbent on
every Chinaman, and, above all, upon the emperor, can only be
properly performed by a member of a younger generation than
those whom it is his duty to honour. The emperor Kwang-su,
being a first cousin to the emperor T'ung-chi, was not therefore
qualified to offer up the customary sacrifices before the ancestral
tablets of his predecessor. The accession of an infant in the
place of T'ung-chi achieved, however, for the time being what
was doubtless the paramount object of the policy of the two
empresses, namely, their undisturbed tenure of the regency, in
which the junior empress Tsz'e Hsi, a woman of unquestionable
ability and boundless ambition, had gradually become the
predominant partner.

The first question that occupied the attention of the govern-
ment under the new reign was one of the gravest importance,
and nearly led to a war with Great Britain. The Indian
government was desirous of seeing the old trade relations
between Burma and the south-west provinces, which had been
interrupted by the Yun-nan rebellion, re-established, and for that
purpose proposed to send a mission across the frontier into China.
The Peking government assented and issued passports
for the party, which was under the command of Colonel Mf^er
Browne. Mr A. R. Margary, a'young and promising Margary.
member of the China consular service, who was told
off to accompany the expedition as interpreter, was treacherously
murdered by Chinese at the small town of Manwyne and almost
simultaneously an attack was made on the expedition by armed
forces wearing Chinese uniform (January 1875). Colonel Browne
with difficulty made his way back to Bhamo and the expedition
was abandoned.

Tedious negotiations followed, and, more than eighteen months
after the outrage, an arrangement was come to on the basis of
guarantees for the future, rather than vengeance for
the past. The arrangement was embodied in the
Chifu convention, dated i3th September 1876. The is76.
terms of the settlement comprised (i) a mission ot
apology from China to the British court; (2) the promulgation
throughout the length and breadth of the empire of an imperial
proclamation, setting out the right of foreigners to travel under
passport, and the obligation of the authorities to protect them;
and (3) the payment of indemnity. Additional articles were
subsequently signed in London relative to the collection of likin
on Indian opium and other matters.

Simultaneously with the outbreak of the Mahommedan
rebellion in Yun-nan, a similar disturbance had arisen
in the north-west provinces of Shen-si and Kan-suh. ^^.*/n
This was followed by a revolt of the whole of the Asia.
Central Asian tribes, which for two thousand years had
more or less acknowledged the imperial sway. In Kashgaria a
nomad chief named Yakub Beg, otherwise known as the Atalik
Ghazi, had made himself amir, and seemed likely to establish
a strong rule. The fertile province of Kulja or Ili, lying to the
north of the T'ianshan range, was taken possession of by Russia
in 1871 in order to put a stop to the prevailing anarchy, but
with a promise that when China should have succeeded in
re-establishing order in her Central Asian dominions it should be
given back. The interest which was taken in the rebellion in
Central Asia by the European powers, notably by the sultan of
Turkey and the British government, aroused the Chinese to
renewed efforts to recover their lost territories, and, as in the
case of the similar crisis in Yun-nan, they undertook the task
with sturdy deliberation. They borrowed money — £1,600,000 —
for the expenses of the expedition, this being the first appearance
of China as a borrower in the foreign markets, and appointed the
viceroy, Tso Tsung-t'ang, commander-in-chief. By degrees the
emperor's authority was established from the confines of Kan-suh
to Kashgar and Yarkand, and Chinese garrisons were stationed
in touch with the Russian outpost in the region of the Pamirs

HISTORY]

CHINA

201

(December 1877). Russia was now called upon to restore
Kulja, China being in a position to maintain order. China
despatched Chung-how, a Manchu of the highest rank, who had
been notoriously concerned in the Tientsin massacre of 1870,
to St Petersburg to negotiate a settlement. After some months
of discussion a document was signed (September 1879), termed
the treaty of Livadia, whereby China recovered, not
imperial indeed the whole, but a considerable portion of the
disputed territory, on her paying to Russia five million
roubles as the cost of occupation. The treaty was,
however, received with a storm of indignation in China.
Memorials poured in from all sides denouncing the treaty and
its author. Foremost among these was one by Chang Chih-
tung, who afterwards became the most distinguished of the
viceroys, and governor-general of Hu-peh and Hu-nan provinces.
Prince Chun, the emperor's father, came into prominence at this
juncture as an advocate for war, and under these combined
influences the unfortunate Chung-how was tried and condemned
to death (3rd of March 1880). For some months warlike pre-
parations went on, and the outbreak of hostilities was imminent.
In the end, however, calmer counsels prevailed. It was decided
to send the Marquis Tseng, who in the meantime had become
minister in London, to Russia to negotiate. A new treaty
which still left Russia in possession of part of the Hi valley
was ratified on the igth of August 1881. The Chinese govern-
ment could now contemplate the almost complete recovery of
the whole extensive dominions which had at any time owned
the imperial sway. The regions directly administered by the
officers of the emperor extended from the borders of Siberia
on the north to Annam and Burma on the south, and from
the Pacific Ocean on the east to Kashgar and Yarkand on the
west. There was also a fringe of tributary nations which still
kept up the ancient forms of allegiance, and which more or
less acknowledged the dominior of the central kingdom. The
principal tributary nations then were Korea, Lu-chu, Annam,
Burma and Nepal.

Korea was the first of the dependencies to come into notice. In
1866 some Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered, and
about the same time an American vessel was burnt in one of the
rivers and her crew murdered. China refused satisfaction, both
to France and America, and suffered reprisals to be made on
Korea without protest. America and Japan both desired to
conclude commercial treaties for the opening up of Korea, and
proposed to negotiate with China. China refused and
referred them to the Korean government direct, saying
she was not wont to interfere in the affairs of her vassal
states. As a result Japan concluded a treaty in 1876, in which
the independence of Korea was expressly recognized. This was
allowed to pass without protest, but as other nations proceeded
to conclude treaties on the same terms China began to perceive
her mistake, and endeavoured to tack on to each a declaration
by the king that he was in fact a tributary — a declaration,
however, which was quietly ignored. Japan, however, was the
only power with which controversy immediately arose. In 1882
a faction fight, which had long been smouldering, broke out,
headed by the king's father, the Tai Won Kun, in the course of
which the Japanese legation was attacked and the whole Japanese
colony had to flee for their lives. China sent troops, and by
adroitly kidnapping the Tai Won Kun, order was for a time
restored. The Japanese legation was replaced, but under the
protection of a strong body of Japanese troops. Further revolu-
tions and riots followed, in which the troops of the two countries
took sides, and there was imminent danger of war. To obviate
this risk, it was agreed in 1885 between Count Ito and Li Hung-
Chang that both sides should withdraw their troops, the king
being advised to engage officers of a third state to put his army
on such a footing as would maintain order, and each undertook
to give the other notice should it be found necessary to send
troops again. In this way a modus vivendi was established
which lasted till 1894.

We can only glance briefly at the domestic affairs of China dur-
ing the period 1875-1882. The years 1877-1878 were marked by

a famine in Shan-si and Shan-tung, which for duration and
intensity has probably never been equalled. It was computed
that 12 or 13 millions perished. It was vainly hoped
that this loss of life, due mainly to defective com-
munications, would induce the Chinese government
to listen to proposals for railway construction.
The Russian scare had, however, taught the Chinese the value
of telegraphs, and in 1881 the first line was laid from Tientsin
to Shanghai. Further construction was continued without
intermission from this date. A beginning also was made in
naval affairs. The arsenal at Fuchow was turning out small
composite gunboats, a training ship was bought and put under
the command of a British officer. Several armoured cruisers
were ordered from England, and some progress was made
with the fortifications of Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei. Forts
were also built and guns mounted at Fuchow, Shanghai, Canton
and other vulnerable points. Money for these purposes was
abundantly supplied by the customs duties on foreign trade,
and China had learnt that at need she could borrow from the
foreign banks on the security of this revenue.

In 1881 the senior regent, the empress Tsz'e An, was carried
off by a sudden attack of heart disease, and the empress Tsz'e Hsi
remained in undivided possession of the supreme power during
the remainder of the emperor Kwang-su's minority. Li Hung-
Chang, firmly established at Tientsin, within easy reach of the
capital, as viceroy of the home province of Chihli and super-
intendent of northern trade, enjoyed a larger share of his imperial
mistress's favour than was often granted by the ruling Manchus
to officials of Chinese birth, and in all the graver -questions of
foreign policy his advice was generally decisive.

While the dispute with Japan was still going on regarding
Korea, China found herself involved in a more serious quarrel in
respect of another tributary state which lay on the
southern frontier. By a treaty made between France roughing
and Annam in 1874, the Red river or Songkoi, which, Hanoi
rising in south-western China, flows through Tongking,
was opened to trade, together with the cities of Haiphong and
Hanoi situated on the delta. The object of the French was to
find a trade route to Yun-nan and Sze-ch'uen from a base of their
own, and it was hoped the Red river would furnish such a
route. Tongking at this time, however, was infested with bands
of pirates and cut-throats, many of whom were Chinese rebels
or ex-rebels who had been driven across the frontier by the
suppression of the Yun-nan and Taiping rebellions, conspicuous
among them being an organization called the Black Flags.
And when in 1882 France sent troops to Tongking to restore
order (the Annamese government having failed to fulfil its
promises in that respect) China began to protest, claiming that
Annam was a vassal state and under her protection.

France took no notice of the protest, declaring that the claim had
merely an archaeological interest, and that, in any case, China in
military affairs was a quantite negligeable. France found, _ . .
however, that she had undertaken a very serious task in wlf£
trying to put down the forces of disorder (see TONGKING). France
The Black Flags were, it was believed, being aided by
money and arms from China, and as time went on, the French were
more and more being confronted with regular Chinese soldiers.
Several forts, well within the Tongking frontier, were known to be
garrisoned by Chinese troops. Operations continued with more or
less success during the winter and spring of 1883-1884. Both sides,
however, were desirous of an arrangement, and in May 1884 a con-
vention was signed between Li Hung-Chang and a Captain Fournier,
who had been commissioned ad hoc, whereby China agreed to with-
draw her garrisons and to open her frontiers to trade, France agreeing,
on her part, to respect the fiction of Chinese suzerainty, and guarantee
the frontier from attack by_ brigands. No date had been fixed in the
convention for the evacuation of the Chinese garrisons, and Fournier
endeavoured to supplement this by a memorandum to Li Hung-
Chang, at the same time announcing the fact to his government. In
pursuance of this arrangement the French troops proceeded to occupy
Langson on the date fixed (2ist June 1884). The Chinese com-
mandant refused to evacuate, alleging, in a despatch which no one
in the French camp was competent to translate, that he had received
no orders, and begged for a short delay to enable him to communicate
with his superiors. The French commandant ordered an attack,
which was repulsed with severe loss. Mutual recriminations ensued.
From Paris there came a demand for a huge indemnity as reparation

202

CHINA

[HISTORY

for the insult. The Peking government offered to carry out the
convention, and to pay a small indemnity for the lives lost through
the misunderstanding. This was refused, and hostilities recom-
menced, or, as the French preferred to call them, reprisals, for the
fiction was still kept up that the two countries were not at war.
Under cover of this fiction the French fleet peaceably entered the
harbour of Fuchow, having passed the forts at the entrance to the
river without hindrance. Once inside, they attacked and destroyed
the much inferior Chinese fleet which was then quietly at anchor,
destroying at the same time a large part of the arsenal which adjoins
the anchorage (23rd August 1 884). _ Retracing its steps, the French
fleet attacked and destroyed with impunity the forts which were
built to guard the entrance to the Min river, and could offer no
resistance to a force coming from the rear. After this exploit the
French fleet left the mainland and continued its reprisals on the coast
of Formosa. Kelung, a treaty port, was bombarded and taken,
October 4th. A similar attempt, however, on the neighbouring port
of Tamsui was unsuccessful, the landing party having been driven
back to their ships with severe loss. The attempt was not renewed,
and the fleet thereafter confined itself to a semi-blockade of the
island, which was prolonged into 1885 but led to no practical results.
Negotiations for peace, however, which had been for some time in
progress through the mediation of Sir Robert Hart, were at this
juncture happily concluded (April 1885). The terms were practically
those of the Fournier convention of the year before, the demand for
an indemnity having been quietly dropped.

China, on the whole, came out of the struggle with greatly
increased prestige. She had tried conclusions with a first-class
European power and had held her own. Incorrect
increased conclusions as to the military strength of China were
consequently drawn, not merely by the Chinese them-
selves— which was excusable — but by European and
even British authorities, who ought to have been better informed.
War vessels were ordered by China both from England and
Germany, and Admiral Lang, who had withdrawn his services
while the war was going on, was re-engaged together with a
number of British officers and instructors. The completion of
the works at Port Arthur was taken in hand, and a beginning
was made in the construction of forts at Wei-hai-wei as a second
naval base. A new department was created for the control of
naval affairs, at the head of which was placed Prince Chun,
father of the emperor, who since the downfall of Prince Kung
in 1884 had been taking a more and more prominent part in
public affairs.

From 1885 to 1894 the political history of China does not call
for extended notice. Two incidents, however, must be recorded,
(i) the conclusion in 1886 of a convention with Great Britain, in
which the Chinese government undertook to recognize British
sovereignty in Burma, and (2) the temporary occupation of Port
Hamilton by the British fleet (May i88s-February
1887). In 1890 Admiral Lang resigned his command
of the Chinese fleet. During a temporary absence of
Lang's colleague, Admiral Ting, the Chinese second in command,
claimed the right to take charge — a claim which Admiral Lang
naturally resented. The question was referred to Li Hung-
Chang, who decided against Lang, whereupon the latter threw
up his commission. From this point the fleet on which so much
depended began to deteriorate. Superior officers again began
to steal the men's pays, the ships were starved, shells filled with
charcoal instead of powder were supplied, accounts were cooked,
and all the corruption and malfeasance that were rampant in
the army crept back into the navy.

The year 1894 witnessed the outbreak of the war with Japan.
In the spring, complications again arose with Japan over Korea,
and hostilities began in July. The story of the war is
told elsewhere (see CHINO- JAPANESE WAR), and it is
unnecessary here to recount the details of the decisive
victory of Japan. A new power had arisen in the
Far East, and when peace was signed by Li Hung-Chang at
Shimonoseki on the 17th of April 1895 it meant the beginning
of a new epoch. The terms included the cession of Liao-tung
peninsula, then in actual occupation by the Japanese troops,
the cession of Formosa, an indemnity of H. taels 200,000,000
(about £30,000,000) and various commercial privileges.

The signature of this treaty brought the European powers on
the scene. It had been for some time the avowed ambition of
Russia to obtain an ice-free port as an outlet to her Siberian

1X85-
1894.

1894.

possessions — an ambition which was considered by British states-
men as not unreasonable. It did not, therefore, at all suit her
purposes to see the rising power of Japan commanding
the whole of the coast-line of Korea. Accordingly in ^^^a"
the interval between the signature and the ratification vent/on,
of the treaty, invitations were addressed by Russia
to the great powers to intervene with a view to its modifica-
tion on the ground of the disturbance of the balance of power,
and the menace to China which the occupation of Port Arthur by
the Japanese would involve. France and Germany accepted the
invitation, Great Britain declined. In the end the three powers
brought such pressure to bear on Japan that she gave up the
whole of her continental acquisitions, retaining only the island of
Formosa. The indemnity was on the other hand increased by
H. taels 30,000,000. For the time the integrity of China seemed
to be preserved, and Russia, France and Germany could pose as
her friends. Evidence was, however, soon forthcoming that
Russia and France had not been disinterested in rescuing
Chinese territory from the Japanese grasp. Russia now obtained
the right to carry the Siberian railway across Chinese territory
from Stryetensk to Vladivostok, thus avoiding a long detour,
besides giving a grasp on northern Manchuria. France obtained,
by a convention dated the 2oth of June 1895, a rectification of
frontier in the Mekong valley and certain railway and mining
rights in Kiang-si and Yun-nan. Both powers obtained con-
cessions of land at Hankow for the purposes of a settlement.
Russia was also said to have negotiated a secret treaty, fre-
quently described as the " Cassini Convention," but more
probably signed by Li Hung-Chang at Moscow, giving her the
right in certain contingencies to Port Arthur, which was to be
refortified with Russian assistance. And by way of further
securing her hold, Russia guaranteed a 4% loan of £15,000,000
issued in Paris to enable China to pay off the first instalment of
the Japanese indemnity. . > • v

The convention between France and China of the aoth of June
1895 brought China into sharp conflict with Great Mekong
Britain. China, having by the Burma convention of valley
1886 agreed to recognize British sovereignty over dispute,
Burma, her quondam feudatory, also agreed to a de- I89S~
limitation of boundaries at the proper time. Effect was given to
this last stipulation by a subsequent convention concluded in
London (ist of March 1894), which traced the boundary line from
the Shan states on the west as far as the Mekong river on the east.
In the Mekong valley there were two semi-independent native
territories over which suzerainty had been claimed in times gone
by both by the kings of Ava and by the Chinese emperors.
These territories were named Meng Lun and Kiang Hung — the
latter lying partly on one side and partly on the other of the
Mekong river, south of the point where it issues from Chinese
territory. The boundary line was so drawn as to leave both
these territories to China, but it was stipulated that China should
not alienate any portion of these territories to any other power
without the previous consent of Great Britain. Yielding to
French pressure, and regardless of the undertaking she had
entered into with Great Britain, China, in the convention with
France in June 1895, so drew the boundary line as to cede to
France that portion of the territory of Kiang Hung which lay
on the left bank of the Mekong. Compensation was demanded
by Great Britain from China for this breach of faith, and at the
same time negotiations were entered into with France. These
resulted in a joint declaration by the governments of France and
Great Britain, dated the isth of January 1896, by which it was
agreed as regards boundary that the Mekong from the point of
its confluence with the Nam Huk northwards as far as the
Chinese frontier should be the dividing line between the pos-
sessions or spheres of influence of the two powers. It was also
agreed that any commercial privileges obtained by either power
in Yun-nan or Sze-ch'uen should be open to the subjects of the
other. The negotiations with China resulted in a further agree-
ment, dated the 4th of February 1897, whereby considerable
modifications in favour of Great Britain were made in the
Burma boundary drawn by the 1894 convention.

HISTORY]

CHINA

203

While Russia and France were profiting by what they were
pleased to call the generosity of China, Germany alone had so far

received no reward for her share in compelling the
£o^c ' '' retrocession of Liao-tung; but, in November 1897, she
Arthur, 'proceeded to help herself by seizing the Bay of
Wei-hai- Kiaochow in the province of Shan-tung. The act was

done ostensibly in order to compel satisfaction for the
murder of two German missionaries. A cession was ultimately
made by way of a lease for a term of ninety-nine years — Germany
to have full territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the
lease, with liberty to erect fortifications, build docks, and exercise
all the rights of sovereignty. In December the Russian fleet was
sent to winter in Port Arthur, and though this was at first de-
scribed as a temporary measure, its object was speedily disclosed
by a request made, in January 1898, by the Russian ambassador
in London that two British cruisers, then also anchored at Port
Arthur, should be withdrawn " in order to avoid friction in the
Russian sphere of influence." They left shortly afterwards, and
their departure in the circumstances was regarded as a blow to
Great Britain's prestige in the Far East. In March the Russian
government peremptorily demanded a lease of Port Arthur and
the adjoining anchorage of TalienWan — a demand which China
could not resist without foreign support. After an acrimonious
correspondence with the Russian government Great Britain
acquiesced in the fait accompli. The Russian occupation of Port
Arthur was immediately followed by a concession to build a line
of railway from that point northwards to connect with the
Siberian trunk line in north Manchuria. As a counterpoise to the
growth of Russian influence in the north, Great Britain obtained
a lease of Wei-hai-wei, and formally took possession of it on its
evacuation by the Japanese troops in May 1898.

After much hesitation the Chinese government had at last
resolved to permit the construction of railways with foreign
capital. An influential official named Sheng Hsuan-hwai was
appointed director-general of railways, and empowered to enter
into negotiations with foreign capitalists for that purpose.
A keen competition thereupon ensued between syndicates of
different nationalities, and their claims being espoused by their
various governments, an equally keen international rivalry was
set up. Great Britain, though intimating her preference for the

"open door" policy, meaning equal opportunity for

aH> vet found herself compelled to fall in with the
and general movement towards what became known as the

" sp/""*8 " spheres of influence" policy, and claimed the Yangtsze
fluence." valley as her particular sphere. This she did by the

somewhat negative method of obtaining from the
Chinese government a declaration that no part of the Yangtsze
valley should be alienated to any foreign power. A more formal
recognition of the claim, as far as railway enterprise was con-
cerned, was embodied in an agreement (28th of April 1899)
between Great Britain and Russia, and communicated to the
Chinese government, whereby the Russian government agreed
not to seek for any concessions within the Yangtsze valley,
including all the provinces bordering on the great river, together
with Cheh-kiang and Ho-nan, the British government entering
into a similar undertaking in regard to the Chinese dominions
north of the Great Wall.1

In 1899 Talienwan and Kiaochow were respectively thrown open
by Russia and Germany to foreign trade, and, encouraged by these
measures, the United States government initiated in September of
the same year a correspondence with the great European powers and
Japan, with a view to securing their definite adhesion to the " open
door " policy. The British government gave an unqualified approval
to the American proposal, and the replies of the other powers,
though more guarded, were accepted at Washington as satisfactory.
A further and more definite step towards securing the maintenance
of the " open door " in China was the agreement concluded in October
1900 between the British and German governments. The signatories,
by the first two articles, agreed to endeavour to keep the ports on the
rivers and littoral free and open to international trade and economic
activity, and to uphold this rule for all Chinese territory as far as (wo

1 A supplementary exchange of notes of the same date excepted
from the scope of this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang
extension which had already been conceded to the Hongkong &
Shanghai Bank.

in the German counterpart) they could exercise influence; not to use
the existing complications to obtain territorial advantages in Chinese
dominions, and to seek to maintain undiminished the territorial
condition of the Chinese empire. By a third article they reserved
their right to come to a preliminary understanding for the protection
of their interests in China, should any other power use those compli-
cations to obtain such territorial advantages under any form what-
ever. _ On the submission of the agreement to the powers interested,
Austria, France, Italy and Japan accepted its principles without
express reservation — Japan first obtaining assurances that she signed
on the same footing as an original signatory. The United States
accepted the first two articles, but expressed no opinion on the third.
Russia construed the first as limited to ports actually open in regions
where the two signatories exercise " their " influence, and favourably
entertained it in that sense, ignoring the reference to other forms of
economic activity. She fully accepted the second, and observed that
in the contingency contemplated by the third, she would modify her
attitude according to circumstances.

Meanwhile, negotiations carried on by the British minister at
Peking during 1898 resulted in the grant of very important privileges
to foreign commerce. The payment of the second instalment of the
Japanese indemnity was becoming due, and it was much discussed
how and on what terms China would be able to raise the amount.
The Russian government, as has been stated, had made China a loan
of the sum required for the first portion of the indemnity, viz.
£15,000,000, taking a charge on the customs revenue as security.
The British government was urged to make a like loan of £16,000,000
botn as a matter of friendship to China and as a counterpoise to the
Russian influence. An arrangement was come to accordingly, on
very favourable terms financially to the Chinese, but at the last
moment they drew back, being overawed, as they said, by the
threatening attitude of Russia. Taking advantage of the position
which this refusal gave him, the British minister obtained from the
Tsung-Li- Yamen, besides the declaration as to the non-alienation ot
the Yangtsze valley above mentioned, an undertaking to throw the
whole of the inland waterways open to steam traffic. The Chinese
government at the same time undertook that the post of inspector-
general of customs (then held by Sir Robert Hart) should always be
held by an Englishman so long as the trade of Great Britain was
greater than that of any other nation. Minor concessions were also
made, but the opening of the waterways was by far the greatest
advance that had been made since 1860.

Of still greater importance were the railway and mining concessions
granted during the same year (1898). The Chinese government had
been generally disposed to railway construction since the conclusion
of the Japanese War, but hoped to be able to retain the control in
their own hands. The masterful methods of Russia and Germany
had obliged them to surrender this control so far as concerned
Manchuria and Shan-tung. In the Yangtsze valley, Sheng, the
director-general of railways, had been negotiating with several
competing syndicates. One of these was a Franco-Belgian syndicate,
which was endeavouring to obtain the trunk line from Hankow to
Peking. A British company was tendering for the same work, and
as the line lay mainly within the British sphere it was considered
not unreasonable to expect it should be given to the latter. At a
critical moment, however, the French and Russian ministers inter-
vened, and practically forced the Yamen to grant a contract in favour
of the Franco-Belgian company. The Yamen had a few days before
explicitly promised the British minister that the contract should not
be ratified without his having an opportunity of seeing it. As a
penalty for this breach of faith, and as a set-off to the Franco-Belgian
line, the British minister required the immediate grant of all the
railway concessions for which British syndicates were then negotiat-
ing, and on terms not inferior to those granted to the Belgian line.
In this way all the lines in the lower Yangtsze, as also the Shan-si
Mining Companies' lines, were secured. A contract for a trunk line
from Canton to Hankow was negotiated in the latter part of 1898 by
an American company.

There can be little doubt that the powers, engrossed in the
diplomatic conflicts of which Peking was the centre, had
entirely underrated the reactionary forces gradually mustering
for a struggle against the aggressive spirit of Western civilization.
The lamentable consequences of administrative corruption and
incompetence, and the superiority of foreign methods which
had been amply illustrated by the Japanese War, had at first
produced a considerable impression, not only upon the more
enlightened commercial classes, but even upon many of the
younger members of the official classes in China. The dowager-
empress, who, in spite of the emperor Kwang-su having nominally
attained his majority, had retained practical control of the
supreme power until the conflict with Japan, had been held,
not unjustly, to blame for the disasters of the war, and even
before its conclusion the young emperor was adjured by some
of the most responsible among his own subjects to shake himself
free from the baneful restraint of " petticoat government,"

204

CHINA

[HISTORY

and himself take the helm. In the following years a reform
movement, undoubtedly genuine, though opinions differ as to
The reform the value of the popular support which it claimed,
move- spread throughout the central and southern pro-
men*, vinces of the empire. One of the most significant
1898. symptoms, was the relatively large demand which
suddenly arose for the translations of foreign works and similar
publications in the Chinese language which philanthropic societies,
such as that " for the Diffusion of Christian and General Know-
ledge amongst the Chinese," had been trying for some time
past to popularize, though hitherto with scant success. Chinese
newspapers published in the treaty ports spread the ferment of
new ideas far into the interior. Fifteen hundred young
men of good family applied to enter the foreign university
at Peking, and in some of the provincial towns the Chinese
themselves subscribed towards the opening of foreign schools.
Reform societies, which not infrequently enjoyed official coun-
tenance, sprang up in many of the large towns, and found
numerous adherents amongst the younger literati. Early in 1898
the emperor, who had gradually emancipated himself from the
dowager-empress's control, summoned several of the reform
leaders to Peking, and requested their advice with regard to
the progressive measures which should be introduced into the
government of the empire. Chief amongst these reformers was
Kang Yu-wei, a Cantonese, whose scholarly attainments, com-
bined with novel teachings, earned for him from his followers
the title of the " Modern Sage." Of his more or less active
sympathizers who had subsequently to suffer with him in the
cause of reform, the most prominent were Chang Yin-huan, a
member of the grand council and of the Tsung-Li-Yamen, who
had represented his sovereign at Queen Victoria's jubilee in
1897; Chin Pao-chen, governor of Hu-nan; Liang Chichao, the
editor of the reformers' organ, Chinese Progress; Su Chiching,
a reader of the Hanlin College, the educational stronghold of
Chinese conservatism; and his son Su In-chi, also a Hanlin
man, and provincial chancellor of public instruction in Hu-nan.

It soon became evident that there was no more enthusiastic
advocate of the new ideas than the emperor himself. Within a
few months the vermilion pencil gave the imperial sanction to
a succession of edicts which, had they been carried into effect,
would have amounted to a revolution as far-reaching as that
which had transformed Japan thirty years previously. The
fossilized system of examinations for the public service was to
be altogether superseded by a new schedule based on foreign
learning, for the better promotion of which a number of temples
were to be converted into schools for Western education; a state
department was to be created for the translation and dissemina-
tion of the standard works of Western literature and science;
even the scions of the ruling Manchu race were to be compelled
to study foreign languages and travel abroad; and last, but not
least, all useless offices both in Peking and in the provinces were
to be abolished. A further edict was even reported to be in
contemplation, doing away with the queue or pigtail, which,
originally imposed upon the Chinese by their Manchu conquerors
as a badge of subjection, had gradually become the most
characteristic and most cherished feature of the national
dress. But the bureaucracy of China, which had battened for
centuries on corruption and ignorance, had no taste for self-
sacrifice. Other vested interests felt themselves equally
threatened, and behind them stood the whole latent force of
popular superstition and unreasoning conservatism.

The dowager-empress saw her opportunity. The Summer
Palace, to which she had retired, had been for some time the
centre of resistance to the new movement, and in the middle of
September 1898 a report became current that, in order to put
an end to the obstruction which hampered his reform policy,
the emperor intended to seize the person of the dowager-empress
and have her deported into the interior. Some colour was given
to this report by an official announcement that the emperor would
hold a review of the foreign-drilled troops at Tientsin, and had
summoned Yuan Shihkai, their general, to Peking in order to
confer with him on the necessary arrangements. But the re-

formers had neglected to secure the goodwill of the army, which
was still entirely in the hands of the reactionaries. During the
night of the 2oth of September the palace of the em- The
peror was occupied by the soldiers, and on the following Empnt*'*
day Kwang-su, who was henceforth virtually a prisoner <Muf
in the hands of the empress, was made to issue an *""•*•
edict restoring her regency. Kang Yu-wei, warned at the last
moment by an urgent message from the emperor, succeeded in
escaping, but many of the most prominent reformers were
arrested, and six of them were promptly executed. The Peking
Gazette announced a few days later that the emperor himself was
dangerously ill, and his life might well have been despaired of had
not the British minister represented in very emphatic terms the
serious consequences which might ensue if anything happened to
him. Drastic measures were, however, adopted to stamp out
the reform movement in the provinces as well as in the capital.
The reform edicts were cancelled, the reformers' associations
were dissolved, their newspapers suppressed, and those who did
not care to save themselves by a hasty recantation of their errors
were imprisoned, proscribed or exiled. In October the reaction
had already been accompanied by such a recrudescence of anti-
foreign feeling that the foreign ministers at Peking had to bring
up guards from the fleet for the protection of the legations, and to
demand the removal from the capital of the disorderly Kan-suh
soldiery which subsequently played so sinister a part in the
troubles of June 1900. But the unpleasant impression produced
by these incidents was in a great measure removed by the
demonstrative reception which the empress Tsz'e Hsi gave on
the 1 5th of October to the wives of the foreign representatives
— an act of courtesy unprecedented in the annals of the Chinese
court.

The reactionary tide continued to rise throughout the year
1899, but it did not appear materially to affect the foreign
relations of China. Towards the end of the year The Boxer
the brutal murder of Mr Brooks, an English mis- move-
sionary, in Shan-tung, had compelled attention to a
popular movement which had been spreading rapidly
throughout that province and the adjoining one of Chih-li
with the connivance of certain high officials, if not under their
direct patronage. The origin of the " Boxer " movement is obscure.
Its name is derived from a literal translation of the Chinese
designation, " the fist of righteous harmony." Like the kindred
" Big Sword " Society, it appears to have been in the first
instance merely a secret association of malcontents chiefly
drawn from the lower classes. Whether the empress Tsz'e Hsi
and her Manchu advisers had deliberately set themselves
from the beginning to avert the danger by deflecting what
might have been a revolutionary movement into anti-foreign
channels, or whether with Oriental heedlessness they had
allowed it to grow until they were powerless to control it, they
had unquestionably resolved to take it under their protection
before the foreign representatives at Peking had realized its
gravity. The outrages upon native Christians and the threats
against foreigners generally went on increasing. The Boxers
openly displayed on their banners the device: " Exterminate
the foreigners and save the dynasty," yet the representatives
of the powers were unable to obtain any effective measures
against the so-called " rebels," or even a definite condemnation
of their methods.1

Four months (January- April 1900) were spent in futile inter-
views with the Tsung-Li-Yamen. In May a number of Christian
villages were destroyed and native converts massacred near the
capital. On the 2nd of June two English missionaries, Mr
Robinson and Mr Norman, were murdered at Yung Ching, 40 m.
from Peking. The whole country was overrun with bands of
Boxers, who tore up the railway and set fire to the stations at
different points on the Peking-Tientsin line. Fortunately a

1 The religious aspect of the Boxer movement gave it strength.
Its disciples believed that the spirits which defended China were
incensed by the introduction of Western methods and ideals. Many
of them believed themselves to be invulnerable to any Western
weapon. (See Lord W. Cecil, Changing China, 1910, ch. i.)

HISTORY]

CHINA

205

mixed body of marines and bluejackets of various nationalities,
numbering 18 officers and 389 men, had reached Peking on the
ist of June for the protection of the legations. The whole city
was in a state ot turmoil. Murder and pillage were of daily
occurrence. The reactionary Prince Tuan (grandson of the
emperor Tao-kwang) and the Manchus generally, together with
the Kan-suh soldiery under the notorious Tung-fu-hsiang,
openly sided with the Boxers. The European residents and a
large number of native converts took refuge in the British
legation, where preparations were hastily made in view of a
threatened attack. On the nth the chancellor of the Japanese
legation, Mr Sugiyama, was murdered by Chinese soldiers. On
the night of the i^th most of the foreign buildings, churches and
mission houses in the eastern part of the Tatar city were pillaged
and burnt, and hundreds of native Christians massacred. On
the 2oth of June the German minister, Baron von Ketteler, was
murdered whilst on his way to the Tsung-Li-Yamen. At 4 P.M.
on the afternoon of the 2oth the Chinese troops opened fire
upon the legations. The general direction of the defence was
undertaken by Sir Claude Macdonald, the British minister.

Meanwhile Peking had been completely cut off since the I4th
from all communication with the outside world, and in view of
inter- tne gravitv of the situation, naval and military forces
nation*! were being hurried up by all the powers to the Gulf
expedi- of Chih-li. On the loth of June Admiral Sir E. Seymour
had already left Tientsin with a mixed force of 2000
British, Russian, French, Germans, Austrians, Italians, Ameri-
cans and Japanese, to repair the railway and restore communica-
tions with Peking. But his expedition met with unexpectedly
severe resistance, and it had great difficulty in making good
its retreat after suffering heavy losses. When it reached Tientsin
again on the 26th of June, the British contingent of 915 men had
alone lost 124 killed and wounded out of a total casualty list of
62 killed and 218 wounded. The Chinese had in the meantime
made a determined attack upon the foreign settlements at
Tientsin, and communication between the city and the sea
being also threatened, the Taku forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho
were captured by the allied admirals on the I7th. The situation
at Tientsin nevertheless continued precarious, and it was not
till the arrival of considerable reinforcements that the troops
of the allied powers were able to assume the offensive, taking
the native city by storm on July I4th, at a cost, however, of
over 700 killed and wounded. Even in this emergency inter-
national jealousy had grievously delayed the necessary con-
centration of forces. No power was so favourably situated to
take immediate action as Japan, and the British government,
who had strongly urged her to act speedily and energetically,
undertook at her request to sound the other powers with regard
to her intervention. No definite objection was raised, but the
replies of Germany and Russia barely disguised their ill-humour.
Great Britain herself went so far as to offer Japan the assistance
of the British treasury, in case financial difficulties stood in the
way, but on the same day on which this proposal was telegraphed
to Tokyo (6th of July), the Japanese government had decided
to embark forthwith the two divisions which it had already
mobilized. By the beginning of August one of the Indian
brigades had also reached Tientsin together with smaller rein-
forcements sent by the other powers, and thanks chiefly to the
energetic counsels of the British commander, General Sir Alfred
Gaselee, a relief column, numbering 20,000 men, at last set out for
Peking on the4th of August, a British naval brigade having started
up river the previous afternoon. After a series of small engage-
ments and very trying marches it arrived within striking distance
cf Peking on the evening of the I3th. The Russians tried to steal
a march upon the allies during the night, but were checked at the
walls and suffered heavy losses. The'Japanese attacked another
point of the walls the next morning, but met with fierce opposi-
tion, whilst the Americans were delayed by getting entangled in
the Russian line of advance. The British contingent was more
fortunate, and skilfully guided to an unguarded water-gate,
General Gaselee and a party of Sikhs were the first to force
their way through to the British legation. About 2 p.m.

on the afternoon of the I4th of August, the long siege was
raised.

For nearly six weeks after the first interruption of communica-
tions, no news reached the outside world from Peking except a
few belated messages, smuggled through the Chinese
lines by native runners, urging the imperative neces-
sity of prompt relief. During the greater part of that
period the foreign quarter was subjected to heavy rifle
and artillery fire, and the continuous fighting at close quarters
with the hordes of Chinese regulars, as well as Boxers, decimated
the scanty ranks of the defenders. The supply of both ammuni-
tion and food was slender. But the heroism displayed by civilians
and professional combatants alike was inexhaustible. In their
anxiety to burn out the British legation, the Chinese did not
hesitate to set fire to the adjoining buildings of the Hanlin, the
ancient seat of Chinese classical learning, and the storehouse of
priceless literary treasures and state archives. The Fv, or
palace, of Prince Su, separated only by a canal from the British
legation, formed the centre of the international position, and
was held with indomitable valour by a small Japanese force
under Colonel Sheba, assisted by a few Italian marines and
volunteers of other nationalities and a number of Christian
Chinese. The French legation on the extreme right, and the
section of the city wall held chiefly by Germans and Americans,
were also points of vital importance which had to bear the
brunt of the Chinese attack.

Little is known as to what passed in the councils of the Chinese
court during the siege.1 But there is reason to believe that throughout
that period grave divergences of opinion existed amongst the highest
officials. The attack upon the legations appears tq have received
the sanction of the dowager-empress, acting upon the advice of Prince
Tuan and the extreme Manchu party, at a grand council held during
the night of the iSth/igth June, upon receipt of the news of the
capture of the Taku forts by the international forces. The emperor
himself, as well as Prince Chmg and a few other influential mandarins,
strongly protested against the empress's decision, but it was acclaimed
by the vast majority of those present. Three members of the Tsung-
Li-Yamen were publicly executed for attempting to modify the terms
of an imperial edict ordering the massacre of all foreigners throughout
the provinces, and most of the Manchu nobles and high officials, and
the eunuchs of the palace, who played an important part in Chinese
politics throughout the dowager-empress's tenure of power, were
heart and soul with the Boxers. But it was noted by the defenders
of the legations that Prince Ching's troops seldom took part, or only
in a half-hearted way, in the fighting, which was chiefly conducted by
Tung-f u-hsiang's soldiery and the Boxer levies. The modern artillery
which the Chinese possessed was only spasmodically brought into
play. Nor did any of the attacking parties ever show the fearlessness
and determination which the Chinese had somewhat unexpectedly
displayed on several occasions during the fighting at and around
Tientsin. Nevertheless, the position of the defenders at the end of
the first four weeks of the siege had grown well-nigh desperate.
Mining and incendiarism proved far greater dangers than shot and
shell. Suddenly, just when things were looking blackest, on the i/th
of July the Chinese ceased firing, and a sort of informal armistice
secured a period of respite for the beleaguered Europeans. The
capture of the native city of Tientsin by the allied forces had shaken
the self-confidence of the Chinese authorities, who had hitherto not
only countenanced, but themselves directed the hostilities.8 De-
sultory fighting, nevertheless, continued, and grave fears were enter-
tained that the approach of the relief column would prove the signal
for a desperate attempt to rush the legations. The attempt was
made, but failed. The relief, however, came not a day too soon.
Of the small band of defenders which, including civilian volunteers,
had never mustered 500, 65 had been killed and 131 wounded.
Ammunition and provisions were almost at an end. Even more
desperate was the situation at the Pei-tang, the Roman Catholic
northern cathedral and mission house, where, with the help of a small
body of French and Italian marines, Mgr Favier had organized an
independent centre of resistance for his community of over 3000
souls. Their rations were absolutely exhausted when, on the

1 The diary of a Manchu noble printed in China under the
Empress Dowager (1910) by J. O. Bland and E. Backhouse throws
light on the subject. It was to Jung-Lu, father-in-law of Prince
Chin, that the legations owed their escape from extermination.

1 It was at this time (July lyth) that the intense anxiety of the
civilized world with regard to the fate of the besieged reached its
culminating point. Circumstantial accounts of the fall of the lega-
tions and the massacre of their inmates were circulated in Shanghai
and found general credence. It was not till near the end of the
month that an authentic message from the American minister
proved these fears to be premature.

206

CHINA

[HISTORY

/ono
order.

of August, a relief party was despatched to their assistance from the
legations.

The ruin wrought in Peking during the two months' fighting
was appalling. Apart from the wholesale destruction of foreign
property in the Tatar city, and of Chinese as well as
European buildings in the vicinity of the legations, the
wealthiest part of the Chinese city had been laid in
ashes. The flames from a foreign drug store fired by the Boxers
had spread to the adjoining buildings, and finally consumed the
whole of the business quarter with all its invaluable stores of
silks, curiosities, furs, &c. The retribution which overtook
Peking after its capture by the international forces was scarcely
less terrible. Looting was for some days almost universal. Order
was, however, gradually restored, first in the Japanese and then
in the British and American quarters, though several months
elapsed before there was any real revival of native confidence.

So unexpected had been the rapid and victorious advance of
the allies, that the dowager-empress with the emperor and the
Flight rest °f tne court did not actually leave Peking until
of the the day after the legations had been relieved. But
Chinese the northern and western portions of the Tatar city
court< had not yet been occupied, and the fugitives made
good their escape on the i5th. When the allies some days later
marched through the Forbidden City, they only found a few
eunuchs and subordinate officials in charge of the imperial
apartments. At the end of September, Field Marshal Count von
Waldersee, with a German expeditionary force of over 20,000
men, arrived to assume the supreme command conferred upon
him with the more or less willing assent of the other powers.

The political task which confronted the powers after the occu-
pation of Peking was far more arduous than the military one.
The action of the Russians in Manchuria, even in a
treatv Port like Niu-chwang, the seizure of the railway
^ne not onty to t*16 north of the Great Wall, but also
from Shan-hai-kwan to Peking, by the Russian military
authorities, and the appropriation of an extensive line of river
frontage at Tientsin as a Russian " settlement," were difficult to
reconcile with the pacific assurances of disinterestedness which
Russia, like the rest of the powers, had officially given. Great
anxiety prevailed as to the effect of the flight of the Chinese court
in other parts of the empire. The anti-foreign movement had not
spread much beyond the northern provinces, in which it had had
the open support of the throne and of the highest provincial
officials. But among British and Americans alone, over 200
defenceless foreigners, men, women and children, chiefly mission-
aries, had fallen victims to the treachery of high-placed mandarins
like Yii Hsien, and hundreds of others had had to fly for their
lives, many of them owing their escape to the courageous protec-
tion of petty officials and of the local gentry and peasantry.
In the Yangtsze valley order had been maintained by the energy
of the viceroys of Nanking and Wu-chang, who had acted
throughout the critical period in loyal co-operation with the
British consuls and naval commanders, and had courageously
disregarded the imperial edicts issued during the ascendancy
of the Boxers. After some hesitation, an Indian brigade,
followed by French, German and Japanese contingents, had
been landed at Shanghai for the protection of the settlements,
and though the viceroy, Liu Kun-yi, had welcomed British sup-
port, and even invited the joint occupation of the Yangtsze forts
by British and Chinese troops, the appearance of other European
forces in the Yangtsze valley was viewed with great suspicion. In
the south there were serious symptoms of unrest, especially after
Li Hung-Chang had left Canton for the north, in obedience, as he
alleged at the time, to an imperial edict which, there is reason to
believe, he invented for the occasion. The Chinese court, after
one or two intermediate halts, had retired to Si-gan-fu, one of
the ancient capitals of the empire, situated in the inaccessible
province of Shen-si, over 600 m. S.W. of Peking. The influence
of the ultra-reactionaries, headed by Prince Tuan and General
Tung-fu-hsiang, still dominated its councils, although credentials
were sent to Prince Ching and to Li Hung-Chang, who, after
waiting upon events at Shanghai, had proceeded to Peking,

authorizing them to treat with the powers for the re-establish-
ment of friendly relations.

The harmony of the powers, which had been maintained with
some difficulty up to the relief of the legations, was subjected
to a severe strain as soon as the basis of negotiations
with the Chinese government came to be discussed.
While for various reasons Russia, Japan and the
United States were inclined to treat China with great,
indulgence, Germany insisted upon the signal punishment of
the guilty officials as a conditio sine qua non, and in this she had
the support not only of the other members of the Triple Alliance,
but also of Great Britain, and to some extent even of France,
who, as protector of the Roman Catholic Church in Eastern
countries, could not allow the authors of the atrocities committed
upon its followers to escape effectual punishment. It was not
until after months of laborious negotiations that the demands
to be formally made upon the Chinese government were em-
bodied in a joint note signed by all the foreign ministers on
the 20th and 2ist of December 1900. The demands were sub-
stantially as follows:

Honourable reparation for the murder of von Kctteler and of Mr
Sugiyama, to be made in a specified form, and expiatory monuments
to be erected in cemeteries where foreign tombs had been desecrated.

The most severe punishment befitting their crimes " was to be
inflicted on the personages designated by the decree of the 2ist of
September, and also upon others to be designated later by the
foreign ministers, and the official examinations were to be suspended
in the cities where foreigners had been murdered or ill-treated. An
equitable indemnity, guaranteed by financial measures acceptable
to the powers, was to be paid to states, societies and individuals,
including Chinese who had suffered because of their employment by
foreigners, but not including Chinese Christians who had suffered
only on account of their faith. The importation or manufacture of
arms or materiel was to be forbidden; permanent legation guards
were to be maintained at Peking, and the diplomatic quarter was
to be fortified, while communication with the sea was to be secured
by a foreign military occupation of the strategic points and by the
demolition of the Chinese forts, including the Taku forts, between the
capital and the coast. Proclamations were to be posted throughout
China for two years, threatening death to the members of anti-foreign
societies, and recording the punishment of the ringleaders in the late
outrages: and the viceroys, governors and provincial officials were
to be declared by imperial edict responsible, on pain of immediate
dismissal and perpetual disability to hold office, for anti-foreign
outbreaks or violations of treaty within their jurisdictions. China
was to facilitate commercial relations by negotiating a revision of the
commercial treaties. The Tsung-Li-Yamen was to be reformed and
the ceremonial for the reception of foreign ministers modified as the
powers should demand. Compliance with these terms was declared
to be a condition precedent to the arrangement of a time limit
to the occupation of Peking and of the provinces by foreign troops.

Under instructions from the court, the Chinese plenipoten-
tiaries affixed their signatures on the i4th of January 1901 to a
protocol, by which China pledged herself to accept these terms in
principle, and the conference of ministers then proceeded to
discuss the definite form in which compliance with them was to be
exacted. This further stage of the negotiations proved even more
laborious and protracted than the preliminary proceedings. No
attempt was made to raise the question of the dowager-empress's
responsibility for the anti-foreign movement, as Russia had from
the first set her face against the introduction of what she euphe-
mistically termed " the dynastic question." But even with
regard to the punishment of officials whose guilt was beyond
dispute, grave divergences arose between the powers. The death
penalty was ultimately waived in the case even of such con-
spicuous offenders as Prince Tuan and Tung-fu-hsiang, but the
notorious Yii Hsien and two others were decapitated by the
Chinese, and three other metropolitan officials were ordered to
commit suicide, whilst upon others sentences of banishment,
imprisonment and degradation were passed, in accordance with
a list drawn up by the foreign representatives. The question of
the punishment of provincial officials responsible for the massacre
of scores of defenceless men, women and children was unfor-
tunately reserved for separate treatment, and when it came
up for discussion it became impossible to preserve even the
semblance of unanimity, the Russian minister at once taking
issue with his colleagues, although he had originally pledged
himself as formally as the others to the principle. Count

HISTORY]

CHINA

207

Lamsdorff frankly told the British ambassador at St Petersburg
that Russia took no interest in missionaries, and as the foreigners
massacred in the provinces belonged mostly to that class, she
declined to join in the action of the other powers.

The real explanation of Russia's cynical secession from the
concert of powers on this important issue must be sought in her
anxiety to conciliate the Chinese in view of the separate
Kussia negotiations in which she was at the same time engaged
with China in respect of Manchuria. When the Boxer
movement was at its height at the end of June 1900, the
Chinese authorities in Manchuria had wantonly " declared war "
against Russia, and for a moment a great wave of panic seems to
have swept over the Russian administration, civil and military, in
the adjoining provinces. The reprisals exercised by the Russians
were proportionately fierce. The massacre at Blagovyeshchensk,
where 5000 Chinese — men, women and children — were flung into
the Amur by the Cossacks, was only one incident in the reign of
terror by which the Russians sought to restore their power and
their prestige. The resistance of the Chinese troops w£.s soon
overcome, and Russian forces overran the whole province,
occupying even the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The Russian
government officially repudiated all responsibility for the
proclamations issued by General Gribsky and others, foreshadow-
ing, if not actually proclaiming, the annexation of Chinese
territory to the Russian empire. But Russia was clearly bent on
seizing the opportunity for securing a permanent hold upon
Manchuria. In December 1900 a preliminary agreement was
made between M. Korostovetz, the Russian administrator-
general, and Tseng, the Tatar general at Mukden, by which the
civil and military administration of the whole province was
virtually placed under Russian control. In February 1901
negotiations were opened between the Russian government and
the Chinese minister at St Petersburg for the conclusion of a
formal convention of a still more comprehensive character.
In return for the restoration to China of a certain measure
of civil authority in Manchuria, Russia was to be confirmed
in the possession of exclusive military, civil and commercial
rights, constituting in all but name a protectorate, and she
was also to acquire preferential rights over all the outlying
provinces of the Chinese empire bordering on the Russian
dominions in Asia. The clauses relating to Chinese Turkestan,
Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Mongolia were subsequently
stated to have been dropped, but the convention nevertheless
provoked considerable opposition both in foreign countries and
amongst the Chinese themselves. Most of the powers, including
Germany, who, however, denied that the Anglo-German agree-
ment of the i6th of October 1900 applied to Manchuria,1 advised
the Chinese government not to pursue separate negotiations with
one power whilst collective negotiations were in progress at
Peking, and both Japan and Great Britain pressed for definite
information at St Petersburg with regard to the precise tenor
of the proposed convention. At the same time the two viceroys
of the lower Yangtsze memorialized the throne in the strongest
terms against the convention, and these protests were endorsed
not only by the great majority of Chinese officials of high rank
throughout the provinces, but by popular meetings and influ-
ential guilds and associations. Ultimately the two viceroys,
Chang Chih-tung and Liu Kun-yi,2 took the extreme step of
warning the throne that they would be unable to recognize the
convention, even if it were ratified, and notwithstanding the
pressure exercised in favour of Russia by Li Hung-Chang, the
court finally instructed the Chinese minister at St Petersburg
to decline his signature. The attitude of Japan, where public

1 In negotiating this agreement Lord Salisbury appears to have
been largely influenced by the aggressive features of Russia's action
in North China, while Germany appears to have been actuated by a
desire to forestall isolated action by Great Britain in the Yangtsze
basin. In Germany the agreement was known as the Yangtsze
Agreement. Great Britain held, however, that it applied equally to
Manchuria. ,

1 Liu Kun-yi died in 1902. In the same year died Tao-mu, the
viceroy of Canton. In these men China lost two of her most capable
and enlightened officials.

feeling ran high, was equally significant, and on the 3rd of April
the Russian' government issued a circular note to the powers,
stating that, as the generous intentions of Russia had been
misconstrued, she withdrew the proposed convention.

The work of the conference at Peking, which had been tem-
porarily disturbed by these complications, was then resumed.
Friction between European troops of different nation-
alities and an Anglo-Russian dispute over the construe- n* ^^
tion of certain roads and railway sidings at Tientsin /po/0"
showed that an international occupation was fraught
with manifold dangers. The question of indemnities, however,
gave rise to renewed friction. Each power drew up its own
claim, and whilst Great Britain, the United States and Japan
displayed great moderation, other powers, especially Germany
and Italy, put in claims which were strangely out of proportion
to the services rendered by their military and naval forces.
It was at last settled that China should pay altogether an in-
demnity of 450 million taels, to be secured (i) on the unhypothe-
cated balance of the customs revenue administered by the im-
perial maritime customs, the import duties being raised forthwith
to an effective 5% basis; (2) on the revenues of the " native "
customs in the treaty ports; (3) on the total revenues of the
salt gabelle. Finally the peace protocol was drawn up in a
form which satisfied all the powers as well as the Chinese court.
The formal signature was, however, delayed at the last moment
by a fresh difficulty concerning Prince Chun's penitential mission
to Berlin. This prince, an amiable and enlightened youth,* son
of the Prince Chun who was the emperor Hien-feng's brother,
and thus himself half-brother to the emperor Kwang-su, had
reached Basel towards the end of August on his way to Germany,
when he was suddenly informed that he and his suite would
be expected to perform kowtow before the German emperor.
The prince resented this unexpected demand, and referred home
for instructions. The Chinese court appear to have remained
obdurate, and the German government perceived the mistake
that had been made in exacting from the Chinese prince a form of
homage which Western diplomacy had for more than a century
refused to yield to the Son of Heaven, on the ground that it was
barbarous and degrading. The point was waived, and Prince
Chun was received in solemn audience by the emperor William at
Potsdam on the 4th of September. Three days later, on the 7th
of September, the peace protocol was signed at Peking.

The articles recorded the steps to be taken to satisfy the
demands of the powers as to commerce. Article n provided
for the amendment of existing treaties of commerce and
navigation, and for river conservancy measures at Tientsin and
Shanghai. The British government appointed a special com-
mission, with Sir J. Mackay, member of the council of India, as
chief commissioner, to proceed to Shanghai to carry on the
negotiations, and a commercial treaty was signed at Shanghai on
the 6th of September 1902, by which existing obstacles to foreign
trade, such as likin, &c., were removed, regulations were made
for facilitating steamer navigation on inland waters, and several
new ports were opened to foreign commerce.

In accordance with the terms of the protocol, all the foreign
troops, except the legation guards, were withdrawn from Peking
on the 1 7th of September, and from the rest of Chih-li, except
the garrisons at the different points specified along the line of
communications, by the 22nd of September. On the 7th of
October it was announced that the Chinese court had left Si-gan-
fu on its way back to the northern capital. A month later (7th
of November) the death of Li Hung-Chang at Peking removed,
if not the greatest of Chinese statesmen, at any rate the one
who had enjoyed the largest share of the empress-dowager's
confidence. (V. C.)

(E) — From 1901 to igio.

The events connected with the Boxer rising and its sup-
pression demonstrated even more forcibly than had the war
with Japan in 1894-1895 the necessity for the adoption of

* Prince Chun was born in 1882. He was the first member of the
imperial family to be sent on a foreign mission.

208

CHINA

[HISTORY

Western methods in many departments of life and administra-
tion if China was to maintain the position of a great power.

The necessity for a thorough reform of the adminis-
•• Awaken- tra(.;on was widely recognized in 1901, and among the
C'IOM." progressive classes of the community much dis-

appointment was manifested because the powers had
failed to insist, in the conditions of peace, on a reorganization of
the machinery of government. The Yangtsze viceroys, the viceroy
at Canton, Yuan Shih-kai and other high mandarins repeatedly
memorialized the throne to grant effective reforms. While at
Si-gan-fu the court did in fact issue several reform decrees, but
at the same time all authority remained in the hands of reac-
tionaries. There had been an awakening in China, but another
lesson — afforded a few years later by the Russo-Japanese War —
was needed before the reform party was able to gain real power.
For three or four years following the signing of the peace
protocol of 1901 it seemed indeed that there would be little
change in the system of government, though in some directions
a return to the old state of affairs was neither possible nor
desired. On the 7th of January 1902 the court returned to
Peking — a step which marked the restoration, more or less, of
normal conditions. The failure of the Boxer movement, in
which, as has been shown, she was deeply implicated, had im-
pressed upon the dowager empress the need for living on better
terms with foreign powers, but the reform edicts issued from
Si-gan-fu remained largely inoperative, though some steps were
taken to promote education on Western lines, to readjust the
land tax, and especially to reorganize the military forces (though
on provincial rather than on a national basis). The building of
railways was also pushed on, but the dowager empress was
probably at heart as reactionary as she had proved in 1808.
The emperor himself from his return to Peking until the day of
his death appeared to have little influence on public affairs.
The most disquieting feature of the situation in the years im-
mediately following the return of the court to Peking was the
continued efforts of Russia to obtain full control of Manchuria
and a predominant influence in north China. The Chinese
government was powerless to stem the advance of Russia, and
the dowager empress herself was credited with indifference to
the fate of Manchuria. It was the menace to other powers,
notably Japan, involved in Russia's action which precipitated
an issue in which the destinies of China were involved. Before
considering the results of that struggle (the Russo-Japanese
War) the chief events of the years 1902-1905 may be outlined.

The dowager empress from the day of her return from Si-gan-fu
set herself to conciliate the foreign residents in Peking. Many
Relations foreign onlookers were gathered on the wall of the
with Tatar city to witness the return of the court, and to

these the dowager empress made a deep bow twice,

an apparently trivial incident which made a lasting
impression. On the ist of February following the dowager
empress received the ladies of the various embassies, when she
bewailed the attack on the legations, entertained her guests to
tea and presented each with articles of jewelry, and from that
time onward, as occasion offered, Tsz'e Hsi exchanged compli-
ments and civilities with the foreign ladies in Peking. Moreover,
Sir Robert Hart — after having been nearly forty years in China — •
was now presented at court, as well as Bishop Favier and others.
Henceforth attacks on foreigners received' no direct encourage-
ment at court. Tung Fu-hsiang,1 who had been banished
to the remote province of Kan-suh, had at his command there
his old Boxer troops, and his attitude caused anxiety at the end
of 1902. He was said to have received support from Prince
Tuan — who had been obliged to retire to Mongolia— but events
proved that the power or the intention of these reactionaries to
create trouble had been miscalculated. There were indeed
serious Boxer disturbances in Sze-ch'uen in 1902, but
they were put down by a new viceroy sent from Peking.
Notwithstanding the murder of fifteen missionaries during

1 Tung Fu-hsiang died in 1908. A sum of some £80,000 belonging
to him, and left in the provincial treasury, was appropriated for works
of public utility (see The Times, April 9th, 1910).

1902-1905, there was in general a marked improvement in the
relations between the missionaries, the official classes and the
bulk of the people, and an eagerness was shown in several
provinces to take advantage of their educational work. This
was specially marked in Hu-nan, a province which had been
for long hostile to missionary endeavours. Illustrative of the
attitude of numbers of high officials was the attendance
of the viceroy of Sze-ch'uen, with the whole of his staff, at the
opening in 1905 at Cheng-tu of new buildings of the Canadian
Methodist Mission. This friendly attitude towards the missions
was due in part to the influence of Chinese educated abroad and
also, to a large extent, to the desire to take advantage of Western
culture. The spread of this new spirit was coincident with an
agitation for independence of foreign control and the deter-
mination of the Chinese to use modern methods to attain
their ends. Thus in 1905 there was an extensive boycott of
American goods throughout China, as a retaliatory measure
for the exclusion of Chinese from the United States. Re-
garding, China as a whole the attitude of the people towards
Europeans was held to indicate that the general view was, not
that the Boxer teaching was false, but that the spirits behind
Western religion were more powerful than those behind Boxer-
dom. The spiritual prestige of Christianity and respect for the
power of the foreigner were direct outcomes of the failure of
the Boxers.2 The British expedition to Tibet in 1904, the
occupation of Lhassa in August of that year, the flight of the
Dalai Lama to Mongolia, gave grave concern to the Chinese
government — which showed much persistence in enforcing its
suzerain rights in Tibet — but did not, apparently, cause any ill-
feeling towards Great Britain among the Chinese people — who
viewed with seeming equanimity the flight of the head of the
Buddhist religion from the headquarters of that faith. The
country generally was peaceful, a rebellion in Kwang-si — where
a terrible famine occurred in 1903 — being suppressed in 1904
by the forces of the viceroy at Canton.

The expiatory measures required of China in connexion with
the Boxer rising were carried through. China during 1002
recovered possession of the Peking-Tientsin railway and commer-
of the city of Tientsin, which was evacuated by the clai ana
foreign troops in August of that year. The foreign railway
troops were also all withdrawn from Shanghai by pro***'
January 1903. The conclusion of a new commercial treaty
between Great Britain and China in September 1902 has
already been recorded. The payment of the indemnity instal-
ments occasioned some dispute owing to the fall in silver in
1902, but the rise in the value of the tael in subsequent years
led China to agree to the payment of the indemnity on a gold
basis. The increase in revenue was a notable feature of the
maritime customs in 1903-1905. This result was in part
due to the new arrangements under the commercial treaty
of 1902, and in part to the opening up of the country by
railways. In especial the great trunk line from Peking to
Hankow was pushed on. The line, including a bridge nearly
2 m. long over the Yellow river was completed and opened for
traffic in 1905. The first section of the Shanghai-Nanking
railway was opened in the same year. At this time the Chinese
showed a strong desire to obtain the control of the various
lines. During 1905, for instance, the Canton-Hankow railway
concession was repurchased by the Chinese government from an
American company, while the Pekin Syndicate, a British concern,
also sold their railway in Ho- nan to the Chinese government.

Russia's action regarding Manchuria overshadowed, however,
all other concerns during this period. The withdrawal of the
proposed Russo-Chinese agreement of 1901 has been chronicled.
The Russian government had, however, no intention of abandon-
ing its hold on Manchuria. It aimed not only at effective military
control but the reservation to Russian subjects of mining,
railway and commercial rights. Both the sovereignty of China
and the commercial interests of other nations were menaced.
This led to action by various powers. The preamble of the Anglo-
Japanese treaty of the 3oth of January 1902 declared the main
2 Lord W. Cecil, op. cit. p. 9.

HISTORY]

CHINA

209

motives of the contracting parties to be the maintenance of the
independence and territorial integrity of China and Korea, and

the securing of equal opportunities in those countries
"churia ^or tne commerce and industry of all nations, i.e. the

policy of the " open door." Protests were lodged
by Great Britain, Japan and the United States against the
grant of exclusive rights to Russian subjects in Manchuria.
Russia asserted her intention to respect the commercial rights
of other nations, and on the 8th of April 1902 an agreement
was signed at Peking which appeared to show the good faith of
the Russian government, as it provided for the withdrawal of the
Russian troops in Manchuria within eighteen months from that
date. In accordance with this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-
Niu-chwang railway was transferred to China in October 1902
and the district between Shan-hai-kwan and the Liao river
evacuated by Russia. But it soon appeared that Russia's
hold on the country had not relaxed. Advantage was taken
of the terms of concession granted in August 1896 to the Russo-
Chinese Bank1 to erect towns for Russian colonists and to plant
garrisons along the line of railway, and to exclude Chinese
jurisdiction altogether from the railway zone. The so-called
evacuation became in fact the concentration of the Russian
forces along the line of railway. Moreover, the maritime customs
at Niu-chwang were retained by the Russo-Chinese Bank despite
protests from the Chinese imperial authorities, and a Russian
civil administration was established at that port. The evacua-
tion of southern Manchuria should have taken place in April
1903, but in that month, instead of fulfilling the conditions of
the 1902 agreement, the Russian charge d'affaires in Peking made
a series of further demands upon China, including the virtual
reservation of the commerce of Manchuria for Russian subjects.
Though Russia officially denied to the British and American
governments that she had made these demands, it was demon-
strated that they had been made. The United States and Japan
thereupon insisted that China should conclude with them com-
mercial treaties throwing open Mukden and two ports on the
Yalu river to foreign trade. The American treaty was signed
on the 8th of October 1903 — the day fixed for the complete
evacuation of Manchuria by Russia — and the Japanese treaty on
the day following. Both treaties provided that the ports should
be opened after ratifications had been exchanged. From fear
of Russia China, however, delayed the ratification of the treaties.
Meantime, in August 1903, a regular through railway service
between Moscow and Port Arthur was established. In the same
month a Russian Viceroyalty of the Far East was created
which in effect claimed Manchuria as a Russian province. In
September Russia withdrew some of the demands she had made
in April, but her concessions proved illusory. When the 8th of
October passed and it was seen that the Russians had not with-
drawn their troops2 there issued for a time threats of war
from Peking. Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy of Chih-li, who had
at his command some 65,000 troops trained by Japanese officers,
pressed on the government the necessity of action. At this point
Japan intervened. Her interests were vitally affected by Russia's
action not only in Manchuria, but in Korea, and seeing that
China was powerless the Japanese government negotiated
directly with St Petersburg. In these negotiations Russia
showed that she would not yield her position in either country
except to force. Japan chose the issue of war and proved
successful.

The Russo-Japanese War did not very greatly alter China's
position in Manchuria. In the southern part of that country
Japan succeeded to the special privileges Russia had wrung

1 This institution was nominally a private concern which financed
the Manchurian railway, but it acted as part of the Russian govern-
ment machinery. The existence of the contract of the 27th of
August 1896 was frequently denied until expressly admitted by the
Russo-Chinese agreement of the 8th of April 1902.

* On the 8th of October the Russian troops had been withdrawn
from Mukden, but they reoccupied the town on the 28th of the
same month, Admiral Alexeiev, the viceroy of the Far East, alleging
that the inertia of the Chinese officials seriously hindered the work of
extending civilization in Manchuria.

from China (including the lease of Port Arthur); in the north
Russia remained in possession of the railway zone. For Japan's
position as at once the legatee of special privileges teMeB4
and the champion of China's territorial integrity of the
and " the open door " see JAPAN, § History. How- Ku**o-
ever, the attitude of Japan was more conciliatory
than that of Russia had been; Mukden and other
places were thrown open to foreign trade and Chinese civil admin-
istration was re-established. The important results of the war,
so far as China was concerned, were not to be looked for in
Manchuria, but in the new spirit generated in the Chinese.
They had been deeply humiliated by the fact that in the
struggle between Russia and Japan China had been treated
as a negligible quantity, and that the war had been fought on
Chinese territory. The lesson which the loot of Peking and
the fall of the Boxers in 1900 had half taught was now
thoroughly mastered; the awakening of China was complete.
The war had shown that when an Eastern race adopted
Western methods it was capable of defeating a European
nation.

It was fortunate that among the influential advisers of the
throne at this time (1905-1908) were Prince Chun (the prince
who had visited Germany in 1901), Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy
of Chih-li, and Chang Chih-tung, the viceroy of Hu-kwang (i.e.
the provinces of Hu-peh and Hu-nan) , all men of enlightened
and strong character. In 1907 both the viceroys named were
summoned to Peking and made members of the grand council,
of which Prince Ching, a man of moderate views, was president.
Yuan Shih-kai was an open advocate of a reform of the civil
service, of the abolition of Manchu privileges, of education and
other matters. He had specially advocated the reconstitution
of the military forces of the empire, and in Chih-li in 1905 he
demonstrated before a number of foreign military attaches the
high efficiency attained by the forces of the metropolitan pro-
vince. The success achieved by Yuan Shih-kai in this direction
incited Chang Chih-tung to follow his example, while a decree
from the throne called upon the princes and nobles of China to
give their sons a military education. The formerly despised
military profession was thus made honourable, and with salutary
effects. The imperial princes sought high commands, officers
were awarded ranks and dignities comparable with those of
civil servants, and the pay of the troops was increased. The new
foreign drilled northern army was called upon to
furnish a large proportion of a force sent under Prince
Su into Mongolia — a country which had been on the
point of falling into the hands of Russia, but over which, as one
result of the Russo-Japanese War, China recovered control.
In 1906 a step was taken towards the formation of a national
army by withdrawing portions of the troops from provincial
control and placing them under officers responsible to the
central government, which also took over the charge of the
provincial arsenals. In the years which followed further evidence
was given of the earnestness and success with which the military
forces were being reorganized. Less attention was given to
naval affairs, but in the autumn of 1909 a naval commission under
Tsai Hstin, a brother of the emperor Kwang-su, was sent to
Europe to report on the steps necessary for the re-establishment
of a fleet. Previously (in 1907) societies had been started in
several provinces to collect funds for naval purposes.

The most striking evidence of the change which had occurred
was, however, the appointment (in 1905) of an Imperial Com-
mission, headed by Prince Tsai Tse, to study the administrative
systems of foreign countries with a view to the possible establish-
ment of a representative government in China. The revolu-
tionary nature of this proposal excited indignation among the
adherents to the old order, and a bomb was thrown among the
commissioners as they were preparing to leave Peking.1 After
visiting Japan, America and Europe the commission returned to

1 The form of outrage, probably the first of its kind in China,
was itself a symptom of the changed times. The bomb injured
Prince Tsai Tse and another commissioner, and the departure of the
commission was consequently delayed some months.

210

CHINA

[HISTORY

Peking in July 1906." A committee over which Prince Ching
presided was appointed to study the commission's report, and
A partta- on tne lst °^ September following an edict was issued
mentary in which the establishment of a parliamentary form
coas</*u- of government was announced, at a date not fixed.
tion -po gt tne country for this new form of government

promised. ^jje e(jjct went en to declare) the administration
must be reformed, the laws revised, education promoted and
the finances regulated. This edict, moreover, was but one of
many edicts issued in 1906 and following years which showed
how great a break with the past was contemplated. In
November 1906 two edicts were issued with the object of
reorganizing the central administrative offices. Their effect
was to simplify the conduct of business, many useless posts
being abolished, while an audit board was created to
examine the national accounts. In November 1907 another
edict was promulgated stating that for the present the formation
of Houses of Lords and of Commons to determine all public
questions was not practicable, but that it was proposed, as a
preliminary measure, to create an Imperial Assembly. At the
same time a scheme of provincial councils was ordered to be
prepared. A more definite step followed in 1908 when a decree
(dated the 27th of August) announced the convocation of a
parliament in the ninth year from that date.

One of the changes made in the public offices brought China
into conflict with Great Britain. On the 9th of May 1906 a
The decree appointed Chinese commissioners to control the

control Imperial Maritime Customs.2 This was the only
of the department of the government under European
Maritime (Britjsn) control, and the only department also against
""' which no charge of inefficiency or corruption could be
brought. The change decreed by China was in accord with the
new national sentiment, but by all the foreign powers interested
it was felt that it would be a retrograde step if the customs
were taken out of the control of Sir Robert Hart (q.v.), who had
been since 1863 inspector-general of the customs. The British
secretary of state for foreign affairs (Sir Edward Grey) at once
protested against the decree of the 6th of May, pointing out
that the continuation of the established system had been
stipulated for in the loan agreements of 1896 and 1898. As a
result of this and other representations the Board of Control of
the Customs was late in 1906 made a department of the Board
of Finance. The Chinese controllers-general continued in
office, and despite the assurances given to Great Britain by
China (in a note of the 6th of June 1906) that the appointment
of the controllers-general was not intended to interfere with
the established system of administration, the absolute authority
of Sir Robert Hart was weakened.3 Sir Robert Hart returned
to England in 1908 " on leave of absence," Sir Robert Bredon,
the deputy inspector-general, being placed in charge of the
service under the authority of the Board of Control, of which
on the sth of April 1910 it was announced that he had been
appointed a member. This step was viewed with disfavour
by the British government, for, unless Sir Robert Bredon's post
was to be merely a sinecure, it imposed two masters on the
maritime customs. On the aoth of April Sir Robert Bredon
severed his connexion with the Board of Control. At the
same time Mr F. A. Aglen (the Commissioner of Customs at.
Hankow) became acting Inspector General (Sir Robert Hart
being still nominally head of the service). The attempt on
the part of the Chinese to control the customs was evidence

1 In 1907 further commissions were appointed, on the initiative
of Yuan Shih-kai, to study specifically the constitutions of Great
Britain, Germany and Japan.

2 This department was organized at Shanghai in 1854. The
Taiping rebels being in possession of the native city, the collection
of customs dues, especially on foreign ships, was placed in the hands
of foreigners. This developed into a permanent institution, the
European staff being mainly British.

1 The British official view, as stated in parliament on the 27th of
April 1910, was that the changes resulting from the creation of the
Board of Control had, so far, been purely departmental changes of
form, and that the position of the inspector-general remained
unaltered.

of the strength of the " young China " or Recovery of Rights
party — the party which aspired to break all the chains, such
as extra-territoriality, which stamped the country as not the
equal of the other great nations.4

In the steps taken to suppress opium smoking evidence was
forthcoming of the earnestness with which the governing body
in China sought to better the condition of the people.
Opium smoking followed, in China, the introduction of The *"""
tobacco smoking, and is stated to have been introduced
from Java and Formosa in the early part of the I7th
century. The first edict against the habit was issued in 1729.
At that time the only foreign opium introduced was by the
Portuguese from Goa, who exported about 200 chests * a year.
In 1773 English merchants in India entered into the trade, which
in 1781 was taken over by the East India Company — the import
in 1790 being over 4000 chests. In 1796 the importation of
foreign opium was declared contraband, and between 1839 and
1860 the central government attempted, without success, to
suppress the trade. It was legalized in 1858 after the second
" opium war " with Great Britain. At that time the poppy
was extensively grown in China, and the bulk ot the opium
smoked was, and continued to be, of home manufacture. But
after 1860 the importation of opium from India greatly in-
creased. Opium was also imported from Persia (chiefly to
Formosa, which in 1895 passed into the possession of Japan).
The total foreign import in 1863 was some 70,000 piculs,' in
1879 it was 102,000 piculs, but in 1905 had fallen to 56,000
piculs. The number of opium smokers in China in the early
years of the 2oth century was estimated at from 25 to 30 millions.
The evil effects of opium smoking were fully recognized, and
Chang Chih-tung, one of the most powerful of the opponents of
the habit, was high in the councils of the dowager-empress. On
the zoth of September 1906 an edict was issued directing that
the growth, sale and consumption of opium should cease in
China within ten years, and ordering the officials to take
measures to execute the imperial will. The measures promul-
gated, in November following, made the following provisions: —

(i) The cultivation of the poppy to be restricted annually -by
cne-tenth of its existing area; (2) all persons using opium to be
registered; (3) all shops selling opium to be gradually closed, and
all places where opium is smoked to discontinue the practice within
six months; (4) anti-opium societies to be officially encouraged,
and medicines distributed to cure the opium-smoking habit; (5)
all officials were requested to set an example to the people, and all
officials under sixty were required to abandon opium smoking within
six months or to withdraw from the service of the state.

It was estimated that the suppression of opium smoking
would entail a yearly loss of revenue of over £1,600,000, a loss
about equally divided between the central and provincial govern-
ments. The first step taken to enforce the edict was the closing
of the opium dens in Peking on the last day of 1906.

During 1907 the opium dens in Shanghai, Canton, Fu-chpw and
many other large cities were closed, and restrictions on the issue of
licences were introduced in the foreign settlements; even the eunuchs
of the palace were prohibited from smoking opium under severe
penalties. The central government continued during 1908 and 1909
to display considerable energy in the suppression of the use of opium,
but the provincial authorities were not all equally energetic. It was
noted in 1908 that while in some provinces-^-even in Yun-nan, where
its importance tc trade and commerce and its use as currency seemed
to render it very difficult to do ahytHing effective — the governor and
officials were whole-hearted in carrying out the imperial regulations,
in other provinces — notably in Kwei-chcw and in the provinces of
the lower Yangtsze valley-^-great supineness was exhibited in dealing
with the subject. Lord William Cecil, however, stated that travelling
in 1909 between Peking and Hankow, through country which in 1907
he had seen covered with the poppy, he could not then see a single
poppy flower, and that going up the Yangtsze he found only one
small patch of poppy cultivation.7 The Peking correspondent of
The Times, in a journey to Turkestan in the early part of 1910, found
that in Shen-si province the people's desire to suppress the opium
trade was in advance of the views of the government. Every day
trains of opium carts were passed travelling under official protection.
But in the adjoining province of Shan-si there had been complete

4 See The Times oi the 2ist of April and nth of May 1910.
6 A chest contained from 135 ft to 1 60 Ib.

6 A picul = 133! ft.

7 Changing China, p.

118.

HISTORY]

CHINA

211

Educa-

tlon.

suppression of poppy cultivation and in Kan-suh the officials were con-
ducting a very vigorous campaign against the growth of the poppy.1
In their endeavours to suppress opium smoking the Chinese govern-
ment appealed to the Indian government for help, and in 1907 received
a promise that India would decrease the production of opium
annually by one-tenth for four years and subsequently if China did
likewise. The Indian government also assented to Indian opium
being taxed equally with Chinese opium, but China did not raise the
duty on foreign opium. In 1908 the Indian government undertook
to reduce the amount of opium exported by 5100 chests yearly. In
the same year the opium dens in Hong-Kong were closed. In
February 1909, on the initiative of the United States, an international
conference was held at Shanghai to consider the opium trade and
habit. At this conference the Chinese representative claimed that
the consumption of opium had already been reduced by one-half —
a claim not borne out by the ascertained facts. The conference was
unable to suggest any heroic measures, but a number of proposals
were agreed to (including the closing of opium dens in the foreign
settlements), tending to the restriction of the opium trade. The
conference also dealt with another and growing habit in China — the
use of morphia.2 Japan agreed to prohibit the export of morphia to
China, a prohibition to which the other powers had previously agreed.

The attempts to reform the educational system of China on a
comprehensive scale date from the year of the return of the
court to Peking after the Boxer troubles. In 1902
regulations were sanctioned by the emperor which
aimed at remodelling the methods of public instruction.
These regulations provided among other things for the establish-
ment at Peking of a university giving instruction in Western
learning, a technical college, and a special department for
training officials and teachers. A much more revolutionary
step was taken in September 1905 when a decree appeared
announcing as from the beginning of 1906 the abolition of *he
existing method of examinations. The new system was to
include the study of modern sciences, history, geography and
foreign languages, and in the higher grades political economy
and civil and international law. Thousands of temples were
converted to educational purposes. In Canton, in 1907, the old
examination hall was demolished to make way for a college with
every appliance on Western lines. Equal zeal was noticeable
in such conservative cities as Si-gan-fu, and in remote provinces
like Kan-suh. By May 1 906 fifteen so-called universities had been
founded. Moreover, many young Chinese went abroad to acquire
education — in Japan alone in 1906 there were 13,000 students.
In the same year primary schools for girls were established.3
Perhaps the most striking evidence of the new spirit regarding
education was the tenour of a communication to the throne
from the head of the Confucian family. On the 3ist of
December 1906 an imperial edict had appeared raising Con-
fucius to the same rank as Heaven and Earth — an action taken
to indicate the desire of the government to emphasize the
value of ethical training. In thanking the throne for the
honour conferred on his ancestor the head of the family urged
that at the new college founded at the birth-place of Confucius
the teaching should include foreign languages, physical culture,
political science and military drill.4

While China, with the consent of the emperor and the empress-
dowager, and under the guidance of Prince Ching, Yuan Shih-kai
and Chang Chih-tung, was endeavouring to bring about internal
reforms, her attitude to foreign powers was one of reserve
and distrust. This was especially marked in the negotiations
with Japan and with Russia concerning Manchuria, and was
seen also in the negotiations with Great Britain concerning

1 See The Times of 7th and 8th of March and 8th of April 1910.

* The first recorded importation of morphia into China was in
1892, and it is suggested that it was first used as an anti-opium
medicine. Morphia-taking, however, speedily became a vice, and
in 1902 over 195,000 oz. of morphia were imported (enough for some
300,000,000 injections). To check the evil the Chinese government
during 1903 imposed a tax of about 200% ad valorem, with the result
that the imports declared to the customs foil in 1905 to 54 oz. only.
The falling off was explained " not by a diminished demand, but
by smuggling " (Morse's Trade and Administration of the Chinese
Empire, p. 351).

• A regulation by the ministry of education, dated the I4th of
January 1910, ordered that no girl should be admitted to school
dressed in foreign clothes or with unnatural (i.e. bound) feet.

4 For the growth of the education movement see The Times, 4th
of September 1909.

Tibet. It was not until April 1908, after four years' negotiations,
that a convention with Great Britain respecting Tibet was
signed, Chinese suzerain rights being respected. In September
the Dalai Lama arrived in Peking from Mongolia and was received
by the emperor, who also gave audience to a Nepalese mission.6

The emperor Kwang-su had witnessed, without being able
to guide, the new reform movement. In August 1908 an edict
was issued in his name announcing the convocation of
a parliament in nine years' time. In November he „'*/,„
died. His death occasioned no surprise, as disquieting emperor
reports about his health had been current since July, ""lot the
but the announcement that the dowager empress died *
on the isth of November (the day after that on
which the emperor was officially stated to have died) was
totally unexpected. She had celebrated her birthday on the
3rd of November and appeared then to be in good health.
The empress dowager had taken part in the choice of a suc-
cessor to the throne, Kwang-su's valedictory edict had been
drawn up under her supervision, and it is believed that the
emperor died seme days previous to the date officially given for
his death. Kwang-su died childless and was succeeded by his
infant nephew Pu-Yi (born on the 8th of February 1906), a
son of Prince Chun, who was appointed regent. Prince Chun —
himself then only twenty-six years old — had exercised con-
siderable influence at court since his mission to Germany in
1901, and was one of the most enlightened of the Manchu princes.
The death of the dowager empress removed a powerful obstacle
to a reformed regime, and with her passed away the last
prominent representative of the old era in China.

The accession to the throne of Pu-Yi, who' was given as
reigning title Hsuan Tung (" promulgating universally"), was
unaccompanied by disturbances, save for an outbreak
at Ngan-king, easily suppressed. Prince Chun had Accession
the support of Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung,6 £„"*""
the two most prominent Chinese members of the
government at Peking — and thus a division between the Manchus
and Chinese was avoided. On the 2nd of December 1908 the
young emperor was enthroned with the usual rites. On the
day following another edict, which, it was stated, had had the
approval of the late dowager empress, was issued, reaffirming
that of the 27th of August regarding the grant of a parlia-
mentary constitution in nine years' time, and urging the people
to prepare themselves for the change. Other edicts sought to
strengthen the position of the regent as de facto emperor.
Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung received the title of Grand
Guardians of the Heir, and the year 1908 closed with the chief
Chinese members of the government working, apparently, in
complete harmony with the regent.

On the ist of January 1909, however, the political situation
was rudely disturbed by the dismissal from office of Yuan Shih-
kai. This step led to representations by the British
and American ministers to Prince Ching, the head of
the foreign office, by whom assurances were given that
no change of policy was contemplated by China, while
the regent in a letter to President Taft reiterated the determina-
tion of his government to carry through its reform policy.
The dismissal of Yuan Shih-kai was believed by the Chinese
to be due to his " betrayal " of the emperor Kwang-su in the
1898 reform movement. He had nevertheless refused to go
to extremes on the reactionary side, and in 1900, as governor
of Shan-tuhg, he preserved a neutrality which greatly facilitated
the relief of the Peking legations. During the last years

6 The Dalai Lama left Peking in December 1908 on his return
to Lhassa, which he reached in November 1909. Differences had
arisen between him and the Chinese government, which sought to
make the spiritual as well as the temporal power of the Dalai Lama
dependent on his recognition by the emperor of China. Early in
1910 the Dalai Lama, in consequence of the action of the Chinese
amban in Lhassa, fled from that city and sought refuge in India.

* Chang Chih-tung died in October 1909. He was a man of con-
siderable ability, and one whose honesty and loyalty had never
been doubted. He was noted as an opponent of opium smoking,
and for over thirty years had addressed memorials to the throne
against the use of the drug.

212

CHINA

[HISTORY

of the life of the dowager empress it was his influence which
largely reconciled her to the new reform movement. Yet Kwang-
su had not forgotten the coup d'etat of 1898, and it is alleged
that he left a testament calling upon his brother the prince
regent to avenge the wrongs he had suffered.1 During the
greater part of the year there was serious estrangement
Agreement Detween china and Japan, but on the 4th of September
a convention was signed which settled most of the
points in dispute respecting Manchuria and Korea. In
Korea the boundary was adjusted so that Chientao, a mountain-
ous district in eastern Manchuria regarded as the ancestral
home of the reigning families of China and Korea, was de-
finitely assigned to China; while in Manchuria, both as to
railways and mines, a policy of co-operation was substituted for
one of opposition.2 Although Japan had made substantial
concessions, those made by China in return provoked loud
complaints from the southern provinces — the self-government
society calling for the dismissal of Prince Ching. In northern
Manchuria the Russian authorities had assumed territorial
jurisdiction at Harbin, but on the 4th of May an agreement was
signed recognizing Chinese jurisdiction.3

The spirit typified by the cry of " China for the Chinese " was
seen actively at work in the determined efforts made to exclude
foreign capital from railway affairs. The completion
rft* in October 1909 of the Peking-Kalgan railway was

the cause of much patriotic rejoicing. The railway,
a purely Chinese undertaking, is 122 m. long and
took four years to build. It traversed difficult country, piercing
the Nan K'ow Pass by four tunnels, one under the Great Wall
being 3580 ft. long. There was much controversy between foreign
financiers, generally backed by their respective governments, as
to the construction of other lines. In March 1909 the Deutsch-
asiatische Bank secured a loan of £3,000,000 for the construction
of the Canton-Hankow railway. This concession was contrary
to an undertaking given in 1905 to British firms and was with-
drawn, but only in return for the admittance of German capital
in the Sze-ch'uen railway. After prolonged negotiations an
agreement was signed in Paris on the 24th of May 1910 for
a loan of £6,000,000 for the construction of the railway from
Hankow to Sze-cb'uen, in which British, French, German and
American interests were equally represented. In January
1910 the French line from Hanoi to Yunnan-fu was opened;4
the railway from Shanghai to Nanking was opened for through
traffic in 1909.

The progress of the anti-opium movement and the dispute
over the control of the Imperial Maritime Customs have already
Pro lacial ^een chronicled- A notable step was taken in 1909
Assemblies by the institution of elected assemblies in each of the
const'- provinces. The franchise on which the members
tuted. were elected was very limited, and the assemblies
A Senate were given consultative powers only. They were
"* opened on the I4th of October (the ist day of the
9th moon). The businesslike manner in which these assemblies
conducted their work was a matter of general comment among
foreign observers in China.6 In February 1910 decrees ap-
peared approving schemes drawn up by the Commission for
Constitutional Reforms, providing for local government in pre-
fectures and departments and for the reform of the judiciary.
This was followed on the gth of May by another decree sum-
moning the senate to meet for the first time on the ist day of
the 9th moon (the 3rd of October 1910). All the members of the
senate were nominated, and the majority were Manchus. Neither
to the provincial assemblies nor to the senate was any power
of the purse given, and the drawing up of a budget was post-
poned until 1915.'

1 See The Times of the 7th of September 1909.

1 Proposals made early in 1910 by the American secretary of state
for the neutralization of the Manchurian railway received no support.

* By a convention signed on July 4th, 1910, Russia and Japan
agreed to " maintain and respect " the status quo in Manchuria.

4 See the Quinzaine coloniale of the loth of December 1909.

' See The Times of the aoth of January 1910.

'See for the prospects of reform The Times of 3Oth May 1910.

Auti-

dyaastlc

move*

meat*.

Riots In

Hu-aan.

The efforts of the central government to increase the efficiency
of the army and to re-create a navy were continued in 1910.
China was credited with the intention of spending £40,000,000
on the rehabilitation of its naval and military forces. It was
estimated in March 1910 that there were about 200,000 foreign-
trained men, but their independent spirit and disaffection
constituted a danger to internal peace. The danger was accen-
tuated by the mutual jealousy of the central and provincial
governments. The anti-dynastic agitation, moreover, again
seemed to be growing in strength. In April 1910 there was
serious rioting at Changsha, Hu-nan, a town whence a few years
previously had issued a quantity of anti-foreign literature of a
vile kind. The immediate causes of the riots seem to have been
many: rumours of the intention of the foreign powers to dis-
member China, the establishment of foreign firms at Changsha
competing with native firms and exporting rice and
salt at a time when the province was suffering from
famine, and the approach of Halley's comet. Probably
the famine precipitated the outbreak, which was easily
crushed, as was also a rising in May at Yung chow, a
town in the south of Hu-nan. Much mission and mercan-
tile property was wrecked at Changsha, but the only loss of life
was the accidental drowning of three Roman Catholic priests.

An edict of the I7th of August 1910 effected considerable and
unexpected changes in the personnel of the central government.
Tang Shao-yi, a former lieutenant of Yuan Shib-kai, was
appointed president of the Board of Communications, and to him
fell the difficult task of reconciling Chinese and foreign interests
in the development of the railway system. Sheng Kung-pao
regarded as the chief Chinese authority on currency questions,
and an advocate of the adoption of a gold standard, was attached
to the Board of Finance to help in the reforms decreed
by an edict, of May of the same year (see ante, Currency) .
The issue of the edict was attributed to the influence
with the regent of Prince Tsai-tao, who had recently
returned from a tour in Europe, where he had specially studied
questions of national defence. The changes made among the
high officials tended greatly to strengthen the central administra-
tion. The government had viewed with some disquiet the Russo-
Japanese agreement of the 4th of July concerning Manchuria
(which was generally interpreted as in fact lessening the authority
of China in that country); it had become involved in another
dispute with Great Britain, which regarded some of the measures
taken to suppress opium smoking as a violation of the terms
of the Chifu convention, and its action in Tibet had caused
alarm in India. Thus the appointment to high office of men
of enlightenment, pledged to a reform policy, was calculated
to restore confidence in the policy of the Peking authorities.
This confidence would have been greater had not the changes
indicated a struggle for supreme power between the regent and
the dowager empress Lung Yu, widow of Kwang-su.

The strength of the various movements at work throughout
China was at this time extremely difficult to gauge; the in-
tensity of the desire for the acquisition of Western knowledge
was equalled by the desire to secure the independence of the
country from foreign control. The second of these desires gave
the force it possessed to the anti-dynastic movement. At the
same time some of the firmest supporters of reform were found
among the Manchus, nor did there seem to be any reason to
doubt the intention of the regent — if he retained power — to
guide the nation through the troubled period of transition into
an era of constitutional government and the full development
of the resources of the empire. (X.)

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. — Knowledge of the ancient history of
China is necessarily derived from the native writers on the subject.
Fortunately, the Chinese have always regarded the preservation
of the national records as a matter of supreme importance. Con-
fucius set an example in this respect, and has preserved for us in the
Spring and Autumn Annals and the Shu-king, or Book of History,
records of his country's progress during the past and then present
centuries. The celebrated emperor Shih Hwang-ti, in establishing
the empire, attempted to strengthen his cause by destroying all
works on the national history. But so strongly was the historical
sense inculcated in the people that immediately on the death of the

CHINA

PLATE L

I

1

j

FIG. i.— KU K'AI-CHIH. TOILET SCENE.
(British Museum. 4th Cent. A.D.).

FIG. 3.— CHAO MENG-FU, AFTER WANG WEI (8th

Cent.). SCENE ON THE WANG CH'UAN.

(Dated 1309. British Museum.)

FIG. 2.— ATTRIBUTED TO WU TAOTZU.
SAKYAMUNI. (8th Cent.)

FIG. 6— KIU YING. COURT LADIES.
(British Museum. I5th Cent.)

FIG. 4— HSU HSI. BIRD ON APPLE-BOUGH,
(loth Cent.)

FIG. 5— CHIEN SHUN-CHU. THE
EMPEROR HUAN-YEH. (isth Cent.)

FIG. 7.— EAGLE. BY LIN LIANG.
(i5th Cent. British Museum.)

VI. m.

Figs. 2, 4, and 5 are reproduced by permission of the Kokka Company, Tokyo.

PLATE II.

CHINA

FIG. 9.— TEMPLE VASE (c. 1200 B.C.). FIG. 10.— WINE VASE (c. 1000 B.C.). FIG. u.— WINE VASE (c. 600 B.C.).

FIG. 12.— INLAID VESSEL
(c. 500 B.C.).

FIG. 13.— WINE VESSEL (c. 100 B.C.).

FIG. 14.— INLAID VASE (c. 200 A.D.).
In possession of C. J. Holmes.

FIG. 15.— VASE (c. 1450 A.D.). FIG. 16.— WINE VESSEL (c. 1450 A.D.). FIG. 17.— TEMPLE VASE (c. 1700 A.D.).

Figs. 9-13 and 15-17 are from originals in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.

ART]

CHINA

213

tyrant the nation's records were again brought to light, and have
been carefully preserved and edited since that time. Prof. Legge's
translation of the Spring and Autumn Annals and the Shu-king, or
Book of History, in the " Sacred Books of the East " series, have
opened for students the stores of historical knowledge which were
at the command of Confucius, and European writers on Chinese
history have found in the dynastic annals a never-failing source ol
valuable information. It was from these works and epitomes ol
these that de Maillac gathered the facts for his celebrated Histoire
generate de la Chine, and it is from similar sources that all other
writers on Chinese history have drawn their inspiration.

The following works on ancient and modern Chinese history
may be specially mentioned: J. A. de Moyria de Maillac, Histoire
gtntrale de la Chine (1777), &c.; J. B. du Halde, General History of
China (4 vols., 1736); M.deGuignes, Voyages a Peking . . . (3 vols.,
1808); D. Boulger, A History of China (3 vols., 1881); Valentine
Chirol, The Far Eastern Question (1896); E. R. Hue, The Chinese
Empire (2 vols., 1855); T. T. Meadows, The Chinese and their
Rebellions (1856); G. Pauthier, Histoire des relations politiques de
la Chine avec les puissances occidentals depuis les temps les plus
anciens jusqu'a nos jours . . . (1859); Sir George Staunton, Notes
of Proceedings and Occurrences during the British Embassy to Peking
in 1816 (1824); Chinese Expansion historically reviewed, a paper
read before the Central Asian Society by Baron Suyematsu on
January 11, 1905; F. Hirth, Ancient History of China (New York,
1908) ; Prof. Herbert A. Giles's Chinese Biographical Dictionary
(1897) is a storehouse of biographical detail and anecdote.

For Chinese relations with foreign powers see H. Cordier, Histoire
des relations de la Chine avec les puissances occidentales, 1860-1002
(3 vols., Paris, 1901-1902); Hertslet's China Treaties. Treaties, tifc.,
between Great Britain and China, and between China and Foreign
Powers, and Orders in Council, £fc., affecting British Interests in China
(yd ed., revised by G. G. P. Hertslet and E. Parkes, London, 1908) ;
J. O. Bland and E. Backhouse, China under the Empress Dowager
([London, 1910). More general works are Sir R. K. Douglas, China,
history since the time of Marco Polo (London, 1899); E. H. Parker,
China; Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce (London, 1901);
China, Past and Present (London, 1903); A. J. Sargent, Anglo-
Chinese Commerce and Diplomacy — mainly in the igth century
(Oxford, 1907). For current affairs see the authorities cited in the
footnotes.

VI. CHINESE ART

i. Painting. — Painting is the pre-eminent art of China, which
can boast of a succession of great painters for at least twelve
centuries. Though the Chinese have an instinctive gift for har-
monious colour, their painting is above all an art of line. It is
intimately connected with writing, itself a fine art demanding
the same skill and supple power in the wielding of the brush. The
most typical expression of the Chinese genius in painting is the
ink sketch, such as the masters of the Sung dynasty most pre-
ferred and the Japanese from the I5th century adopted for an
abiding model. Utmost vigour of stroke was here combined
with utmost delicacy of modulation. Rich colour and the use
of gold are an integral part of the Buddhist pictures, though
in the masterpieces of the religious painters a grand rhythm
of linear design gives the fundamental character. Exquisite
subdued colour is also found in the " flower and bird pieces " and
still-life subjects of the Sung artists, and becomes more emphatic
and variegated in the decorative artists of the Ming period.

Not to represent facts, but to suggest a poetic idea (often
perfumed, so to speak, with reminiscence of some actual poem),
has ever been the Chinese artist's aim. " A picture is a voiceless
poem " is an old saying in China, where very frequently the artist
was a literary man by profession. Oriental critics lay more
stress on loftiness of sentiment and tone than on technical
qualities. This idealist temper helps to explain tlie deliberate
avoidance of all emphasis on appearances of material solidity
by means of chiaroscuro, &c., and the exclusive use of the light
medium of water-colour. The Chinese express actual dislike
for the representation of relief. Whoever compares the painting
of Europe with that of Asia (and Chinese painting is the central
type for the one continent, as Italian may claim to be for the
other) must first understand this contrast of aim. The limita-
tions of the Chinese are great, but these limitations save them
from mistaking advances in science for advances in art, and from
petty imitation of fact. Their religious painting has great
affinity with the early religious art of Italy (e.g. that of Siena).
But the ideas of the Renaissance, its scientific curiosity, its
materialism, its glorification of human personality, are wholly
missing in China. For Europe, Man is ever the hero and the

foreground— hence the dominant study of the nude, and the
tendency to thronged compositions, with dramatic motives of
effort and conflict. The Chinese artists, weak in the plastic,
weak in the architectural sense, paint mostly in a lyric mood,
with a contemplative ideal. Hence the value given to space in
their designs, the semi-religious passion for nature, and the
supremacy of landscape. Beauty is found not only in pleasant
prospects, but in wild solitudes, rain, snow and storm. The life
of things is contemplated and portrayed for its own sake, not
for its uses in the life of men. From this point of view the body
of Chinese painting is much more modern in conception than that
of Western art. Landscape was a mature and free art in China
more' than a thousand years ago, and her school of landscape is
the loftiest yet known to the world. Nor was man ever dis-
sociated from nature. As early as the 4th century Ku K'ai-chih
says that in painting a certain noble character he must give him
a fit background of great peaks and deep ravines. Chinese
painting, in sum, finely complements rather than poorly supple-
ments that of Europe; where the latter is strong, it is weak;
but in certain chosen provinces it long ago found consummate ex-
pression for thoughts and feelings scarcely yet expressed with us.

The origin of Chinese painting is lost in legend, though there
is no reason to doubt its great antiquity. References in ni*toiy-
literature prove that by the 3rd century B.C. it was a Early
developed art. To this period is ascribed the inven- period* (to
tion of the hair-brush, in the use of which as an instru- A'°' 6I8>'
ment both for writing and drawing the Chinese have attained
marvellous skill; the usual material for the picture being
woven silk, or, less often and since the ist. century A.D.,
paper. In early times wood panels were employed; and large
compositions were painted on walls prepared with white lime.
These mural decorations have all disappeared. History and
portraiture seem to have been the prevailing subjects; a secular
art corresponding to the social ideals of Confucianism. Yet
long before the introduction of Buddhism (A.D. 67) with its
images and pictures, we find that the two great symbolic figures
of the Chinese imagination, the Tiger and the Dragon — typifying
the forces of Nature and the power of the Spirit — had been
evolved in art; and to imaginative minds the mystic ideas of
Lao Tzti and the legends of his hermit followers proved a fruitful
field for artistic motives of a kind which Buddhism was still
more to enrich and multiply. Early classifications rank Buddhist
and Taoist subjects together as one class.

With the 2nd century A.D. we come to individual names of
artists and to the beginnings of landscape. Ku K'ai-chih
(4th century) ranks as one of the greatest names of Chinese
art. A painting by him now in the British Museum (Plate I.
fig. i) shows a maturity which has nothing tentative about it.
The dignified and elegant types are rendered with a mastery of
sensitive brush-line which is not surpassed in later art. Ku
K'ai-chih painted all kinds of subjects, but excelled in por-
traiture. During the next century the criticism of painting was
Formulated in six canons by Hsieh Ho. Rhythm, organic or
structural beauty, is the supreme quality insisted on.

During the T'ang dynasty the empire expanded to its utmost
limits, stretching as far as the Persian Gulf. India was
invaded; Buddhism, taught by numbers of Indian
missionaries, became firmly established, and controlled
the ideals and imaginations of the time. The vigorous <£:?• 6I8~
style of a great era was impressed upon the T'ang
art, which culminated in Wu Taotzti, universally acknowledged
as the greatest of all Chinese painters. It is doubtful if any of his
work remains. The picture reproduced (Plate I. fig. 2) was long
attributed to him, but is now thought to be of later date, like
.he two landscapes well known under his name in Japan. Wu
Taotzii seems to have given supreme expression to the central
subject of Buddhist art, the Nirvana of Buddha, who lies serenely
asleep, with all creation, from saints and kings to birds and
>easts, passionately bewailing him. The composition is known
rom Japanese copies; and it is in fact from the early religious
schools of Japan that we can best conjecture the grandeur of
he T'ang style. Wu TaotzU excelled in all subjects: other

214

CHINA

[ART

Sung

masters are best known for some particular one. Han Kan
was famous for his horses, the models for succeeding generations
of painters, both Chinese and Japanese. A specimen of his
brush is in the British Museum; and in the same collection is
a long roll which gives a glimpse of the landscape of this age.
It is a copy by a great master of the Yuen dynasty, Chao MSng-
fu, from a famous painting by Wang Wei, representing scenes
on the Wang Ch'uan, the latter's home (Plate I. fig. 3 shows a
fragment). With the Tang age landscape matured, and two
schools arose, one headed by Wang Wei, the other by Li Ssu-
hsiin. The style of Wang Wei, who was equally famous as a
poet, had a romantic idealist character — disdainful of mere fact —
which in later developments created the " literary man's picture "
of the Southern school, as opposed to the vigorous naturalism
of the North.

Next come five brief dynasties, memorable less for any cor-
Five porate style or tradition, than for some fine painters

dynasties Like Hsii Hsi, famous for his flowers, and Huang
(A. o. 907- Ch'uan, a great master in a delicate style. Two
pictures by him, fowls and peonies, of extraordinary
beauty, are in the British Museum.

The empire, which had been broken up, was reunited, though
Sung shorn of its outer dependencies, under the house of Sung.
dynasty This was an age of culture in which the freedom of
(A. D. 960' the individual was proclaimed anew; glorious in art
1280). as jn poetry ancj philosophy; the period which
for Asia stands in history as the Periclean age for Europe.

The religious paintings of Li Lung-mien, the grandest of Su
masters, if less forcible than those of T'ang, were unsurpassed in
harmonious rhythm of design and colour. But the most character-
istic painting of this period is in landscape and nature-subjects.
With a passion unmatched in Europe till Wordsworth's day, the
Sung artists portrayed their delight in mountains, mists, plunging
torrents, the night of the wild geese from the reed-beds: the moonlit
reveries of sages in forest solitudes, the fisherman in his boat on lake
or stream. To them also, steeped in the Zen philosophy of con-
templation, a flowering branch was no mere subject for a decorative
study, but a symbol pfthe infinite life of nature. A mere hint to the
spectator's imagination is often all that they rely on; proof of the
singular fulness and reality of the culture of the time. The art of
suggestion has never been carried farther. Such traditional subjects
as Curfew from a Distant Temple " and " The Moon over Raging
Waves " indicate the poetic atmosphere of this art. Ma Yuan, Hsia
Kuei and the emperor Hwei-tsung are among the greatest landscape
artists of this period. They belong to the South Sung school, which
loved to paint the gorges and towering rock-pinnacles of the Yangtsze.
The sterner, less romantic scenery of the Hwang-Ho inspired the
Northern school, of which Kuo Hsi and Li Ch'eng were famous
among many others. Muh Ki was one of the greatest masters of the
ink sketch; Chap Tan Lin was famed for his tigers; Li Ti for his
flowers as for his landscapes; Mao I for still- life: to name a few
among a host.

The Mongol dynasty continues in art the Sung tradition.

Chao Meng-fu, the greatest master of his time, belongs to both

Yuen periods, and ranks with the highest names in Chinese

dynasty painting. A landscape by him, copied from Wang

(A. D. Wei, has been already mentioned as in the British

Museum, which also has two specimens of Yen Hui, a

painter less known in his own country than in Japan.

He painted especially figures of Taoist legend. The portrait by

Ch'ien Shun-chii (Plate I. fig. 5) is a fine example of purity of line

and lovely colour, reminding us of Greek art.

The simplicity of motive and directness of execution which
had been the strength of the Sung art gradually gave way during
flflag the Ming era to complicated conceptions and elaborate
dynasty effects. The high glow of life faded; the lyrical temper
(A, D. and impassioned work of the Sung time were replaced
*t644 ky l°ve °f ornament and elegance. In this respect

K.iu Ying is typicalof the period.with his richly coloured
scenes from court life (Plate I. fig. 6). None the less, there were
a number of painters who still upheld the grander style of earlier
ages. The greatest of these was Lin Liang (Plate I. fig. 7),
whose brush work, if somewhat coarser, is as powerful as that
of the Sung masters. But though individual painters of the
first rank preserved the Ming age from absolute decline, it cannot
be said that any new development of importance took place in a
vitalizing direction.

The present dynasty prolongs the history of Ming art. The
literary school of the South became more prominent, sending
out offshoots in Japan. There has been no movement rting
of national life to be reflected in art, though a great dynasty
body of admirable painting has been produced, down (front A. D.
to the present day. The four landscape masters I644)f
known as the " four Wangs," Yiin Shou-p'ing and Wu Li are

pre-eminent names.

SOURCES AND AUTHORITIES. — While the designs on porcelain,
screens, &c., have long been admired in the West, the paintings of
which these are merely reproductions have been utterly ignored.
Ignorance has gained authority with time, till the very existence of
a great school of Chinese painting has been denied. Materials for
study are scanty. Fires, wars and the recent armed ravages of
Western civilization have left but little. The profound indifference
of the Chinese to European admira'tion has prevented their collec-
tions from being known. The Japanese, always enthusiastic students
and collectors of the continental art, claim (whether justly or not,
is hard to ascertain) that the finest specimens are now in their
country. Many of these are reproduced in the invaluable Tokyo
publications, the Kokka, Mr Tajima's Select Relics, &c., with Japanese
criticisms in English. Of actual paintings the British Museum
possesses a fair number, and the Louvre a few, of real importance.
Copies and forgeries abound.

See H. A. Giles, Introduction to the History of Chinese Pictorial Art
(1905); F. Hirth, Scraps from a Collector's Note-Book (1905), (supple-
ments Giles's work and especially valuable for the art of the Ch'ing
dynasty); S. W. Bushell, Chinese Art, vol. ii. (1906); K. Okakura,
Ideals of the East (1903); M. Paleologue, L'Art chinois (1887);
W. Anderson, Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings (1886) ;
Sei-ichi Taki, " Chinese Landscape Painting," The Kokka, Nos. 191,
&c. (1906) ; Chinesische Malereien aus der Sammlung Hirth (Cata-
logue of an exhibition held at Dresden) (1897); W. von Seidlitz,
article in Kunstchronik (1896-1897), No. 16.

2. Engraving. — According to native historians, the art of
printing from wooden blocks was invented in China in the
6th century A.D., when it was employed for the publication of
texts. The earliest evidence we have for the existence of wood-
cuts made to reproduce pictures or drawings is a passage in a
work by Chang Yen-yuan, from which it appears that these
were not made before the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, under
which that author lived. The method employed was to cut the
design with a knife on the plank of the wood, in the manner
followed by European artists till the end of the' i8th century,
when engraving with a burin on boxwood ousted the older
process. The Japanese borrowed the art from China; and in
Japan a whole school of artists arose who worked specially for
the woodcutters and adapted their designs to the Limitations
of the material employed. In China the art has remained merely
reproductive, and its history is therefore of less interest. Print-
ing in colours was known to the Chinese in the 1 7th century,
and probably earlier. In the British Museum is a set of prints
brought from the East by Kaempfer in 1693, in which eight
colours and elaborate gaufrage are used. Some fine albums of
colour prints have been issued in China, but nothing equal in
beauty to the prints produced in Japan by the co-operation of
woodcutter and designer. Engraving on copper was introduced
to China by the Jesuits, and some well-known sets of prints
illustrating campaigns in Mongolia were made in the i8th
century. But the method has never proved congenial to the
artists of the Far East.

See Sir R. K. Douglas, Guide to the Chinese and Japanese Illustrated
Books (British Museum, 1887) ; W. Anderson, Japanese Wood En-
graving (1895).

3. Architecture. — In architecture the Chinese genius has
found but limited and uncongenial expression. A nation of
painters has built picturesquely, but this picturesqueness has
fought against the attainment of the finest architectural qualities.
There has been Little development; the arch, for instance,
though known to the Chinese from very early times, has been
scarcely used as a principle of design, and the cupola has been
undiscovered or ignored; and though foreign architectural
ideas were introduced under the influence of the Buddhist and
Mahommedan religions, these were more or less assimilated
and subdued to the dominant Chinese design. Ruins scarcely
exist, and no building earlier than the nth century A.D. is known;
but we know from records that the forms of architecture still

ART]

CHINA

215

prevalent imitate in essentials those of the 4th and sth centuries
B.C. and doubtless represent an immemorial tradition.

The grand characteristic of Chinese architecture is the pre-
eminent importance of the roof. The I 'ing is the commonest
model of building. Thereof is the main feature; in fact the t'ing
consists of this roof, massive and immense, with recurved edges,
and the numerous short columns on which the roof rests. The
columns are of wood, the straight stems of the nantnu being
specially used for this purpose. The walls are not supports,
but merely fill in, with stone or brickwork, the spaces between
the columns. The scheme of construction is thus curiously
like that of the modern American steel-framed building, though
the external form may be derived from the tent of primitive
nomads. The roof, being the preponderant feature, is that on
which the art of the architect has been concentrated. A double
or a triple roof may be devised; the ridges and eaves may be
decorated with dragons and other fantastic animals, and the
eaves underlaid with carved and lacquered woodwork; the roof
itself is often covered with glazed tiles of brilliant hue. In spite
of efforts, sometimes desperate, to give variety and individual
character by ornament and detail, the general impression is one
of poverty of design. " Chinese buildings are usually one-storeyed
and are developed horizontally as they are increased in size or
number. The principle which determines the plan of projection
is that of symmetry " (Bushell). All important buildings must
face the south, and this uniform orientation increases the
general architectural monotony produced by a preponderance
of horizontal lines.

A special characteristic of Chinese architecture is the pai-lou,
an archway erected only by special authority, usually to com-
memorate famous persons. The pai-lou is commonly made of
wood with a tiled roof, but sometimes is built entirely of stone, as
is the gateway at the avenue of the Ming tombs. A magnificent
example of the pai-lou is that on the avenue leading to Wo Fo
Ssii, the temple of the Sleeping Buddha, near Peking. This is
built of marble and glazed terra-cotta. The pai-lou, like the
Japanese torii, derives its origin from the toran of Indian stupas.
Lofty towers called tai, usually square and of stone, seem to
have been a common type of important building in early times.
They are described in old books as erected by the ancient kings
and used for various purposes. The towers of the Great Wall
are of the same character, and are made of stone, with arched
doors and windows. Stone, though plentiful in most provinces
of the empire, has been singularly little used by the Chinese,
who prefer wood or brick. M. Paleologue attributes this pre-
ference of light and destructible materials to the national
indifference of the Chinese to posterity and the future, their
enthusiasm being wholly devoted to their ancestors and the past.

Temples are designed on the general t'ing model. The Temple
of Heaven is the most imposing of the Confucian temples,
conspicuous with its covering of deep-blue tiles and its triple
roof. Near this is the great Altar of Heaven, consisting of three
circular terraces with marble balustrades. Buddhist temples
are built on the general plan of secular residences, and consist
of a series of rectangular courts with the principal building in
the centre, the lesser at the sides. Lama temples differ little
from these except in the interior decorations and symbolism.
Mahommedan mosques are far simpler and severer in internal
arrangement, but outwardly these also are in the Chinese style.

The pagoda (Chinese too), the type of Chinese architecture
most familiar to the West, probably owes its peculiar form to
Buddhist influence. In the pagoda alone may be found some
trace of a religious imagination such as in Europe made Gothic
architecture so full and splendid an expression of the aspiring
spirit. The most famous pagoda was the Porcelain Tower of
Nanking, destroyed by the T'aip'ing rebels in 1854. This was
covered with slabs of faience coated with coloured glazes. The
ordinary pagoda is built of brick on a stone foundation ; it is
octagonal with thirteen storeys.

No Chinese buildings show more beauty than some of the
graceful stone bridges for which the neighbourhood of Peking
has been famous for centuries.

See M. Paleologue, L'Art chinois (1887): S. W. Bushell, Chinese
Art, vol. i. (1004); J. Fergusson, History of Architecture; Professor
ChQta It6, articles in The Kokka, Nos. 197, 198. (L. B.)

4. Sculpture. — Except in the casting and decoration of
bronze vessels the Chinese have not obtained distinction as
sculptors. They have practised sculpture in stone from an
early period, but the incised reliefs of the and century B.C., a
number of which are figured in Professor E. Chavannes's standard
work,1 while they display a certain spirit, lack the true plastic
sense, and though the power of the Chinese draughtsmen in-
creased rapidly under the T'ang and Sung dynasties, their work
in stone showed no parallel progress. The feeling for solidity,
which in Japan was a natural growth, was always somewhat
exotic in China. With the impulse given to the arts by Buddhism
a school of sculpture arose. The pilgrim Fa Hsien records
sculpture of distinctive Chinese type in the sth century. But
Indian models dominated the art. Colossal Buddhas of stone
were typical of the T'ang era. Little, however, remains of these
earlier times, and such true sculpture in stone, wood or ivory
as we know dates from the I4th and succeeding centuries. The
well-known sculptures on the arch at Chu Yung Kuan (A.D. 1345)
are Hindu in style, though not without elements of breadth and
strength, which seem to promise a greater development than
actually took place. The colossal figures guarding the approach
to the Ming tombs (isth century) show that the national taste
rapidly became conventional and petrified so far as monumental
sculpture was concerned, though occasional examples of devotional
or portrait sculpture on a smaller scale in wood and ivory are
found, which in power, grace, sincerity and restraint can rank
with the work of more gifted nations. Such pieces, however,
are extremely rare, and at South Kensington the ivory " Kwanyin
and Child " (274. 1898) is a solitary example. As a rule the
Chinese sculptor valued his art in proportion to the technical
difficulties it conquered. He thus either preferred intractable
materials like jade or rock-crystal, or, if he wrought in wood, horn
or ivory, sought to make his work curious or intricate rather
than beautiful. There is, nevertheless, beauty of a kind in
Chinese bowls of jade, and there is dignity in some of the pieces
of rock-crystal, but the bulk of the carving done in wood, horn
and ivory does not deserve a moment's serious thought from
the aesthetic point of view. The few fine specimens may be
referred to the earlier part of the Ming dynasty when Chinese
art in general was sincere and simple. After the middle of the
i Sth century there set in the taste for profuse ornament which
injured all subsequent Chinese work, and wholly ruined Chinese
sculpture.

Bronzes. — In Chinese bronzes we have a more consistent and
exceptional form of plastic art, which can be traced continuously
for some three thousand years. These bronzes take the form
of ritual or honorific vessels, and the archaic shapes used in the
service of the prehistoric religion of the country are repeated
and copied with slight changes in decoration or detail to the
present day.

The oldest extant specimens, chiefly derived from the sack
of the Summer Palace at Peking, may be referred to the Shang
and Chow dynasties (1766-255 B.C.). These ancient pieces have
a certain savage monumental grandeur of design, are usually
covered with a rich and thick patina of red, green and brown,
and are decorated with simple patterns — scrolls, zigzag lines
and a form of what is known as the Greek key-pattern symbol-
izing respectively waves, mountains and storm clouds. The
animal forms used are those of the tao-tieh (glutton), a fabulous
monster (possibly a conventionalized tiger) representing the
powers of the earth, the serpent and the bull. These two last
in later pieces combine to form the dragon, representing the
power of the air. In the Chow dynasty libation vessels were
also made in the form of a deer, a ram or a rhinoceros. These
characteristics are shown in figures 9-17, Plate II. Fig. 9 is a
temple vessel of a shape still in use, but which must date from
before 1000 B.C. With this massive piece may be contrasted

1 La. Sculpture sur pierre en Chine au temps des deux dynasties Han
(Paris, 1893).

CHINA

[LANGUAGE

the flower-like wine vase shown in fig. 10, a favourite shape which
is the prototype of some of the most graceful forms of Chinese
porcelain and Japanese bronze. Its date is about 1000 B.C.
The large wine vase shown in fig. n is some 400 years later.
On the body appears the head of the tao-tieh, on the handles
are superbly modelled serpents. The technique, which in the
previous pieces was somewhat rude, has now become perfect,
yet the menacing majestic feeling remains. We see it no less
clearly in fig. 12, a marvellous vessel richly inlaid with gold and
silver and covered with an emerald-green patina. It may date
from about 500 B.C., and indicates that even in this remote
epoch the Chinese were not only daring and powerful artists
but also master-craftsmen in metal.

It is indeed at this period that the art reaches its climax. The
monumental grandeur of the Shang specimens is often allied
to clumsiness; the later work, if more elaborate, is always less
powerful. Nevertheless, it is to a later period that ninety-nine
out of a hundred Chinese bronzes must be referred, and the
great majority belong either to the Han and succeeding
dynasties (220 B.C.-A.D. 400), or to the Renaissance of the arts
which culminated under the Ming dynasty a thousand years later.

The characteristics of the first of these periods is the free use
of small solid figures of animals as decoration — the phoenix, the
elephant, the frog, the ox, the tortoise, and occasionally men;
shapes grow less austere and less significant, as a comparison
between figures n and 13 will indicate; then towards the end
of the 2nd century A.D. the influence of Buddhism is felt in the
general tendency towards suavity of form (fig. 14). This vase
is most delicately though sparingly inlaid with silver and a few
touches of gold. Some small pieces, very richly and delicately
inlaid and covered with a magnificent emerald-green patina,
belonging to this period, form a connecting link between the
inlaid work of the Chow dynasty and that of the Sung and Ming
dynasties. The mirrors with Graeco-Bactrian designs, a con-
clusive proof of the external influences brought to bear upon
Chinese art, are also attributed to the Han epoch.

The troubled period between A.D. 400 and A.D. 960, in spite of the
interval of activity under the T'ang dynasty, produced, it would
seem, but few bronzes, and those few were of no distinct or note-
worthy style. Under the Sung dynasty the arts revived, and to this
time some of the most splendid specimens of inlaid work belong —
pieces of workmanship and taste no less perfect than that of the
Japanese, in which the gold and silver of the earlier work are occa-
sionally reinforced with malachite and lapis-lazuli. The coming of
Kublai Khan and the Yuen dynasty (1280-1367) once more brought
the East into contact with the West, and to this time we may assign
certain fine pieces of Persian form such as pilgrim bottles. The
vessels bearing Arabic inscriptions belong to the Ming dynasty
(1368-1644), with which the modern history of Chinese art begins.

The work done while the Ming dynasty was still young provides the
student of Chinese art with many problems, and in one or two cases
even the South Kensington authorities assign topre-Christian times
pieces that are clearly of Ming workmanship. The tendency of the
period was eclectic and archaistic. The products of earlier days were
reproduced with perfect technical command of materials, and with
admirable taste; it is indeed by an excess of these qualities that
archaistic Ming work may be distinguished from the true archaic.
In fig. 15 we see how the Ming bronze worker took an earlier Budd-
histic form of vase and gave it a new grace that amounted almost to
artifice. A parallel might be found among the products of the so-
called art nouveau of to-day, in which old designs are revived with
just "that added suavity or profusion of curvature that robs them of
character. Fig. 16 again might be mistaken almost for a piece of
the Chow dynasty, were not the grandeur of its form modified by just
so much harmony in the curvature of thebodyand neck, and by just
so much finish in the details as to rob the design of the old majestic
vigour and to mark it as the splendid effort of an age of culture, and
not the natural product of a period of strength.

It is, however, in the inlaid pieces that the difference tells most
clearly. Here we find the monstrous forms of the Shang and Chow
dynasties revived by men who appreciated their spirit but could not
help making the revival an excuse for the display of their own
superior skill. The monstrous vases and incense-burners of the past
thus appear once more, but are now decorated with a delicate em-
broidery of inlay, are polished and finished to perfection, but lose
therewith just the rudeness of edge and outline which made the older
work so gravely significant. At times even some grandly planned
vessel will appear with such a festoon of pretty tracery wreathed
about it that the incongruity is little short of ridiculous, and we
recognize we have passed the turning-point to decline.

Decline indeed came rapidly, and to the latter part of the Ming

epoch we must assign those countless bronzes where dragons and
flowers and the stock symbols of happiness, good luck and longevity
sprawl together in interminable convolutions. When once we reach
this stage of contortion, of elaborate pierced and relief work, we come
to the place in history of Chinese bronzes where serious study may
cease, except in so far as the study of the symbols themselves throws
light upon the history of Chinese procelain (see CERAMICS). One
class of bronze alone needs a word of notice, namely, the profusely
decorated pieces which have a Tibetan origin, and are obviously no
older than the end of the Ming period. Of these fig. 17 will serve as
a specimen, and a comparison with fig. 9 will show how the softer
rounded forms and jewelled festoons of Hindu-Greek taste enervated
the grand primitive force of the earlier age, and that neither the added
delicacy of texture and substance nor the vastly increased dexterity of
workmanship can compensate for the vanished majesty. (C. J. H.)

VII. THE CHINESE LANGUAGE

Colloquial. — In treating of Chinese, it will be found convenient
to distinguish, broadly, the spoken from the written language
and to deal with each separately. This is a distinction which
would be out of place if we had to do with any European, or
indeed most Oriental languages. Writing, in its origin, is merely
a symbolic representation of speech. But in Chinese, as we shall
see, for reasons connected with the peculiar nature of the script,
the two soon began to move along independent and largely
divergent lines. This division, moreover, will enable us to
employ different methods of inquiry more suited to each. With
regard to the colloquial, it is hardly possible to do more than
consider it in the form or forms in which it exists at the present
day throughout the empire of China. Although Chinese, like
other living languages, must have undergone gradual changes
in the past, so little can be stated with certainty about these
changes that an accurate survey of its evolution is quite out of
the question. Obviously a different method is required when
we come to the written characters. The familiar line, " Litera
scripta manet, volat irrevocabile verbum," is truer perhaps of
Chinese than of any other tongue. We have hardly any clue as
to how Chinese was spoken or pronounced in any given district
2000 years ago, although there are written remains dating from
long before that time; and in order to gain an insight into the
structure of the characters now existing, it is necessary to trace
their origin and development.

Beginning with the colloquial, then, and taking a linguistic
survey of China, we find not one spoken language but a number
of dialects, all clearly of a common stock, yet differing
from one another as widely as the various Romance dialects
languages in southern Europe — say, French, Italian
and Spanish. Most of these dialects are found fringing the
coast-line of China, and penetrating but a comparatively short
way into the interior. Starting from the province of Kwangtung
in the south, where the Cantonese and farther inland the Hakka
dialects are spoken, and proceeding northwards, we pass in suc-
cession the following dialects: Swatow, Amoy — these two may
almost be regarded as one — Foochow, Wenchow and Ningpo.
Farther north we come into the range of the great dialect
popularly known as Mandarin (Kttanhua or" official language "),
which sweeps round behind the narrow strip of coast occupied
by the various dialects above-mentioned, and dominates a
hinterland constituting nearly four-fifths of China proper.
Mandarin, of which the dialect of Peking, the capital since 1421,
is now the standard form, comprises a considerable number of
sub-dialects, some of them so closely allied that the speakers of
one are wholly intelligible to the speakers of another, while
others (e.g. the vernaculars of Yangchow, Hankow or Mid-China
and Ssu-ch'uan) may almost be considered as separate dialects.
Among all these, Cantonese is supposed to approximate most
nearly to the primitive language of antiquity, whereas Pekingese
perhaps has receded farthest from it. But although philologically
and historically speaking Cantonese and certain other dialects
may be of greater interest, for all practical purposes Mandarin,
in the widest sense of the term, is by far the most important.
Not only can it claim to be the native speech of the majority of
Chinamen, but it is the recognized vehicle of oral communication
between all Chinese officials, even in cases where they come from
the same part of the country and speak the same patois. For

LANGUAGE]

CHINA

these reasons, all examples of phraseology in this article will be
given in Pekingese.

So far, stress has been laid chiefly on the dissimilarity of the
dialects. On the other hand, it must be remembered that they
proceed from the same parent stem, are spoken by members of
the same race, and are united by the bond of writing which is the
common possession of all, and cannot be regarded as derived
from one more than from another. They also share alike in the
two most salient features of Chinese as a whole: (i) they are all
monosyllabic, that is, each individual word consists of only
one syllable; and (2) they are strikingly poor in vocables, or
separate sounds for the conveyance of speech. The number of
these vocables varies from between 800 and 90x3 in Cantonese to
no more than 420 in the vernacular of Peking. This scanty
number, however, is eked out by interposing an aspirate between
certain initial consonants and the vowel, so that for instance p'u
is distinguished from pu. The latter is pronounced with little
or no emission of breath, the " p " approximating the farther
north one goes (e.g. at Niuchwang) more closely to a " b."
The aspirated p'u is pronounced more like our interjection
" Pooh!" To the Chinese ear, the difference between the two
is very marked. It will be found, as a rule, that an Englishman
imparts a slight aspirate to his p?s, t's, k's and ch's, and therefore
has greater difficulty with the unaspirated words in Chinese.
The aspirates are better learned by the ear than by the eye,
but in one way or another it is essential that they be mastered
by any one who wishes to make himself intelligible to the native.

The influence of the Mongolian population, assisted by the
progress of time, has slowly but surely diminished the number
of vocables in Pekingese. Thus the initials Is and k, when fol-
lowed by the vowel i ( with its continental value) have gradually
become softer and more assimilated to each other, and are now
all pronounced ch. Again, all consonantal endings in t and k,
such as survive in Cantonese and other dialects, have entirely
disappeared from Pekingese, and n and ng are the only final
consonants remaining. Vowel sounds, on the other hand, have
been proportionately developed, such compounds as ao, ia, iao,
iu, ie, ua occurring with especial frequency. (It must be under-
stood, of course, that the above are only equivalents, not in all
cases very exact, for the sounds of a non-alphabetic language.)

An immediate consequence of this paucity of vocables fs that
one and the same sound has to do duty for different words.
Reckoning the number of words that an educated man would
want to use in conversation at something over four thousand,
it is obvious that there will be an average of ten meanings to
each sound employed. Some sounds may have fewer meanings
attached to them, but others will have many more. Thus the
following represent only a fraction of the total number of words
pronounced shih (something like the " shi " in shirt) : {£ " his-
tory," $f " to employ," j^ " a corpse/' fly " a market," fjjjj " an
army/' $$ " a lion," f$ " to rely on," f£ " to wait on," g£
" poetry," B£ " time," ifc " to know," $£ " to bestow," ^ " to
be," ff " solid," &. "to lose," ^ "to proclaim," |g "to look
at," -f- " ten," ^ " to pick up," fi " stone," -JJj; " generation,"
•^ "to eat," 1g "a house," % "a clan/' jfe "beginning," p
"to let go," j£ "to test," ^ "affair," ^," power," -± "officer,"
*J " to swear," jg " to pass away," jg " to happen." It would
be manifestly impossible to speak without ambiguity, or indeed
to make oneself intelligible at all, unless there were some means
of supplementing this deficiency of sounds. As a matter of fact,
several devices are employed through the combination of which
confusion is avoided. One of these devices is the coupling of
words in pairs in order to express a single idea. There is a word
If ko which means " elder brother." But in speaking, the sound
ko alone would not always be easily understood in this sense.
One must either reduplicate it and say ko-ko, or prefix ^C (ta,
" great ") and say la-ko. Simple reduplication is mostly con-
fined to family appellations and such adverbial phrases as -g ^
man-man, " slowly." But there is a much larger class of pairs,
in which each of the two components has the same meaning.

2I7

Examples are : jgj fa k'ung-p'a, " to be afraid," £ ffi kao-
su, " to tell," £} fc shu-mu, " tree," £ Jg />'»-/«, " skin,"
$5 Smaw-y'wg/'full/'®> i®*«-/M," solitary." Sometimes the
two parts are not exactly synonymous, but together make up
the sense required. Thus in ^ <j£ i-shang, " clothes," » denotes
more particularly clothes worn on the upper part of the body,
and shang those on the lower part, JJ, Qfeng-huang is the name
of a fabulous bird, feng being the male, and Huang the female.
In another very large class of expressions, the first word serves
to limit and determine the special meaning of the second: JJJ ^
"milk-skin," "cream"; fc J£| "fire-leg," "ham"; $£ fg
" lamp-cage," " lantern " ; jg jig " sea-waist," " strait." There
are, besides, a number of phrases which are harder to classify.
Thus, ffi hu means " tiger." But in any case where ambiguity
might arise, lao-hu, " old tiger," is used instead of the mono-
syllable. $£ (another hu) is " fox," and 3g li, an animal belong-
ing to the smaller cat tribe. Together, hu-li, they form the usual
term for fox. £jj ^ chih too is literally "to know the way,"
but has come to be used simply for the verb " to know." These
pairs or two-word phrases are of such frequent occurrence,
that the Chinese spoken language might almost be described as
bi-syllabic. Something similar is seen in the extensive use of
suffixes or enclitics, attached to many of the commonest nouns.
-fc nil is the word for "girl," but in speech -fc ^f- nii-tzu or -£r fa
nu-'rh is the form used. -~p and fa both mean child, and must
originally have been diminutives. A fairly close parallel is
afforded by the German suffix chen, as in Madchen. The suffix
fa, it may be remarked, belongs especially to the Peking ver-
nacular. Then, the use of so-called numeratives will often
give some sort of clue as to the class of objects in which a sub-
stantive may be found. When in pidgin English we speak of
" one piecee man " or " three piecee dollar," the word piecee is
simply a Chinese numerative in English dress. Even in ordinary
English, people do not say " four cattle " but " four head of
cattle." But in Chinese the use of numeratives is quite a dis-
tinctive feature of the language. The commonest of them, fl]| ko,

can be used indifferently in connexion with almost any class of
things, animal, vegetable or mineral. But there are other
numeratives — at least 20 or 30 in everyday use — which are
strictly reserved for limited classes of things with specific attri-
butes. %£ met, for instance, is the numerative of circular
objects such as coins and rings ; f^ Ko of small globular objects
— pearls, grains of rice, &c. ; fj k'ou classifies things which have
a mouth — bags, boxes and so forth ; jzj: Men is used of all kinds
of affairs ; §§ chang of chairs and sheets of paper ; ^ chih
(literally half a pair) is the numerative for various animals,
parts of the body, articles of clothing and ships ; ft; pa for things
which are grasped by a handle, such as fans and knives.

This by no means exhausts the list of devices by which the
difficulties of a monosyllabic language are successfully overcome.
Mention need only be made, however, of the system of " tones,"
which, as the most curious and important of all, has been kept
for the last.

The tones may be defined as regular modulations of the voice
by means of which different inflections can be imparted to the

same sound. They may be compared with the half- _

, j . .. .. , Thttoaes.

involuntary modulations which express emotional

feeling in our words. To the foreign ear, a Chinese sentence
spoken slowly with the tones clearly brought out has a certain
sing-song effect. If we speak of the tones as a " device "
adopted in order to increase the number of vocables, this must
be understood rather as a convenient way of explaining their
practical function than as a scientific account of their origin.
It is absurd to suppose the tones were deliberately invented in
order to fit each written character with a separate sound. A
tone may be said to be as much an integral part of the word to
which it belongs as the sound itself; like the sound, too, it is not
fixed once and for all, but is in a constant, though very gradual,
state of evolution. This fact is proved by the great differences of

218

CHINA

[LANGUAGE

intonation in the dialects. Theoretically, four tones have been
distinguished — the even, the rising, the sinking and the entering
— each of which falls again into an upper and a lower series. But
only the Cantonese dialect possesses all these eight varieties of
tone (to which a ninth has been added), while Pekingese, with
which we are especially concerned here, has no more than four:
the even upper, the even lower, the rising and the sinking. The
history of the tones has yet to be written, but it appears that
down to the 3rd century B.C. the only tones distinguished

were the 3* "even," Jl "rising" and A "entering." Between
that date and the 4th century A.D. the =%• sinking tone was
developed. In the nth century the even tone was divided into
upper and lower, and a little later the entering tone finally dis-
appeared from Pekingese. The following monosyllabic dialogue
gives a very fair idea of the quality of the four Pekingese tones
— ist tone: Dead (spoken in a raised monotone, with slightly
plaintive inflection); 2nd tone: Dead? (simple query); yd
tone: Dead? (an incredulous query long drawn out); 4th tone:
Dead! (a sharp and decisive answer). The native learns the
tones unconsciously and by ear alone. For centuries their exist-
ence was unsuspected, the first systematic classification of them
being associated with the name of Shen Yo, a scholar who
lived A.D. 441-513. The Emperor Wu Ti was inclined to be
sceptical, and one day said to him: " Come, tell me, what are
these famous four tones?" " They are 1%. -$• i8? ^ whatever
your Majesty pleases to make them," replied Shen Yo, skilfully
selecting for his answer four words which illustrated, and in the
usual order, the four tones in question. Although no native is
ever taught the tones separately, they are none the less present
in the words he utters, and must be acquired consciously or
unconsciously by any European who wishes to be understood.
It is a mistake, however, to imagine that every single word in
a sentence must necessarily be given its full tonic force. Quite
a number of words, such as the enclitics mentioned above, are
not intonated at all. In others the degree of emphasis depends
partly on the tone itself, partly on its position in the sentence.
In Pekingese the 3rd tone (which is really the second in the
ordinary series, the ist being subdivided into upper and lower)
is particularly important, and next to it in this respect comes
the 2nd (that is, the lower even, or 2nd division of the ist).
It may be said, roughly, that any speaker whose second and third
tones are correct will at any rate be understood, even if the ist
and 4th are slurred over.

It is chiefly, however, on its marvellous script and the rich
treasures of its literature that the Chinese language depends for

its unique fascination and charm. If we take a page
characters. °f printed Chinese or carefully written manuscript

and compare it with a page, say, of Arabic or Sanskrit,
the Chinese is seen at once to possess a marked characteristic
of its own. It consists of a number of wholly independent units,
each of which would fit into a small square, and is called a
character. These characters are arranged in columns, beginning
on the right-hand side of the page and running from top to
bottom. They are words, inasmuch as they stand for articulate
sounds expressing root-ideas, but they are unlike our words in
that they are not composed of alphabetical elements or letters.
Clearly, if each character were a distinct and arbitrarily con-
structed symbol, only those gifted with exceptional powers of
memory could ever hope to read or write with fluency. This,
however, is far from being the case. If we go to work synthetic-
ally and first see how the language is built up, it will soon appear
that most Chinese characters are susceptible of some kind of
analysis. We may accept as substantially true the account
of native writers who tell us that means of communication other
than oral began with the use of knotted cords, similar to the
quippus of ancient Mexico and Peru, and that these were dis-
placed later on by the practice of notching or scoring rude marks
on wood, bamboo and stone. It is beyond question that the
first four numerals, as written with simple horizontal strokes,
date from this early period. Notching, however, carries us but
a little way on the road to a system of writing, which in China,

as elsewhere, must have sprung originally from pictures.
In Chinese writing, especially, the indications of such an origin
are unmistakable, a few characters, indeed, even in
their present form, being perfectly recognizable as pic-
tures of objects pure and simple. Thus, for " sun " the
ancient Chinese drew a circle with a dot in it : Q, now modified
into H ; for "moon" J^, now >f ; for "God" they drew the
anthropomorphic figure %, which in its modern form appears
as ^ ; for " mountains " ftj^, now tfj ; for « child " &; now ^ ;
for " fish " Q, now fa ; for " mouth " a round hole, now p ;
for "hand" ^, now ^ ; for "well" :Q, now written without the
dot. Hence we see that while the origin of all writing is picto-
graphic, in Chinese alone of living languages certain pictures
have survived, and still denote what they had denoted in the
beginning. In the script of other countries they were gradually
transformed into hieroglyphic symbols, after which they either
disappeared altogether or became further conventionalized into
the letters of an alphabet. These picture-characters, then,
accumulated little by little, until they comprised all the common
objects which could be easily and rapidly delineated — sun, moon,
stars, various animals, certain parts of the body, tree, grass
and so forth, to the number of two or three hundred. The next
step was to a few compound pictograms which would naturally
suggest themselves to primitive man : |£ the sun just above the
horizon = " dawn " ; jjjj; trees side by side = " a forest " ; =g- a
mouth with something solid coming out of it= " the tongue ";
6 a mouth with vapor or breath coming out of it= " words."
But a purely pictographic script has its limitations. The more
complex natural objects hardly come within its scope; still less
the whole body of abstract ideas. While writing was
still in its infancy, it must have occurred to the Chinese ovtfcam*
to join together two or more pictorial characters in pounds.
order that their association might suggest to the mind
some third thing or idea. " Sun " and " moon " combined in
this way make the character $J, which means " bright "; woman
and child make £p " good "; " fields " and " strength " (that
is, labour in the fields) produce the character j§ "male";
two " men " on " earth " ^ signifies " to sit "—before chairs
were known; the "sun" seen through "trees" 5|t designates
the east; %. has been explained as (i) a " pig " under a " roof,'1
the Chinese idea, common to the Irish peasant, of home, and
also (2) as " several persons " under " a roof," in the same
sense ; a " woman " under a " roof " makes the character T£
" peace " ; " words " and " tongue " |j§ naturally suggest
" speech " ; two hands (^£, in the old formgj) indicate friend-
ship ; " woman " and " birth " j££ =" born of a woman," means

"clan-name," showing that the ancient Chinese traced through
the mother and not through the father. Interesting and in-
genious as many of these combinations are, it is clear that their
number, too, must in any practical system of writing be severely
limited. Hence it is not surprising that this class of characters,
correctly called ideograms, as representing ideas and not objects,
should be a comparatively small one. Up to this point there
seemed to be but little chance of the written language reaching
a free field for expansion. It had run so far on lines sharply
distinct from those of ordinary speech. There was nothing in
the character per se which gave the slightest clue to the sound of
the word it represented. Each character, therefore, had to be
learned and recognized by a separate effort of memory. The
first step in a new, and, as it ultimately proved,
the right direction, was the borrowing of a char-
acter already in use to represent another word
identical in sound, though different in meaning. Owing to the
scarcity of vocables noted above, there might be as many as
ten different words in common use, each pronounced fang.
Out of those ten only one, we will suppose, had a character
assigned to it — namely ^ " square " (originally said to be a

LANGUAGE]

CHINA

219

picture of two boats joined together). But among the other nine
was/ang, meaning " street " or " locality," in such common use
that it became necessary to have some means of writing it.
Instead of inventing an altogether new character, as they might
have done, the Chinese took ~}j " square " and used it also in
the sense of " locality." This was a simple expedient, no doubt,
but one that, applied on a large scale, could not but lead to
confusion. The corresponding difficulty which presented itself
in speech was overcome, as we saw, by many devices, one of
which consisted in prefixing to the word in question another
which served to determine its special meaning. A native does
not say fang simply when he wishes to speak of a place, but
li-fang " earth-place." Exactly the same device was now
adopted in writing the character. To fang " square " was added
another part meaning " earth," in order to show that the fang
in question had to do with location on the earth's surface. The
whole character thus appeared as 5fa. Once this phonetic prin-
ciple had been introduced, all was smooth sailing, and writing
progressed by leaps and bounds. Nothing was easier now
than to provide signs for the other words pronounced fang.
" A room " was ffi dooT-fang; " to spin " was &fj silk-/ong;
" fragrant " was 3? herbs-/a«g; " to inquire " was jj§ words-
fang; " an embankment," and hence " to guard against," was
K? mound-/a«g; " to hinder " was J& woman-/o«g. This last
example may seem a little strange until we remember that man
must have played the principal part in the development of
writing, and that from the masculine point of view there is some-
thing essentially obstructive and unmanageable in woman's
nature. It may be remarked, by the way, that the element
" woman " is often the determinative in characters that stand
for unamiable qualities, e.g. $P " jealous," $f " treacherous,"^
" false " and #£ " uncanny." This class of characters, which
constitutes at least nine-tenths of the language, has received the
convenient name of phonogramf. It must be added that the
formation of the phonogram or phonetic compound did not
always proceed along such simple lines as in the examples given
above, where both parts are pictorial characters, one. the
" phonetic," representing the sound, and the other, commonly
known as the " radical," giving a clue to the sense. In the first
place, most of the phonetics now existing are not simple picto-
grams, but themselves more or less complex characters made up
in a variety of ways. On analysing, for instance, the word 2i
hsun, " to withdraw," we find it is composed of the phonetic
® combined with the radical i_, an abbreviated form of 4^ " to
walk." But %$ sun means " grandson," and is itself a suggestive
compound made up of the two characters -f " a son " and Jk
" connect." The former character is a simple pictogram, but
the latter is again resolvable into the two elements ./ " a down
stroke to the left " and jfo " a strand of silk," which is here
understood to be the radical and appears in its ancient form as
ff5, a picture of cocoons spun by the silkworm. Again, the
sound is in most cases given by no means exactly by the so-called
phonetic, a fact chiefly due to the pronunciation having under-
gone changes which the written character was incapable of record-
ing. Thus, we have just seen that the phonetic of 'M is not hsun
but sun. There are extreme cases in which a phonetic provides
hardly any clue at all as to the sound of its derivatives. The
character fa, for example, which by itself is pronounced clt'ien,
appears in combination as the modern phonetic of JA k'an,
Iffcjuan, ffiyin and Vfc. ch'ui; though in the last instance it was
not originally the phonetic but the radical of a character which
was analysed as fa Mien, " to emit breath " from d " the
mouth," the whole character being a suggestive compound
rather than an illustration of radical and phonetic combined.
In general, however, it may be said that the " final " or rhyme
is pretty accurately indicated, while in not a few cases the pho-
netic does give the exact sound for all its derivatives. Thus, the
characters in which the element jjjf enters are pronounced Men,
cliien, hsien and lien; but ^ and its derivatives are all i. A

considerable number of phonetics are nearly or entirely obsolete
as separate characters, although their family of derivatives may
be a very large one. EX, for instance, is never seen by itself, yet
£2, 9R, and y^ are among the most important characters in the
language. Objections have been raised in some quarters to
this account of the phonetic development of Chinese. It is
argued that the primitives and sub-primitives, whereby is meant
any character which is capable of entering into combination
with another, have really had some influence on the meaning,
and do not merely possess a phonetic value. But insufficient
evidence has hitherto been advanced in support of this view.

The whole body of Chinese characters, then, may conveniently
be divided up, for philological purposes, into pictograms, ideo-
grams and phonograms. The first are pictures of objects, the
second are composite symbols standing for abstract ideas, the
third are compound characters of which the more important
element simply represents a spoken sound. Of course, in a strict
sense, even the first two classes do not directly represent either
objects or ideas, but rather stand for sounds by which these
objects and ideas have previously been expressed. It may, in
fact, be said that Chinese characters are " nothing but a number
of more or less ingenious devices for suggesting spoken words to
a reader." This definition exposes the inaccuracy of the popular
notion that Chinese is a language of ideographs, a mistake which
even the compilers of the Oxford English Dictionary have not
avoided. Considering that all the earliest characters are pictorial,
and that the vast majority of the remainder are constructed on
phonetic principles, it is absurd to speak of Chinese characters as
" symbolizing the idea of a thing, without expressing the name
of it."

The Chinese themselves have always been diligent students of
their written language, and at a very early date (probably many
centuries B.C.) evolved a sixfold classification of char-
acters, the so-called /^J § liu shu, very inaccurately script*."
translated by the Six Scripts, which may be briefly
noticed: —

i- $f 2fJ chih shih, indicative or self-explanatory characters.
This is a very small class, including only the simplest numerals
and a few others such as K " above " and "f " below."

2. 'ifc. 7& hsiang hsing, pictographic characters.

3. T& §£ hsing shtng or fa 3$ hsieh sheng. phonetic com-
pounds.

4- "it 3« hui i, suggestive compounds based on a natural
association of ideas. To this class alone can the term "ideo-
graphs " be properly applied.

5- $$ ££ chuan chu. The meaning of this name has been much
disputed, some saying that it means " turned round "; e.g.
<33> mu " eye " is now written Q. Others understand it as com-
prising a few groups of characters nearly related in sense, each
character consisting of an element common to the group, together
with a specific and detachable part; e.g. 3£, :% , and ^, all of
which have the meaning " old." This class may be ignored
altogether, seeing that it is concerned not with the origin of
characters but only with peculiarities in their use.

6. *Hx. fef chia chieh, borrowed characters, as explained above,
that is, characters adopted for different words simply because
of the identity of sound.

The order of this native classification is not to be taken as in
any sense chronological. Roughly, it may be said that the
development of writing followed the course previously traced —
that is, beginning with indicative, signs, and going on with
pictograms and ideograms, until finally the discovery of the
phonetic principle did away with all necessity for other devices
in enlarging the written language. But we have no direct
evidence that this was so. There can be little doubt that phonetic
compounds made their appearance at a very early date, probably
prior to the invention of a large number of suggestive compounds,
and perhaps even before the whole existing stock of pictograms
had been fashioned. It is significant that numerous words of
daily occurrence, which must have had a place in the earliest

220

CHINA

[LANGUAGE

Styles Of
writing.

• 0 •

stages of human thought, are expressed by phonetic characters
We can be fairly certain, at any rate, that the period o
" borrowed characters " did not last very long, though it i
thought that traces of it are to be seen in the habit of writinj
several characters, especially those for certain plants anc
animals, indifferently with or without their radicals. Thu
$$• M1 " a tadpole " is frequently written ffl ^, without th
part meaning "insect" or "reptile."

In the very earliest inscriptions that have come down to us, ih
so-called^ ^£ &tt-o'<?nor"ancientfigures,"alltheabove-mentione(
forms occur. None are wholly pictorial, with one or two
unimportant exceptions. These early inscriptions are
found on bronzes dating from the half-legendary perioc
extending from the beginning of the Shang dynasty in the i8th
century B.C., or possibly earlier, down to a point in the reign of King
Hsiian of the Chou dynasty, generally fixed at 827 B.C. They havt
been carefully reproduced and for the most part deciphered by pains
taking Chinese archaeologists, and form the subject of many volumin-
ous works. The following may be taken as a specimen, in which it
will be noticed that only the last character is unmistakably pictorial
This is read : t£ f£ j| Jfj{— "Shin made [this;
precious ting." These ancient bronzes, whicl
mainly take the shape of bells, cauldrons anc
sacrificial utensils, were until within the last
decade our sole source of information concerning
the origin and early history of Chinese writing.
But recently a large number of inscribed bone
fragments have been excavated in the north of
China, providing new and unexpected matter for investigation.
The inscriptions on these bones have already furnished a list of nearly
2500 separate characters, of which not more than about 600 have
been so far identified. They appear to be responses given by pro-
fessional soothsayers to private individuals who came to them
seeking the aid of divination in the affairs of their daily life. It is
difficult to fix their date with much exactitude. The script, though
less archaic than that of the earlier bronzes, is nevertheless of an
exceedingly free and irregular type. Judging by the style of the in-
scriptions alone, one would be inclined to assign them to the early
years of the Chou dynasty, say noo B.C. But Mr L. C. Hopkins
thinks that they represent a mode of writing already obsolete at the
time of their production, and retained of set purpose by the diviners
from obscurantist motives, much as the ancient hieroglyphics were
employed by the Egyptian priesthood. He would therefore date
them about 500 years later, or only half a century before the birth of
Confucius. If that is so, they are merely late specimens of the
" ancient figures " appearing long after the latter had made way for a
new and more conventionalized form of writing. This new writing
is called in Chinese 3& chuan, which is commonly rendered by the
word Seal, for the somewhat unscientific reason that many ages after-
wards it was generally adopted for use on seals. Under the Chou
dynasty, however, as well as the two succeeding it, the meaning of
the word was not " seal," but " sinuous curves," as made in writing.
It has accordingly been suggested that this epoch marks the first
introduction into China of the brush in place of the bamboo or
wooden pencil with frayed end which was used with some kind of
colouring matter or varnish. There are many arguments both for
and against this view; but it is unquestionable, at any rate, that the
introduction of a supple implement like the brush at the very time
when the forms of characters were fast becoming crystallized and
fixed, would be sufficient to account for a great revolution in the
style of writing. Authentic specimens of the ^ gj£ to chuan, older or
Greater Seal writing, are exceedingly rare. But it is generally
believed that the inscriptions on the famous stone drums, now at
Peking, date from the reign of King Hsiian, and they may therefore
with practical certainty be cited as examples of the Greater Seal
in its original form. These " drums " are really ten roughly chiselled
mountain boulders, which were discovered in the early part of the
7th century, lying half buried in the ground near Feng-hsiang Fu in
the province of Shensi. On them are engraved ten odes, a complete
ode being cut on each drum, celebrating an Imperial hunting and
fishing expedition in that part of the country. A facsimile of one of
these, taken from an old rubbing and reproduced in Dr Bushell's
Handbook of Chinese Art, shows that great strides had been made in
this writing towards symmetry, compactness and conventionalism.
The vogue of the Greater Seal appears to have lasted until the reign
of the First Emperor, 221-210 B.C. (see History), when a further
modification took place. For many centuries China had been split
up into a number of practically independent states, and this circum-
stance seems to have led to considerable variations in the styles of
writing. Having succeeded in unifying the empire, the First
Emperor proceeded, on the advice of his minister Li Ssu, to standard-
ize its script by ordaining that only the style in use in his own state of
Ch'm should henceforward be employed throughout China. It is
clear, then, that this new style of writing was nothing more than the
Greater Seal characters in the form they had assumed after several

centuries of evolution, with numerous abbreviations and modifica-
tions. It was afterwards known as the /h 3jt hsiao chuan, or Lesser
Seal, and is familiar to us from the Shuo Win dictionary (see Litera-
ture). Though a decided improvement on what had gone before, the
Lesser Seal was destined to have but a short career of undisputed
supremacy. Reform was in the air; and something less cumbrous
was soon felt to be necessary by the clerks who had to supply the
immense quantity of written reports demanded by the First Emperor
Thus it came about that a yet simpler and certainly more artistic
form of writing was already in use, though not universally so, not
long after the decree abolishing the Greater Seal. This M ^F It shu,
or " official script," as it is called, shows a great advance on the Seal
character; so much so that one cannot help suspecting the traditional
account of its invention. It is perhaps mere likely to have been
directly evolved from the Greater Seal. If the Lesser Seal was the
script of the semi-barbarous state of Ch'in, we should certainly expect
to find a more highly developed system of writing in some of the other
states. Unlike the Seal, the li shu is perfectly legible to one acquainted
only with the modern character, from which indeed it differs but in
minor details. How long the Lesser Seal continued to exist side by
side with the K shu is a question which cannot be answered with
certainty. It was evidently quite obsolete, however, at the time of
the compilation of the Shuo Wen, about a hundred years after the
Christian era. As for the Greater Seal and still earlier forms of
writing, they were not merely obsolete but had fallen into utter
oblivion before the Han Dynasty was fifty years old. When a
number of classical texts were discovered bricked up in old houses
about 150 B.C., the style of writing was consideied so singular by the
literati of the period that they refused to believe it was the ordinary
ancient character at all, and nicknamed- it k'o-t'ou shu, "tadpole
character," from some fancied resemblance in shape. The theory
that these tadpole characters were not Chinese but a species of cunei-
form script, in which the wedges might possibly suggest tadpoles,
must be dismissed as too wildly improbable for serious considera-
tion ; but we may advert for a moment to a famous inscription in
which the real tadpole characters of antiquity are said to appear.
This is on a stone tablet alleged to have been erected on Mount Heng
in the modern Hupeh by the legendary Emperor Yii, as a record of
his labours in draining away the great flood which submerged part of
China in the 2yd century B.C. After more than one fruitless search,
the actual monument is said to have been discovered on a peak of
the mountain in A.D. 1212, and a transcription was made, which may
be seen reproduced as a curiosity in Legge's Classics, vol. iii. For
several reasons, however, the whole affair must be regarded as a
gross imposture.

Out of the " official script " two other forms were soon developed,
namely the 3jL ^f ts'ao shu, or " grass character," which so curtails
the usual strokes as to be comparable to a species of shorthand,
requiring special study, and the fa ^ Using shu or running hand,
used in ordinary correspondence. Some form of grass character is
mentioned as in use as early as 200 B.C. or thereabouts, though how
nearly it approximated to the modern grass hand it is hard to say;
the running hand seems to have come several centuries later. The
Rnal standardization of Chinese writing was due to the great calli-
graphist Wang Hsi-chih of the 4th century, who gave currency to the
graceful style of character known as $| fl£ k'ai shu, sometimes
referred to as the " clerkly hand." When block-printing was invented
some centuries later, the characters were cut on this model, which still
survives at the present day. It is no doubt owing to the early intro-
duction of printing that the script of China has remained practically
unchanged ever since. The manuscript rolls of the T'ang and pre-
ceding dynasties, recently discovered by Dr Stein, in Turkestan,
furnish direct evidence of this fact, showing as they do a style of writ-
ng not only clear and legible but remarkably modern in appearance.

The whole history of Chinese writing, then, is characterized by a
slow progressive development which precludes the idea of sharply-
marked divisions between one period and another. The Chinese
themselves, however, have canonized quite a series of alleged in-
ventors, starting from Fu Hsi, a mythical emperor of the third
millennium B.C., who is said to have developed a complete system
>f written characters from the markings on the back of a dragon-
lorse; hence, by the way, the origin of the dragon as an Imperial
emblem. As a rule, the credit of the invention of the art of writing is
liven to Ts'ang Chieh, a being with fabulous attributes, who con-
ceived the idea of a written language from the markings of birds'
-laws upon the sand. The diffusion of the Greater Seal script is
raced to a work in fifteen chapters published by Shih Chou, historio-
grapher in the reign of King Hsiian. The Lesser Seal, aga;n, is often
ascribed to Li Ssu himself, whereas the utmost he can have done in
he matter was to urge its introduction into common use. Likewise,
Ch'gng Mo, of the 3rd century B.C., is supposed to have invented
he li shu while in prison, and one account attributes the Lesser Seal
o him as well ; but the fact is that the whole history of writing, as
t stands in Chinese authors, is in hopeless confusion.

Grammar. — When about to embark on the study of a foreign
anguage, the student's first thought is to provide himself with

LANGUAGE]

CHINA

221

two indispensable aids — a dictionary and a grammar. The
Chinese have found no difficulty in producing the former (see
Literature). Now what as to the grammar? He might reason-
ably expect a people so industrious in the cultivation of their
language to have evolved some system of grammar which to
a certain degres would help to smooth his path. And yet the
contrary is the case. No set of rules governing the mutual
relations of words has ever been formulated by the Chinese,
apparently because the need of such rules has never been felt.
The most that native writers have done is to draw a distinction
between Jf ^p and ^1^ " full " and " empty words," respec-
tively, the former being subdivided into SS ^ " living words "
or verbs, and JB ^? " dead words " or noun-substantives. By
" empty words " particles are meant, though sometimes the
expression is loosely applied to abstract terms, including verbs.
The above meagre classification is their nearest approach to a
conception of grammar in our sense. This in itself does not
prove that a Chinese grammar is impossible, nor that, if con-
structed, it might not be helpful to the student. As a matter
of fact, several attempts have been made by foreigners to deduce
a grammatical system which should prove as rigid and binding
as those of Western languages, though it cannot be said that
any as yet has stood the test of time or criticism. Other writers
have gone to the other extreme, and maintained that Chinese
has no grammar at all. In this dictum, exaggerated as it sounds,
there is a very substantial amount of truth. Every Chinese
character is an indivisible unit, representing a sound and standing
for a root-idea. Being free from inflection or agglutination of
any kind, it is incapable of indicating in itself either gender,
number or case, voice, mood, tense or person. Of European
languages, English stands nearest to Chinese in this respect,
whence it follows that the construction of a hybrid jargon like
pidgin English presents fewer difficulties than would be the
case, for instance, with pidgin German. For pidgin English
simply consists in taking English words and treating them like
Chinese characters, that is, divesting them of all troublesome
inflections and reducing them to a set of root-ideas arranged in
logical sequence. " You wantchee my no wantchee " is nothing
more nor less than literally rendered Chinese : fij; §£ fi& sfi 35

" Do you want me or not? " But we may go further,
and say that no Chinese character can be definitely regarded
as being any particular part of speech or possessing any particular
function absolutely, apart from the general tenor of its context.
Thus, taken singly, the character _fc, conveys only the general

idea "above" as opposed to "below." According to its place
in the sentence and the requirements of common sense, it may
be a noun meaning " upper person " (that is, a ruler) ; an
adjective meaning " upper," " topmost " or " best "; an
adverb meaning "above"; a preposition meaning "upon";
and finally a verb meaning " to mount upon," or " to go'to."
X is a character that may usually be translated " to enter "
as in ^ J31! " to enter a door " ; yet in the locution ^ jfc
" enter wood," the verb becomes causative, and the meaning
is " to put into a coffin." It would puzzle grammarians to deter-
mine the precise grammatical function of any of the words in
the following sentence, with the exception of {Sf (an interroga-
tive, by the way, which here happens to mean " why " but in
other contexts is equivalent to "how," "which" or "what"):
$ M IJ& ifr " Affair why must ancient," or in more idiomatic
English, "Why necessarily stick to the ways of the ancients in such
matters?" Ortakeaproverbialsayinglike/J? Bf M ^ 0f M,
which may be correctly rendered " The less a man has seen,
the more he has to wonder at." It is one thing, however, to
translate it correctly, and another to explain how this translation
can be inferred from the individual words, of which the bald
equivalents might be given as: " Few what see, many what
strange." To say that " strange " is the literal equivalent of g
does not mean that £j£ can be definitely classed as an adjective.
On the other hand, it would be dangerous even to assert that
the word here plays the part of an active verb, because it would

be equally permissible to translate the above " Many things
are strange to one who has seen but little."

Chinese grammar, then, so far as it deals with the classification of
separate words, may well be given up as a bad job. But there still
remains the art of syntax, the due arrangement of words to form
sentences according to certain established rules. Here, at any rate,
we are on somewhat firmer ground ; and for many years the dictum
that " the whole of Chinese grammar depends upon position " was
regarded as a golden key to the written language of China. It is
perfectly true that there are certain positions and collocations of
words which tend to recur, but when one sits down to formulate a
set of hard-and-fast rules governing these positions, it is soon found
to be a thankless task, for the number of qualifications and exceptions
which will have to be added is so great as to render the rule itself
valueless. ,B| _£_ means "on a horse," J^ Jl| "to get on a horse."
But it will not do to say that a preposition becomes a verb when
placed before the substantive, as many other prepositions come
before and not after the words they govern. If we meet such a
phrase as S£ jjg, literally " warn rebels," we must not mentally label
^ as a verb and ^ as a substantive, and say to ourselves that in
Chinese the verb is followed immediately by its object Otherwise,
we might be tempted to translate, " to warn the rebels," whereas a
little reflection would show us that the conjunction of "warning"
and " rebels " naturally leads to the meaning " to warn (the populace
or whoever it may be) against the rebels." After all our adventurous
incursions into the domain of syntax, we are soon brought back to
the starting-point and are obliged to confess that each particular
passage is best interpreted on its own merits, by the logic of the
context and the application of common sense. There is no reason
why Chinese sentences shoujd not be dissected, by those who take
pleasure in such operations, into subject, copula and predicate, but
it should be early impressed upon the beginner that the profit
likely to accrue to him therefrom is infinitesimal. As for fixed rules
of grammatical construction, so far from being a help, he will find
them a positive hindrance. It should rather be his- aim to free his
mind from such trammels, and to accustom himself to look upon
each character as a root-idea, not a definite part of speech.

The Book Language. — Turning now to some of the more
salient characteristics of the book language, with the object of
explaining how it came to be so widely separated from common
speech, we might reasonably suppose that in primitive times the
two stood in much closer relation to each other than now. But
it is certainly a striking fact that the earliest literary remains of
any magnitude that have come down to us should exhibit a style
very far removed from any possible colloquial idiom. The
speeches of the Book of History (see Literature) are more mani-
festly fictitious, by many degrees, than the elaborate orations in
Thucydides and Livy. If we cannot believe that Socrates
actually spoke the words attributed to him in the dialogues of
Plato, much less can we expect to find the ipsissima verba of
Confucius in any of his recorded sayings. In the beginning, all
characters doubtless represented spoken words, but it must very
soon have dawned on the practical Chinese mind that there was
no need to reproduce in writing the bisyllabic compounds of
common speech. Chien " to see," in its written form H, . could
not possibly be confused with any other Men, and it was there-
fore unnecessary to go to the trouble of writing ^tf Jt< k'an-chien
" look-see," as in colloquial. There was a wonderful outburst
of literary activity in the Confucian era, when it would seem that
the older and more cumbrous form of Seal character was still in
vogue. If the mere manual labour of writing was so great, we
cannot wonder that all superfluous particles or other words that
could be dispensed with were ruthlessly cut away. So it came
about that all the old classical works were composed in the
tersest of language, as remote as can be imagined from the
speech of the people. The passion for brevity and conciseness
was pushed to an extreme, and resulted more often than not in
such obscurity that detailed commentaries on the classics were
found to be necessary, and have always constituted an important
branch of Chinese literature. After the introduction of the
improved style of script, and when the mechanical means of
writing had been simplified, it may be supposed that literary
diction also became freer and more expansive. This did happen
to some extent, but the classics were held in such veneration as
to exercise the profoundest influence over all succeeding schools
of writers, and the divorce between literature and pooular speech
became permanent and irreconcilable. The book language

222

CHINA

[LITERATURE

absorbed all the interest and energy of scholars, and it was
inevitable that this elevation of the written should be accom-
panied by a corresponding degradation of the spoken word.
This must largely account for the somewhat remarkable fact
that the art of oratory and public speaking has never been deemed
worthy of cultivation in China, while the comparatively low
position occupied by the drama may also be referred to the same
cause. At the same time, the term " book language," in its
widest sense, covers a multitude of styles, some of which differ
from each other nearly as much as from ordinary speech. The
department of fiction (see Literature), which the lettered China-
man affects to despise and will not readily admit within the
charmed circle of " literature," really constitutes a bridge
spanning the gulf between the severer classical style and the
colloquial; while an elegant terseness characterises the higher-
class novel, there are others in which the style is loose and
shambling. Still, it remains true that no book of any first-rate
literary pretensions would be easily intelligible to any class of
Chinamen, educated or otherwise, if read aloud exactly as printed.
The public reader of stories is obliged to translate, so to speak,
into the colloquial of his audience as he goes along. There is no
inherent reason why the conversation of everyday life should not
be rendered into characters, as is done in foreign handbooks for
teaching elementary Chinese; one can only say that the Chinese
do not think it worth while. There are a few words, indeed,
which, though common enough in the mouths of genteel and
vulgar alike, have positively no characters to represent them.
On the other hand, there is a vast store of purely book words
which would never be used or understood in conversation.

The book language is not only nice in its choice of words, it
also has to obey special rules of construction. Of these, perhaps
the most apparent is the carefully marked antithesis between
characters in different clauses of a sentence, which results in a
kind of parallelism or rhythmic balance. This parallelism is
a noticeable feature in ordinary poetical composition, and
may be well illustrated by the following four-line stanza:

" Q fJ {& ill 2si The bright sun completes its course behind
the mountains ; 35 M A. $$ $£ The yellow river flows away
into the sea. ^ $§ ^ J| g Would you command a pros-
pect of a thousand It ? !? _fc, — ^ |H Climb yet one storey
higher." In the first line of this piece, every single character
is balanced by a corresponding one in the second : £j white by
^ yellow, fj sun by JgJ river, and so on. In the 3rd and 4th
lines, where more laxity is generally allowed, every word again
has its counterpart, with the sole exception of :gjj " wish " and
g " further."

The question is often asked: What sort of instrument is
Chinese for the expression of thought? As a medium for the
conveyance of historical facts, subtle emotions or abstruse
philosophical conceptions, can it compare with the languages
of the Western world? The answers given to this question have
varied considerably. But it is noteworthy that those who most
depreciate the qualities of Chinese are, generally speaking,
theorists rather than persons possessing a profound first-hand
knowledge of the language itself. Such writers argue that want
of inflection in the characters must tend to make Chinese hard
and inelastic, and therefore incapable of bringing out the finer
shades of thought and emotion. Answering one a priori argu-
ment with another, one might fairly retort that, if anything,
flexibility is the precise quality to be predicated of a language
in which any character may, according to the requirements of the
context, be interpreted either as noun, verb or adjective. But
all such reasoning is somewhat futile. It will scarcely be con-
tended that German, being highly inflected, is therefore superior
in range and power to English, from which inflections have
largely disappeared. Some of the early Jesuit missionaries,
men of great natural ability who steeped themselves in Oriental
learning, have left very different opinions on record. Chinese
appeared to them as admirable for the superabundant richness
of its vocabulary as for the conciseness of its literary style.

And among modern scholars there is a decided tendency to accept
this view as embodying a great deal more truth than the other.

Another question, much debated years ago, which time itself
is now satisfactorily answering, was whether the Chinese language
would be able to assimilate the vast stock of new terminology
which closer contact with the West would necessarily carry with
it. Two possible courses, it seemed, were open: either fresh
characters would be formed on the radical-phonetic principle, or
the new idea might be expressed by the conjunction of two or
more characters already existing. The former expedient had
been tried on a limited scale in Japan, where in the course of
time new characters were formed on the same principle as of old,
which were yet purely Japanese and find no place in a Chinese
dictionary. But although the field for such additions was
boundless, the Chinese have all along been chary of extending
the language in this way, probably because these modern
terms had no Chinese sound which might have suggested some
particular phonetic. They have preferred to adopt the other
method, of which ^- P$ tH (rise-descend-machine) for " lift,"
and fil ®C HU f| (discuss -govern -country -assembly) for
" parliament " are examples. Even a metaphysical abstraction
like The Absolute has been tentatively expressed by fS 1$
(exclude-opposite); but in this case an equivalent was already
existing in the Chinese language.

A very drastic measure, strongly advocated in some quarters,
is the entire abolition of all characters, to be replaced by their
equivalent sounds in letters of the alphabet. Under this scheme
J^ would figure as jSn or ren, J^ as ma, and so on. But the pro-
posal has fallen extremely flat. The vocables, as we have seen,
are so few in number that only the colloquial, if even that, could
possibly be transcribed in this manner. Any attempt to trans-
literate classical Chinese would result in a mere jumble of sounds,
utterly unintelligible, even with the addition of tone-marks.
There is another aspect of the case. The characters are a potent
bond of union between the different parts of the Empire with
their various dialects. If they should ever fall into disuse,
China will have taken a first and most fatal step towards internal
disruption. Even the Japanese, whose language is not only free
from dialects, but polysyllabic and therefore more suitable for
romanization, have utterly refused to abandon the Chinese script,
which in spite of certain disadvantages has hitherto triumphantly
adapted itself to the needs of civilized intercourse.

See P. Premare, Notitiae Linguae Sinicae (1831); Ma Kien-chung,
Ma shih wen t'ung (1899) ; L. C. Hopkins, The Six Scripts (1881) and
The Development of Chinese Writing (1910); H. A. Giles, A Chinese-
English Dictionary (2nd ed., 1910). (H. A. Gl. ; L. Gl.)

VIII. CHINESE LITERATURE

The literature of China is remarkable (i) for its antiquity,
coupled with an unbroken continuity down to the present day;
(2) for the variety of subjects presented, and for the exhaustive
treatment which, not only each subject, but also each sub-
division, each separate item, has received, as well as for the
colossal scale on which so many literary monuments have been
conceived and carried out; (3) for the accuracy of its historical
statements, so far as it has been possible to test them; and
further (4) for its ennobling standards and lofty ideals, as well
as for its wholesome purity and an almost total absence of
coarseness and obscenity.

No history of Chinese literature in the Chinese language has
yet been produced; native scholars, however, have adopted,
for bibliographical purposes, a rough division into four great
classes. Under the first of these, we find the Confucian Canon,
together with lexicographical, philological, and other works
dealing with the elucidation of words. Under the second,
histories of various kinds, officially compiled, privately written,
constitutional, &c.; also biography, geography and bibliography.
Under the third, philosophy, religion, e.g. Buddhism; the arts
and sciences, e.g. war, law, agriculture, medicine, astronomy,
painting, music and archery; also a host of general works,
monographs, and treatises on a number of topics, as well as
encyclopaedias. The fourth class is confined to poetry of all

LITERATURE]

CHINA

223

descriptions, poetical critiques, and works dealing with the all-
important rhymes.

Poetry. — Proceeding chronologically, without reference to
Chinese classification, we have to begin, as would naturally be
expected, with the last of the above four classes. Man's first
literary utterances in China, as elsewhere, took the form of
verse; and the earliest Chinese records in our possession are the
national lyrics, the songs and ballads, chiefly of the feudal age,
which reaches back to over a thousand years before Christ.
Some pieces are indeed attributed to the i8th century B.C.;
the latest bring us down to the 6th century B.C. Such is the
collection entitled Shih Ching (or She King), popularly known as
the Odes, which was brought together and edited by Confucius,
551-479 B.C., and is now included among the Sacred Books,
forming as it does an important portion of the Confucian Canon.
These Odes, once over three thousand in number, were reduced
by Confucius to three hundred and eleven; hence they are
frequently spoken of as " the Three Hundred." They treat of
war and love, of eating and drinking and dancing, of the virtues
and vices of rulers, and of the misery and happiness of the people.
They are in rhyme. Rhyme is essential to Chinese poetry;
there is no such thing as blank verse. Further, the rhymes of
the Odes have always been, and are still, the only recognized
rhymes which can be used by a Chinese poet, anything else
being regarded as mere jingle. Poetical licence, however, is
tolerated; and great masters have availed themselves freely
of its aid. One curious result of this is that whereas in many
instances two given words may have rhymed, as no doubt they
did, in the speech of three thousand years ago, they no longer
rhyme to the ear in the colloquial of to-day, although still
accepted as true and proper rhymes in the composition of verse.

It is noticeable at once that the Odes are mostly written in lines
of four words, examples of lines consisting of any length from a
single word to eight, though such do exist, being comparatively rare.
These lines of four words, generally recognized as the oldest measure
in Chinese poetry, are frequently grouped as quatrains, in which the
first, second and fourth lines rhyme; but very often only the second
and fourth lines rhyme, and sometimes there are groups of a larger
number of lines in which occasional lines are found without any rhyme
at all. A few stray pieces, as old as many of those found among the
Odes, have been handed down and preserved, in which the metre
consists of two lines of three words followed by one line of seven
words. These three lines all rhyme, but the rhyme changes with
each succeeding triplet. It would be difficult to persuade the English
reader that this is a very effective measure, and one in which many a
gloomy or pathetic tale has been told. In order to realise how a few
Chinese monosyllables in juxtaposition can stir the human heart to
its lowest depths, it is necessary to devote some years to the study of
the language.

At the close of the 4th century B.C., a dithyrambic measure,
irregular and wild, was introduced and enjoyed considerable vogue.
It has indeed been freely adopted by numerous poets from that early
date down to the present day; but since the 2nd century B.C. it
has been displaced from pre-eminence by the seven-word and five-
word measures which are now, after much refinement, the accepted
standards for Chinese poetry. The origin of the seven-word metre
is lost in remote antiquity; the five- word metre was elaborated under
the master-hand of Mei Shine, who died 140 B.C. Passing over seven
centuries of growth, we reach the T'ang dynasty, A.D. 618-905, the
most brilliant epoch in the history of Chinese poetry. These three
hundred years produced an extraordinarily large number of great
poets, and an output of verse of almost incredible extent. In 1707
an anthology of the T'ang poets was published by Imperial order;
it ran to nine hundred books or sections, and contained over forty-
eight thousand nine hundred separate poems. A copy of this work
is in the Chinese department of the University Library at Cambridge.

It was under the T'ang dynasty that a certain finality was reached
in regard to the strict application of the tones to Chinese verse.
For the purposes of poetry, all words in the language were ranged
under one or the other of two tones, the even and the oblique, the
former now including the two even tones, of which prior to the iith
century there was only one, and the latter including the rising,
sinking and entering tones of ordinary speech. The incidence of
these tones, which may be roughly described as sharps and flats,
finally became fixed, just as the incidence of certain feet in Latin
metres came to be governed by fixed rules. Thus, reading down-
ward from right to left, asjn Chinese, a_five-word_stanza may run:

Sharp
sharp
flat

flat
sharp

Flat

flat

sharp

O

sharp
flat

Flat

flat

flat

o ,

sharp
sharp

Sharp
sharp
sharp

flat
flat

A seven-word stanza may run:

Flat
flat
sharp
sharp

flat
flat
sharp

Sharp
sharp
flat
flat

Sharp
sharp
flat
flat

Flat
flat
sharp
sharp

flat
flat
sharp

sharp flat

sharp sharp

flat sharp r

The above are only two metres out ot many, but enough perhaps
to give to any one who will read them with a pause or quasi-caesura,
as marked by ° in each specimen, a fair idea of the rhythmic lilt of
Chinese poetry. To the trained car, the effect is most pleasing;
and when this scansion, so to speak, is united with rhyme and choice
diction, the result is a vehicle for verse, artificial no doubt, and
elaborate, but admirably adapted to the genius of the Chinese
language. Moreover, in the hands of the great poets this artificiality
disappears altogether. Each word seems to slip naturally into its
place ; and so far from having been introduced by violence for the
ends of prosody, it appears to be the very best word that could have
been chosen, even had there been no trammels of any kind, so effect-
ually is the art of the poet concealed by art. From the long string
of names which have shed lustre upon this glorious age of Chinese
poetry, it may suffice for the present purpose to mention the follow-
ing, all of the very first rank.

M6ng Hao-jan, A.D. 689-740, failed to succeed at the public
competitive examinations, and retired to the mountains where he
led the life of a recluse. Later on, he obtained an official post;
but he was of a timid disposition, and once when the emperor,
attracted by his fame, came to visit him, he hid himself under the
bed. His hiding-place was revealed by Wang Wei, a brother poet
who was present. The latter, A.D. 699-759, ln addition to being a
first-rank poet, was also a landscape-painter of great distinction.
He was further a firm believer in Buddhism ; and after losing his
wife and mother, he turned his mountain home into a Buddhist
monastery. Of all poets, not one has made his name more widely
known than Li Po, or Li T'ai-po, A.D. 705—762, popularly known
as the Banished Angel, so heavenly were the poems he dashed off,
always under the influence of wine. He is said to have met his
death, after a tipsy frolic, by leaning out of a boat to embrace the
reflection of the moon. Tu Fu, A.D. 712-770, is generally ranked
with Li Po, the two being jointly spoken of as the chief poets of their
age. The former had indeed such a high opinion of his own poetry
that he prescribed it for malarial fever. He led a chequered and
wandering life, and died from the effects of eating roast beef and
drinking white wine to excess, immediately after a long fast. Po
Chu-i, A.D. 772-846, was a very prolific rx>et. He held several high
official posts, but found time for a considerable output of some of
the finest poetry in the language. His poems were collected by
Imperial command, and engraved upon tablets of stone. In one
of them he anticipates by eight centuries the famous ode by
Malherbe, A Du Perrier, sur la mart de sa fille.

The T'ang dynasty with all its glories had not long passed away
before another imperial house arose, under which poetry flourished
again in full vigour. The poetsof the Sung dynasty, A.D. 960-1260,
were many and varied in style; but their work, much of it of the
very highest order, was becoming perhaps a trifle more formal and
precise. Life seemed to be taken more seriously than under the gay
and pleasure-loving T'angs. The long list of Sung poets includes
such names as Ssu-ma Kuang, Ou-yang Hsiu and Wang An-shih,
to be mentioned by and by, the first two as historians and the last
as political reformer. A still more familiar name in popular estima-
tion is that of Su Tung-p'o, A.D. 1031-1101, partly known for his
romantic career, now in court favour, now banished to the wilds,
but still more renowned as a brilliant poet and writer of fascinating
essays.

The Mongols, A.D. 1260-1368, who succeeded the Sungs, and the
Mings who followed the Sungs and bring us down to the year 1644,
helped indeed, especially the Mings, to swell the volume of Chinese
verse, but without reaching the high level of the two great poetical
periods above-mentioned. Then came the present dynasty of Manchu
Tatars, of whom the same tale must be told, in spite of two highly-
cultured emperors, K'ang Hsi and Ch'ien Lung, both of them poets
and one of them author of a collection containing no fewer than
33,950 pieces, most of which, it must be said, are but four-line
stanzas, of no literary value whatever. It may be stated in this
connexion that whereas China has never produced an epic in verse,
it is not true that all Chinese poems are quite short, running only to
ten or a dozen lines at the most. Many pieces run to several hundred
lines, though the Chinese poet does not usually affect length, one of
his highest efforts being the four-line stanza, known as the " stop-
short," in which " the words stop while the sense goes on," ex-
panding in the mind of the reader by the suggestive art of the poet.
The " stop-short " is the converse of the epigram, which ends in_a
satisfying turn of thought to which the rest of the composition is
intended to lead up; it aims at producing an impression which, so
far from being final, is merely the prelude to a long series of visions
and of feelings. The last of the four lines is called the " surprise
line " ; but the revelation it gives is never a complete one : the words
stop, but the sense goes on. Just as in the pictorial art of China,

224

CHINA

[LITERATURE

so in her poetic art is suggestiveness the great end and aim of the
artist. Beginners are taught that the three canons of verse com-
position are lucidity, simplicity and correctness cf diction. Yet
some critics have boldly declared for obscurity of expression, alleging
that the piquancy of a thought is enhanced by its skilful conceal-
ment. For the foreign student, it is not necessary to accentuate
the obscurity and difficulty even of poems in which the motive is
simple enough. The constant introduction of classical allusions,
often in the vaguest terms, and the almost unlimited licence as to
the order of words, offer quite sufficient obstacles to easy and rapid
comprehension. Poetry has been denned by one Chinese writer as
" clothing with words the emotions which surge through the heart."
The chief moods of the Chinese poet are a pure delight in the vary ing
phenomena of nature, and a boundless sympathy with the woes and
sufferings of humanity. Erotic poetry is not absent, but it is not a
feature proportionate in extent to the great body of Chinese verse ;
it is- always restrained, and never lapses from a high level of purity
and decorum. In his love for hill and stream which he peoples
with genii, and for tree and flower which he endows with sentient
souls, the Chinese poet is perhaps seen at his very best ; his views of
life are somewhat too deeply tinged with melancholy, and often
loaded with an overwhelming sadness " at the doubtful doom of
human kind." In his lighter moods he draws inspiration, and in his
darker moods consolation from the wine-cup. Hard-drinking, not
to say drunkenness, seems to have been universal among Chinese
poets, and a considerable amount of talent has been expended upon
the glorification of wine. From Taoist.'and especially from Buddhist
sources, many poets have obtained glimpses to make them less
forlorn; but it cannot be said that there is any definitely religious
poetry in the Chinese language.

History. — One of the labours undertaken by Confucius was
connected with a series of ancient documents — that is, ancient
in his day — now passing under a collective title as Shu Ching
(or Shoo King), and popularly known as the Canon, or Book,
of History. Mere fragments as some of these documents are, it
is from their pages of unknown date that we can supplement
the pictures drawn for us in the Odes, of the early civilization of
China. The work opens with an account of the legendary em-
peror Yao, who reigned 2357-2255 B.C., and was able by virtue
of an elevated personality to give peace and happiness to his
" black-haired " subjects. With the aid of capable astronomers,
he determined the summer and winter solstices, and calculated
approximately the length of the year, availing himself, as
required, of the aid of an intercalary month. Finally, after a
glorious reign, he ceded the throne to a man of the people,
whose only claim to distinction was his unwavering practice of
filial piety. Chapter ii. deals with the reign, 2255-2205 B.C.,
of this said man, known in history as the emperor Shun. In
accordance with the monotheism of the day, he worshipped God
in heaven with prayer and burnt offerings; he travelled on
tours of inspection all over his then comparatively narrow
empire; he established punishments, to be tempered with
mercy; he appointed officials to superintend forestry, care of
animals, religious observances, and music; and he organized a
system of periodical examinations for public servants. Chapter
iii. is devoted to details about the Great Yu, who reigned
2205-2197 B.C., having been called to the throne for his
engineering success in draining the empire of a mighty inunda-
tion which early western writers sought to identify with Noah's
Flood. Another interesting chapter gives various geographical
details, and enumerates the articles, gold, silver, copper, iron,
steel, silken fabrics, feathers, ivory, hides, &c., &c., brought in
under the reign of the Great Yii, as tribute from neighbouring
countries. Other chapters include royal proclamations, speeches
to troops, announcements of campaigns victoriously concluded,
and similar subjects. One peculiarly interesting document is
the Announcement against Drunkenness, which seems to have
been for so many centuries a national vice, and then to have
practically disappeared as such. For the past two or three
hundred years, drunkenness has always been the exception
rather than the rule. The Announcement, delivered in the
1 2th century B.C., points out that King Wen, the founder of the
Chou dynasty, had wished for wine to be used only in connexion
with sacrifices, and that divine favours had always been liberally
showered upon the people when such a restriction had been
observed. On the other hand, indulgence in strong drink had
invariably attracted divine vengeance, and the fall and dis-

Lu

ruption of states had often been traceable to that cause. Even
on sacrificial occasions, drunkenness is to be condemned.
" When, however, you high officials and others have done your
duty in ministering to the aged and to your sovereign, you may
then eat to satiety and drink1 to elevation." The Announcement
winds up with an ancient maxim, " Do not seek to see yourself
reflected in water, but in others," — whose base actions should
warn you not to commit the same; adding that those who
after a due interval should be unable to give up intemperate
habits would be put to death. It is worth noting, in concluding
this brief notice of China's earliest records, that from first to
last there is no mention whatever of any distant country from
which the " black-haired people " may have originally come;
no vestige of any allusion to any other form of civilization, such
as that of Babylonia, with its cuneiform script and baked-clay
tablets, from which an attempt has been made to derive the
native-born civilization of China. A few odd coincidences
sum up the chief argument in favour of this now discredited
theory.

The next step lands us on the confines, though scarcely in the
domain, of history properly so called. Among his other literary
labours, Confucius undertook to produce the annals of
Lu, his native state; and beginning with the year 722
B.C., he carried the record down to his death in 479, after
which it was continued for a few years, presumably by
Tso-ch'iu Ming, the shadowy author of the famous Commentary, to
which the text is so deeply indebted for vitality and illumination.
The work of Confucius is known as the Ch'un Ch'iu, the Springs and
Autumns, q.d. Annals. It consists of a varying number of brief
entries under each year of the reign of each successive ruler of Lu.
The feudal system, initiated more than four centuries previously,
and consisting of a number of vassal states owning allegiance to a
central suzerain state, had already broken hopelessly down, so far
as allegiance was concerned. For some time, the object of each
vassal ruler had been the aggrandizement of his own state, with a
view either to independence or to the hegemony, and the result was
a state of almost constant warfare. Accordingly, the entries in the
Ch'un Ch'iu refer largely to covenants entered into between con-
tracting rulers, official visits from one to another of these rulers,
their births and deaths, marriages, invasions of territory, battles,
religious ceremonies, &c., interspersed with notices of striking natural
phenomena such as eclipses, comets and earthquakes, and of im-
portant national calamities, such as floods, drought and famine.
For instance, Duke We~n became ruler of Lu in 625 B.C., and under
his I4th year, 612 B.C., we find twelve entries, of which the following
are specimens : —

2. In spring, in the first month, the men of the Chu State invaded

our southern border.

3. In summer, on the I-hai day of the fifth mo'nth, P'an, Marquis

of the Ch'i State, died.

5. In autumn, in the seventh month, there was a comet, which
entered Pei-tou (0/875 in Ursa Major).

9. In the ninth month, a son of the Duke of Ch'i murdered his

ruler.

Entry 5 affords the earliest trustworthy instance of a comet in China.
A still earlier comet is recorded in what is known as The Bamboo
Annals, but the genuineness of that work is disputed.

It will be readily admitted that the Ch'un Ch'iu, written through-
out in the same style as the quotations given, would scarcely
enable one to reconstruct in any detail the age it professes to record.
Happily we are in possession of the Tso Chuan, a so-called com-
mentary, presumably by some one named Tso, in which the bald
entries in the work of Confucius are separately enlarged upon to
such an extent and with such dramatic brilliancy that our com-
mentary reads more like a prose epic than "a treatise consisting of a
systematic series of comments or annotations on the text of a literary
work." Under its guidance we can follow the intrigues, the alliances,
the treacheries, the ruptures of the jealous states which constituted
feudal China; in its picture pages we can see, as it were with our
own eyes, assassinations, battles, heroic deeds, flights, pursuits and
the sufferings of the vanquished from the retribution exacted by
the victors. Numerous wise and witty sayings are scattered through-
out the work, many of which are in current use at the present day.

History as understood in Europe and the west began in China with
the appearance of a remarkable man. Ssu-ma Ch'ien, who flourished
145-87 B.C., was the son of an hereditary grand astrologer,
also an eager student of history and the actual planner of
the great work so successfully carried out after his death. '
By the time he was ten years of age, Ssu-ma Ch'ien was "econl-
already well advanced with his studies; and at twenty he set forth
on a round of travel which carried him to all parts of the empire.
Entering the public service, he was employed upon a mission of
inspection to the newly-conquered regions of Ssuch'uan and Yunnan ;
in 1 10 B.C. his father died, and he stepped into the post of grand
astrologer. After devoting some time and energy to the reformation

LITERATURE]

CHINA

225

of the calendar, he took up the work which had been begun by his
father and which was ultimately given to the world as the Shih Chi,
or Historical Record. This was arranged under five great headings,
namely, (l) Annals of Imperial Reigns, (2) Chronological Tables, (3)
Monographs, (4) Annals of Vassal Princes, and (5) Biographies.

The Historical Record begins with the so-called Yellow Emperor,
who is said to have come to the throne 2698 B.C. and to have reigned
a hundred years. Four other emperors are given, as belonging to
this period, among whom we find Yao and Shun, already mentioned.
It was China's Golden Age, when rulers and ruled were virtuous alike,
and all was peace and prosperity. It is discreetly handled in a few
pages by Ssu-ma Ch'ien, who passes on to the somewhat firmer but
still doubtful ground of the early dynasties. Not, however, until the
Chou dynasty, 1122-255 B.C., had held sway for some three hundred
years can we be said to have reached a point at which history begins
to separate itself definitely from legend. In fact, it is only from the
8th century before Christ that any trustworthy record can be safely
dated. With the 3rd century before Christ, we are introduced to one
of the feudal princes whose military genius enabled him to destroy
beyond hope of revival the feudal system which had endured for
eight hundred years, and to make himself master of the whole of the
China of those days. In 221 B.C. he proclaimed himself the " First
Burning Emperor," a title by which he has ever since been known.
ifthe Everything, including literature, was to begin with his
Books. reign ; and acting on the advice of his prime minister, he
issued an order for the burning of all books, with the excep-
tion only of works relating to medicine, divination and agriculture.
Those who wished to study law were referred for oral teaching to
such as had already qualified in that profession. To carry out the
scheme effectively, the First Emperor made a point of examining
every day about 120 Ib weight of books, in order to get rid of such
as he considered to be useless; and he further appointed a number of
inspectors to see that his orders were carried out. The result was
that about four hundred and sixty scholars were put to death for
having disobeyed the imperial command, while many others were
banished for life. This incident is known as the Burning of the
Books; and there is little doubt that, but for the devotion of the
literati, Chinese literature would have had to make a fresh start in
212 B.C. As it was, books were bricked up in walls and otherwise
widely concealed in the hope that the storm would blow over; and
this was actually the case when the Ch'in (Ts'in) dynasty collapsed
and the House of Han took its place in 206 B.C. The Confucian books
were subsequently recovered from their hiding-places, together with
many other works, the loss of which it is difficult now to contemplate.
Unfortunately, however, a stimulus was provided, not for the recovery,
but for the manufacture of writings, the previous existence of which
could be gathered either from tradition or from notices in the various
works which had survived. Forgery became the order of the day;
and the modern student is confronted with a considerable volume of
literature which has to be classified as genuine, doubtful, or spurious,
according to the merits of each case. To the first class belongs the
bulk, but not all, of the Confucian Canon; to the third must be
relegated such books as the Tao Te Cluing, to be mentioned later on.

Ssu-ma Ch'ien, dying in 87 i.e., deals of course only with the
opening reigns of the Han dynasty, with which he brings to a close
the first great division of his history. The second division consists of
chronological tables; the third, of eight monographs on the following
topics: (i) Rites and Ceremonies, (2) Music, (3) Natural Philosophy,
(4) The Calendar, (5) Astronomy, (6) Religion, (7) Water-ways, and
(8) Commerce. On these eight a few remarks may not be out of
place. (l) The Chinese seem to have been in possession, from very
early ages, of a systematic code of ceremonial observances, so that it
is no surprise to find the subject included, and taking an important
place, in Ssu-ma Ch'ien's work. The Li Chi, or Book of Rites, which
now forms part of the Confucian Canon, is however a comparatively
modern compilation, dating only from the 1st century B.C. (2) The
extraordinary similarities between the Chinese and Pythagorean
systems of music force the conclusion that one of these must neces-
sarily have been derived from the other. The Jesuit Fathers jumped
to the conclusion that the Greeks borrowed their art from the Chinese ;
but it is now common knowledge that the Chinese scale did not exist
in China until two centuries after its appearance in Greece. The fact
is that the ancient Chinese works on music perished at the Burning
of the Books; and we are told that by the middle of the 2nd century
B.C. the hereditary Court music-master was altogether ignorant of
his art. What we may call modern Chinese music reached China
through Bactria, a Greek kingdom, founded by Diodotus in 256 B.C.,
with which intercourse had been established by the Chinese at an
early date. (3) The term Natural Philosophy can only be applied
by courtesy to this essay, which deals with twelve bamboo tubes of
varying lengths, by means of which, coupled with the twenty-eight
zodiacal constellations and with certain calendaric accords, divine
communication is established with the influences of the five elements
and the points of the compass corresponding with the eight winds.
(4) In this connexion, it is worth noting that in 104 B.C. the Chinese
first adopted a cycle of nineteen years, a period which exactly brings
together the solar and the lunar years; and further that this very
cycle is said to have been introduced by Meton, 5th century B.C.,
and was adopted at Athens about 330 B.C., probably reaching China,
via Bactria, some two centuries afterwards. (5) This chapter deals

specially with the sun, moon and five planets, which are supposed to
aid in the divine government of mankind. (6) Refers to the solemn
sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, as performed by the emperor upon
the summit of Mt. T'ai in Shan-tung. (7) Refers to the management
of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow river, so often spoken of as " China's
Sorrow," and also of the numerous canals with which the empire is
intersected. (8) This chapter, which treats of the circulation of
money, and its function in the Chinese theory of political economy,
is based upon the establishment in 1 10 B.C. of certain officials whose
business it was to regularize commerce. It was their duty to buy up
the chief necessaries of life when abundant and when pnces were in
consequence low, and to offer these for sale when there was a shortage
and when prices would otherwise have risen unduly. Thus it was
hoped that a stability in commercial transactions would be attained,
to the great advantage of the people. The fourth division of the
Shih Chi is devoted to the annals of the reigns of vassal princes, to
be read in connexion with the imperial annals of the first division.
The final division, which is in many ways the most interesting of all,
gives biographical notices of eminent or notorious men and women,
from the earliest ages downwards, and enables us to draw conclusions
at which otherwise it would have been impossible to arrive. Con-
fucius and Mencius, for instance, stand out as real personages who
actually played a part in China's history; while all we can gather
from the short life of Lao Tzu, a part of which reads like an inter-
polation by another hand, is that he was a more or less Legendary
individual, whose very existence at the date usually assigned to
him, 7th and 6th centuries B.C., is altogether doubtful. Scattered
among these biographies are a few notices of frontier nations; e.g.
of the terrible nomads known as the Hsiung-nu, whose identity with
the Huns has now been placed beyond a doubt.

Ssu-ma Ch'ien's great work, on which he laboured for so many
years and which ran to five hundred and twenty-six thousand five
hundred words, has been described somewhat at length for the
following reason. It has been accepted as the model for all subse-
quent dynastic histories, of which twenty-four have now been pub-
lished, the whole being produced in 1747 in a uniform edition, bound
up (in the Cambridge Library) in two hundred and nineteen large
volumes. Each dynasty has found its historian in the dynasty
which supplanted it; and each dynastic history is notable for the
extreme fairness with which the conquerors have dealt with the
vanquished, accepting without demur such records of their prede-
cessors as were available from official sources. The T'ang dynasty,
A.D. 618-906, offers in one sense a curious exception to the general
rule. It possesses two histories, both included in the above series.
The first of these, now known as the Old T'ang History, was ultimately,
set aside as inaccurate and inadequate, and a New T'ang History was
compiled by Ou-yang Hsiu, a distinguished scholar, poet and states-
man of the 1 1 th century. Nevertheless, in all cases, the scheme of
the dynastic history has, with certain modifications, been that which
was initiated in the 1st century B.C. by Ssu-ma Ch'ien.

The output of history, however, does not begin and end with the
voluminous records above referred to, one of which, it should be
mentioned, was in great part the work of a woman. rfte
History has always been a favourite study with the Chinese, Mirror of
and innumerable histories of a non-official character, long History.
and short, complete and partial, political and constitu-
tional, have been showered from age to age upon the Chinese reading
world. Space would fail for the mere mention of a tithe of such
works; but there is one which stands out among the rest and is
especially enshrined in the hearts of the Chinese people. This is the
T'ung Chien, or Mirror of History, so called because " to view
antiquity as though in a mirror is an aid in the administration of
government." It was the work of a statesman of the nth century,
whose name, by a coincidence, was Ssu-ma Kuang. He had been
forced to retire from office, and spent nearly all the last sixteen years
of his life in historical research. The Mirror of History embraces a
period from the 5th century B.C. down to A.D. 960. It is written in a
picturesque style; but the arrangement was found to be unsuited to
the systematic study of history. Accordingly, it was subjected to
revision, and was to a great extent reconstructed by Chu Hsi, the
famous commentator, who flourished A.D. 1130-1200, and whose
work is now regarded as the standard history of China.

Biography. — In regard to biography, the student is by no
means limited to the dynastic histories. Many huge biographical
collections have been compiled and published by private in-
dividuals, and many lives of the same personages have often
been written from different points of view. There is nothing
very much by which a Chinese biography can be distinguished
from biographies produced in other parts of the wot Id. The
Chinese writer always begins with the place of birth, but he is
not so particular about the year, sometimes leaving that to be
gathered from the date of death taken in connexion with the age
which the person may have attained. Some allusion is usually
made to ancestry, and the steps of an official career, upward by
promotion or downward by disgrace, are also carefully noted.

Geography and Travel. — There is a considerable volume of

VT. 8

226

CHINA

[LITERATURE

FaHslea.

Chinese literature which comes under this head; but if we
exclude certain brief notices of foreign countries, there remains
nothing in the way of general geography which had been produced
prior to the arrival of the Jesuit Fathers at the close of the i6th
century. Up to that period geography meant the topography
of the Chinese empire; and of topographical records there is
a very large and valuable collection. Every prefecture and
department, some eighteen hundred in all, has each its own
particular topography, compiled from records and from tradition
with a fullness that leaves nothing to be desired. The buildings,
bridges, monuments of archaeological interest, &c., in each
district, are all carefully inserted, side by side with biographical
and other local details, always of interest to residents and of ten
to the outside public. An extensive general geography of the
empire was last published in 1745; and this was followed by a
chronological geography in 1794.

The Chinese have always been fond of travel, and hosts of
travellers have published notices, more or less extensive, of the

different parts of the empire, and even of adjacent

nations, which they visited either as private individuals
or, in the former case, as officials proceeding to distant posts.
With Buddhism came the desire to see the country which was
the home of the Buddha; and several important pilgrimages
were undertaken with a view to bring back images and sacred
writings to China. On such a journey the Buddhist priest, Fa
Hsien, started in A.D. 399; and after practically walking the
whole way from central China, across the desert of Gobi, on to
Khoten, and across the Hindu Kush into India, he visited many
of the chief cities of India, until at length reaching Calcutta he
took ship, and after a most adventurous voyage, in the course
of which he remained two years in Ceylon, he finally arrived
safely, in A.D. 414, with all his books, pictures, and images, at
a spot on the coast of Shantung, near the modern German port
of Kiao-chow.

Another of these adventurous priests was Hsiian Tsang
(wrongly, Yuan Chwang), who left China on a similar mission in

629, and returned in 645, bringing with him six
Tsang. hundred and fifty-seven Buddhist books, besides many

images and pictures, and one hundred and fifty relics.
He spent the rest of his life in translating, with the help of other
learned priests, these books into Chinese, and completed in 648
the important record of his own travels, known as the Record of
Western Countries.

Philosophy. — Even the briefest resum6 of Chinese philosophical
literature must necessarily include the name of Lao Tzii, al-
Lao Tzu though his era, as seen above, and his personality are

both matters of the vaguest conjecture. A number of
his sayings, scattered over the works of early writers, have been
pieced together, with the addition of much incomprehensible
jargon, and the whole has been given to the world as the work
of Lao Tzii himself, said to be of the 6th century B.C., under
the title of the Too TB Ching. The internal evidence against this
book is overwhelming; e.g. one quotation had been detached
from the writer who preserved it, with part of that writer's
text clinging to it — of course by an oversight. Further, such a
treatise is never mentioned in Chinese literature until some time
after the Burning of the Books, that is, about four centuries
after its alleged first appearance. Still, after due expurgation, it
forms an almost complete collection of such apophthegms of Lao
Tzu as have come down to us, from which the reader can learn
that the author taught the great doctrine of Inaction — Do
nothing, and all things will be done. Also, that Lao Tzii
anticipated the Christian doctrine of returning good for evil, a
sentiment which was highly reprobated by the practical mind
of Confucius, who declared that evil should be met by justice.
Among the more picturesque of his utterances are such paradoxes
as, " He who knows how to shut, uses no bolts; yet you cannot
open. He who knows how to bind uses no ropes; yet you cannot
untie "; " The weak overcomes the strong; the soft overcomes
the hard," &c.

These, and many similar subtleties of speech, seem to have fired
the imagination of Chuang Tzu, 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., with the

result that he put much time and energy into the glorification of Lao
Tzu and his doctrines. Possessed of a brilliant style and a master of
irony, Chuang Tzu attacked the schools of Confucius and _.
Mo Ti (see below) with so much dialectic skill that the £»?"*
ablest scholars of the age were unable to refute his
destructive criticisms. His pages abound in quaint anecdotes and
allegorical instances, arising as it were spontaneously out of the
questions handled, and imparting a lively interest to points which
might otherwise have seemed dusty and dull. He was an idealist
with all the idealist's hatred of a utilitarian system, and a mystic
with all the mystic's contempt for a life of mere external activity.
Only thirty-three chapters of his work now remain, though so many
as fifty-three are known to have been still extant in the 3rd century ;
and even of these, several complete chapters are spurious, while in
others it is comparatively easy to detect here and there the hand of
the interpolator. What remains, however, after all reductions, has
been enough to secure a lasting place for Chuang Tzu as the most
original of China's philosophical writers. His book is of course under
the ban of heterodoxy, in common with all thought opposed to the
Confucian teachings. His views as mystic, idealist, moralist and
social reformer have no weight with the aspirant who has his way to
make in official life ; but they are a delight, and even a consolation, to
many of the older men, who have no longer anything to gain or to lose.
Confucius, 551-475) B.C., who imagined that his Annals of the Lu
State would give him immortality, has always been much more
widely appreciated as a moralist than as an historian. c~afa^us
His talks with his disciples and with others have been
preserved for us, together with some details of his personal and
private life; and the volume in which these are collected forms one
of the Four Books of the Confucian Canon. Starting from the
axiomatic declaration that man is born good and only becomes evil
by his environment, he takes filial piety and duty to one's neighbour
as his chief themes, often illustrating his arguments with almost
Johnsonian emphasis. He cherished a shadowy belief in a God,_but
not in a future state of reward or punishment for good or evil actions
in this world. He rather taught men to be virtuous for virtue's sake.
The discourses of Mencius, who followed Confucius after an interval
of a hundred years, 372-289 B.C., form another of the Four Books,
the remaining two of which are short philosophical Meaclus
treatises, usually ascribed to a grandson of Confucius.
Mencius devoted his life to elucidating and expanding the teachings
of the Master; and it is no doubt due to him that the Confucian
doctrines obtained so wide a vogue. But he himself was more a
politician and an economist (see below) than a simple preacher of
morality; and hence it is that the Chinese people have accorded to-
him the title of The Second Sage. He is considered to have .. _,
effectually " snuffed out " the heterodox school of Mo Ti,
a philosopher of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. who propounded a
doctrine of " universal love " as the proper foundation for organized
society, arguing that under such a system all the calamities that men
bring upon one another would altogether disappear, and the Golden
Age would be renewed. At the same time Mencius exposed Vaair ctla
the fallacies of the speculations of Y^ing Chu, 4th century g
B.C., who founded a school of ethical egoism as opposed to the
exaggerated altruism of Mo Ti. According to Mencius, Yang Chu
would not have parted with one hair of his body to save the whole
world, whereas Mo Ti would have sacrificed all. Another early
philosopher is Hsun Tzu, 3rd century B.C. He main- a^a Tz^
tained, in opposition to Mencius, who upheld the Confucian
dogma, and in conformity with Christian doctrine, that the nature
of man at his birth is evil, and that this condition can only be changed
by efficient moral training. T^.en came Yang Hsiung, 53-18 B.C.,
who propounded an ethical criterion midway between the Yang
rival positions insisted on by Mencius and Hsun Tzti, tislunr
teaching that the nature of man at birth is neither good
nor evil, but a mixture of both, and that development in either
direction depends wholly upon circumstances.

There is a voluminous and interesting work, of doubtful age, which
passes under the title of Huai-nan Tzii, or the Philosopher of Huai-
nan. It is attributed to Liu An, prince of Huai-nan, who Haal.aaa
died 122 B.C., and who is further said to have written on f^
alchemy; but alchemy was scarcely known in China at
the date of his death, being introduced about that time_from Greece.
The author, whoever he may have been, poses as a disciple of Lao
Tzu; but the speculations of Lao Tzu, as glorified by Chuang Tzu,
were then rapidly sinking into vulgar efforts to discover the elixir of
life. It is very difficult in many cases of this kind to decide what
books are, and what books are not, partial or complete forgeries.
In the present instance, the aid of the Shuo Win, a dictionary of the
1st century A.D. (see below), may be invoked, but not in quite so
satisfactory a sense as that in which it will be seen lower down to
have been applied to the Too Tt Ching. The Shuo Wen contains a
quotation said to be taken from Huai-nan Tzii ; but that quotation
cannot be found in the work under consideration. It may be argued
that the words in question may have been taken from another work
by the same author; but if so, it becomes difficult to believe t
a book, more than two hundred years old, from which the auth<
of the Shuo Win quoted, should have been allowed to pen
without leaving any trace behind. China has produced its Bentleys

LITERATURE]

CHINA

227

in considerable numbers; but almost all of them have given their
attention to textual criticism of the Confucian Canon, and few have
condescended to examine critically the works of heterodox writers.
The foreign student therefore finds himself faced with many knotty
points he is entirely unable to solve.

Of Wang Ch'ung, a speculative and materialistic philosopher,
A.D. 27~97i banned by the orthodox for his attacks on Confucius

and Mencius, only one work has survived. It consists
%*."* of eighty-four essays on such topics as the nature of

things, destiny, divination, death, ghosts, poisons,
miracles, criticisms of Confucius and Mencius, exaggeration, sacrifice
and exorcism. According to Wang Ch'ung, man, endowed at birth
sometimes with a good and sometimes with an evil nature, is informed
with a vital fluid, which resides in the blood and is nourished by
eating and drinking, its two functions being to animate the body
and keep in order the mind. It is the source of all sensation, passing
through the blood like a wave. When it reaches the eyes, ears and
mouth, the result is sight, hearing and speech respectively. Disturb-
ance of the vital fluid leads to insanity. Without the fluid, the body
cannot be maintained; without the body, the fluid loses its vitality.
Therefore, argues Wang Ch'ung, when the body perishes and the
fluid loses its vitality, each being dependent on the other, there
remains nothing for immortality in a life beyond the grave. Ghosts
he held to be the hallucinations of disordered minds, and miracles to
be natural phenomena capable of simple explanations. His indict-
ments of Confucius and Mencius are not of a serious character;
though, as regards the former, it must be borne in mind that the
Chinese people will not suffer the faintest aspersion on the fair fame
of their great Sage. It is related in the Lun Yu that Confucius paid
a visit to the notoriously immoral wife of one of the feudal nobles,
and that a certain disciple was " displeased " in consequence, where-
upon the Master swore, saying," If I have done any wrong, may the
sky fall and crush me!" Wang Ch'ung points out that the form of
oath adopted by Confucius is unsatisfactory and fails to carry con-
viction. Had he said, " May I be struck dead by lightning! " his
sincerity would have been more powerfully attested, because people
are often struck dead by lightning; whereas the fall of the sky is
too remote a contingency, such a thing never having been known to
happen within the memory of man. As to Mencius, there is a passage
in his works which states that a thread of predestination runs
through all human life, and that those who accommodate themselves
will come off better in the end than those who try to oppose ; it is in
fact a statement of the ofoc bvkp libpov principle. On this Wang
Ch'ung remarks that the will of God is consequently made to depend
on human actions; and he further strengthens his objection by
showing that the best men have often fared worst. For instance,
Confucius never became emperor; Pi Kan, the patriot, was dis-
embowelled; the bold and faithful disciple, Tzu Lu, was chopped
into small pieces.

But the tale of Chinese philosophers is a long one. It is a depart-
ment of literature in which the leading scholars of all ages have

mostly had something to say. The great Chu Hsi,

A.D. 1130—1200, whose fame is chiefly perhaps that of a

commentator and whose monument is his uniform
exegesis of the Confucian Canon, was also a voluminous writer on
philosophy. He took a hand in the mystery which surrounds the
I Ching (or Yih King), generally known as the Book of Changes,
which is held by some to be the oldest Chinese work and which forms
part of the Confucian Canon. It is ascribed to King W£n, the virtual
founder of the Chou dynasty, 1122-249 B.C., whose son became the
first sovereign and posthumously raised his father to kingly rank.
It contains a fanciful system of divination, deduced originally from
eight diagrams consisting of triplet combinations of a line and a
broken line, either one of which is necessarily repeated twice, and in two
cases three times, in the same combination. Thus there may be three
lines ^=E, or three broken lines ==, and other such combinations
as =H and 55. Confucius declared that he would like to give another
fifty years to the elucidation of this puzzling text. Shao Yung,
A.D. 1011-1077, sought the key in numbers; Ch'eng I., A.D. 1033-
1107, in the eternal fitness of things. " But Chu Hsi alone," says a
writer of the I7th century, " was able to pierce through the meaning
and appropriate the thoughts of the inspired man who composed it."
No foreigner, however, has been able quite to understand what Chu
Hsi did make of it, and several have gone so far as to set all native
interpretations aside in favour of their own. Thus, the / Ching has
been discovered by one to be a calendar of the lunar year; by another,
to contain a system of phallic worship; and by a third, to be a
vocabulary of the language of a tribe, whose very existence had to be
postulated for the purpose.

Political Economy. — This department of literature has been by no
means neglected by Chinese writers. So early as the 7th century B.C.

we find Kuan Chung, the prime minister of the Ch'i state,
"aa devoting his attention to economic problems, and thereby

making that state the wealthiest and the strongest of all
the feudal kingdoms. Beginning life as a merchant, he passed into
the public service, and left behind him at death a large work, parts
of which, as we now possess it, may possibly have come direct from
his own hand, the remainder being written up at a later date in
accordance with the principles he inculcated. His ideal State was
divided into twenty-one parts, fifteen of which were allotted to

Boot of
Changes.

officials and agriculturists, and six to manufacturers and traders.
His great idea was to make his own state self-contained ; and
accordingly he fostered agriculture in order to be independent in
time of war, and manufactures in order to increase his country's
wealth in time of peace. He held that a purely agricultural popula-
tion would always remain poor; while a purely manufacturing
population would risk having its supplies of raw material cut off in
time of war. He warmly encouraged free imports as a means of
enriching his countrymen, trusting to their ability, under these
conditions, to hold their own against foreign competition. He pro-
tected capital, in the sense that he considered capitalists to be
necessary for the development of commerce in time of peace, and
for the protection of the state in time of war.

Mencius (see above) was in favour of heavily taxing merchants
who tried to engross for the purpose of regrating, that is, to buy up
wholesale for the purpose of retailing at monopoly prices; he was in
fact opposed to all trusts and corners in trade. He was in favour of a
tax to be imposed upon such persons as were mere consumers, living
upon property which had been amassed by others and doing no wort
themselves. No tax, however, was to be exacted from property-
owners who contributed by their personal efforts to the general
welfare of the community. The object of the tax was not revenue,
but the prevention of idleness with its attendant evil consequences
to the state.

Wang An-shih, the Reformer, or Innovator, as he has been called,
flourished A.D. 1021-1086. In 1069 he was appointed state councillor,
and forthwith entered upon a series of startling reforms „,
which have given him a unique position in the annals of '"^

China. He established a state monopoly in commerce,
under which the produce of a district was to be used first for the
payment of taxes, then for the direct use of the district itself, and
the remainder was to be purchased by the government at a cheap
rate, either to be held until there was a rise in price, or to be trans-
ported to some other district in need of it. The people were to profit
by fixity of prices and escape from further taxation ; and the govern-
ment, by the revenue accruing in the process of administration.
There was also to be a system of state advances to cultivators of
land ; not merely to the needy, but to all alike. The loan was to be
compulsory, and interest was to be paid on it at the rate of 2 % per
month. The soil was to be divided into equal areas and taxed accord-
ing to its fertility in each case, without reference to the number of
inhabitants contained in each area. All these, and other important
reforms, failed to find favour with a rigidly conservative people, and
Wang An-shih lived long enough to see the whole of his policy reversed.

Military Writers. — Not much, relatively speaking, has been written
by the Chinese on war in general, strategy or tactics. There is,
however, one very remarkable work which has come down „

to us from the 6th century B.C., as to the genuineness of s""m'*6-
which there now seems to be no reasonable doubt. A biographical
notice of the author, Sun Wu, is given in the Shih Chi (see above),
from which we learn that " he knew how to handle an army, and was
finally appointed General." His work, entitled the Art of War, is a
short treatise in thirteen chapters, under the following headings:
" Laying Plans," " Waging War," " Attack by Stratagem, " Tactical
Dispositions," " Energy," " Weak Points and Strong," " Manoeuvr-
ing," " Variation of Tactics," " The Army on the March,"" Terrain,"
" The Nine Situations," " The Attack by Fire," and " The Use of
Spies." Although the warfare of Sun Wu's day was the warfare of
bow and arrow, of armoured chariots and push of pike, certain
principles inseparably associated with successful issue will be found
enunciated in his work. Professor Mackail, in his Latin Literature
(p. 86), declares that Varro's Imagines was " the first instance in
history of the publication of an illustrated book." But reference to
the Art Section of the history of the Western Han dynasty, 206 B.C.-
A.D. 25, will disclose the title of fifteen or sixteen illustrated books,
one of which is Sun Wu's Art of War.

Agriculture. — In spite of the high place accorded to agriculturists,
who rank second only to officials and before artisans and traders,
and in spite of the assiduity with which agriculture has been practised
in all ages, securing immunity from slaughter for the ploughing ox —
what agricultural literature the Chinese possess may be said to belong
entirely to modern times. Ch'Sn Fu of the I2th century A.D. was the
author of a smajl work in three parts, dealing with agriculture, cattle-
breeding and silkworms respectively. There is also a well-known
work by an artist of the early I3th century, with forty-six woodcuts
illustrating the various operations of agriculture and weaving. This
book was reprinted under the emperor K'ang Hsi, 1662-1723, and
new illustrations with excellent perspective were provided by Chiao
Ping-chSn, an artist who had adopted foreign methods as introduced
by the famous Jesuit, Matteo Ricci. The standard work on agricul-
ture, entitled Nung Cheng Ch'uan Shu, was compiled by
Hsu Kuang-ch'i, 1562-1634, generally regarded as the
only influential member of the mandarinate who has ever .
become a convert to Christianity. It is in sixty sections,
the first three of which are devoted to classical references. Then
follow two sections on the division of land, six on the processes of
husbandry, none on hydraulics, four on agricultural implements,
six on planting, six on rearing silkworms, four on trees, one on
breeding animals, one on food and eighteen on provision against a
time of scarcity.

228

CHINA

[LITERATURE

Medicine and Therapeutics. — The oldest of the innumerable
medical works of all descriptions with which China has been flooded
from time immemorial is a treatise which has been credited to the
Yellow Emperor (see above), 2698-2598 B.C. It is entitled Plain Ques-
tions of the Yellow Emperor, or Su Wen for short, and takes the form of
questions put by the emperor and answered by Earl Ch'i, a minister,
who was himself author of the Nei Ching, a medical work no longer in
existence. Without accepting the popular attribution of the Su
Wen, it is most probable that it is a very old book, dating back to
several centuries before Christ, and containing traditional lore of a
still more remote period. The same may be said of certain works
on cautery and acupuncture, both of which are still practised by
Chinese doctors; and also of works on the pulse, the variations of
which have been classified and allocated with a minuteness hardly
credible. Special treatises on fevers, skin-diseases, diseases of the
feet, eyes, heart, &c., are to be found in great quantities, as well as
veterinary treatises on the treatment of diseases of the horse and
the domestic buffalo. But in the whole range of Chinese medical
literature there is nothing which can approach the Pen Ts'ao, or
Pta Ts'ao Materia Medico,, sometimes called the Herbal, a title (i.e.
Pen Ts'ao) which seems to have belonged to some book of
the kind in pre-historic ages. The work under consideration was
compiled by Li Shih-che'n, who completed his task in 1578 after
twenty-six years' labour. No fewer than eighteen hundred and
ninety-two species of drugs, animal, vegetable and mineral, are dealt
with, arranged under sixty-two classes m sixteen divisions; and eight
thousand one hundred and sixty prescriptions are given in con-
nexion with the various entries. The author professes to quote from
the original Pen Ts'ao, above mentioned; and we obtain from his
extracts an insight into some curious details. It appears that formerly
the number of recognized drugs was three hundred and sixty-five in
all, corresponding with the days of the year. One hundred and
twenty of these were called sovereigns (cf. a sovereign prescription);
and were regarded as entirely beneficial to health, taken in any
quantity or for any time. Another similar number were called
ministers; some of these were poisonous, and all had to be used with
discretion. The remaining one hundred and twenty-five were
agents', all very poisonous, but able to cure diseases if not taken in
over-doses. The modern Pen Ts'ao, in its sixteen divisions, deals with
drugs classed under water, fire, earth, minerals, herbs, grain, veget-
ables, fruit, trees, clothes and utensils, insects, fishes, Crustacea,
birds, beasts and man. In each case the proper name of the drug is
first given, followed by its explanation, solution of doubtful points,
correction of errors, means of identification by taste, use in prescrip-
tions, &c. The work is fully illustrated, and there is an index to the
various medicines, classed according to the complaints for which they
are used.

Divination, &c. — The practice of divination is of very ancient
date in China, traceable, it has been suggested, back to the Canon of
Changes (see above), which is commonly used by the lettered classes
for that purpose. A variety of other methods, the chief of which is
astrology, have also been adopted, and have yielded a considerable
bulk of literature. Even the officially-published almanacs still mark
certain days as suitable for certain undertakings, while other days are
marked in the opposite sense. The spirit of Zadkiel pervades the
Chinese empire. In like manner, geomancy is a subject on which
many volumes have been written; and the same applies to the
pseudo sciences of palmistry, physiognomy, alchemy (introduced
from Greek sources) and others.

Painting. — Calligraphy, in the eyes of the Chinese, is just as much
a fine art as painting; the two are, in fact, considered to have come
into existence together, but as might be expected the latter occupies
the larger space in Chinese literature, and forms the subject of
numerous extensive works. One of the most important of these is
the Hsiian Ho Hua P'u, the author of which is unknown. It contains
information concerning two hundred and thirty-one painters and the
titles of six thousand one hundred and ninety-two of their pictures,
all in the imperial collection during the dynastic period Hsiian Ho,
A.D. 1119-1126, from which the title is derived. The artists are
classified under one of the following ten headings, supposed to
represent the line in which each particularly excelled: Religion,
Human Figures, Buildings, Barbarians (including their Animals),
Dragons and Fishes, Landscape, Animals, Flowers and Birds, The
Bamboo, Vegetables and Fruits.

Music. — The literature of music does not go back to a remote period.
The Canon of Music, which was formerly included in the Confucian
Canon, has been lost for many centuries; and the works now avail-
able, exclusive of entries in the dynastic histories, are not older than
the gth century A.D., to which date may be assigned the Chieh Ku
Lu, a treatise on the deerskin drum, said to have been introduced into
China from central Asia, and evidently of Scythian origin. There are
several important works of the l6th and I7th centuries, in which the
history and theory of music are fully discussed, and illustrations of
instruments are given, with measurements in each case, and the
special notation required.

Miscellaneous. — Under this head may be grouped a vast number
of works, many of them exhaustive, on such topics as archaeology,
seals (engraved) , numismatics, pottery, ink (the miscalled ' ' I ndian ' ) ,
mirrors, precious stones, tea, wine, chess, wit and humour,
even cookery, &c. There is, indeed, hardly any subject, within

reasonable limits, which does not find some corner in Chinese
literature.

Collections. — Reprints of miscellaneous books and pamphlets in a
uniform edition, the whole forming a " library," has long been a
favourite means of disseminating useful (and other) , ,,, .
information. Of these, the Lung Wei Pi Shu may be taken Pl s*u
as a specimen. In bulk it would be about the equivalent
of twenty volumes, 8vo, of four hundred pages to each. Among its
contents we find the following. A handbook of phraseology, with
explanations; a short account of fabulous regions to the N., S., E.
and W. ; notes on the plants and trees of southern countries; bio-
graphical sketches of ninety-two wonderful personages; an account
of the choice of an empress, with standard measurements of the
height, length of limb, &c., of the ideal woman; " Pillow Notes "
(a term borrowed by the Japanese), or jottings on various subjects,
ranging from the Creation to an account of Fusang, a country where
the trees are thousands of feet high and of vast girth, thus supporting
the California, as opposed to the Mexico, identification of Fusang ;
critiques on the style of various poets, and on the indebtedness of
each to earlier writers; a list of the most famous bronze vessels cast
by early emperors, with their dimensions, inscriptions, &c. ; a treatise
on the bamboo; a list of famous swords, with dates of forging and
inscriptions; an account of the old Mongol palace, previous to its
destruction by the first Ming emperor; notes on the wild tribes of
China; historical episodes; biographical notices of one hundred and
four poets of the present dynasty; notes on archaeological, super-
natural and other topics, first published in the 9th century; notes
for bibliophiles on the care of books, and on paper, ink, pictures and
bric-a-brac; a collection of famous criminal cases; night thoughts
suggested by a meteor. Add to the above, numerous short stories
relating to magic, dreams, bilocation, and to almost every possible
phase of supernatural manifestation, and the reader will have some
idea of what he may expect in an ordinary " library " of a popular
character. It must always be remembered that with the Chinese,
style is of paramount importance. Documents, the subject-matter of
which would be recognized to be of no educative value, would still be
included, if written in a pleasing style, such as might be serviceable
as a model.

Individual A uthors. — I n a similar manner it has always been custom-
ary for relatives or friends, sometimes for the trade, to publish the
"complete works" of important and often unimportant writers;
usually, soon after death. And as literary distinction has hitherto
almost invariably led to high office under the state, the collected
works of the great majority of authors open with selected Memorials
to the Throne and other documents of an official character. The
public interest in these may have long since passed away ; but they
are valued by the Chinese as models of a style to be imitated, and the
foreign student occasionally comes across papers on once burning
questions arising out of commercial or diplomatic intercourse with
western nations. Then may follow — the order is not always the
same — the prefaces which the author contributed from time to time
to the literary undertakings of his friends. Preface-writing is almost
a department of Chinese literature. No one ever thinks of publishing
a book without getting one or more of his capable associates to pro-
vide prefaces, which are naturally of a laudatory character, and
always couched in highly-polished and obscure terms, the difficulty of
the text being often aggravated by a fanciful and almost illegible
script. Prefaces written by emperors, many examples of which may
be seen, are of course highly esteemed, and are generally printed in
coloured ink. The next section may comprise biographical notices
of eminent men and women, or of mere local celebrities, who happened
to die in the author's day. Then will follow Records, a title which
covers inscriptions carved on the walls of new buildings, or on
memorial tablets, and also notes on pictures which the author may
have seen, places which he may have visited, or allegorical incidents
which he may have imagined. Then come disquisitions, or essays
on various subjects; researches, being short articles of archaeo-
logical interest; studies or monographs; birthday congratulations
to friends or to official colleagues; announcements, as to deities, a
cessation of whose worship is threatened if the necessary rain or lair
weather be not forthcoming; funeral orations, letters of condolence,
&c. The above items will perhaps fill half a dozen volumes; the
remaining volumes, running to twenty or thirty in all, as the case
may be, will contain the author's poetry, together with his longer
and more serious works. The essential of such a collection is, in
Chinese eyes, its completeness.

Fiction. — Although novels are not regarded as an integral
part of literature proper, it is generally conceded that some
novels may be profitably studied, if for no other
reason, from the point of view of style. With the ch"h- "'
novel, however, we are no longer on perfectly safe
ground in regard to that decency which characterizes, as has
been above stated, the vast mass of Chinese literature. Chinese
novels range, in this sense, from the simplest and most un-
affected tale of daily life, down to low — not the lowest — depths
of objectionable pornography. The San Kuo Chih, an historical
romance based upon a period of disruption at the close of the

LITERATURE]

CHINA

229

2nd century A.D., is a delightful book, packed with episodes ol
battle, heroism, self-sacrifice, skilful strategy, and all that goes
to make up a stirring picture of strenuous times. Its author,
who might almost have been Walter Scott, cannot be named for
certain; but the work itself probably belongs to the I3th
century, a date at which the novel begins to make its appearance
in China. Previous to that time, there had been current an
immense quantity of stories of various kinds, but nothing like a
novel, as we understand the term. From the I3th century
onwards, the growth of the novel was continuous; and finally,
in the I7th century, a point was reached which is not likely to
be surpassed. The Hung Lou Meng, the author of which took
pains, for political reasons, to conceal his identity,
j^/g °' is a creation of a very high order. Its plot is intricate
and original, and the denouement startlingly tragic.
In the course of the story, the chief clue of which is love, woven
in with intrigue, ambition, wealth, poverty, and other threads
of human life, there occur no fewer than over four hundred
characters, each one possessed of a distinctive personality drawn
with marvellous skill. It contains incidents which recall the
licence tolerated in Fielding; but the coarseness, like that of
Fielding, is always on the surface, and devoid of the ulterior
suggestiveness of the modern psychological novel. But perhaps
no work of fiction has ever enjoyed such vogue among literary
LiaoChai men as a co^ecti°n °f stories, some graceful, some
weird, written in 1679 by P'u Sungling, a dis-
appointed candidate at the public examinations. This collection,
known as the Liao Chai, is exceedingly interesting to the foreign
student for its sidelights on folklore and family life; to the
native scholar, who professes to smile at the subject-matter as
beyond the pale of genuine literature, it is simply invalu-
able as an expression of the most masterly style of which his
language is capable.

Drama. — Simultaneously with the appearance of the novel,
stage-plays seem to have come into existence in China. In
the earliest ages there were set dances by trained performers,
to the accompaniment of music and singing; and something of
the kind, more or less ornate as regards the setting, has always
been associated with solemn and festive occasions. But not until
the days of the Mongol rule, A.D. 1 260-1368, can the drama proper
be said to have taken root and flourished in Chinese soil. The
probability is that both the drama and the novel were intro-
duced from Central Asia in the wake of the Mongol conquerors;
the former is now specially essential to the everyday happiness
of the Chinese people, who are perhaps the most confirmed
playgoers in the world. There is an excellent collection of one
hundred plays of the Mongol dynasty, with an illustration to
each, first published in 1615; there is also a further large
collection, issued in 1845, which contains a great number of
plays arranged under sixty headings, according to the style and
HsiHslaa PurPort °^ eac^> besides many others. There is one
cft/< famous play of the Mongol period which deals largely

in plot and passion, and is a great favourite with the
educated classes. It is entitled Hsi Hsiang Chi, or the Story of
the Western Pavilion; and as if there was a doubt as to the
reception which would be accorded to the work, a minatory
sentence was inserted in the prolegomena: " If any one
ventures to call this book indecent, he will certainly have his
tongue torn out in hell." So far as the written play is con-
cerned, its language is altogether unobjectionable; on the stage,
by means of gag and gesture, its presentation is often unseemly
and coarse. What the Chinese playgoer delights in, as an
evening's amusement, is a succession of plays which are more
of the nature of sketches, slight in construction and generally
weak in plot, some of them based upon striking historical
episodes, and others dealing with a single humorous incident.

Dictionaries.— The Erh Ya, or Nearing the Standard, is commonly
classed as a dictionary, and is referred by native scholars generally
to the 1 2th century B.C. The entries are arranged under nineteen
heads, to facilitate reference, and explain a large number of words and
phrases, including names of beasts, birds, plants and fishes. The
work is well illustrated in the large modern edition ; but the actual
date of composition is an entirely open question, and the insertion of

woodcuts must necessarily belong to a comparatively late age (see
Military Writers).

With the Shuo Win, or Explanation of Written Words, we begin the
long list of lexicographical works which constitute such a notable
feature in Chinese literature. A scholar, named HsUShfin, ... „..
who died about A.D. 120, made an effort to bring together
and analyse all the characters it was possible to gather from the written
language as it existed in his own day. He then proceeded to arrange
these characters— about ten thousand in all — on a system which
would enable a student to find a given word without having possibly
to search through the whole book. To do this, he simply grouped
together all such as had a common part, more or less indicative of the
meaning of each, much as though an English dictionary were to
consist of such groups as

Dog-days
Dog-kennel
Dog-collar
Dog- meat
Dog-nap
and so on.

Horse-collar
Horse-flesh
Horse-back
Horse-fly
Horse-chestnut
and so on.

Hsu Shgn selected five hundred and forty of these common parts,
or Radicals (see Language), a number which, as will be seen later
on, was found to be cumbrously large; and under each Radical he
inserted all the characters belonging to it, but with no particular
order or arrangement, so that search was still, in many-cases, quite
a laborious task. The explanations given were chiefly intended to
establish the pictorial origin of the language; but whereas no one
now disputes this as a general conclusion, the steps by which Hsu
ShSn attempted to prove his theory must in a large number of
instances be dismissed as often inadequate and sometimes ridiculous.
Nevertheless, it was a great achievement ; and the Shuo Wen is still
indispensable to the student of the particular script in vogue a
century or two before Christ. It is also of value in another sense.
It may be used, with discretion, in testing the genuineness of an
alleged ancient document, which, if an important or well-known
document before the age of Hsil ShSn, would not be likely to contain
characters not given in his work. Under this test the Too Te Ching,
for instance, breaks down (see Huai-nan Tzu).

Passing over a long series of dictionaries and vocabularies which
appeared at various dates, some constructed on Hsu Shen's plan,
with modifications and improvements, and others, known as phonetic
dictionaries, arranged under the finals according to the Tones, we
come to the great standard lexicon produced under the auspices,
and now bearing the name of the emperor K'ang Hsi, A.D. 1662-1723.
But before proceeding, a rough attempt may be made to exhibit in
English terms the principle of the phonetic as compared with the
radical dictionary described above. In the spoken language
there would occur the word light, the opposite of dark,
and this would be expressed in writing by a certain
symbol. Then, when it became necessary to write down
light, the opposite of heavy, the result would be precisely what we
see in English. But as written words increased, always with a
limited number of vocables (see Language), this system was found
to be impracticable, and Radicals were inserted as a means of dis-
tinguishing one kind of light from another, but without altering the
original sound. Now, in the phonetic dictionary the words are no
longer arranged in such groups as

Sun-light
Sun-beam
Sun-stroke
Sun-god, &c.
according to the Radicals, but in such groups as
Sun-light
Moon-light
Foot-light
Gas-lignt, &c.

according to the phonetics, all the above four being pronounced .
simply light, without reference to the radical portion which guides
towards the limited sense of the term. So, in a phonetic dictionary,
we should have such a group as

Brass-bound
Morocco-bound
Half-bound
Spell-bound
Homeward-bound
Wind-bound

and so on, all the above six being pronounced simply bound. To
return to " K'ang Hsi," as the lexicon in question is familiarly
styled, the total number of characters given therein K>aaxnsi
amounts to over forty-four thousand, grouped no longer
under the five hundred and forty Radicals of Hsu She'n, but under
the much more manageable number of two hundred and fourteen,

230

CHINA

[LITERATURE

as already used in earlier dictionaries. Further, as the groups of
characters would now be more than four times as large as in the Shuo
Win, they were subdivided under each Radical according to the
number of strokes in the other, or phonetic part of the character.
Thus, adopting letters as strokes, for the_ purpose of illustration, we
should
strokes
under

hundred and fourteen Radicals are themselves arranged in groups
according to the number of strokes; so that it is not a very arduous
task to turn up ordinary characters in a Chinese dictionary. Finally,
although Chinese is a monosyllabic and non-alphabetic language,
a method has been devised, and has been in use since the 3rd century
A.D., by which the sound of any word can be indicated in a dictionary
otherwise than by simply quoting a word of similar sound, which of
course may be equally unknown to the searcher. Thus, the sound
of a word pronounced ching can be exhibited by selecting two words,
one having the initial ch, and the other a final ing. E.g. the sound
ching is given as Men ling; that is ch[ien l\ing = ching.

The Concordance. — Considering the long unbroken series of years
during which Chinese literature has always, in spite of many losses,
been steadily gaining in bulk, it is not astonishing to find that
classical, historical, mythological and other allusions to personages
or events of past times have also grown out of all proportion to the
brain capacity even of the most brilliant student. Designed especi-
ally to meet this difficulty, there are several well-known handbooks,
elementary and advanced, which trace such allusions to their source
and provide full and lucid explanations; but even the most extensive
of these is on a scale incommensurate with the requirements of the
scholar. Again, it is due to the emperor K'ang Hsi that we possess
one of the most elaborate compilations of the kind ever planned and
carried to completion. The P'ei Wen Yiin Fu, or Concordance to
Literature, is a key, not onlv to allusions in general, but to all phrase-
ology, including allusions, idiomatic expressions and other obscure
combinations of words, to be found in the classics, in the dynastic
histories, and in all poets, historians, essayists, and writers of recog-
nized eminence in their own lines. No attempt at explanation is
given; but enough of the passage, or passages, in which the phrase
occurs, is cited to enable the reader to gather the meaning required.
The trouble, of course, lies with the arrangement of these phrases in
a non-alphabetic language. Recourse has been had to the Rhymes
and the five Tones (see Language) ; and all phrases which end with
the same word form one of a number of groups which appear under
the same Rhyme, the Rhymes themselves being distributed over five
Tones. Thus, to find any phrase, the first point is to discover what is
its normal Rhyme; the next is to ascertain the Tone of that Rhyme.
Then, under this Tone-group the Rhyme-word will be found, and
under the Rhyme-word group will be found the final word of the
phrase in question. It will now only remain to run through this last
group of phrases, all of which have this same final word, and the
search — so vast is the collection — will usually yield a satisfactory
result. The P'ei Wen Yiin Fu runs of course to many volumes; a
rough estimate shows it to contain over fifteen million words.

Encyclopaedias. — In their desire to bring together condensed, yet
precise, information on a large variety of subjects, the Chinese may
be said to have invented the encyclopaedia. Though not the earliest
work of this kind, the T'ai P'ing Yu Lan is the first of any great im-
portance. It was produced towards the close of the loth century
A.D., under the direct supervision of the emperor, who is said to have
examined three sections every day for about a year, the total number
of sections being one thousand in all, arranged under fifty-five
headings. Another similar work, dealing with topics drawn from the
lighter literature of China, is the T'ai P'ing Kuang Chi. which was
issued at about the same date as the last-mentioned. Both of these,
and especially the former, have passed through several editions.
They help to inaugurate the great Sung dynasty, which for three
centuries to follow effected so much in the cause of literature.
Other encyclopaedias, differing in scope and in plan, appeared from
time to time, but it will be necessary to concentrate attention upon
Yung Lo two on'v> The third emperor of the Ming dynasty, known
Ta Tien, as Yung Lo, A.D. 1403-1425, issued a commission for the
production of a work on a scale which was colossal even
for China. His idea was to collect together all that had ever been
written in the four departments of (i) the Confucian Canon, (2)
History, (3) Philosophy and (4) General Literature, including
astronomy, geography, cosmogony, medicine, divination, Buddhism,
Taoism, arts and handicrafts; and in 1408 such an encyclopaedia
was laid before the Throne, received the imperial approval and was
named Yung Lo Ta Tien, or The Great Standard of Yung Lo. To
achieve this, 3 commissioners, with 5 directors, 20 sub-directors and a
staff of 2141 assistants, had laboured for the space of five years.
Its contents ran to no fewer than 22,877 separate sections, to which
must be added an index filling 60 sections. Each section contained
about 20 leaves, making a total of 917,480 pages for the whole work.
Each page consisted of sixteen columns of characters averaging
twenty-five to each column, or a total of 366,992,000 characters, to
which, in order to bring the amount into terms of English words,
about another third would have to be added. This extraordinary
work was never printed, as the expense would have been too great,
although it was actually transcribed for that purpose; and later on,

two more copies were made, one of which was finally stored in Peking
and the other, with the original, in Nanking. Both the Nanking
copies perished at the fall oT the Ming dynasty; and a similar fate
overtook the Peking copy, with the exception of a few odd volumes,
at the siege of the legations in 1000. The latter was bound up in
1 1,100 volumes, covered with yellow silk, each volume being I ft.
8 in. in length by I ft. in breadth, and averaging over J in. in thick-
ness. This would perhaps be a fitting point to conclude any notice .
of Chinese encyclopaedias, but for the fact that the work of Yung Lo
is gone while another encyclopaedia, also on a huge scale, designed
and carried out some centuries later, is still an important work of
reference.

The T'u Shu Chi Ch'dng was planned, and to a great extent made
ready, under instructions from the emperor K'ang Hsi (see above),
and was finally brought out by his successor, Yung ChSng,
1723-1736. Intended to embrace all departments of Tit Shu.
knowledge, its contents were distributed over six leading categories,
which for want of better equivalents may be roughly rendered by
(i) Heaven, (2) Earth, (3).Man, (4) Arts and Sciences, (5) Philosophy
and (6) Political Science. _ These were subdivided into thirty-two
classes; and in the voluminous index which accompanies the work
a further attempt was made to bring the searcher into still closer
touch with the individual items treated. Thus, the category Heaven
is subdivided into four classes, namely— ^again, for want of better
terms — (a) The Sky and its Manifestations, (6) The Seasons, (c)
Astronomy and Mathematics and (d) Natural Phenomena. Under
these classes come the individual items; and here it is that the
foreign student is often at a loss. For instance, class a includes
Earth, in its cosmogonic sense, as the mother of mankind ; Heaven,
in its original sense of God; the Dual Principle in nature; the Sun,
Moon and Stars; Wind; Clouds; Rainbow; Thunder and Light-
ning; Rain; Fire, &c. But Earth is itself a geographical category;
and all strange phenomena relating to many of the items under class
a are recorded under class d. Category No. 6, marked as Political
Science, contains such classes as Ceremonial, Music and Administra-
tion of Justice, alongside of Handicrafts, making it essential to study
the arrangement carefully before it is possible to consult the work
with ease. Such preliminary trouble is, however, well repaid, the
amount of information given on any particular subject being practic-
ally coextensive with what is known about that subject. The
method of presenting such information, with variations to suit the
nature of the topics handled, is to begin with historical excerpts,
chronologically arranged. These are usually followed by sometimes
lengthy essays dealing with the subject as a theme, taken from the
writings of qualified authors, and like all the other entries, also
chronologically arranged. Then come elegant extracts in prose and
verse, in all of which the subject may be simply mentioned and not
treated as in the essays. After these follow minor notices of incidents,
historical and otherwise, and all kinds of anecdotes, derived from a
great variety of sources. Occasionally, single poetical lines are
brought together, each contributing some thought or. statement
germane to the subject, expressed in elegant or forcible terms; and
also, wherever practicable, biographies of men and women are
inserted.

Chronological and other tables are supplied where necessary, as
well as a very large number of illustrations, many of these being
reproductions of woodcuts from earlier works. It is said that the
T'u Shu Chi Ch'eng was printed from movable copper type cast by
the Jesuit Fathers employed by the emperor K'ang Hsi at Peking;
also that only a hundred copies were struck off, the type being then
destroyed. An 8vo edition of the whole encyclopaedia was issued at
Shanghai in 1889; this is bound up in sixteen hundred and twenty-
eight handy volumes of about two hundred pages each. A copy of
the original edition stands on the shelves of the British Museum, and
a translation of the Index has recently been completed.

Manuscripts and Printing. — At the conclusion of this brief
survey of Chinese literature it may well be asked how such an
enormous and ever-increasing mass has been handed down
from generation to generation. According to the views put forth
by early Chinese antiquarians, the first written records were
engraved with a special knife upon bamboo slips and wooden
tablets. The impracticability of such a process, as applied to
books, never seems to have dawned upon those writers; and
this snoivball of error, started in the 7th century, long after the
knife and the tablet had disappeared as implements of writing,
continued to gather strength as time went on. Recent
researches, however, have placed it beyond doubt that when the
Chinese began to write in a literary sense, as opposed to mere
scratchings on bones, they traced their characters on slips of
bamboo and tablets of wood with a bamboo pencil, frayed at one
end to carry the coloured liquid which stood in the place of ink.
The knife was used only to erase. So things went on until about
200 B.C., when it would appear that a brush of hair was sub-
stituted for the bamboo pencil; after which, silk was called into
requisition as an appropriate vehicle in connexion with the more

CHINA— CHINCHEW

231

delicate brush. But silk was expensive and difficult to handle,
so that the invention of paper in A.D. 105 by a eunuch, named
Ts'ai Lun, came as a great boon, although it seems clear that a
certain kind of paper, made from silk floss, was in use before his
date. However that may be, from the ist century onwards the
Chinese have been in possession of the same writing materials
that are in use at the present day.

In A.D. 170, Ts'ai Yung, who rose subsequently to the highest
offices of state, wrote out on stone in red ink the authorized text
of the Five Classics, to be engraved by workmen, and thus
handed down to posterity. The work covered forty-six huge
tablets, of which a few fragments are said to be still in existence.
A similar undertaking was carried out in 837, and the later
tablets are still standing at a temple in the city of Hsi-an Fu,
Shensi. With the T'ang dynasty, rubbings of famous inscriptions,
wherein the germ of printing may be detected, whether for the
style of the composition or for the calligraphic excellence of the
script, came very much into vogue with scholars and collectors.
It is also from about trie same date that the idea of multiplying
on paper impressions taken from wooden blocks seems to have
arisen, chiefly in connexion with religious pictures and prayers.
The process was not widely applied to the production of books
until the loth century, when in A.D. 932 the Confucian Canon
was printed for the first time. In 981 orders were issued for the
Tai P'ing Kuang Chi, an encyclopaedia extending to many
volumes (see above) to be cut on blocks for printing. Movable
types of baked clay are said to have been invented by an
alchemist, named Pi Sheng, about A.D. 1043 ; and under the Ming
dynasty, 1368-1644, these were made first of wood, and later
of copper or lead, but movable types have never gained the
favour accorded to block-printing, by means of which most of
China's great typographical triumphs have been achieved. The
process is, and always has been, the same all over China. Two
consecutive pages of a book, separated by a column containing
the title, number of section, and number of leaf, are written out
and pasted face downwards on a block of wood (Lindera tzu-mu,
Hemsl.). This paper, where not written upon, is cut away with
sharp tools, leaving the characters in relief, and of course back-
wards, as in the case of European type. The block is then inked,
' and an impression is taken off, on one side of the paper only.
This sheet is then folded down the middle of the separating
column above mentioned, so that the blank halves come
together, leaving two pages of printed matter outside; and when
enough sheets have been brought together, they are stabbed at
the open ends and form a volume, to be further wrapped in
paper or pasteboard, and labelled with title, &c. It is almost
superfluous to say that the pages of a Chinese book must not be
cut. There is nothing inside, and, moreover, the column bearing
the title and leaf-number would be cut through. The Chinese
newspapers of modern times are all printed from movable types,
an ordinary fount consisting of about six to seven thousand
characters.

See J. Legge, The Chinese Classics (1861-1872); A. Wylie, Notes
on Chinese Literature (1867); E. Chavannes, Memoires historiques
(1895-1905) ; H. A. Giles, Chuang Tzu (1889), A Chinese Biographical
Dictionary (1898), and A History of Chinese Literature (1901); A.
Forke, Lun-Heng (1907); F. Hirth, The Ancient History of China
(1908) ; L. Giles, Sun Tzu (1910). (H. A. Gi.)

CHINA, the common name for ware made of porcelain, given
because it came from China, where the first vitrified, translucent,
white ware was produced. The Portuguese or Italians gave it
the name of " porcelain " (q.v.). English usage was influenced
by India and the East, where the Persian chlni was widely
prevalent as the name of the ware. This is seen also in some
of the earlier forms and pronunciations, e.g. chiney, cheney, and
later chancy (see CERAMICS; and for " china-clay " KAOLIN).

CHINANDEGA, or CHINENDEGA, the capital of the department
of Chinandega in western Nicaragua, 10 m. N.N.E. of the seaport
of Corinto by the Corinto-Managua railway. Pop. (1900) about
12,000. Chinandega is the centre of a fertile corn-producing
district, and has a large transit trade owing to its excellent situa-
tion on the chief Nicaraguan railway. Its manufactures include

coarse cloth, pottery and Indian feather ornaments. Cotton,
sugar-cane and bananas are cultivated in the neighbourhood.

CHI-NAN FU, the capital of Shan-tung, China, in 36° 40' N.,
117° i' E. Pop. about 100,000. It is situated in one of the
earliest settled districts of the Chinese empire. The city,
which lies in the valley of the present channel of the Yellow
river (Hwang-Ho), and about 4 m. south of the river, is
surrounded by a triple line of defence. First is the city wall,
strongly built and carefully guarded, outside this a granite wall,
and beyond this again a mud rampart. Three springs outside
the west gate throw up streams of tepid water to a height of
about 2 fc. This water, which is highly prized for its healing
qualities, fills the moat and forms a fine lake in the northern
quarter of the city.

Chi-nan Fu was formerly famous for its manufacture of silks
and of imitation precious stones. It is now the chief commercial
entrepfit of Western Shan-tung but no longer a manufacturing
centre. A highway connects it with the Yellow river, and it is
joined by a railway 280 m. long to Kiaochow. The city has a
university for instruction on Western lines, and an efficient
military school. American Presbyterians began mission work
in the city in 1873; it is also the see of a Roman Catholic
bishop.

CHINCHA ISLANDS, three small islands in the Pacific Ocean,
about 12 m. from the coast of Peru (to which country they
belong), opposite the town of Pisco, and 106 m. distant from
Callao, in 13° 38' S., 76° 28' W. The largest of the group,
known as the North Island or Isla del Norte, is only four-fifths
of a mile in length, and about a third in breadth. They are of
granitic formation, and rise from the sea in precipitous cliffs,
worn into countless caves and hollows, which furnish convenient
resting-places for the sea-fowl. Their highest points attain an
elevation of 113 ft. The islands have yielded a few remains of
the Chincha Indian race. They were formerly noted for
vast deposits of guano, and its export was begun by the Peruvian
government in 1840. The supply, however,- was exhausted in
1874. In 1853-1854 the Chincha Islands were the chief object in
a contest known as the Guano War between President Echenique
and General Castilla; and in April 1864 they were seized by the
Spanish rear-admiral Pinzon in order to bring the Peruvian
government to apologize for its treatment of Spanish immigrants.

CHINCHEW, or CHINCHU, the name usually given in English
charts to an ancient and famous port of China in the province
of Fu-kien, of which the Chinese name is Ch'ilanchow-fu or
Ts'iianchow-fu. It stands in 24° 57' N., 118° 35' E. The walls
have a circuit of 7 or 8 m., but embrace much vacant ground.
The chief exports are tea and sugar, tobacco, china-ware, nan-
keens, &c. There are remains of a fine mosque, founded by the
Arab traders who resorted thither. The English Presbyterian
Mission has had a chapel in the city since about 1862. Beyond
the northern branch of the Min (several miles from the city)
there is a suburb called Loyang, approached by the most
celebrated bridge in China.

Ch'iianchow, owing to the obstruction of its harbour by sand
banks, has been supplanted as a port by Amoy, and its trade is
carried on through the port of Nganhai. It is still, however, a
large and populous city. It was in the middle ages the great port
of Western trade with China, and was known to the Arabs and to
Europeans asZaiiun orZayton, the name under which it appears in
Abulfeda's geography and in the Mongol history of Rashiddudin,
as well as in Ibn Batuta,Marco Polo and other medieval travellers.
Some argument has been alleged against the identity of Zayton
with Ch'iianchow, and in favour of its being rather Changchow
(a great city 60 m. W.S.W. of Ch'iianchow), or a port on the river
of Changchow near Amoy. " Port of Zayton " may have
embraced the great basin called Amoy Harbour, the chief part
of which lies within the Fu or department of Ch iianchow; but
there is hardly room for doubt that the Zayton of Marco Polo and
Abulfeda was the Ch'iianchow of the Chinese. Ibn Batuta in-
forms us that a rich silk texture made here was called Zaituniya;
and there can be little doubt that this is the real origin of the
word " Satin," Zettani in medieval Italian, Aceytuni in Spanish.

232

CHINCHILLA— CHINESE PAVILLON

CHINCHILLA, a small grey hopping rodent mammal (Chin-
chilla lanigera), of the approximate size of a squirrel, inhabiting
the eastern slopes of the Andes in Chile and Bolivia, at altitudes
between 8000 and 12,000 ft. It typifies not only the genus
Chinchilla, but the family Chinchillidae, for the distinctive
features of which see RODENTIA. The ordinary chinchilla is
about 10 in. in length, exclusive of the long tail, and in the form
of its head -somewhat resembles a rabbit. It is covered with a
dense soft fur f in. long on the back and upwards of an inch in
length on the sides, of a delicate French grey colour, darkly
mottled on the upper surface and dusky white beneath; the ears
being long, broad and thinly covered with hair. Chinchillas
live in burrows, and these subterranean dwellings undermine
the ground in some parts of the Chilean Andes to such an extent
as to cause danger to travellers on horseback. They associate
in communities, forming their burrows among loose rocks, and
coming out to feed in the early morning and towards sunset.
They feed chiefly on roots and grasses, in search of which they
often travel considerable distances; and when eating they sit on
their haunches, holding their food in their fore-paws. The
Indians in hunting them employ the grison (Galictis vittala), a
member of the weasel family, which is trained to enter the
crevices of the rocks where the chinchillas He concealed during
the day. The fur (q.v.) of this rodent was prized by the ancient
Peruvians, who made coverlets and other articles with the skin,
and at the present day the skins are exported in large numbers
to Europe, where they are made into muffs, tippets and trim-
mings. That chinchillas have not under such circumstances
become rare, if not extinct, is owing to their extraordinary
fecundity, the female usually producing five or six young twice
a year. They are docile in disposition, and thus well fitted for
domestication. The Peruvian chinchilla (C. brevicaudala) is
larger, with relatively shorter ears and tail; while still larger
species constitute the genus Lagidium, ranging from the Andes
to Patagonia, and distinguished by having four in place of five
front-toes, more pointed ears, and a somewhat differently formed
skull. (See also VISCACHA). (R. L.*)

CHINDE, a town of Portuguese East Africa, chief port for the
Zambezi valley and British Central Africa, at the mouth of the
Chinde branch of the Zambezi, in 18° 40' S., 36° 30' E. Pop.
(1907) 2790, of whom 218 were Europeans. Large steamers are
unable to cross the bar, over which the depth of water varies from
10 to 1 8 ft. Chinde owes its existence to the discovery in 1889
that the branch of the river on the banks of which it is built is
navigable from the ocean (see ZAMBEZI). The Portuguese in
1891 granted on lease for 99 years an area of 5 acres — subse-
quently increased to 25 — to the British government, on which
goods in transit to British possessions could be stored duty
free. This block of land is known as the British Concession, or
British Chinde. The prosperity of the town largely depends
on the transit trade with Nyasaland and North East Rhodesia.
There is also a considerable export from Portuguese districts,
sugar, cotton and ground nuts being largely cultivated in the
Zambezi valley, and gold and copper mines worked.

CHINDWIN, a river of Burma, the largest tributary of the
Irrawaddy, its entire course being in Burmese territory. It is
called Ningthi by the Manipuris. The Chindwin is formed by the
junction of the Tanai, the Tawan and the Taron or Turong,
but it is still uncertain which is the main stream. The Tanai
has hitherto been looked on as the chief source. It rises in about
25° 30' N. and 97° E., on the Shwedaung-gyi peak of the Kumon
range, 12 m. N. of Mogaung, and flows due N. for the first part
of its course until it reaches the Hukawng valley, when it turns
to the W. and flows through the middle of the plain to the end
of the valley proper. There it curves round to the S., passes
through the Tar6n or Turong valley, takes the name of the
Chindwin, and maintains a general southerly course until it
enters the Irrawaddy, after flowing through the entire length
of the Upper and Lower Chindwin districts, in about 21° 30' N.
and 95° 15' E. Its extreme outlets are 22 m. apart, the interval
forming a succession of long, low, partially populated islands.
The most southerly mouth of the Chindwin is, according to

tradition, an artificial channel, cut by one of the kings of Pagan.
It was choked up for many centuries, until in 1824 it was opened
out by an exceptional flood. The Tanai (it is frequently called
Tanaikha, but kha is merely the Kachin word for river), as long
as it retains that name, is a swift, clear river, from 50 to 300 yds.
wide and from 3 to 15 ft. deep. The river is navigated by native
boats in the Hukawng valley, but launches cannot come up
from the Chindwin proper because of the reefs below Taro.

The Tarfin, Tur&ng or Towang river seems to be the real main
source of the Chindwin. It flows into the Hukawng valley from the
north, and has a swift current with a succession of rapids. Its sources
are in the hills to the south of Sadiya, rising from 10,000 to 11,000 ft.
above sea-level. It flows through a deep valley, with a general E.
and W. direction, as far as its junction with the Loglai. It then
turns S., and after draining an intricate system of hills, breaks into
the Hukawng valley a few miles N. of Saraw, and joins or receives
the Tanai about 10 m. above Kintaw village. Except the Tanai,
the chief branches of the Upper Chindwin rise in mountains that are
covered at least with winter snows. Below the Hukawng valley the
Chindwin is interrupted at several places by fails or transverse reefs.
At the village of Haksa there is a fall, which necessitates tranship-
ment from large boats to canoes. Not far below this the Uyu river
comes in on the left bank at Homalin, and from this point down-
wards the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company ply for the
greater part of the year. The Uyu flows through a fertile and well-
cultivated valley, and during the rainy season it is navigable for a
distance of 150 m. from its mouth by steamers of light draught.
Ordinarily regular steam communication with Homalin ceases in
the dry weather, but from Kindat, nearly 150 m. below it, there are
weekly steamers all the year round. Below Kindat the only con-
siderable affluent of the Chindwin is the Myit-tha, which receives
the Chin hills drainage. The Chindwin rises considerably during the
rains, but in March and April it is here and there so shallow as to
make navigation difficult even for small steam launches. Whirlpools
and narrows and shifting sandbanks also give some trouble, but
much has been done to improve navigation since the British annexa-
tion. Kindat, the headquarters of the Upper Chindwin district, and
M6nywa of the Lower, are on the banks of the river. (J. G. Sc.)

CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER, two districts in the
Sagaing division of Upper Burma. Upper Chindwin has an
area of 19,062 sq. m., and a population, according to the census
of 1901, of 154,551. Lower Chindwin has an area of 3480 sq. m.,
and a population of 276,383. Upper Chindwin lies to the north
of the lower district, and is bounded on the N. by the Chin, Naga
and Kachin hills; on the E. they are bounded by the Myitkyina,
Katha and Shwebo districts; Lower Chindwin is bounded on
the S. by the Pakokku and Sagaing districts; and both districts
are bounded on the W. by the Chin hills, and by Pakdkku on
the southern stretch. The western portion of both districts is
hilly, and the greater part of Upper Chindwin is of the same
character. Both have valuable teak forests. The total rainfall
averages in Lower Chindwin 27 and in Upper Chindwin 60 in.
Coal exists in extensive fields, but these are not very accessible.
Rice forms the great crop, but a certain amount of til-seed and
of indigo is also cultivated. Kindat, a mere village, is the head-
quarters of the upper district, and Monywa, with a population
of 7869, of the lower. Both are on the Chindwin river, and are
served by the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. Alon ,
close to Monywa, and formerly the headquarters, is the terminus
of the railway from Sagaing westwards, which was opened in 1900.

CHINESE PAVILLON, TURKISH CRESCENT, TURKISH JINGLE,
or JINGLING JOHNNY (Fir. chapeau chinois; Get. liirkischer
Halbmond, Schellenbaum; Ital. cappello Chinese), an instrument
of percussion of indefinite sonorousness, i.e. not producing definite
musical tones. The chapeau chinois was formerly an adjunct
in military bands, but never in the orchestra, where an instru-
ment of somewhat similar shape, often confused with it and
known as the Glockenspiel (q.v.), is occasionally called into
requisition. The Chinese pavilion consists of a pole about 6 ft.
high terminating in a conical metal cap or pavilion, hung with
small jingling bells and surmounted by a crescent and a star.
Below this pavilion are two or more metal bands forming a
fanciful double crescent or squat lyre, likewise furnished with
tiny bells. The two points of the crescent are curved over,
ending in fanciful animal heads from whose mouths hang low
streaming tails of horse-hair. The Chinese pavilion is played by
shaking or waving the pole up and down and jingling the bells, a
movement which can at best be but a slow one repeated once or

CHINGFORD— CHINO-JAPANESE WAR

at most twice in a bar to punctuate the phrases and add brilliancy
to the military music. The Turkish crescent or " jingling Johnny,"
as it was familiarly called in the British army bands, was intro-
duced by the Janissaries into western Europe. It has fallen into
disuse now, having been replaced by the glockenspiel or steel
harmonica. Edinburgh University possesses two specimens.1
In the i8th century at Bartholomew Fair one of the chief bands
hired was one well known as playing in London on winter
evenings in front of the Spring-Garden coffee house and opposite
Wigley's. This band consisted of a double drum, a Dutch organ
(see BARREL-ORGAN), a tambourine, a violin, pipes and the
Turkish jingle.2 (K. S.)

CHINGFORD, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary
division of Essex, England, loj m. N. of London (Liverpool
Street station) by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1001) 4373.
It lies between the river Lea and the western outskirts of Epping
Forest. The church of All Saints has Early English and Per-
pendicular remains. Queen Elizabeth's or Fair Mead hunting
lodge, a picturesque half-timbered building, is preserved under
the Epping Forest Preservation Act. A majestic oak, one of
the finest trees in the Forest, stands near it. Buckhurst Hill
(an urban district; pop. 4786) lies to the N.E.

CHINGLEPUT, or CHENGALPAT, a town and district of British
India, in the Madras presidency. The town, situated 36 m. by
rail from Madras, had a population in 1901 of 10,551. With
Chandragiri in North Arcot, Chingleput was once the capital -of
the Vijayanagar kings, after their overthrow by the Mussulmans
at Talikota in 1565. In 1639 a chief, subject to these kings,
granted to the East India Company the land on which Fort St
George now stands. The fort built by the Vijayanagar kings in
the 1 6th century was of strategic importance, owing to its
swampy surroundings and the lake that flanked its side. It was
taken by the French in 1751, and was retaken in 1752 by Clive,
after which it proved invaluable to the British, especially when
Lally in his advance on Madras left it unreduced in his rear.
During the wars of the British with Hyder Ali it withstood his
power, and afforded a refuge to the natives; and in 1780, after
the defeat of Colonel W. Baillie, the army of Sir Hector Munro
here found refuge. The town is noted for its manufacture of
pottery, and carries on a trade in rice.

The DISTRICT OF CHINGLEPUT surrounds the city of Madras,
stretching along the coast for about 115 m. The administrative
headquarters are at Saidapet. Area, 3079 sq. m. Pop. (1901)
1,312,122, showing an increase of 9% in the decade. Salt is
extensively manufactured all along the coast. Cotton and silk
weaving is also largely carried on, and there are numerous indigo
vats, tanneries and an English cigar factory.

CHIN HILLS, a mountainous district of Upper Burma. It lies
on the border between the Lushai districts of Eastern Bengal and
Assam and the plains of Burma, and has an area of 8000 sq. m.
It is bounded N. by Assam and Manipur, S. by Arakan, E. by
Burma, and W. by Tippera and the Chittagong hill tracts. The
Chins, Lushais and Kukis are to the north-east border of India
what the Pathan tribes are to the north-west frontier. In 1895
the Chin Hills were declared a part of the province of Burma,
and constituted a scheduled district which is now administered
by a political officer with headquarters at Falam. The tract
forms a parallelogram 250 m. from N. to S. by 100 to 1 50 m. wide.
The country consists of a much broken and contorted mass of
mountains, intersected by deep valleys. The main ranges run
generally N. to S., and vary in height from 5000 to 9000 ft.,
among the most important being the Letha or Tang, which is
the watershed between the Chindwin and Manipur rivers; the
Imbukklang, which divides the Sokte tribe from the Whenchs
and sheds the water from its eastern slopes into Upper Burma
and that from its western slopes into Arakan; and the Rong-
klang, which with its prolongations is the main watershed of the
southern hills, its eastern slopes draining into the Myittha and
thus into the Chindwin, while the western fall drains into the

1 See Captain C. R. Day. Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instru-
tents (London, 1891), p. 233.
1 See Hone's Everyday Book, i. 1248.

233

Boinu river, which winding through the hills discharges itself
eventually in the Bay of Bengal. The highest peak yet dis-
covered is the Liklang, between Rawywa and Lungno, some 70 m.
S. of Haka (nearly 10,000 ft.).

It is supposed that the Kukis of Manipur, the Lushais of Bengal
and Assam, and the Chins originally lived in Tibet and are of the same
stock; their form of government, method of cultivation, manners
and customs, beliefs and traditions all point to one origin. The slow
speech, the serious manner, the respect for birth and the knowledge
of pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for and the treacherous
method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of hospitality, the
clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state of the body,
mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of power of
combination and of continued effort, arrogance in victory, speedy
discouragement and panic in defeat, are common traits. The Chins,
Lushais and Kukis were noted for the secrecy of their plans, the
suddenness of their raids, and their extraordinary speed in retreating
to their fastnesses. After committing a raid they have been known
to march two days and two nights consecutively without cooking a
meal or sleeping, so as to escape from any parties which might follow
them. The British, since the occupation of Upper Burma, nave been
able to penetrate the Chin-Lushai country from both sides at once.
The pacification of the Chin Hills is a triumph for British administra-
tion. Roads, on which Chin coolies now readily work, have been con-
structed in all directions. The rivers have been bridged ; the people
have taken up the cultivation of English vegetables, and the indigen-
ous districts have been largely developed. The Chin Hills had a
population (1901 census) of 87,189, while the Chins in Burma totalled
179,292. The Pak6kku Chin Hills, which form a separate tract, have
an area of 2260 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 13,116. (J. G. Sc.)

CHINKIANG, or CHEN-KiANG-Fu, a treaty port of China, in
the province of Kiang-su, on the Yangtsze-kiang above Shanghai,
from which it is distant 160 m. It is in railway communication
both with Shanghai and Nanking (40 m. distant), 'and being at
the point where the Grand Canal running N. and S. intersects
the Yangtsze, which runs E. and W., is peculiarly well situated
to be a commercial entrep6t. The total value of exports and
imports for 1904 was £4,632,992; estimated pop. 168,000. In the
war of 1842 it yielded to the British only after a desperate
resistance. It was laid waste by the T'aip'ing rebels in 1853,
and was recaptured by the imperial forces in 1858.

CHINO-JAPANESE WAR (1894-95). The causes of this
conflict arose out of the immemorial rivalry of China and Japan
for influence in Korea. In the i6th century a prolonged war in
the peninsula had ended with the failure of Japan to make good
her footing on the mainland — a failure brought about largely by
lack of naval resources. In more modern times (1875, 1882, 1884)
Japan had repeatedly sent expeditions to Korea, and had fostered
the growth of a progressive party in Seoul. The difficulties of
1884 were settled between China and Japan by the convention of
Tientsin, wherein it was agreed that in the event of future
intervention each should inform the other if it were decided to
despatch troops to the peninsula. Nine years later the occasion
arose. A serious rebellion induced the Korean government to
apply for military assistance from China. Early in June 1894
a small force of Chinese troops were sent to Asan, and Japan,
duly informed of this action, replied by furnishing her minister
at Seoul with an escort, rapidly following up this step by the
despatch of about 5000 troops under Major-General Oshima.
A complicated situation thus arose. Chinese troops were present
in Korea by the request of the government to put down rebellion.
The Japanese controlled the capital, and declined to recognize
Korea as a tributary of China. But she proposed that the
two powers should unite to suppress the disturbance and to
inaugurate certain specified reforms. China considered that the
measures of reform must be left to Korea herself. The reply was
that Japan considered the government of Korea " lacking in
some of the elements which are essential to responsible inde-
pendence." By the middle of July war had become inevitable
unless the Peking government were willing to abandon all claims
over Korea, and as Chinese troops were already in the country by
invitation, it was not to be expected that the shadowy suzerainty
would be abandoned.

At Seoul the issue was forced by the Japanese minister, who
delivered an ultimatum to the Korean government on the 2oth of
July. On the 23rd the palace was forcibly occupied. Meanwhile
China had despatched about 8000 troops to the Yalu 'river.

234

The outbreak of war thus found the Japanese in possession of
Seoul and ready to send large forces to Korea, while the Chinese
occupied Asan (about 40 m. south of the capital), and had a
considerable body of troops in Manchuria in addition to those
despatched to the Yalu river. To Japan the command of the
sea was essential for the secure transport and supply of her
troops. Without it the experience of the war of the i6th century
would be repeated. China, too, could only utilize overland routes
to Korea by submitting to the difficulties and delays entailed.
To both powers the naval question was thus important.

By the time war was finally declared (August i) hostilities had
already begun. On the 25th of July Oshima set out from Seoul to
attack the Chinese at Asan. On the 29th he won a victory at Song-
hwan, but the Chinese commander escaped with a considerable part
of his forces by a detour to Ping- Yang (Phyong-Yang). Meanwhile
a portion of the Japanese fleet had encountered some Chinese war-
ships and transports off Phung-Tao, and scored an important success,
sinking, amongst other vessels, the transport " Kowshing " (July 25).
The loss of more than 1000 Chinese soldiers in this vessel materially
lightened Oshima's task. The intention of the Chinese to crush
their enemies between their forces at Asan and Ping- Yang was
completely frustrated, and the Japanese obtained control of all
southern Korea.

Reinforcements from Japan were now pouring into Korea, in spite
.of the fact that the rival navies had not yet tried conclusions, and
General Nozu, the senior Japanese officer present, soon found him-
self in a position to move on Ping- Yang. Three columns converged
upon the place on the isth of September, and in spite of its strong
walls carried it, though only after severe fighting.

Nearly all the troops on either side had been conveyed to the
scene of war by sea, though the decisive contest for sea supremacy
was still to be fought. The Chinese admiral Ting with the Northern
Squadron (which alone took part in the war) had hitherto remained
inactive in Wei-hai-wei, and on the other side Vice-Admiral Itp's
fleet had not directly interfered with the hostile transports which
were reinforcing the troops on the Yalu. But two days after the
battle of Ping- Yang, Ting, who had conveyed a large body of
troops to the mouth of the Yalu, encountered the Japanese fleet on
his return journey off Hai-Yang-Tao on the I7th of September.
The heavy battleships " Chen- Yuen " and " Ting-Yuen " constituted
the strongest element of the Chinese squadron, for the Japanese,
superior as they were in every other factor of success, had no vessels
which could compare with these in the matter of protection. Ting
advanced in a long irregular line abreast; the battleships in the
centre, the lighter vessels on the wings. Ito's fast cruisers steamed
in line ahead against the Chinese right wing, crushing their weaker
opponents with their fire. In the end the Chinese fleet was defeated
and scattered, but the two heavy battleships drew off without
serious injury. This battle of the Yalu gave Japan command of
the sea, but Ito continued to act with great caution. The remnants
of the vanquished fleet took refuge in Port Arthur, whence after
repairs Ting proceeded to Wei-hai-wei.

The victory of Ping- Yang had cleared Korea of the Chinese troops,
but on the lower Yalu — their own frontier — large forces threatened
a second advance. Marshal Yarnagata therefore took the offensive
with his 1st army, and on the 24th and 25th of October, under great
difficulties — though without serious opposition from the enemy —
forced the passage of the river and occupied Chiulien-cheng. Part
of the Chinese force retired to the north-east, part to Feng-hwang-
cheng and Hsiu-yuen (Siu-Yen). The Japanese 1st army advanced
several columns towards the mountains of Manchuria to secure its
conquests and prepare for a future advance. General Tachimi's
brigade occupied Feng-hwang-cheng on the 2gth of October. On
the 7th of November a column from the Yalu took Takushan, and
a few days later a converging attack from these two places was made
upon Hsiu-yuen, which was abandoned by the Chinese. Meanwhile
Tachimi, skirmishing with the enemy on the Mukden and Liao-
Yang roads, found the Chinese in force. A simultaneous forward
move by both sides led to the action of Tsao-ho-ku (November 30),
after which both sides withdrew — the Ch nese to the line of the
mountains covering Hai-cheng, Liao-Yang and Mukden, with the
Tatar general Ikotenga's force, 14,000 strong, on the Japanese right
north-east of Feng-hwang-cheng; and the Japanese to Chiulien-
cheng, Takushan and Hsiu-yuen. The difficulties of supply in the
hills were almost insurmountable, and no serious advance was
intended by the Japanese until January 1895, when it was to be made
in co-operation with the 2nd army. This army, under Marshal
Oyama, had been formed in September and at first sent to Chemulpo
as a support to the forces under Yamagata; but its chief task was
the siege and capture of the Chinese fortress, dockyard and arsenal
of Port Arthur.

The Liao-Tong peninsula was guarded by the walled city of
Kinchow and the forts of Ta-lien-wan (Dalny under the Russian
regime, and Tairen under the Japanese) as well as the fortifications
around_ Port Arthur itself. On the 24th of October the disem-
barkation of the 2nd army began near Pi-tsze-wo, and the successive
columns of the Japanese gradually moved towards Kinchow, which

CHINO-JAPANESE WAR

was carried without difficulty on the 6th of November. Even less
resistance was offered by the modern forts of Ta-lien-wan. The
Japanese now held a good harbour within a few miles of the main
fortress. Here they landed siege artillery, and on the 17th of
November the advance was resumed. The attack was made on the
igth at dawn. Yamaji's division (Nogi's and Nishi's brigades)
after a trying night march assaulted and carried the western defences
and moved upon the town. Hasegawa in the centre, as soon as
Yamaji began to appear in rear of his opponents in the northern
forts, pushed home his attack with equal success, and by 3 P.M.
practically all resistance was at an end. The Japanese paid for
this important success with but 423 casualties. Meanwhile the
Chinese general Sung, who had marched from Hai-cheng to engage
the 2nd army, appeared before Kinchow, where he received on the
22nd a severe repulse at the hands of the Japanese garrison. Marshal
Oyama subsequently stationed his advanced guard towards Hai-
cheng, the main body at Kinchow, and a brigade of infantry at Port
Arthur. Soon after this overtures of peace were made by China;
but her envoy, a foreigner unfurnished with credentials, was not
received by the Tokyo government.

The Japanese 1st army (now under General Nozu) at Antung
and Feng-hwang-cheng prepared, in spite of the season, to move
across the mountains, and on the 3rd of December General Katsura
left Antung for Hai-cheng. His line of march was by Hsi-mu-cheng,
and strong flank guards followed parallel routes on either side.
The march was accomplished safely and Hai-cheng occupied on the
I3th of December. In the meantime Tachimi had moved northward
from Feng-hwang-cheng, in order to distract the attention of the
Chinese from Hai-cheng, and there were some small engagements
between this force and that of Ikotenga, who ultimately retired
beyond the mountains to Liao-Yang. Sung had already left Kai-
pi.ng to secure Hai-cheng when he heard of the fall of that place;
his communications with Ikotenga being now severed, he swerved
to the north-west and established a new base at Niu-chwang. Once
on his new line Sung moved upon Hai-cheng. As it was essential
that he should be prevented from joining forces with Ikotenga,
General Katsura marched out of Hai-cheng to fight him. At Kang-
wang-tsai (December igth) the Chinese displayedunusual steadiness,
and it cost the Japanese some 343 casualties to dislodge the enemy.
The victors returned to Hai-cheng exhausted with their efforts, but
secure from attack for some time to come. The advanced troops of
the 2nd army (Nogi's brigade) were now ready to advance, and only
the Kai-ping garrison (left behind by Sung) barred their junction
with Katsura. At Kai-ping (January loth) the resistance of the
Chinese was almost as steady as at Kang-wang-tsai, and the Japanese
lost 300 killed and wounded in their successful attack. In neither
of these actions was the defeated force routed, nor did it retire very
far. On the I7th of January and again on the 22nd Ikotenga
attacked Hai-cheng from the north, but was repulsed.

Meanwhile the 2nd army, still under Oyama, had undertaken
operations against Wei-hai-wei, the second great fortress and dock-
yard of northern China, where Admiral Ting's squadron had been
refitting since the battle of the Yalu; and it was hoped that both
armies would accomplish their present tasks in time to advance in
the summer against Peking itself. On the i8th of January a naval
demonstration was made at Teng-chow-fu, 70 m. west of Wei-hai-
wei, and on the 1 9th the Japanese began their disembarkation at
Yung-cheng Bay, about 12 m. from Wei-hai-wei. The landing was
scarcely opposed, and on the 26th the Japanese advance was begun.
The south-eastern defences of Wei-hai-wei harbour were carried by
the 6th division, whilst the 2nd division reached the inner waters
of the bay, driving the Chinese before them. The fleet under Ito
co-operated effectively. On the night of the 4th-5th of February
the Chinese squadron in harbour was attacked by ten torpedo
boats. Two boats were lost, but the armour-clad " Ting- Yuen "
was sunk. On the following night a second attack was made, and
three more vessels were sunk. On the 9th the " Ching-Yuen "
was sunk by the guns in one of the captured forts.. On the I2th
Admiral Ting wrote to Admiral Ito offering to surrender, and then
took poison, other officers following his example. Wei-hai-wei was
then dismantled by the Japanese, who recovered the remnant of the
Chinese squadron, including the " Chen Yuen," and the 2nd army
concentrated at Port Arthur for the advance on Peking.

While this campaign was in progress the Chjnese despatched a
second peace mission, also with defective credentials. The Japanese
declined to treat, and the mission returned to China. In February
the Chinese made further'lunsuccessful attacksjon Hai-cheng. Yamaji
near Kai-ping fought a severe action on the 2ist, 22nd and 23rd of
February at Taping-shan against a part of Sung's army under
General Ma-yu-kun. This action was fought with 2 ft. of snow on
the ground, the thermometer registering zero F., and no less than
1500 cases of frost-bite were reported. It was the intention of
General Nozu, after freeing the Hai-cheng garrison from Ikotenga,
to seize Niu-chwang port. Two divisions converged on An-shan-
chan, and the Chinese, threatened in front and_flank, retired to
Liao-Yang. Meanwhile two more attacks on Hai-cheng had been
repulsed. The 3rd and 5th divisions then moved on Niu-chwang,
and Yamaji's 1st division at Kai-ping joined in the advance. The
column from An-shan-chan stormed Niu-chwang, which was
obstinately defended, and cost the stormers nearly 400 men. All

CHINON— CHIOGGIA

235

three divisions converged on Niu-chwang port (Ying-kow), and the
final engagement took place at Tien-chwang-tai, which was captured
on the 9th of March. The Chinese forces in Manchuria being
thoroughly broken and dispersed, there was nothing to prevent
the Japanese from proceeding to the occupation of Peking, since
they could, after the break-up of the ice, land and supply large
forces at Shan-hai-kwan, within 170 m. of the capital. Two more
Japanese divisions were sent out, with Prince Komatsu as supreme
commander. Seven divisions were at Port Arthur ready to embark,
when negotiations were reopened. Li Hung-Chang proceeded to
Shimonoseki, where the treaty was signed on the I7tn of April 1895.
An expedition was sent towards the end of March to the Pescadores,
and later the Imperial Guard division was sent to Formosa.

It is impossible to estimate the Chinese losses in the war. The
Japanese lost 4177 men by death in action or by sickness, and
56,862 were wounded or disabled by sickness, exclusive of the
losses in the Formosa and Pescadores expeditions. Nearly two-
thirds of these losses were incurred by the 1st army in the trying
winter campaign in Manchuria.

The most important works dealing with the war are: Vladimir,
China- Japan War (London, 1896); Jukichi Inouye, The Japan-
China War (Yokohama, &c., 1896); du Boulay, Epitome of the
China-Japanese War (London, 1896), the official publication of the
British War Office; Atteridge, Wars of the Nineties, pp. 535-636
(London, 1899); von Kunowski and Fretzdorff, Der japanisch-
chinesische Krieg (Leipzig, 1895) ; von Miiller, Der Kriee zwischen
China und Japan (Berlin, 1895); Bujac, Precis de quetques cam-
pagnes contemporaines: II. La Guerre sino-japonaise (Paris and
Limoges).

CHINON, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the
Vienne, 32 m. S.W. of Tours on the State railway. Pop. (1906)
4071. Chinon lies at the foot of the rocky eminence which is
crowned by the ruins of the famous castle. Its narrow, winding
streets contain many houses of the 1 5th and i6th centuries. The
oldest of its churches, St Mexme, is in the Romanesque style, but
only the facade and nave are left. The church of St Etienne dates
from the 1 5th century, that of St Maurice from the 1 2th, 1 5th and
1 6th centuries. The castle, which has undergone considerable
modern restoration, consists of three portions. That to the east,
the Chateau de St Georges, built by Henry II. of England, has
almost vanished, only the foundation of the outer wall remaining.
The Chiteau du Milieu (nth to isth centuries) comprises the
keep, the Pavilion de 1'Horloge and the Grand Logis, in the
principal apartment of which the first meeting between Joan of
Arc and Charles VII. took place. Of the Chateau du Coudray,
which is separated by a moat from the Chateau du Milieu, the
chief remains are the Tour du Moulin (loth century) and two less
ancient towers. A statue of Rabelais, who was born in the
vicinity of the town, stands on the river-quay. Chinon has
trade in wheat, brandy, red wine and plums. Basket and rope
manufacture, tanning and cooperage are among its industries.
Chinon (Caino) existed before the Roman occupation of Gaul,
and was from early times an important fortress. It was occupied
by the Visigoths, and subsequently, after forming part of the
royal domain, came to the counts of Touraine and from them
to the counts of Anjou. Henry II. often resided in the castle,
and died there. The place was taken by Philip Augustus in
1205 after a year's siege.

CHINOOK, a tribe of North American Indians, dwelling at the
mouth of the Columbia river, Washington. They were fishermen
and traders, and used huge canoes of hollowed cedar trunks.
The tribe is practically extinct, but the name survives in the trade
language known as " Chinook jargon." This has been analysed
as composed of two-fifths Chinook, two-fifths other Indian
tongues, and the rest English and Canadian French; but the
proportion of English has tended to increase. The Chinookan
linguistic family includes a number of separate tribes.

The name CHINOOK is also applied to a wind which blows from
W. or N. over the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where it
descends as a dry wind warm in winter and cool in summer (cf.
Fohri). It is due to a cyclone passing northward, and continues
from a few hours to several days. It moderates the climate of the
eastern Rockies, the snow melting quickly on account of its
warmth and vanishing on account of its dryness, so that it is said
to " lick up " the snow from the slopes.

See Gill, Dictionary of Chinook Jargon (Portland, Ore., 1891);
Boas, " Chinook Texts, in Smithsonian Report, Bureau of Ethno-

logy (Washington, 1894) ; J. C. Pilling, " Bibliography of Chinookan
Languages," Smithsonian Report, Bureau of Ethnology (Washington,
'893); Horatio Hale, Manual of Oregon Trade Language (London,
iSgol; G. C. Shaw, The Chinook Jargon (Seattle, 1909); Handbook
of American Indians (Washington, 1907).

CHINSURA, a town of British India, on the Hugli river, 24 m.
above Calcutta, formerly the principal Dutch settlement in
Bengal. The Dutch erected a factory here in 1656, on a healthy
spot of ground, much preferable to that on which Calcutta is
situated. In 1759 a British force under Colonel Forde was
attacked by the garrison of Chinsura on its march to Chander-
nagore, but in less than half an hour the Dutch were entirely
routed. In 1795, during the Napoleonic wars, the settlement was
occupied by a British garrison. At the peace of 1814 it was
restored to the Dutch. It was among the cessions in India
made by the king of the Netherlands in 1825 in exchange for
the British possessions in Sumatra. Hugli College is maintained
by government; and there are a number of schools, several of
which are carried on by Scottish Presbyterian missionaries.
Chinsura is included in the Hugli municipality.

CHINTZ, a word derived from the Hindu chlnt, spotted or
variegated. This name was given to a kind of stained or painted
calico produced in India. It is now applied to a highly glazed
printed calico, commonly made in several colours on a light
ground and used for bed hangings, covering furniture, &c.

CHIOGGIA, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the
province of Venice, from which it is 182 m. S. by sea. Pop.
(1901) 21,384 (town), 31,218 (commune). It is inhabited mostly
by fishermen, and is situated upon an island at the S. end of the
lagoons. It is traversed by one main canal, La Vena. The
peculiar dialect and customs of the inhabitants still survive to
some extent. It is of earlier origin than Venice, and indeed is
probably identical with the Roman Portus Aedro, or Ebro,
though its name is derived from the Roman Fossa Claudia,
a canalized estuary which with the two mouths of the Meduacus
(Brenta) went to form the harbour. In 672 it entered the
league of the cities of the lagoons, and recognized the authority
of the doge. In 809 it was almost destroyed by Pippin, but
in i no was made a city, remaining subject to Venice, whose
fortunes it thenceforth followed. It was captured after a deter-
mined resistance by the Genoese in 1379, but recovered in 1380.
Chioggia is connected by rail with Rovigo, 35 m. to the south-
west. (T. As.)

Naval War of Chioggia (1378-80). — The naval war of 1378-
1380, carried on by Venice against the Genoese and their allies,
the lord of Carrara and the king of Hungary, is of exceptional
interest as one in which a superior naval power, having suffered
disaster in its home waters, and having been invaded, was yet
able to win in the end by holding out till its squadrons in distant
seas could be recalled for its defence.

When the war began in the spring of 1378, Venice was mainly
concerned for the safety of its trading stations in the Levant and
the Black Sea, which were exposed to the attacks of the Genoese.
The more powerful of the two fleets which it sent out was despatched
into the eastern Mediterranean under Carlo Zeno, the bailiff and
captain of Negropont. A smaller force was sent to operate against
the Genoese in the western Mediterranean, and was placed under the
command of Vettor Pisani. The possessions of Venice on the main-
land, which were then small, were assailed by Francesco Carrara and
the Hungarians. Her only ally in the war, Bernab6 Visconti of
Milan, gave her little help on this side, but his mercenaries invaded
the territory of Genoa. The danger on land seemed trifling to Venice
so long as she could keep the sea open to her trade and press the
war against the Genoese in the Levant.

During the first stage of the war the plans of the senate were
carried out with general success. While Carlo Zeno harassed the
Genoese stations in the Levant, Vettor Pisani brought one of their
squadrons to action on the 3Oth of May 1378 off Punta di Anzio to
the south of the Tiber, and defeated it. The battle was fought in
a gale by 10 Venetian against n Genoese galleys. The Genoese
admiral, Luigi de' Fieschi, was taken with 5 of his galleys, and others
were wrecked. Four of the squadron escaped, and steered for
Famagusta in Cyprus, then held by Genoa. If Pisani had directed
his course to Genoa itself, which was thrown into a panic by the
defeat at Anzio, it is possible that he might have dictated peace,
but he thought his squadron too weak, and preferred to follow the
Genoese galleys which had fled to Famagusta. During the summer
of 1378 he was employed partly in attacking the enemy in Cyprus,

236

CHIOS

but mainly in taking possession of the Istrian and Dalmatian towns
which supported the Hungarians from fear of the aggressive ambition
of Venice. He was ordered to winter on the coast of Istria, where
his crews suffered from exposure and disease. Genoa, having
recovered from the panic caused by the disaster at Anzio, decided to
attack Venice at home while the best of her ships were absent with
Carlo Zeno. She sent a strong fleet into the Adriatic under Luciano
Doria. Pisani had been reinforced early in the spring of 1378, but
when he was sighted by the Genoese fleet of 25 sail off Pola in Istria
on the 7th of May, he was slightly outnumbered, and his crews were
still weak. The Venetian admiral would have preferred to avoid
battle, and to check an attack on Venice itself, by threatening the
Genoese fleet from his base on the Istrian coast. He was forced into
battle by the commissioner (proveditore) Michael Steno, who as
agent of the senate had authority over the admiral. The Venetians
were defeated with the loss of all their galleys except six. Luciano
Doria fell in the battle, and the Genoese, who had suffered severely,
did not at once follow up their success. On the arrival of his suc-
cessor, Pietro Doria, with reinforcements, they appeared off the
Lido, the outer barrier of the lagoon of Venice, in July, and in
August they entered on a combined naval and military attack on the
city, in combination with the Carrarese and the Hungarians. The
Venetians had closed the passages through the outer banks except
at the southern end, at the island of Brondolo, and the town of
Chioggia. The barrier here approaches close to the mainland, and
the position facilitated the co-operation of the Genoese with the
Carrarese and Hungarians, but Chioggia is distant from Venice,
which could only be reached along the canals across the lagoon. The
Venetians had taken up the buoys which marked the fairway, and
had placed a light squadron on the lagoon. The allies, after occupy-
ing the island of Brondolo, attacked, and on the 1 3th of August
took the town of Chioggia with its garrison of 3000 men.

There appeared to be nothing to prevent the enemy from advanc-
ing to the city of Venice except the difficult navigation of the lagoon.
The senate applied for peace, but when the Genoese replied that
they were resolved to " bit and bridle the horses of Saint Mark "
the Venetians decided to fight to the end. Vettor Pisani, who had
been imprisoned after the defeat at Pola, but who possessed the
confidence of the people and the affection of the sailors, was released
and named commander-in-chief against the wish of the aristocracy.
Under his guidance the Venetians adopted a singularly bold and
ingenious policy of offensive defence. The heavy Genoese vessels
were much hampered by the shallow water and intricate passages
through the lagoon. By taking advantage of their embarrassment
and his own local knowledge, Pisani carried out a series of move-
ments which entirely turned the tables on the invaders. Between
the 23rd and 25th of August he executed a succession of night
attacks, during which he sank vessels laden with stores not only in
the canals leading through the lagoon to Venice, but in the fairways
leading from Chioggia to the open sea round both ends of the island
of Brondolo. The Genoese were thus shut in at the very moment
when they thought they were about to besiege Venice. Pisani
stationed the galleys under his command in the open sea outside
Brondolo, and during the rest of the year blockaded the enemy
closely. The distress of the Venetians themselves was great, but the
Doge Andrea Contarini and the nobles set an example by sharing the
general hardships, and taking an oath not to return to Venice till
they had recovered Chioggia. Carlo Zeno had long since been
ordered to return, but the slowness and difficulty of communication
and movement under I4th century conditions delayed his reappear-
ance. The besiegers of Chioggia were at the end of their powers of
endurance, and Pisani had been compelled to give a promise that
the siege would be raised, when Zeno s fleet reached the anchorage
off Brondolo on the 1st of January 1380. The attack on Chioggia
was now pressed with vigour. The Genoese held out resolutely in
the hope of relief from home. But the resources of Genoa had been
taxed to fit out the squadrons she had already sent to sea. It was
not until the I2th of Msy 1380 that her admiral, Matteo Maruffo,
was able to reach the neighbourhood of Brondolo with a relieving
force. By this time the Venetians had recovered the island, and their
fleet occupied a fortified anchorage from which they refused to be
drawn. Maruffo could do nothing, and on the 24th of June 1380
the defenders of Chioggia surrendered. The crisis of the war was
past. Venice, being now safe at home, recovered the command of the
sea, and before the close of the year was able to make peace as a
conqueror.

AUTHORITIES. — S. Romanin, Storia documentaia di Venezia (Venice,
1855); W. C. Hazlitt, History of the Venetian Republic (London,
1860); Horatio F. Brown, Venice (London, 1893). (D. H.)

CHIOS, an island on the west coast of Asia Minor, called by the
Greeks Chios (Xioj, 'a rr\ Xto) and by the Turks Saki Adasi;
the soft pronunciation of X before i in modern Greek, approxi-
mating to sh, caused Xio to be Italianized as Scio. It forms,
with the islands of Psara, Nikaria, Leros, Calymnus and Cos,
a sanjak of the Archipelago vilayet. Chios is about 30 m. long
from N. to S., and from 8 to 15 m. broad; pop. 64,000. It well
deserves the epithet " craggy " (irauraXoso-o-o.) of the Homeric
hymn. Its figs were noted in ancient times, but wine and gum

mastic have always been the most important products. The
climate is healthy; oranges, olives and even palms grow freely.
The wine grown on the N.W. coast, in the district called by
Strabo Ariusia, was known as vinum Arvisium. Early in the
yth century B.C. Glaucus of Chios discovered the process of
welding iron (icoXXijcris: see J. G. Frazer's Pausanias, note
on x. 16. i, vol. v. pp. 313-314), and the iron stand of a large
crater whose parts were all connected by this process was
constructed by him, and preserved as one of the most interesting
relics of antiquity at Delphi. The long line of Chian sculptors
(see GREEK ART) in marble bears witness to the fame of Chian
art. In literature the chief glory of Chios was the school of
epic poets called Homeridae, who helped to create a received
text of Homer and gave the island the reputation of being the
poet's birthplace. The chief town, Chios (pop. 16,000), is on
the E. coast. A theatre and a temple of Athena Poliuchus
existed in the ancient city. About 6 m. N. of the city there is a
curious monument of antiquity, commonly called " the school
of Homer "; it is a very ancient sanctuary of Cybele, with an
altar and a figure of the goddess with her two lions, cut out
of the native rock on the summit of a hill. On the west coast
there is a monastery of great wealth with a church founded by
Constantine IX. Monomachus (1042-1054). Starting from the
city and encompassing the island, one passes in succession the
promontory Posidium; Cape Phanae, the southern extremity
of Chios, with a harbour and a temple of Apollo; Notium,
probably the south-western point of the island; Laii, opposite
the city of Chios, where the island is narrowest; the town
Bolissus (now Volisso), the home of the Homerid poets; Melaena,
the north-western point; the wine-growing district Ariusia;
Cardamyle (now Cardhamili); the north-eastern promontory
was probably named Phlium, and the mountains that cross
the northern part of the island Pelinaeus or Pellenaeus.

The history of Chios is very obscure. According to Pherecydes,
the original inhabitants were Leleges, while according to other
accounts Thessalian Pelasgi possessed the island before it became
an Ionian state. The name Aethalia, common to Chios and Lemnos
in very early times, suggests the original existence of a homogeneous
population in these and other neighbouring islands. Oenopion, a
mythical hero, son of Dionysus or of Rhadamanthus, was an early
king of Chios. His successor in the fourth generation, Hector, united
the island to the Ionian confederacy (Pausan. vii. 4), though Strabo
(xiv. p. 633) implies an actual conquest by Ionian settlers. The regal
government was at "a later time exchanged for an oligarchy or a
democracy. The names of two tyrants, Amphiclus and Polytecnus,
are mentioned. The products of the island were largely exported on
the ships of Miletus, with which city Chios formed a close mercantile
alliance in opposition to the rival league of Fhocaea and Samos.
Similar commercial considerations determined the Chians in their
attitude towards the Persian conquerors: in 546 they submitted to
Cyrus as eagerly as Phocaea resisted him; during the Ionian revolt
their fleet of 100 sail joined the Milesians in offering a desperate
opposition at Lade (494). The island was subsequently punished
with great rigour by the Persians. The Chian ships, under the tyrant
Strattis, served in the Persian fleet at Salamis. After its liberation
in 479 Chios joined the Delian League and long remained a firm ally
of the Athenians, who allowed it to retain full autonomy. But in 413
the island revolted, and was not recaptured. After the Peloponnesian '
War it took the first opportunity to renew the Athenian alliance,
but in 357 again seceded. As a member of the Delian League it had
regained its prosperity, being able to equip a fleet of 50 or 60 sail.
Moreover, it was reputed one of the best-governed states in Greece,
for although it was governed alternately by oligarchs and democrats
neither party persecuted the other severely. It was not till late in
the 4th century that civil dissension became a danger to the state,
leaving it a prey to Idrieus, the dynast of Caria (346), and to the
Persian admiral Memnon (333). During the Hellenistic age Chios
maintained itself in a virtually independent position. It supported
the Romans in their Eastern wars, and was made a " free and allied
state." Under Roman and Byzantine rule industry and commerce
were undisturbed, its chief export at this time being the Arvisian
wine, which had become very popular. After temporary occupations
by the Seljuk Turks (1089-1092) and by the Venetians (1124-1125,
1172, 1204-1225), it was given in fief to the Genoese family of
Zaccaria, and in 1346 passed definitely into the hands of a Genoese
maona, or trading company, which was organized in 1362 under the
name of " the Giustiniani." This mercantile brotherhood, formerly
a privileged class, alone exploited the mastic trade; at the same time
the Greeks were allowed to retain their rights of self-government
and continued to exercise their industries. In 1415 the Genoese
became tributary to the Ottomans. In spite of occasional secessions

CHIPPENDALE

237

which brought severe punishment upon the island (1453. 1479)' tne
rule of the Giustiniani was not abolished till 1566. Under the Otto-
man government the prosperity of Chios was hardly affected. But
the Hand underwent severe periods of suffering after its capture and
reconquest from the Florentines (1595) and the Venetians (1604-
1695)? which greatly reduced the number of the Latins. Worst of all
were the massacres of 1822, which followed upon an attack by some
Greek insurgents executed against the will of the natives. In 1881
Chios was visited by a very severe earthquake in which over 5600
persons lost their lives and more than half the villages were seriously
damaged. The island has now recovered its prosperity. There is a
harbour at Castro, and steam flour-mills, foundries and tanneries
have been established. Rich antimony and calamine mines are
worked by a French undertaking, and good marble is quarried by an
Italian company.

AUTHORITIES.— Strabo xiv. pp. 632 f.; Athenaeus vi. 265-266;
Herodotus i. 160-165, vi. 15-31; Thucydides viii. 14-61; Corpus
Inscr Atticarum, iv. (2), pp. 9, 10; H. Houssaye in Revue des deux
mondes, xlvi. (1876), pp. I ff.; T. Bent in Historical Review (1889),
pp. 467-480; Fustel de Coulanges, L'lle de Chio (ed. Jullian, Paris,
1893); for coinage, B. V. Head, Historic, numorum (Oxford, 1887),
pp. 513-515, and NUMISMATICS: Greek. (E. GR. ; M. O. B. C.)

CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS (d. 1779), the most famous of
English cabinetmakers. The materials for the biography of
Chippendale are exceedingly scanty, but he is known to have been
the son of Thomas Chippendale I., and is believed to have been
the father of Thomas Chippendale III. His father was a cabinet-
maker and wood-carver of considerable repute in Worcester
towards the beginning of the i8th century, and possibly he
originated some of the forms which became characteristic of
his son's work. Thus a set of chairs and settees was made,
apparently at Worcester, for the family of Bury of Knateshill,
at a period when the great cabinetmaker could have been no
more than a boy, which are practically identical with much of the
work that was being turned out of the family factory as late
as the 'sixties of the i8th century. Side by side with the Queen
Anne or early Georgian feeling of the first quarter of the i8th
century we find the interlaced splats and various other details
which marked the Chippendale style. By 1 7 2 7 the elder Chippen-
dale and his son had removed to London, and at the end of 1749
the younger man — his father was probably then dead — estab-
lished himself in Conduit Street, Long Acre, whence in 1753 he
removed to No. 60 St Martin's Lane, which with the addition of
the adjoining three houses remained his factory for the rest of
his life. In 1755 his workshops were burned down; in 1760 he
was elected a member of the Society of Arts; in 1766 his partner-
ship with James Ranni was dissolved by the latter's death.

It has always been exceedingly difficult to distinguish the work
executed in Chippendale's factory and under his own eye from
that of the many copyists and adapters who throughout the
second half of the i8th century — the golden age of English
furniture — plundered remorselessly. Apart from his published
designs, many of which were probably never made up, we have to
depend upon the very few instances in which his original accounts
enable us to earmark work which was unquestionably his. For
Claydon House, the seat of the Verneys in Buckinghamshire, he
executed much decorative work, and the best judges are satis-
fied that the Chinese bedroom there was designed by him. At
Harewood House, the seat of the earl of Harewood in Yorkshire,
we are on firmer ground. The house was furnished between
1765 and 1771, and both Robert Adam and Chippendale were
employed upon it. Indeed, there is unmistakable evidence to
show that certain work, so closely characteristic of the Adams
that it might have been assigned to them without hesitation, was
actually produced by Chippendale. This may be another of the
many indications that Chippendale was himself an imitator, or it
may be that Adam, as architect, prescribed designs which Chip-
pendale's cabinetmakers and carvers executed. Chippendale's
bills for this Adam work are still preserved. Stourhead,
the famous house of the Hoares in Wiltshire, contains much
undoubted Chippendale furniture, which may, however, be
the work of Thomas Chippendale III.; at Rowton Castle,
Shropshire, Chippendale's bills as well as his works still exist.

Our other main source of information is The Gentleman and
Cabinet Maker's Director, which was published by Thomas
Chippendale in 1754. This book, the most important collection

of furniture designs issued up to that time in England, contains
one hundred and sixty engraved plates, and the list of subscribers
indicates that the author had acquired a large and distinguished
body of customers. The book is of folio size; there was a
second edition in 1759, and a third in 1762.

In the rather bombastic introduction Chippendale says that he
has been encouraged to produce the book " by persons of distinc-
tion and taste, who have regretted that an art capable of so
much perfection and refinement should be executed with so
little propriety and elegance." He has some severe remarks
upon critics, from which we may assume that he had already
suffered at their hands. Perhaps, indeed, Chippendale may have
been hinted at in the caustic remarks of Isaac Ware, surveyor to
the king, who bewailed that it was the misfortune of the world in
his day " to see an unmeaning scrawl of C's inverted and looped
together, taking the place of Greek and Roman elegance even in
our most expensive decorations. It is called French, and let
them have the praise of it ! The Gothic shaft and Chinese bell
are not beyond nor below it in poorness of imitation." It is the
more likely that these barbs were intended for Chippendale,
since he was guilty not only of many essays in Gothic, but of a
vast amount of work in the Chinese fashion, as well as in the
flamboyant style of Louis XV. The Director contains examples
of each of the manners which aroused the scorn of the king's
surveyor. Chippendale has even shared with Sir William
Chambers the obloquy of introducing the Chinese style, but
he appears to have done nothing worse than " conquer," as
Alexandre Dumas used to call it, the ideas of other people. Nor
would it be fair to the man who, whatever _his occasional
extravagances and absurdities, was yet a great designer and a
great transmuter, to pretend that ah1 his Chinese designs were
contemptible. Many of them, with their geometrical lattice-
work and carved tracery, are distinctly elegant and effective.
Occasionally we find in one piece of furniture a combination of
the three styles which Chippendale most affected at different
periods — Louis XV., Chinese and Gothic — and it cannot
honestly be said that the result is as incongruous as might have
been expected. Some of his most elegant and attractive work is
derived directly from the French, and we cannot doubt that the
inspiration of his famous ribbon-backed chair came directly from
some of the more artistic performances in rococo.

The primary characteristic of his work is solidity, but it is a
solidity which rarely becomes heaviness. Even in his most
lightsome efforts, such as the ribbon-backed chair, construction is
always the first consideration. It is here perhaps that he differs
most materially from his great successor Sheraton, whose ideas of
construction were eccentric in the extreme. It is indeed in the
chair that Chippendale is seen at his best and most characteristic.
From his hand, or his pencil, we have a great variety of chairs,
which, although differing extensively in detail, may be roughly
arranged in three or four groups, which it would sometimes be
rash to attempt to date. He introduced the cabriole leg,
which, despite its antiquity, came immediately from Holland;
the claw and bah1 foot of ancient Oriental use; the straight,
square, uncompromising early Georgian leg; the carved lattice-
work Chinese leg; the pseudo-Chinese leg; the fretwork leg,
which was supposed to be in the best Gothic taste; the inelegant
rococo leg with the curled or hoofed foot; and even occasionally
the spade foot, which is supposed to be characteristic of the
somewhat later style of Hepplewhite. His chair-backs were very
various. His efforts in Gothic were sometimes highly successful;
often they took the form of the tracery of a church window, or
even of an ovalled rose window. His Chinese backs were dis-
tinctly geometrical, and from them he would seem to have
derived some of the inspiration for the frets of the glazed book-
cases and cabinets which were among his most agreeable work.
The most attractive feature of Chippendale's most artistic chairs
— those which, originally derived from Louis Quinze models,
were deprived of their rococo extravagances — is the back, which,
speaking generally, is the most elegant and pleasing thing that
has ever been done in furniture. He took the old solid or
slightly pierced back, and cut it up into a light openwork design

CHIPPENHAM— CHIPPING NORTON

exquisitely carved — for Chippendale was a carver before every-
thing— in a vast variety of designs ranging from the elaborate
and extremely elegant, if much criticized, ribbon back, to a
comparatively plain but highly effective splat. His armchairs,
however, often had solid or stuffed backs. Next to his chairs
Chippendale was most successful with settees, which almost
invariably took the shape of two or three conjoined chairs, the
arms, backs and legs identical with those which he used for single
seats. He was likewise a prolific designer and maker of book-
cases, cabinets and escritoires with doors glazed with fretwork
divisions. Some of those which he executed in the style which in
his day passed for Gothic are exceedingly handsome and effective.
We have, too, from his hand many cases for long clocks, and a
great number of tables, some of them with a remarkable degree
of Gallic grace. He was especially successful in designing small
tables with fretwork galleries for the display of china. His
mirrors, which were often in the Chinese taste or extravagantly
rococo, are remarkable and characteristic. In his day the
cabinetmaker still had opportunities for designing and con-
structing the four-post bedstead, and some of Chippendale's
most graceful work was lavished upon the woodwork of the
lighter, more refined and less monumental four-poster, which,
thanks in some degree to his initiative, took the place of the
massive Tudor and the funereally hung Jacobean bed. From an
organ case to a washhand-stand, indeed, no piece of domestic
furniture came amiss to this astonishing man, and if sometimes he
was extravagant, grotesque or even puerile, his level of achieve-
ment is on the whole exceedingly high.

Since the revival of interest in his work he has often been
criticized with considerable asperity, but not always justly.
Chippendale's work has stood the supreme test of posterity
more completely than that of any of his rivals or successors; and,
unlike many men of genius, we know him to have been warmly
appreciated in his lifetime. He was at once an artist and
a prosperous man of business. His claims to distinction are
summed up in the fact that his name has by general consent been
attached to the most splendid period of English furniture.

Chippendale was buried on the I3th of November 1779,
apparently at the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and
administration of his intestate estate was granted to his widow
Elizabeth. He left four children, Thomas Chippendale III., John,
Charles and Mary. He was one of the assignees in bankruptcy of
the notorious Theresa Cornelys of Soho Square, of whom we read
in Casanova and other scandalous chronicles of the time. Thomas
Chippendale III. succeeded to the business of his father and
grandfather, and for some years the firm traded under the style
of Chippendale & Haig. The factory remained in St Martin's
Lane, but in 1814 an additional shop was opened at No. 57
Haymarket, whence it was in 1821 removed to 42 Jermyn Street.
Like his father, Thomas Chippendale III. was a member of the
Society of Arts; and he is known to have exhibited five pictures
at the Royal Academy between 1784 and 1801. He died at the
end of 1822 or the beginning of 1823. (j. P.-B.)

CHIPPENHAM, a market town and municipal borough in the
Chippenham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94 m.
W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5074.
Chippenham is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Area, 361 acres. It lies in a hollow on the south
side of the Upper Avon, here crossed by a picturesque stone
bridge of 21 arches. St Andrew's church, originally Norman of
the 1 2th century, has been enlarged in different styles. A paved
causeway running for about 4 m. between Chippenham Cliff and
Wick Hill is named after Maud Heath, said to have been a
market-woman, who built it in the i5th century, and bequeathed
an estate for its maintenance. After the decline of its woollen
and silk trades, Chippenham became celebrated for grain and
cheese markets. There are also manufactures of broadcloth,
churns, condensed milk, railway-signals, guns and carriages;
besides bacon-curing works, flour mills, tanneries and large
stone quarries. Bowood, the seat of the marquess of Lansdowne,
is 3^ m. S.E. of Chippenham. Lanhill barrow, or Hubba's Low,
a| m. N.W., is an ancient tomb containing a kistvaen or sepulchral

chamber of stone; it is probably British, though tradition makes
it the grave of Hubba, a Danish leader.

Chippenham (Chepeham, Chippeham) was the site of a royal
residence where in 853 jEthelwulf celebrated the marriage
of his daughter jEthelswitha with Burhred, king of Mercia. The
town also figured prominently in the Danish invasion of the gth
century, and in 933 was the meeting-place of the witan. In the
Domesday Survey Chippenham appears as a crown manor and is
not assessed in hides. The town was governed by a bailiff in the
reign of Edward I., and returned two members to parliament
from 1295, but it was not incorporated until 1553, when a
charter from Mary established a bailiff and twelve burgesses and
endowed the corporation with certain lands for the maintenance
of two parliamentary burgesses and for the repair of the bridge
over the Avon. In 1684 this charter was surrendered to Charles
II., and in 1685 a new charter was received from James II., which
was shortly abandoned in favour of the original grant. The
•Representation Act of 1868 reduced the number of parliamentary
representatives to one, and the borough was disfranchised by
the Redistribution Act of 1885. The derivation of Chippenham
from cyppan, to buy, implies that the town possessed a market
in Saxon times. When Henry VII. introduced the clothing
manufacture into Wiltshire, Chippenham became an important
centre of the industry, which has lapsed. A prize, however,
was awarded to the town for this commodity at the Great
Exhibition of 1851.

CHIPPEWA1 FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Chippewa
county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, about 100 m.
E. of St Paul, Minnesota, and 1 2 m. N.E. of Eau Claire, Wisconsin.
Pop. (1890) 8670; (1900) 8094; (1910, census) 8893. It is served
by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago &
North- Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways,
and by the electric line to Eau Claire. The first settlement on
the site was made in 1837; and the city was chartered in 1870.

CHIPPING CAMPDEN, a market town in the northern parlia-
mentary division of Gloucestershire, England, on the Oxford and
Worcester line of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1542.
It is picturesquely situated towards the north of the Cotteswold
hill-district. The many interesting ancient houses afford
evidence of the former greater importance of the town. The
church of St James is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a
number of brasses of the isth and i6th centuries and several
notable monumental tombs. A ruined manor house of the i6th
century and some almshouses complete, with the church, a
picturesque group of buildings; and Campden House, also of
the 1 6th century, deserves notice.

Apart from a medieval tradition preserved by Robert de
Brunne that it was the meeting-place of a conference of Saxon
kings, the earliest record of Campden (Campedene) is in Domesday
Book, when Earl Hugh is said to hold it, and to have there fifty
villeins. The number shows that a large village was attached to
the manor, which in 1173 passed to Hugh de Gondeville, and
about 1204 to Ralph, earl of Chester. The borough must have
grown up during the I2th century, for both these lords granted
the burgesses charters which are known from a confirmation of
1 247, granting that they and all who should come to the market of
Campedene should be quit of toll, and that if any free burgess of
Campedene should come into the lord's amerciament he should be
quit for i2d. unless he should shed blood or do felony. Probably
Earl Ralph also granted the town a portman-mote, for the
account of a skirmish in 1273 between the men of the town and
the county mentions a bailiff and implies the existence of some
sort of municipal government. In 1605 Campedene was incor-
porated, but it never returned representatives to parliament.
Camden speaks of the town as a market famous for stockings,
a relic of that medieval importance as a mart for wool that had
given the town the name of Chipping.

CHIPPING NORTON, a market town and municipal borough in
the Banbury parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, 26
m. N.W. of Oxford by a branch of the Great Western railway.

1 For the Chippewa Indians see OJIBWAY, of which the word is a
popular adaptation.

CHIQUITOS— CHIROPTERA

239

Pop. (1901) 3780. It lies on the steep flank of a hill, and consists
mainly of one very wide street. The church of St Mary the
Virgin, standing on the lower part of the slope, is a fine building
of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, the hexagonal
porch and the clerestory being good examples of the later style.
The town has woollen and glove factories, breweries and an
agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and
12 councillors. Area, 2456 acres. Chipping Norton (Chepyng-
norton) was probably of some importance in Saxon times. At
the Domesday Survey it was held in chief by Ernulf de Hesding;
it was assessed at fifteen hides, and comprised three mills. It
returned two members to parliament as a borough in 1302 and
1304-1305, but was not represented after this date, and was not
considered to be a borough in 1316. The first and only charter
of incorporation was granted by James I., in 1608; it established
a common council consisting of 2 bailiffs and 12 burgesses; a
common clerk, 2 justices of the peace, and 2 serjeants-at-mace;
and a court of record every Monday. In 1205 William Fitz-Alan
was granted a four days' fair at the feast of the Inven-
tion of the Cross; and in 1276 Roger, earl of March,
was granted a four days' fair at the feast of St Bar-
nabas. In the reign of Henry VI. the market was held
on Wednesday, and a fair was held at the Translation
of St Thomas Becket. These continued to be held in
the reign of James I., who annulled the former two
fairs, and granted fairs at the feasts of St Mark, St
Matthew, St Bartholomew, and SS. Simon and Jude.

CHIQUITOS (Span, "very small"), a group of
tribes in the province of Santa Cruz de la Sierra,
Bolivia, and between the head waters of the rivers
Mamore and Itenez. When their country was first
invaded they fled into the forests, and the Spaniards,
coming upon their huts, the doorways of which are
built excessively low, supposed them to be dwarfs:
hence the name. They are in fact well formed and
powerful, of middle height and of an olive com-
plexion. They are an agricultural people, but made
a gallant resistance to the Spaniards for nearly two
centuries. In 1691, however, they made the Jesuit
missionaries welcome, and rapidly became civilized.
The Chiquito language was adopted as the means
of communication among the converts, who soon
numbered 50,000, representing nearly fifty tribes.
Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 the Chiquitos
became decadent, and now number short of 20,000.
Their houses, regularly ranged in streets, are built of
adobes thatched with coarse grass. They manufacture
copper boilers for making sugar and understand
several trades, weave ponchos and hammocks and
make straw hats. They are fond of singing and
dancing, and are a gentle-mannered and hospitable folk.
The group is now divided into forty tribes.

CHIROMANCY (from Gr. x«tp, hand, and fiavrda, divination),
the art of telling the character or fortune of persons by studying
the lines of the palms of the hands (see PALMISTRY).

CHIRON, or CHEIRON, in Greek mythology, one of the Centaurs,
the son of Cronus and Philyra, a sea nymph. He dwelt at the
foot of Mount Pelion, and was famous for his wisdom and
knowledge of the healing art. He offers a remarkable contrast
to the other Centaurs in manners and character. Many of the
most celebrated heroes of Greece were brought up and instructed
by him (Apollodorus iii. 10. 13). Accidentally pierced by a
poisoned arrow shot by Heracles, he renounced his immortality
in favour of Prometheus, and was placed by Zeus among the
stars as the constellation Sagittarius (Apollodorus ii. 5; Ovid,
Fasti, v. 414). In a Pompeian wall-painting he is shown
teaching Achilles to play the lyre.

See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie and W. H.
Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; W. Mannhardt, Wold- und
Feldkulte (1904).

CHIROPODIST (an invented word from Gr. x*lp, hand, and
iroDs, foot), properly one who treats the ailments of the hands

and feet, or is consulted as to keeping them in good condition;
the use of the word is now restricted, however, to the care of
the toes, " manicurist " having been invented for the correspond-
ing attentions to the fingers. The word was first introduced
in 1785, by a " corncutter " in Davies Street, London.

CHIROPTERA (Greek for " hand- wings "), an order of
mammals containing the bats, all of which are unique in the
class in possessing the power of true flight, and have their fore-
limbs specially modified for this purpose.

The mammals comprised in this order are at once distinguished
by the possession of true wings; this peculiarity being accom-
panied by other modifications of bodily structure having relation
to aerial locomotion. Thus, in direct contrast to all other
mammals, in which locomotion is chiefly effected by action
from behind, and the hind-limbs consequently greatly pre-
ponderate in size over the fore, in the Chiroptera the fore-limbs,
being the agents in propelling the body forward during flight,
immensely exceed the short and weak hinder extremities. The

FIG. I. — Skeleton and Wing-Membranes of the Noctule Bat
(Pipistrellus noclula). X J

phl, First phalanx.

ph*, Second phalanx.

ph3, Third phalanx.

am, Antebrachial membrane.

/, Femur.

/, Tibia.

fb, Fibula. [femoral membrane.

c, Calcar supporting im, the inter-

pcl, Post-calcaneal lobe.

c. Clavicle.

h, Humerus.

r, Radius.

u, Ulna.

dl, First digit.

d2, d3, d*, d6, Other digits of the fore-limb
supporting wm, the wing-mem-
brane.

m,m, Metacarpal bones.

thorax, giving origin to the great muscles which sustain flight,
and containing the proportionately large lungs and heart, is
remarkably capacious; and the ribs are flattened and close
together; while the shoulder-girdle is greatly developed in
comparison with the weak pelvis. The fore-arm (fig. i) consists
of a rudimentary ulna, a long curved radius, and a carpus of
six bones supporting a thumb and four elongated fingers, between
which, the sides of the body, and the hinder extremities a thin
expansion of skin, the wing-membrane, is spread. The knee
is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the hind-limb,
outwards by the wing-membrane; an elongated cartilaginous
process (the calcar), rarely rudimentary or absent, arising from
the inner side of the ankle-joint, is directed inwards, and supports
part of the posterior margin of an accessory membrane of flight,
extending from the tail or posterior extremity of the body to
the hind-limbs, and known as the inter-femoral membrane.
The penis is pendent; the testes are abdominal or inguinal;
the teats, usually two in number, thoracic; the uterus is simple
or with more or less long cornua; the placenta discoidal and
deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not extend
backwards over the cerebellum. The teeth comprise incisors,
canines, premolars and molars; and the dental formula never

240

CHIROPTERA

exceeds »'. f, c. \, p. f , m. | ; total 38. Despite the forward
position of the teats, which is merely an adaptive feature, bats
are evidently mammals of low organization, and are most
nearly related to the Insectivora.

In consequence of the backward direction of the knee, a bat,
when placed on the ground, rests on all fours, having the knees
directed upwards, while the foot is rotated forwards and inwards
on the ankle. Walking is thus a kind of shuffle; but, notwith-
standing a general belief, bats can take wing from the walking
posture.

The bones of the skeleton are characterized by their slender-
ness and the great size of the medullary canals in those of the
extremities. The vertebral column is short, and the vertebrae
differ but slightly in number and form throughout the group.
The general number of dorso-lumbar vertebrae is 17, whereof
13 are dorsal; the cervical vertebrae are broad, but short.
Except in fruit-bats (Pleropodidae), the vertebrae, from the
third cervical backwards, are devoid of spinous processes. From
the first dorsal to the last lumbar the vertebral column forms
a single curve, most pronounced in the lumbar region. The
bodies of the vertebrae are but slightly movable on each other,
and in old individuals become partially welded. The caudal
vertebrae are cylindrical bones without processes; their number
and length varying in allied species. The development of these
vertebrae is correlated with habits, the long tail in the insecti-
vorous species supporting and controlling the position of the
interfemoral membrane which aids bats in their doubling motions
when in pursuit of insects by acting as a rudder, and assists them
in the capture of the larger insects. In the fruit-bats this is
not required, and the tail is rudimentary or absent. In all bats
the presternum has a prominent keel for the attachment of the
great pectoral muscles.

The shape of the skull varies greatly; but post-orbital pro-
cesses are developed only in some Pleropodidae and a few Nycleri-
dae and Emballonuridae; in Pier opus leucopterus alone does a
process from the zygomatic arch meet the post-orbital so as
to complete the orbital ring. Zygomatic arches, though slender,
are present in all except in some of the species of Phyllostomalidae.

The milk-teeth differ from those of all other mammals in that
they are unlike those of the permanent series. They are slender,
with pointed recurved cusps, and are soon shed, but exist for
a short time with the permanent teeth. In the Rhinolophidae
the milk-teeth are absorbed before birth. The permanent
teeth exhibit great variety, sometimes even in the same family,
as in Phylloslomatidae, whilst in other families, as Rhinolophidae,
the resemblance between the dentition of species differing in
many respects is remarkable. In all they are provided with
well-developed roots, and their crowns are acutely tuberculate,
with more or less well-defined' W-snaPe<l cusps, in the insecti-
vorous species, or variously hollowed out or longitudinally
grooved in the frugivorous kinds.

The shoulder-girdle varies but slightly, the clavicle being
long, strong and curved; and the scapula large, oval and tri-
angular, with a long curved coracoid process. The humerus,
though long, is scarcely two-thirds the length of the radius;
and the rudimentary ulna is welded with the radius. A sesamoid
bone exists in the tendon of the triceps muscle. The upper row
of the carpus consists of the united scaphoid, lunar and cuneiform
bones.

The " hand " has five digits, the first, fourth and fifth of which
consist each of a metacarpal and two phalanges; but in the
second and third the number of phalanges is different in certain
families. The first digit terminates in a claw, most developed in
the frugivorous species, in most of which the second digit is also
clawed, although in other bats this and the remaining digits
are unarmed.

In the weak pelvis the ilia are long and narrow, while in most
species the pubes of opposite sides are loosely united in front in
males, and widely separated in females; in the Rhinolophidae
alone they form a symphysis. Only in the Molossinae is there
a well-developed fibula; in the rest this bone is either very
slender or cartilaginous and ligamentous in its upper third, or

reduced to a small bony process above the heel, or absent.
The foot consists of a short tarsus, and of slender, laterally
compressed toes, with much-curved claws.

Although the brain is of a low type, probably no animals
possess so delicate a sense of touch as Chiroptera. In ordinary
bats tactile organs exist, not only in the bristles on the sides of the
muzzle, but in the sensitive structures forming the wing-mem-
branes and ears, while in many species leaf-like expansions
surrounding the nasal apertures or extending backwards behind
them are added. These nose-leaves are made up partly of the
extended and thickened integument of the nostrils, and partly of
the glandular eminences occupying the sides of the muzzle, in
which in other bats the sensitive bristles are implanted.

In no mammals are the ears so developed or so variable in
form; in most insectivorous species they are longer than the
head, while in the long-eared bat their length nearly equals
that of the head and body. The form is characteristic in each
of the families; in most the " earlet," or tragus, is large, in
some cases extending nearly to the outer margin of the conch;
its office appears to be to intensify and prolong the waves of
sound by producing undulations in them. In the Rhinolophidae,
the only family of insectivorous bats wanting the tragus, the
auditory bullae reach their greatest size, and the nasal appendages
their highest development. In frugivorous bats the ear is simple
and but slightly variable. In all bats the ears are extremely
mobile, each independently at will.

The oesophagus is narrow, especially in blood-sucking vampires.
The stomach presents two types of structure, corresponding
respectively to the two divisions of the order, Megachiroptera
and Microchiroptera; in the former the pyloric extremity is, with
one exception, -elongated and folded upon itself, in the latter
simple; an exceptional type is met with in the blood-suckers,
where the cardiac extremity is elongated, forming a long
appendage. The intestine is comparatively short, varying from
one and a half to four times the length of the head and body;
longest in the frugivorous, shortest in the insectivorous species.
In Rhinopoma and Megaderma a small caecum has been found.
The liver is characterized by the great size of the left lateral lobe,
which occasionally equals half that of the whole organ; the right
and left lateral fissures are usually very deep; in Megachiroptera
the spigelian lobe is, with one exception, ill defined or absent, and
the caudate is generally large; but in Microchiroptera the former
lobe is large, while the caudate is small. The gall-bladder is
generally well developed.

In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of
slender, long, cylindrical bones connecting the basi-hyoid with
the skull, while the pharynx is short, and the larynx shallow with
feebly developed vocal cords, and guarded by a short pointed
epiglottis. In the African epauletted bats, Epomophorus, the
pharynx is long and capacious, the aperture of the larynx far
removed from the fauces, and, opposite to it, opens a canal,
leading from the nasal chambers, and extending along the back
of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls
are ossified; the hyoids are unconnected, except by muscle
with the skull; while the cerato-hyals and epi-hyals are cartila-
ginous and expanded, entering into the formation of the walls of
the pharynx, and (in males of some species) supporting the orifices
of a pair of air-sacs communicating with the pharynx (fig. 2).

The extent and shape of the wings generally depend on the
form of the bones of the fore-limbs, and on the presence or
absence of the tail. The wings consist of an " antebrachial
membrane," which extends from the point of the shoulder along
the humerus and more or less of the fore-arm to the base of the
thumb, the metacarpal bcne of which is partially or wholly
included in it; the " wing-membrane " spread out between
the elongated fingers, and extending along the sides of the body
to the posterior extremities, generally reaching to the feet;
and the " interfemoral membrane," the most variable of all,
which is supported between the extremity of the body, the legs
and the calcar (fig. i). The antebrachial and wing membranes
are most developed in species fitted only for aerial locomotion
which when at rest hang with the body enveloped in,the wings;

CHIROPTERA

241

but in the Emballonuridae, and also in the Mo'ossinae, which
are the best fitted for terrestrial progression, the antebrachial
membrane is reduced to a small size, and not developed along
the fore-arm, leaving the thumb quite free, while the wing-

,
rSSJbSL'

FIG. 2. — Head and Neck of Epomophorus frangueti (adult male).
From Dobson. The anterior (a.ph.s) and posterior (p.ph.s) pharyngeal
sacs are opened from without, the dotted lines indicating the points
where they communicate with the pharynx; s, thin membranous
partition in middle line between the anterior pharyngeal sacs of
opposite sides; s.m, sterno-mastoid muscle separating the anterior
from the posterior sac.

membrane is narrow and folded in repose under the fore-?.rm.
The relative development of the interfemoral membrane has been
referred to in connexion with the caudal vertebrae. Its small
size in the frugivorous and blood-sucking species, which do not

require it, is easily under-
stood. Scent-glands and
pouches opening on the sur-
face of the skin are developed
in many species, but in most
cases more so in males than
in females (fig. 3). As a
rule, bats produce only a

,F»?:r!;TFjOIltalSai-a!?iI-^0_sS"Loa! sin?le offspring at a birth,

which for some time is carried
about by the female parent
clinging to the fur of her breast; but certain North American
bats commonly give birth to three or four young ones at a
time, which are carried about in the same manner.

Bats are divisible into two suborders, Megachiroptera and
Microchiroptera.

Megachiroptera.

The first of these comprises the fruit-eating species, which are
generally of large size, with the crowns of the check-teeth smooth
and marked with a longitudinal groove. The bony palate
is continued behind the last molar, narrowing slowly
backwards; there are three phalanges in the index
finger, the third phalange being terminated generally by
a claw; the sides of the ear form a ring at the base; the tail, when
present, is inferior to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane;
the pyloric extremity of the stomach is generally much elongated ;
and the spigelian lobe of the liver is ill-defined or absent, while the
caudate is well developed. This group is limited to the tropical and
sub-tropical parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.

All the members of this suborder are included in the single family
Pteropodidae, the first representatives of which are the African
epauletted bats, forming the genus Epomophorus. In this the dental
formula is i. j (or J), c. \, p. f, m. J. Tail short or absent, when
present free from -the interfemoral membrane ; second finger with a
claw; premaxillae united in front. The species are strictly limited
to Africa south of the Sahara, and are distinguished by the large and
long head, expansible and often folded lips, and the white tufts of
hair on the margins of the ears. The males are provided with
glandular pouches, situated in the skin of the side of the neck near
the point of the shoulder, which are rudimentary or absent in

FruM-
eallng
bat*.

females. In the males they are lined with glandular membrane,
from which long coarse yellowish hairs project to lorm conspicuous
epaulet-like tufts on the, shoulders. The males often have a pair of
air-sacs extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath
the integument of the neck, in the position shown in fig. 2. These
bats appear to live principally on figs, the juicy contents of which
their voluminous lips and capacious mouths enable them to swallow
without loss. The huge and ugly West African hammer-headed bat,
Hypsignathus momtrosus, represents an allied genus distinguished
by the absence of shoulder-
pouches, and the presence
of leaf-like expansions of
skin on the front of the
muzzle, and of distinct cusps
on the outer sides of the
cheek-teeth. The great
majority of the bats of this
group, commonly known as .
" flying-foxes," are included
in the typical genus Ptero-
pus, of which the dental
formula is i. f, c. }, p. |,
m. \. All are of large size,
and the absence of a tail,
the long pointed muzzle,
and the woolly fur covering Flo. 4.— Head of a Flying-Fox or
the neck render their recog- Fruit-Bat (Pleropuspersonatus). From
nition easy. One of the Gray,
species, P. edulis, inhabiting

Java, measures 5 ft. across the fully extended wings, and is the
largest member of the order.

The range of the genus extends from Madagascar through the
Seychelles to India, 'Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, Japan,
New Guinea, Australia and Polynesia. Although two species in-
habit the Comoro Islands, scarcely 200 m. from the mainland, not
one is found in Africa; while the common Indian species is closely
allied to the Mada_gascar flying-fox. The Malay Archipelago and
Australia form the neadquarters of these bats, which in some places
occur in countless multitudes. The colonies exhale a strong musky
odour, and when awake the occupants utter a loud incessant chatter.
Wallace's fruit-bat of Celebes and Macassar has been made the type
of a separate genus, as Styloctcnium wallacei. In Roussettus (or
Cynonycteris) the dentition is as in Pteropus, but the tail is short, and
the fur of the nape of the neck not different from that of the back:
its distribution accords with that of Pteropus, except that it includes
Africa and does not reach farther east than New Ireland. R.
aegyptiacus inhabits the chambers of the Great Pyramid and other
deserted buildings in Egypt, and is probably the species figured in
Egyptian frescoes. Boneta, with two species, from Celebes, differs
in having only two upper incisors. Harpyionycteris and Scotonycteris,
respectively from the Philippines and West Africa, are represented
by a single species each; buy of Cynoplerus, which is mainly confined
to the Indo-Malay countries, there are some half-score different

kinds. The dentition is *'. , c. \, p. j, m. I, the muzzle is

shorter than ;n Roussettus, with the upper lip grooved in front as in
Pteropus, while the tail and fur resemble those of the former genus.
These bats are extremely voracious, a specimen of the Indian C.
marginatus having eaten a banana twice its own weight in three
hours. Among several Austro-Malay genera, such as Ptenochirus
and Balicnycleris, the tube-nosed bats of the genus Gelasinvs (or
Harpyia) are remarkable for the conformation of the nostrils (fig. 5).
Cephalotes, with one
species, ranging from
Celebes to the Solomon
group, has the dentition
». }, c. \, p. \, m. I, pre-
maxillae not united in
front, nostrijs simple,
muzzle short, index finger
without a claw, tail short.
As in Gelasinus, the wing-
membrane arises from the
middle line of the back, to
which it is attached by a FIG. 5. — Head of Papuan Tube-Nosed
longitudinal thin process Bat (Gelasinus major). From G. E.
of skin; the wings are Dobson.
naked, but the back

covered with hair. Leipenyx is an allied West African genus with
one species.

The foregoing belong to the typical subfamily Pteropodince, while
the remainder represent a second group, Car pony cterinae (or Macro-
glossinae), characterized by having the facial part of the skull pro-
duced, the molar teeth narrow, and scarcely raised above the gum,
and the tongue exceedingly long, attenuated in the anterior third,
and armed with long recurved papillae near the tip. The single
representative of the first genus, Notopteris macdonaldi, inhabiting
Fiji, New Guinea and the New Hebrides, is distinguished from other
bats of this family by the length of its tail, which is nearly as long

242

CHIROPTERA

as the forearm. The dentition is ». f , c. \, p. f , m. |, while the index
finger has no claw, and the wings arise from the spine. Eonycteris,
with the dentition i. J, c. \, p. I, m. §, is also represented by a single
species, E. spelaea, fromTenasserim, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula
and Islands, which has somewhat the appearance of a Roussettus,
but the absence of a claw in the index finger and the presence of the
characteristic tongue and teeth at once distinguish it. Carponycteris
(Macroglossus) and Melonycteris, the former with several and the
latter with a single species, are closely allied Indo-Malay and Papuan
genera, the index finger in both having a claw, but the number of
the teeth being the same as in Eonycteris. C. minimus is the smallest
known species of the suborder, much smaller than the serotine bat
of Europe, with the fore-arm scarcely longer than that of the long-
eared bat. It is nearly as common in certain parts of Burma as
Cynopterus marginatus, and extends eastwards through the Malay
Archipelago as far as New Ireland, where it is associated with
Melonycteris melanops, distinguished by its larger size and the total
absence of the tail. An allied small Carpopycteris inhabits India.
Trygenycteris (Megaloglossus) woermanni, of West Africa, is the only
member of the group occurring west of the Himalaya. Callinyctens
of Celebes, with the dentition i. |, c. \, p. |, m.f , has a short tail and
no index-claws, while Nesonycteris of the Solomons, with the den-
tition i. f , c. \, p. |, m. |, differs by the absence of the tail.

Microchir optera.

The second and larger suborder, the Microchiroptera, includes
all the insectivorous species, the majority of which are of relatively
Insect- small size as compared with the Megachiroptera. In these
eftlmr bats, with a few specialized exceptions, the crowns of the
cheek-teeth are surmounted by sharp cusps, divided by
transverse grooves. In the skull the bony palate narrows
abruptly and is not continued backwards laterally behind the last
molar; there is one rudimentary phalange (rarely two or none) in the
index finger, which is never terminated by a claw; the outer and
inner sides of the ear commence inferiorly from separate points of
origin; the tail, when present, is contained in the interfemoral
membrane, or appears on its upper surface; the stomach, except in
the blood-sucking group, is simple; and the spigelian lobe of the
liver large, and the caudate generally small.

The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in genera (to
say nothing of species) that only some cf the more important types
can be mentioned).

Brief references have already been made to the manner in which
in many or most of these bats the tail aids in the capture of prey.
From the observations of C. Oldham, it appears that these bats,
when walking, carry the tail downwards and forwards, so that the
membrane connecting this organ with the hind-legs forms a kind of
pouch or bag. If a large insect be encountered the bat seizes it with
a snatch, and slightly spreading its folded wings and pressing them
on the ground in order to steady itself, brings its feet forwards so
as to increase the capacity of the tail-pouch, into which, by bending
its neck and thrusting its head beneath the body, it pushes the
insect. Although the latter, especially if large, will often struggle
violently, when once in the pouch it but rarely escapes, from which
it is subsequently extracted and devoured. It is assumed that the
same method of capture is employed when on the wing; and a
naturalist who has observed the long-eared bat picking moths off
willows states that the bat always hovers when taking off the moth,
and bends up the tail so as to form a receptacle for the insect as it
drops.

In the Rhinolophidae, Horse-shoe and Leaf-nosed bats of the Old
World, the nose-leaf is developed and surrounds the nasal apertures,
which are situated in a depression on
the upper surface of the muzzle so as to
look upwards; the ears are large and
generally separate, without trace of a
tragus or earlet; the premaxillae are
rudimentary, suspended from the nasal
cartilages, and support a single pair of
small incisors; the molars have acute
W-shaped cusps; the skull is large, and
the nasal bones which support the nose-
leaf much expanded vertically and later-
ally. In females a pair of teat-like
appendages are found in front of the
pubis; and the long tail extends to the

FIG. 6. — Head of Mitred margin of the interfemoral membrane.
Horseshoe Bat (Rhino- The middle finger has two phalanges, but
lophus mitratus). From the index is rudimentary. The fibula is
Dobson. rudimentary.

The Rhinolophidae are the most highly

organized of insectivorous bats, in which the osseous and cutaneous
systems reach the fullest development. Compared with theirs, the
bones of the extremities and the wings of other bats appear coarsely
formed, and their teeth seem less perfectly fitted to crush the hard
bodies of insects. The complicated nasal appendages reach their
highest development, and the differences in their form afford
characters in the discrimination of the species, which resemble one
another closely in dentition and the colour of the fur.

In the first subfamily, Rhinolophinae, the first toe has two, and the

other toes three phalanges each; and the ilio-pectineal spine is not
connected by bone with the antero-inferior surface of the ilium. In
the horseshoe bats, Rhinolophus, the dentition is i. J, c. \, p. \,m. |,
the nose-leaf has a central process behind and between the nasal
orifices, with the posterior extremity lanceolate, and the antitragus
large. Among the numerous forms R. luctus is the largest, and in-
habits elevated hill-tracts in India, and Malaysia; R. hipposiderus
of Europe, extending into south England and Ireland, is one of the
smallest; and R. ferrum-equinum represents the average size of the
species, which are mainly distinguished from one another by the
form of the nose-leaf. The last-named species extends from England
to Japan, and southward to the Cape of Good Hope, but is represented
by a number of local races. When sleeping, the horseshoe bats, at
least in some instances, suspend
themselves head downwards, with
the wings wrapped round the body
after the manner of fruit bats. The
posture of ordinary bats is quite
different, and while the lesser horse-
shoe (R. hipposiderus) alights from
the air in an inverted position,
other bats, on first coming to
rest, do so with the head up-
wards, and then reverse their
position.

In the second subfamily, Hippo- pIG. 7. — Head of Squirrel
siderinae (formerly called Phyl- Leaf-Bat (Phyllorhinacalcarata).
lorhinae), the toes are equal and From Dobson.
include two phalanges each, while

the ilio-pectineal spine is united by a bony isthmus with a process
derived from the antero-inferior surface of the ilium. Hipposiderus,
Cloeotis, Rhinonycteris, Triaenops, Anthops and Coelops represent
this subfamily. Hipposiderus (Phyllorhina), with many species,
ranging over Asia, Africa and Australasia, and the dental formula
i. J, c. {, p. f , or i, m. f , differs from Rhinolophus in the form of the
nose-leaf, which is not lanceolate behind (fig. 6), and is unprovided
with a central process covering the nostrils; the largest species, H.
armiger, appears to be the most northerly, having been taken at
Amoy in China, and in the Himalaya at an elevation of 5500 ft.
Many are provided with a frontal sac behind the nose-leaf, rudi-
mentary in females (see fig. 7), which can be everted at pleasure;
the sides of this sac secrete a
waxy substance, and its ex-
tremity supports a tuft of
straight hairs. Rhinonycteris,
represented by R. aurantia |
from Australia, and Triaenops, \
by T. persicus from Persia and
other species from Africa and
Madagascar, are closely allied
genera. Triaenops (fig. 8) is
characterized by the remark-
able Form of its nasal appen-
dages and ears, and the pres-
ence of a bony projection from
the upper extremity of the
second phalange of the fourth
finger. Coelops (C. Frithi),
from the Bengal Sanderbans,
Java and Siam. is distinguished
by the peculiar form of its
nose-leaf and the length of the
metacarpal bone of the index finger, as well as by the shortness of
the calcar and interfemoral membrane. Cloeotis is represented by a
single East African species, and Anthops by one from the Solomon
Islands characterized by the nose-leaf covering the whole front of
the face.

The next family, Nycteridae, which is also Old World, is a small
one, nearly allied to the last, in which it is included by Prof.
Max Weber as a subfamily under the name of Myader- p-j..
matinae. It differs by the presence of a small tragus in vluno,re.
the ears, which are united at their bases; and by the
nasal chamber not being inflated. The premaxillae are either small
and separated in front, or rudimentary; and the first phalange
of the middle finger when in repose is laid back on the metacarpus.
There are only pectoral teats.

Of the two genera, Megaderma, as represented by the five species
of false vampires, is distinguished by the absence of ossified pre-
maxillae and upper incisors \i. §, p. 2 or M , the cylindrical narrow

muzzle surmounted by an erect nose-leaf the base of which conceals
the nasal orifices, the immense joined ears with large bifid tragus,
and the great extent of the interfemoral membrane, in the base of
which the short tail is concealed. M. gigas (fig. 9), from central
Queensland, is the largest species of the genus, and of the suborder.
M. lyra, common in India (fore-arm 2-7 in.), has been caught in the
act of sucking the Wood, while flying, from a_small bat which it
afterwards devoured. The range of the genus includes Africa, the
Indo-Malay countries and Australasia. Nycteris, which is common

FIG. 8.— Head of Persian Leaf-
Bat (Triaenops persicus).
From Dobson.

X 2.

CHIROPTERA

243

to Africa and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, has ossified pre-
maxillae and upper incisors (*'. f, *. i), and a long tail, but lacks a
nose-leaf. As in Megaderma, the Frontal bones are deeply hollowed
and expanded laterally, the muzzle presents a similar cylindrical
form, and the lower jaw also projects; but, instead of a nose-leaf,
the face is marked by a deep longitudinal sharp-edged groove ex-

FIG. 9. — The False Vampire (Megaderma gigas). X i- From Dobson.

tending from the nostrils to the band connecting the base of the large
ears; the sides of this depression being margined as far back as the
eyes by small horizontal cutaneous appendages. With the exception
of N. javanica, the species are limited to Africa.

According to the classification followed by Dr G. E. Dobson, the
extensive family of New World bats known as Phyllostomatidae was
v . widely sundered from the two preceding groups; but in
Prof. Max Weber's system they are placed next one
another — an arrangement which has the great advantage of bringing
together all the bats furnished with nose-leaves. It is indeed
probable that the vampires, as the members of the present family
may be collectively termed, are the New World representatives of the
Old World Rhinolophidae and Nycteridae.

The Phyllostomatidae are characterized by the presence of a nose-
leaf, or of lappets on the chin, but the nostrils are not directed
upwards. The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal cavity form simple
plates (much as in the two preceding families). The premaxillae are
always well developed, with their palatal portions forming a suture
and defining the boundaries of distinct palatine foramina (in place
of being rudimentary, as in Nycteridae and Rhinolophidae). The
large ears have a tragus. The middle finger has three phalanges, and
the index one. There is an incomplete fibula. The tail may be
either long orshort. Generally the dentition is *.f, c. \, p. f m. §.
All the bats of this family may be readily recognized by the
of a well-developed third phalange in the middle finger,

associated either with a
distinct nose-leaf,
with central upper in-
cisors, or with both.
Unlike the Rhinolo-
phidae, their eyes are
generally large and the
tragus is well developed,
maintaining almost the
same form throughout
the species, however
much the other parts
of the body may vary.

FIG. 10. — Head of Blainville's Vampire Their fur is of a dull
(Mormops blainvillei). From Dobson. colour, and the face and

back are often marked
with white streaks. A few species, probably all those with the
tail and interfemoral membrane well developed, feed principally
on insects, while the greater number of the species of the groups
Vampyreae and Glossophageae appear to live on a mixed diet
of insects and fruits, and the Desmodonteae, of which two species
are known, are true blood-suckers, and have their teeth and intestina
tract specially modified in accordance with their habits. The group
is practically limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of Centra
and South America, although one species of Otopterus reaches Cali-

presence

ornia. In the first subfamily, Mormopsinae (Lobostominae), the
nosrtils open by simple apertures at the extremity of the muzzle in
"ront, not margined by a distinct nose-leaf; while, in compensation,
;he chin is furnished with expanded leaf-like appendages. The tail
s short. It includes two genera. In ChUonycteris the crown of the
lead is moderately elevated above the face-line, and the basi-cranial
axis is almost in the same plane as the facial, while in Mormops (fig.
10) the crown of the head is greatly elevated above the face-line, and
:he basi-cranial axis is nearly at right angles to the facial; i. f, p. i,
n both genera. As regards the species of ChUonycteris, the most
striking feature is the occurrence of a rufous and a dark brown phase
n each. In some the two phases are very marked, but in others they
are connected by intermediate shades. Here may be mentioned the
two species of tropical American hare-lipped bats, forming the genus
Noctilio, which presents characters common to this and the following
'amily, to which latter it is often referred. The typical N. leporinus
is a bat of curious aspect, with strangely folded lips, erect skin-
Drocesses on the chin, and enormous feet and claws. The two middle
ncisors are close together, and so large as to conceal the small outer
ones, while in the lower jaw there are but two small incisors; the
aremolars numbering J. These bats live near the coast, and feed on
small crabs and fishes.

Most of the remaining members of .the family are included in the
subfamily Phyllostomatinae, characterized by the presence of a
distinct nose-leaf and the warty chin. The clitoris is imperforate,
whereas it is perforated in the Mormopsinae. The incisors are gener-
ally f (occasionally f), and the molars well developed. The sub-
Family is divided into a number of groups or sections. The first of
them, the Vampyreae, is characterized as follows: Muzzle long and
narrow in front, the distance between the eyes generally less than
(rarely equal to) that from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle;
nose-leaf horseshoe-shaped in front, lanceolate behind; interfemoral
membrane well developed; tail generally distinct, rarely absent;
inner margin of the lips not fringed; i. f or f, p. f or §; molars with
W-shaped cusps, usually well developed.

Nearly all the Vampyreae appear to be insectivorous, so that the
term cannot be considered indicative of habits; but a few, if not
all, probably supplement their insect-diet with fruit. Vampyrus
spectrum (the largest bat in the New World) is said to be wholly
frugivorous, and Otopterus waterhousei appears to prey occasionally
on smaller bats. The genera may be arranged in two subgroups ac-
cording as the tail is produced to the margin of the interfemoral
membrane or perforates it to appear on its upper surface. In the
first division are included three genera, Lonchorhina, Otopterus (or
Macrotus) and Dolichophyllum (orMacrophyllum),the first represented
by L. aurita, characterized by an extraordinary long nose-leaf, and
peculiarly large ears and tragus. In the second subsection are in-
cluded Vampyrus, Chrotopterus, Tonatia (Lophostoma) Micronycteris,
Glyphonycteris, Trachyops, Phylloderma, Phyllostoma, Anthorhina
(Tylostoma),Mimon, Hemiderma (Carollia) and Rhinophylla ; all, with
the exception of the last, distinguished chiefly by the form of the skull
and the presence or absence of the second lower premolar. Phyllostoma
haslatum, next in point of size to Vampyrus spectrum, is a well-
known species in South America; P. elongatum (fig. 11) differs in its
smaller size and larger nose-leaf. Hemiderma brevicauda, a small
species, closely resembles Glossophaga soricina, and forms a connect-
ing link between this and the next group. Rhinophylla pumilio is the
smallest species of the family ; further
distinguished by the absence of a tail,
the narrowness of its molars, which
do not form W-shaped cusps, and the
small size of the last upper molar,
characters connecting it and the group
with the Stenodermateae. Both in
Hemiderma and Rhinophylla the zygo-
matic arch is incomplete.

The next subsection, Glossophageae,
presents the following distinctive
features: Muzzle long and narrow;
tongue long and extensible, attenu-
ated towards the tip, and beset with

front margined by small warts;
nose-leaf small; tail short or none;
*'• f i P- f or I or f i »»• f or f or f ; teeth narrow ; molars with narrow
W-shaped cusps, sometimes indistinct or absent; lower incisors
small or deciduous. The species included in this group represent
some ten genera, distinguished principally by differences in the form
and number of the teeth, and the presence or absence of the zygom.itic
arch of the skull. In Glossophaga and Phyllonycteris the upper
incisors form a continuous row between the canines. In Mono-
phyllus and Leptonycteris (Ischnoglossa) they are separated into pairs
by a narrow interval in front; while in Lonchoglossa, Glossonycteris
and Ghoeronycteris they are widely separated and placed in pairs near
the canines. In the first four of these genera the lower incisors are
present (at least to a certain age), in the last three they are deciduous
even in youth. The zygomatic arch is wanting in Phyllonycteris,
Glossonycteris and Choeronycteris. The typical species is Glossophaga
soricina, which, as already mentioned, closely resembles Hemiderma

244

CHIROPTERA

brevicauda, both in form and dentition. Its long brush-tipped tongue
(which it possesses in common with other species of the group) is
used to lick out the pulpy contents of fruits having hard rinds. The
food of the species of this group appears to consist of both fruit and
insects, and the long tongue may be used for extracting the latter
from the deep corollas of flowers. Other genera are Lonchophylla,
Rhithronyctens, Hylonycteris and Lychonycteris, each with a single

species (in 1904)-

The third group, Stenodermateae, presents the following character-
istics:— Muzzle very short and generally broad in front, the distance
between the eyes nearly always exceeding (rarely equalling) the
distance from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle ; nose-leaf

short, horseshoe-
shaped in front,
lanceolate behind
(except in Brachy-
phylla and Centurio) ;
, interfemoral mem-
I brane concave be-
hind ; tail none ;
inner margin of the
lips fringed with
conical papillae;

FIG. 12. — Head of Long-tongued Vampire i. % or f , p. f , m. ji
(Choeronycteris mexicana), showing brush- or f or §; cheek-
tipped tongue. From Dobson. teeth broad (except

in Sturnira), molars

with concave or flat crowns margined externally by raised cutting-
edges. Although the Stenodermateae are generally easily dis-
tinguished from the __ Vampyreae by the shortness and breadth of
the muzzle and the form of the cheek-teeth, certain species of the
latter resemble the former in external appearance, agreeing almost
absolutely in the form of the nose-leaf, the ears and the tragus, and
the warts on the chin. These resemblances show that, while the form
of the teeth and jaws has become modified to suit the food, the
external characters have remained much the same, and indicate the
common origin of the two sections. The food of these bats appears to
be wholly or in great part fruit. The species are divided into some
eleven genera, mostly distinguished by the form of the skull and teeth.
Artibeus includes the frugiyorous A. perspicillatus. Stenoderma
achradophilum, found in Jamaica and Cuba, with the last, from which
it is scarcely distinguishable externally except by its much smaller
size, differs m the absence of the horizontal plate of the premaxillae
on the palate. Sturnira lilium, while agreeing with these in the form
of the nose-leaf and ears, differs from all the species of the family in
its longitudinally-grooved molars, which resemble those of the
Pteropodidae more closely than those of any other bats; and the
presence of tufts of long differently-coloured hairs over glands in the
sides of the neck is another character in common with that group.
Centurio senex (fig. 13) is the type of a small genus distinguished from
Stenoderma and other genera of this group by the absence of a d'stinct
nose-leaf. Some naturalists make this genus the type of a distinct
subgroup, Centurioneae. Up to 1 904 the genera, exclusive of Centurio,
included in the Stenodermateae were Artibeus (with several sub-
genera), Vampyrops (also with subgenera), Mesophylla, Chiroderma,
Stenoderma (with 3 subgenera), Ectophylla, Ametrida (with 2 sub-
genera), Pygoderma, Sturnira and Brachyphylla.

The third subfamily, Desmodontieae, is represented only by the
blood-sucking bats, and distinguished by having i. J, of which the

upper pair are cutting, the rudimentary
molars, the very short interfemoral
membrane, and the blood-sucking
habit. They are further characterized
as follows: Muzzle short and conical;
nose-leaf distinct; p. f, m. \ or jj;
upper incisors occupying the whole
space between the canines; premolars
narrow, with sharp-edged longitudinal
crowns ; molars rudimentary or absent ;
stomach elongated, and mtestiniform.
There are two genera, Desmodus, with-
senex). out calcar or molars, and Diphylla,
with a short calcar and a single rudi-
mentary molar on each side — re-
stricted to Central and South America. Desmodus rufus, the com-
moner species, is a little larger than the noctule bat, and abundant
in certain parts of South America, where it is troublesome owing to
its attacks upon domestic animals, sucking their blood and leaving
them weakened from repeated bleedings. (See VAMPIRE.)

The fourth family of bats, unlike any of the three previous ones,
has a cosmopolitan distribution. These free-tailed bats, as they are
pne. conveniently called, constituting the family Emballo-

tailed nuridae, present the following distinctive features. The

6a<s. nostrils are of normal form and without a nose-leaf. The

premaxillae have their palatal portion imperfectly de-
veloped, and united by a slender process with the maxillae. The
ears are large, with a small tragus. The middle finger has two
phalanges, and the index generally a single one. The fibula is in-
complete. The tail is generally short, and always partly free from
the interfemoral membrane. There is generally only a single pair of

FIG. 13. — Head of Masked
Vampire (Centurio
From Dobson.

upper incisors, separated by gaps from the canines, and from one
another in the middle line.

The distinctive feature of these bats is the free tail-tip, which
pierces the interfemoral membrane to appear on its upper surface,
and may project beyond its margin. As a rule, these bats may also
be recognized by the peculiar form of the muzzle, which is obliquely
truncated, the nostrils projecting more or less in front beyond the
lower lip, by the first phalange of the middle finger being folded in
repose forwards on the upper surface of the metacarpal bone, and by
the upper incisors. Although cosmopolitan, these bats rarely extend
north or south of the thirtieth parallels of latitude.

The family may be divided into two subfamilies, of which the
Emballonurinae is characterized by the incomplete premaxillae, the
presence of only one phalange in the index finger, and the short tail.
The dental formula is generally i. J (sometimes f or £), c. \, p. f , m. \.
This subfamily may be further subdivided
into subgroups or sections of which the
first, Emballonurae, is characterized by the
slender tail perforating the interfemoral
membrane, so as to appear on its upper
surface; the legs long, with a slender
fibula; the incisors weak; and the pre-
molars f . The typical genus Emballonura
presents the following features: i. f,
extremity of the muzzle more or less
produced beyond the lower lip, forehead FIG. 14. — Ear of
flat. The genus contains several species, Emballonura raff rayana.
inhabiting islands from Madagascar From Dobson.
through the Malay Archipelago and Siam

to the Navigator Islands. Coleura, with i. }, the extremity
of the muzzle broad, and the forehead concave, has two species
from East Africa and the Seychelles. Khynchonycteris is distin-
guished from Coleura by the produced extremity of the muzzle.
The single species, R. naso, from Central and South America, is
common in the vicinity of streams, where it is usually found during
the day resting on the vertical faces of rocks, or on trunks of trees
growing over water; it escapes notice owing to the greyish colour of
the fur of the body and of small tufts on the antebrachial membrane
counterfeiting the weathered surfaces of rocks and bark. As evening
approaches it appears on the wing, flying close to the water. Saccop-
teryx has i. $, and the antibrachial membrane with a pouch opening
on its upper surface; it contains several species from Central and
South America. This sac is developed only in the male and in the
female is rudimentary. In adult males a valvular longitudinal
opening occupies the upper surface of the membrane leading into a
small pouch, the interior of which is lined with a glandular membrane
secreting an unctuous reddish substance with a strong ammoniacal
odour. Allied genera are the tropical American Peropteryx and the
Brazilian Cormura. The various species of tomb-bats (Taphozous)
inhabit the tropical and subtropical parts of all the eastern hemi-
sphere except Polynesia, and are distinguished by the cartilaginous
premaxillanes, the deciduous pair of upper incisors, and the presence
of only two pairs of lower incisors. Most of the species have a
glandular sac (fig. 15) between the angles of the lower jaw, more
developed in males than in females, in some species absent in the

FIG. 15. — Heads of Tomb-Bat (Taphozous longimanus), showing
relative development of throat-sacs in male and female. From
Dobson.

latter. An open throat-sac Is wanting in T. melanopogon, but about
its position are the openings of small pores, the secretion from which
probably causes the hairs to grow long, forming the black beard
found in many males. The three tropical American white bats,
Diclidurus, with i. \, c. }, p. 8, m. jj, resemble Taphozous in the form
of the head and ears, but, besides other characters, differ from all
other bats in possessing a pouch, opening off the centre of the
interior surface of the interfemoral membrane; the extremity of the
tail enters this, and perforates its base.

The second subfamily of the Emballonuridae, Rhinopomaiinae, is
represented only by the genus Rhinopoma, with several species
ranging from Egypt through Arabia to India, Burma and Sumatra.
The premaxillae (fig. 16) are complete; the index finger has two
phalanges; the tail is very long and mouselike; and the dental
formula i. i, c. \, p. £, m. \. Dr G. E. Dobson has remarked that
these mouse-tailed bats might be elevated to the rank of a family, for
it is difficult to determine their affinities, a kind of cross relationship
attaching them to the Nycteridae on the one hand and to the Em-
ballonuridae on the other. These 'bats, distinguished from all other
Microchiroptera by the presence of two phalanges in the index finger,

CHIROPTERA

245

Typical
Bats,

and the long and slender tail projecting far beyond the narrow inter-
femoral membrane, inhabit the subterranean tombs in Egypt and
deserted buildings generally from north-east Africa to Burma and
Sumatra.

The last group, according to the system adopted by Prof. Max
Weber, is that of the Vespertilionidae, which includes such typical
bats as the pipistrelle, the noctule, and the long-eared
species. By Mr G. S. Miller l the first section of the
family — Natalinae — is regarded as of family rank, while
the last section, or Molossinae, is included by Dr G. E. Dobson in the
Emballonuridae, from the typical forms of which its members differ

widely in tail-structure. In this
extended sense the family, which
has a cosmopolitan distribution,
may be defined as follows: — The
nostrils are normal and without a
nose-leaf. The ethmoturbinal bones
of the nasal chamber are involuted.
The palatine processes of the pre-
maxillae do not form a suture. The

FIG. 1 6.— Skull of Mouse- «a.r is m°stlv lar^- with. a ***&*•
tailed Bat (Rhinopoma micro- J,he ««}. e fi"Ser ^cfPl ln T}lE°~
phyllum). X2. (From Dobson.) #f?> . has 7° Phalanges. The

' fibula is usually rudimentary. The

tail is long and does not perforate the interfemoral membrane.
The incisors are generally 3 or J, but may be reduced to } in the
Molossinae.

In the first subfamily, Natalinae, which is exclusively tropical
American, the other upper incisors are separated from one
another and from the canines; palatine processes of the pre-
maxillae are at least partially developed; and the dental formula

is i. I, c. {, p.

m. \. In general appearance these bats recall

the more typical Vespertilionidae, although the form of the muzzle is
suggestive of the Mormopsinae among the Phyllostomatidae. Again,

while the form of the skull is
vespertilione, the relation of
the vomer to the front end
of the premaxillae is of the
phyllostomine type. The
molars and incisors are like-
wise vespertilione, whereas the
premolars are as distinctly
phyllostomine. Finally, while
the third, or middle, finger
normally has two phalanges,
as in typical Vespertilionidae,
the second of these is elon-
FIG. 17. — Head of Chilonalalus gated and in Thyroptera
micropm. x 2. (From Dobson.) divided into two, as in Phyllo-
stomatidae.

The first two genera, Furipterus and Amorphochilus, each have a
single species, the latter being distinguished from the former by the
wide separation of the nostrils and the backward prolongation of the
palate. In both the crown of the head is elevated, the thumb and
first phalange of the middle finger are very short, and the premolars
are f. The same elevation of the crown characterizes the genera
Natalus and Chilonatalus (fig. 17), in which the premolars are |: in

FIG. 18. — Suctorial Disks in Thyroptera tricolor, a, side, and b,
concave surface, of thumb disk; c, foot with disk, and calcar with
projections (all much enlarged). (From Dobson.)

general appearance these bats are very like the Old World vesper-
tilionine genus Cerivoula, except for the short triangular tragus.
Lastly, Thyroptera includes two species distinguished by an additional
phalange in themiddle finger, and by accessory clinging-otgansattached
to the extremities. In Thyroptera tricolor, i. 'f, p. §, from Brazil,
these have the appearance of small, circular, stalked, hollow disks
(fig. 18), resembling miniature sucking-cups of cuttle-fishes, and are
attached to the inferior surfaces of the thumbs and the soles of the
feet. By their aid the bat is able to maintain its hold when creeping
over smooth vertical surfaces.

The second or typical subfamily, Vespertilioninae, includes all the
remaining members of the family with the exception of the aberrant
Molossinae. The upper incisors are in proximity to the canines; the

1 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. xii. (1899).

premaxillae widely separated ; the ears medium or large; the dental
formula is i. §(or J), c. \, p. j(?, f , or J), m. I ; and the fibula very
small and imperfect. All the members of this large cosmopolitan
group are closely allied, and differ chiefly by external characters.
They may be divided into subgroups. In the first of these, the
Plecoteae, of which the long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus) is the type,
the crown of the head is but slightly raised above the face-line,
the upper incisors are close to the canines, and the nostrils are
margined behind by grooves on the upper surface of the muzzle, or
by rudimentary nose-leaves; the ears being generally very large and
united. Of the six genera, Plecotus, with »'. f, p. f, has three species:
— cne the long-eared European bat referred to above; P. macrotis,
restricted to North America, is distin-
guished by the great size of the glandular
prominences of the sides of the muzzle,
which meet in the centre above and behind
the nostrils; the third species being also
American. The second, Barbastella, with
*• f> P- i. distinguished by its dentition
and by the outer margin of the ear being
carried forwards above the mouth and in
front of the eye, includes the European ,-
barbastelle bat, B. barbastellus, and B. dar- c "2k .,I9'~
jelingensis from the Himalaya. Otonycteris, Scotophdusemarginatus.
i. i pm. i, connecting this group with the (From Dobson-)
Vespertilioneae, is represented by O. hemprichii, from North Africa
and the Himalaya, and an Arabian species. The next two genera are
distinguished by the presence of a rudimentary nose-leaf: Nycto-
philus, i. \, p. \, with three species from Australasia; and Antrozous,
i. J, p. i, distinguished from all the other members of the subfamily
by having but two lower incisors, and from other Plecoteae by the
separate ears; the two species inhabit California. The sixth genus,
Euderma, is also represented by a Californian species.

The second group Vespertilioneae, with about thirteen genera,
includes the great majority of the species; and a large number of
these may be classed under Vespertilio, which is divisible into sub-
genera, differing from one another in the number of premolars, and
often ranked as separate genera. One group is represented by
V. (Histiotus) magellanicus, a species remarkable for its extreme
southern range, its relatives being also South American. A second
group, with p. J, includes the British serotine, V. (Eptesicus) serotinus,
of Europe and northern Asia, and represented in North America by
the closely allied V. (E.) fuscus. In the typical group, which includes
the Old World V. murinus, one species, V. borealis, ranges to the
Arctic circle. The European noctule, V. (Pterygistes) noctula, and
Leisler's bat, V. (P.) leisleri, represent another group; and the
common pipistrelle, V. (Pipistrellus) pipistrellus, yet another, with
p. | . The only other group that need be mentioned is one represented
by the North American V. (Lasionycteris) noctivagans, with p. \.
The African Lciephotes, the Chinese la, and the Papuan Philetor are
allied genera, each with a single species. Chalinolobus and Glau-
conycteris have the same general dental character as Vespertilio,
but are distinguished by the presence of a lobe projecting from the
lower lip near the gape; the former, with p. f , is represented by five
Australasian species, one of which extends into New Zealand ; while
the latter, with p. J, is African. The species of Glauconycteris are
noticeable for their peculiarly thin membranes traversed by distinct
reticulations and parallel lines. Scotophilus, with i, J, p. J, includes
several species, restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions of
the eastern hemisphere,
though widely distri-
buted within these
limits. These bats,
though approaching cer-
tain species of Vespertilio
in many points, are dis-
tinguished by the single
(in place of two) pair
of unicuspidate upper
incisors separated by a
wide space and placed

close to the canines, by the small transverse first lower premolar
crushed in between the canine and second premolar, and, generally,
by theirconical, nearly naked, muzzles and thick leathery membranes.
5. temmincki is the commonest bat in India, and appears often before
the sun has touched the horizon. 5. gigas, from equatorial Africa, is
the largest species. Nycticejus, with the same dental formula as
Scotophilus, is distinguished by the first -lower premolar not being
crushed in between the adjoining teeth, and the comparatively
greater size of the last upper molar. It includes only the North
American N. humeralis (crepuscularis), a bat scarcely larger than the
pipistrelle. The hairy-membraned bats of the genus Lasiurus
(Atalapha), with i. J, p. | or J, are also limited to the New World,
and generally characterized by the interfemoral membrane being
more or less covered with hair and by the peculiar form of the tragus,
which is expanded above and abruptly curved inwards. In those
species which have two upper premolars the first is extremely small
and internal to the tooth-row. The genus, which is divided into
Lasiurus proper and Dasypterus, is further characterized by the
presence of four teats in the female, and by the general production

FIG. 20. — Head of Cerivoula hardwickei.
(From Dobson.)

246

CHIROPTERA

of three or four offspring at a birth. Rhogeessa and Tomopeas are
allied tropical American types. Murina, with the subgenus Harpio-
ccphalus, has i. f , p. f , and includes several small bats distinguished
by the prominent tube-like nostrils and hairy interfemoral membrane.
M. suttla, from Java, the Malay and neighbouring islands, is a well-
known species, and the closely allied M. hilgendorfi is from Japan.
The remaining species are from the Himalaya, Tibet and Ceylon;
and apparently restricted to the hill-tracts of the countries in which
they are found. Next to Vespertilio the genus Myotis (divisible into
several subgenera), with i. §, p. |, includes the largest number of
species, and has rather a wider geographical distribution in both
hemispheres, one species being recorded from the Navigator Islands.
The species may be recognized by the peculiar character of the pairs
of upper incisors on each side, the cusps of which diverge from each
other, by the large number of premolars, of which the second upper
is always small, and by the oval elongated ear and narrow tragus.
The British M. bechsteini and M . nattereri are examples of this group.
Cerivoida (Kerivoula), which also has p. i, is distinguished by the
parallel upper incisors and the large second upper premolar. There
are numerous African and Indo-Malayan species, of which C. picta,
from India and Indo-Malay, is characterized by its brilliant orange
fur, and membranes variegated with orange and black. The genus
includes delicately formed insectivorous, tropical, forest-haunting
bat?, whose colouring approximates them to the ripe bananas among
which they often pass the daytime.

Another subgroup, Minioptereae, is represented solely by the genus
Miniopterus, with i. §, p. §. The incisors are separated from one
another in front and from the canines; the first phalange of the
middle finger is very short, the crown of the head elevated, and the
tail long. The genus is represented by some half-dozen Old World
species, among which the typical M. schreibersi ranges from Europe,
southern Asia, and Africa to Japan and Australasia.

The last subfamily is that of the Molossinae, included by Dobson
in the family Emballonuridae. In this group the premaxillae- are in
contact or but very slightly separated; the ears are large, with the
tragus small; the dental formula is i.\ ($ or i), c. t, p. % (f), m. jf;
and the fibula is strongly developed. In their blunt muzzles and
many other features these bats undoubtedly resemble the Emballonu-
ridae, from the typical members of which they differ by the pro-
duction of the thick tail far beyond the margin of the interfemoral
membrane. They are further characterized by their broad and
stout feet, in which the first, and in most cases also the fifth, toe is
thicker than the rest, and furnished with long bent hairs; and by
the presence of callosities at the base of the thumbs, and a single
pair of large upper incisors occupying the centre of the space between
the canines. The feet are free from the wing-membrane, which
folds up under the fore-arm and legs; the interfemoral membrane
is retractile, being movable backwards and forwards along the tail;
this power of varying its superficial extent confers on these bats
great dexterity in changing the direction of flight. All are able to
walk or crawl well, and spend much of their time on trees. The
genus Chiromeles, with i. \, c. \, p. 5, m, |, the first hind-toe much
larger than and separate from the others, and the widely sundered
ears, is represented by C. torquata, a large bat of peculiar aspect,
inhabiting the Indp-Malay countries. This species is nearly naked,
a collar only of thinly spread hairs half surrounding the neck, and
is remarkable for its enormous throat-sac and nursing-pouches.
The former consists of a semicircular fold of skin forming a pouch
round the neck beneath, concealing the orifices of subcutaneous
pectoral glands which discharge an oily fluid of offensive smell. The
nursing-pouch is formed on each side by an extension of a fold of
skin from the side of the body to the inferior surfaces of the humerus
and femur. In the anterior part of this pouch the teat is placed.
The typical genus Molossus (fig. 21) includes the mastiff-bats,
characterized by the dental formula *'. \ or J, p. \ or f ; and by the

FIG. 2i.— Head of Mastiff -bat FIG. 22. — Head of Nyc-

(Molossus glaucinus). (From tinomops macrotis. (From
Dobson.) Dobson.)

upper incisors being close together in front. The genus is restricted
to the tropical and subtropical regions of the New World. M.
obscurus, a small species common in tropical America, inhabits the
hollow trunks of palms and other trees and the roofs of houses.
The males and females live apart (as is the case in most if not all
bats). In West Africa the mastiff-bats are represented by Eomops,

with one species; while Nyctinomops includes a number of tropical
American species more nearly related to the next genus, in which
some of them (fig. 22) were formerly included. The widely spread
Nyctinomus, with i. J or f , p. f or J, and the upper incisors separate
in front, includes numerous species inhabiting the tropical and
subtropical parts of both hemispheres. The lips of the bats of this
genus are even more expansible than in Molossus, in many of the
species (fig. 22) showing vertical wrinkles. N. toeniotis (or cestonii),
one of the largest species, alone extends into Europe, as far north
as Switzerland. N. johorensis, from the Malay Peninsula, is re-
markable for the extraordinary form of its ears. N. brasiliensis
is common in tropical America, and extends as far north as California.
Here may be conveniently noticed two very rare and aberrant
bats, Myzopoda (or Myxopoda) aurita of Madagascar, and Mystacops
(or Mystacina) tuberculatus of New Zealand, the latter ..
of which is believed to be well-nigh, if not entirely, exter- „%
minated. Their systematic position and affinities are Myttacooi
somewhat uncertain; but in the opinion of O. Thomas1
the former should typify a separate family, Myzopodidae, in which
the latter may also find a place. From all other bats Myzopoda is
distinguished by the presence of a peculiar mushroom-shaped organ

FIG. 23. — Thumb and leg and foot of New Zealand bat (Mystacops
tuberculatus), enlarged. (From Dobson.)

at the base of the large ear, and by the union of the tragus with the
latter, on the inner base of which it forms a small projection. There
are three phalanges in the middle finger; and the whole inferior
surface of the thumb supports a large sessile horseshoe-shaped
adhesive pad, with the circular margin directed forwards and
notched along its edge, while a smaller pad occupies part of the sole
of the hind-foot. Mr Thomas regards this bat as related on the one
hand to the subfamily Mormopsinae of the Phyllostomatidae, and on
the other to the Natalinae among the Vespertilionidae; both these
groups being regarded by him as of family rank.

Mystacops resembles Myzopoda in having three phalanges to the
middle finger, but differs in that the tail perforates the interfemoral
membrane to appear on its upper surface in the manner characteristic
of the Emballonuridae. The greater part of the wing-membrane is
exceedingly thin, but a narrow portion along the fore-arm, the sides
of the body, and the legs, is thick and leathery, and beneath this
thickened portion the wings are folded. Other peculiarities of
structure are found in the form of the claws of the thumbs and toes,
each of which has a small heel projecting from its concave surface
near the base, also in the sole of the foot and inferior surface of the
leg, as shown in fig. 23. The plantar surface, including the toes, is
covered with soft and very lax, deeply wrinkled skin, and each toe
is marked by a central longitudinal groove with short grooves at
right angles to it. The lax wrinkled integument is continued along
the inferior flattened surface of the ankle and leg. These peculiarities
appear to be related to climbing habits in the species.

Extinct Bats.

Palaeontology tells us nothing with regard to the origin of
the Chiroptera, all the known fossil species, some of which date
back to the Oligocene, being more or less closely allied to existing
types, and therefore of comparatively little interest. The origin
of the order from primitive insectivorous mammals must have
taken place at least as early as the Lower Eocene. It is, however,
noteworthy that several of the earlier extinct species appear
to be related to the Rhinolophidae, which is the most generalized
family of the order. Remains of Pteropodidae belonging to
existing genera occur in the caves of tropical countries in the
eastern hemisphere; and the skeleton of an extinct generic
type, Archaeopteropus, has been obtained from the Miocene
lignite of Italy, which indicates a form to a certain extent
transitional in character between typical fruit-bats and the
insectivorous bats. The tail, for instance, which in most mcdern
fruit-bats is rudimentary, with only three or four vertebrae, in
the fossil has eight complete vertebrae; while the teeth of the
1 Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1904), vol. ii.

CHIRU— CHITON

247

extinct form are distinctly cusped. Whether, however, the tail
is longer than in the existing Notopteris of Fiji and New Guinea,
or whether the molars are more distinctly cusped than is the
case with the Solomon Island Pteropus (Pleralopex), is not
stated. Still, the fact that the Miocene fruit-bat does show
certain signs of approximation to the insectivorous (and more
generalized) section of the order is of interest. Of the Oligocene
forms, Pseudorhinolophus of Europe is apparently a member of
the Rhinolophidae; but the affinities of Alastor and Vesperti-
liavus, which are likewise European, are more doubtful, although
the latter may be related to Taphozous. The North American
Vespertilio (Vesperugo) anemophilus and the European V.
aquensis and V. parisiensis are, on the other hand, members of
the VespertUionidae, the last being apparently allied to the
serotine (V. serotinus).

AUTHORITIES. — The above article is based to some extent on the
article in the 9th edition of this work by G. E. Dobson, whose
British Museum " Catalogue " is, however, now obsolete. Professor
H. Winge's " Jordfundae og nulevende Flagermus (Chiroptera),"
published in E. Mus. Lundi (Copenhagen, 1892), contains much
valuable information; and for Pteropodidae Dr P. Matschie's
Megachiroptera (Berlin, 1899), should be consulted. For the rest the
student must refer to numerous papers by G. M. Allen, K. Andersen,
F. A. Jentink, G. S. Miller, T. S. Palmer, A. G. Rehn, O. Thomas and
others, in various English and American zoological serials, all of
which are quoted in the volumes of the Zoological Record. (R. L. *)

CHIRU, a graceful Tibetan antelope (Pantholops Hodgsoni),
of which the bucks are armed with long, slender and heavily-
ridged horns of an altogether peculiar type, while the does are
hornless. Possibly this handsome antelope may be the original
of the mythical unicorn, a single buck when seen in profile
looking exactly as if it had but one long straight horn. Although
far from uncommon, chiru are very wary, and consequently
difficult to approach. They are generally found in small parties,
although occasionally in herds. They inhabit the desolate
plateau of Tibet, at elevations of between 13,000 and 18,000 ft.,
and, like all Tibetan animals, have a firm thick coat, formed in
this instance of close woolly hair of a grey fawn-colour. The most
peculiar feature about the chiru is, however, its swollen, puffy
nose, which is probably connected with breathing a highly rarefied
atmosphere. A second antelope inhabiting the same country
as the chiru is the goa (Gazella piclicaudata) , a member of the
gazelle group characterized by the peculiar form of the horns
of the bucks and certain features of coloration, whereby it is
markedly distinguished from all its kindred save one or two
other central Asian species. The chiru, which belongs to the
typical or antilopine section of antelopes, is probably allied to
the saiga. (R. L.*)

CHIRURGEON, one whose profession it is to cure disease by
operating with the hand. The word in its original form is now
obsolete. It derives from the Mid. Eng. cirurgien or sirurgien,
through the Fr. from the Gr. •x.tipovpybs, one who operates with
the hand (from \eip, hand, Zpjov, work) ; from the early form
is derived the modern word " surgeon." " Chirurgeon " is a
i6th century reversion to the Greek origin. (See SURGERY.)

CHISEL (from the O. Fr. cisel, modern ciseau, Late Lat. cisellum,
a cutting tool, from caedere, to cut), a sharp-edged tool for cutting
metal, wood or stone. There are numerous varieties of chisels
used in different trades; the carpenter's chisel is wooden-
handled with a straight edge, transverse to the axis and bevelled
on one side; stone masons' chisels are bevelled on both sides,
and others have oblique, concave or convex edges. A chisel with
a semicircular blade is called a " gouge." The tool is worked
either by hand-pressure or by blows from a hammer or mallet.
The " cold chisel " has a steel edge, highly tempered to cut
unheated metal. (See TOOL.)

CHISLEHURST, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parlia-
mentary division of Kent, England, nj m. S.E. of London,
by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 7429.
It is situated 300 ft. above sea-level, on a common of furze
and heather in the midst of picturesque country. The church
of St Nicholas (Perpendicular with Early English portions, but
much restored) has a tomb of the Walsingham family, who had
a lease of the manor from Elizabeth; Sir Francis Walsingham,

the statesman, being born here in 1536. Another statesman
of the same age, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was born here in 1510.
Near the church is an ancient cockpit. The mortuary chapel
attached to the Roman Catholic church of St Mary was built
to receive the body of Napoleon III., who died at Camden
Place in 1873; and that of his son was brought hither in 1879.
Both were afterwards removed to the memorial chapel at
Farnborough in Hampshire. Camden Place was built by
William Camden, the antiquary, in 1609, and in 1765 gave'
the title of Baron Camden to Lord Chancellor Pratt. The house
was the residence not only of Napoleon III., but of the empress
Eugenie and of the prince imperial, who is commemorated by a
memorial cross on Chislehurst Common. The house and grounds
are now occupied by a golf club. There are many villa residences
in the neighbourhood of Chislehurst.

CHISWICK, an urban district in the Ealing parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, on the
Thames, 7§ m. W. by S. of St Paul's cathedral. Pop. (1901)
29,809. The locality is largely residential, but there are breweries,
and the marine engineering works of Messrs Thornycroft on the
river. Chiswick House, a seat of the duke of Devonshire, is
surrounded by beautiful grounds; here died Fox (1806) and Can-
ning (1827). The gardens near belonged till 1903 to the Royal
Horticultural Society. The church of St Nicholas has ancient
portions, and in the churchyard is the tomb of William Hogarth
the painter, with commemorative lines by David Garrick.
Hogarth's house is close at hand. Chiswick Hall, no longer
extant, was formerly a country seat for the masters and sana-
torium for the scholars of Westminster school. He"re in 1811 the
Chiswick Press was founded by Charles Whittingham the elder,
an eminent printer (d. 1840).

CHITA, a town of east Siberia, capital of Transbaikalia, on
the Siberian railway, 500 m. E. of Irkutsk, on the Chita river,
half a mile above its confluence with the Ingoda. Pop. (1883)
12,600; (1897) 11,480. The Imperial Russian Geographical
Society has a museum here. Several of the palace revolution-
aries, known as Decembrists, were banished to this place from
St Petersburg in consequence of the conspiracy of December 1825.
The inhabitants support themselves by agriculture and by trade
in furs, cattle, hides and tallow bought from the Burials, and
in manufactured wares imported from Russia and west Siberia.

CHITALDRUG, a district and town in the native state of
Mysore, India. The district has an area of 4022 sq. m. and a
population (1901) of 498,795. It is distinguished by its low
rainfall and arid soil. It lies within the valley of the Vedavati
or Hagari river, mostly dry in the hot season. Several parallel
chains of hills, reaching an extreme height of 3800 ft., cross the
district; otherwise it is a plain. The chief crops are cotton and
flax; the chief manufactures are blankets and cotton cloth.
The west of the district is served by the Southern Mahratta
railway. The largest town in the district is Davangere (pop.
10,402). The town of CHITALDRUG, which is the district head-
quarters (pop. 1901, 5792), was formerly a military cantonment,
but this was abandoned on account of its unhealthiness. It
has massive fortifications erected under Hyder Ali and Tippoo
Sahib towards the close of the i8th century; and near it on the
west are remains of a city of the 2nd century A.D.

CHITON, the name l given to fairly common littoral animals
of rather small size which belong to the phylum Mollusca, and,
in the possession of a radula in the buccal cavity, resemble more
especially the Gastropoda. Their most important characteristic
in comparison with the latter is that they are, both in external
and internal structure, bilaterally symmetrical. The dorsal
integument or mantle bears, not a simple shell, but eight cal-
careous plates in longitudinal series articulating with each other.
The ventral surface forms a flat creeping " foot," and between
mantle and foot is a pallial groove in which there is on each side
a series of gills. Originally the Chitons were placed with the
limpets, Patella, in Cuvier's Cydobranchia, an order of the
Gastropoda. In 1876 H. von Jhering demonstrated the affinities

1 The Gr. \iT&n> was a garment in the shape of a loose tunic,
varying at different periods: see COSTUME: Greek.

248

CHITON

of Neomenia and Chaetoderma, vermiform animals destitute of
shell, with the Chitons, and placed them all in a division of worms
which he named Amphineura. The discovery by A. A. W.
Hubrecht in 1 88 1 of a typical molluscan radula and odontophore
in a new genus Proneomenia, allied to Neomenia, showed that
the whole group belonged to the Mollusca. E. Ray Lankester
(Ency. Brit., Qth ed., 1883) placed them under the name Isopleura
as a subclass of Gastropoda. Paul Pelseneer (1906) raised the
group to the rank of a class of Mollusca, under von Jhering's
name Amphineura.

The Amphineura are divided into two orders: (i) the Poly-
placophora, or Chitons; (2) the Aplacophora, or forms without
shells, Neomenia, Chaetoderma and their allies.

Order I. — POLYPLACOPHORA

Each of the eight valves of the shell is made up of two distinct
calcareous layers: (a) an outer or upper called the tegmentum,
which is visible externally; (6) a deeper layer called articula-

FIG. i. — Three views of Chiton.

A. Dorsal view of Chiton Wps-

nessenksii, Midd., showing
the eight shells. (After
Middendorf.)

B. View from the pedal surface

of a species of Chiton from
the Indian Ocean, p, foot;
o, mouth (at the other end
of the foot is seen the anus
raised on a papilla) ; kr,
oral fringe; br, the numer-
ous ctenidia (branchial
plumes) ; spreading beyond

these, and all round the
animal, is the mantle-skirt.
(After Cuvier.)

C. The same species of Chiton,
with the shells removed and
the dorsa' integument re-
flected, b, buccal mass; m,
retractor muscles of the
buccal mass; m, ovary;
od, oviduct; i, coils of in-
testines; ao, aorta; c', left
auricle; c, ventricle.

mentum which is porcellaneous, quite compact, and entirely
covered by the tegmentum. In the lower forms the two layers
are coextensive and have smooth edges, but in the higher forms

FIG. 2.— Pallial eye and aesthetes of Acanthopleura spiniger
(Moseley).

the articulamentum projects laterally beyond and beneath the
tegmentum into the substance of the mantle. These projections

are termed insertion plates; they are usually slit or notched to
form teeth, the edges of which may be smooth and sharp, or may
be crenulated. The anterior margin of each valve except the
first is provided with two projections called sutural laminae
which underlie the posterior margin of the preceding valve.
The tegmentum is formed by the fold of mantle covering the

From Lankester, Treatise on Zoology.

FIG. 3. — Ventral aspect of three species of Polyplacophora showing
position of gills.

A. Lepidopleurus benthus. mouth; pa, mantte; pa',

B. Boreochilon cinereus. anal lobe of mantle; ps,

C. Schizochiton incisus. a, pallia! slit; le, pallia!

anus; /, foot; g, gills; m, tentacles.

edge of the articulamentum, and extends over the latter from the
sides. It is the first part of the shell formed in development.
The tegmentum is much reduced in Acanthochiton, and absent
in the adult Cryplochiton.
The tegmentum is pierced
by numerous vertical rami-
fied canals which contain
epithelial papillae of the
epidermis. These papillae
form pallial sense-organs,
containing nerve-end
bulbs, covered by a dome
of cuticle, and innervated
from the pallial nerve-
cords. They are termed
according to their size,
micraesthetes and mega-
laesthetes. In the common
species of Chiton and many
others of the family
Chilonidae the megalaes-
thetes are developed into
definite eyes, the most
complicated of which have
retina, pigment within the
eye, cornea and crystalline
lens (mtra-pigmental eyes)
(fig. 2). The eyes are
arranged in rows running
diagonally from tha median

anterior beak of each valve
to its lateral borders
There may be only one
such row on either side, or
many rows. In some species
the total number present
amounts to thousands.

FIG. 4. — Diagrams of the alimentary
canal of Amphineura (from Hubrecht).

A. Neomenia, and Proneomenia.

B. Chaetoderma.

C. Chiton,
o, Mouth,
a, Anus.

d. Alimentary canal.

/, Liver (digestive gland).

Branchiae.— The series of
gills may extend the whole
length of the body in the pallial groove, or may be confined to the
posterior end. Each gill has the structure of a typical molluscan
ctenidium, consisting of an axis bearing an anterior and posterior
row of filaments or lamellae. The gills are thus metamerically
repeated; there may be from four to eighty pairs, but there is

CHITON

249

often a numerical asymmetry on the two sides. The largest pair of
branchiae is placed immediately behind the renal openings and
corresponds to the single pair of other molluscs, the organs being
repeated anteriorly only (Metamacrobranchs) or anteriorly and
posteriorly (Mesomacrobranchs).

Intestine. — The digestive tube in the Polyplacophora, which are
herbivorous, is longer than the body, and thrown into a few coils,
the anus being median and posterior. The mouth leads into the
buccal cavity, on the ventral side of which opens the radular caecum.
Each transverse row of teeth of the radula contains 17 teeth, one of
which is median, while the second and the fifth on each side are
enlarged. Two pairs of glands open into the buccal cavity, and at
the junction of pharynx and oesophagus is another pair called the
sugar glands. The stomach is surrounded by the liver or digestive

« 8

V

••u

FIG.

5. — Diagrams of the excretory and reproductive organs of
Amphineura (after Hubrecht).

A, Chaetoderma.

B, Neomenia.

C, Proneomenia.

D, Chiton.
O, Ovary.

P, Pericardium.

N, Nephridium.

v, External aperture of neph-
ridium.

g, External aperture of the
genital duct of Chiton.

r. Rectum.

Cl, Cloacal or pallial chamber
of Neomemae and Chaeto-
derma.

Br, Ctenidia (branchial
plumes).

gland, consisting of two lobes which are symmetrical in the young
animals, but in the adult the right lobe is anterior and smaller.

Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs. — As in other molluscs the
coelom is represented by a large pericardial cavity, situated above
the intestine posteriorly, and a generative sac which is single and
median and situated in front of the pericardium, except in the
Nuttalochiton hyadesi, where the gonads are in a similar position, but
are paired. The excretory organs are coelomoducts with an internal
ciliated opening into the pericardium and an opening to the exterior.
Both tha openings are close together, the external opening being
just in front of the principal gill near the posterior end of the body.
The renal tube is doubled on itself, its middle part where the bend
occurs being situated more or less anteriorly. The excretory surface
is increased by numerous ramified caeca which extend beneath the
body wall laterally and ventrally, and open into the tube (fig. 6).
The sexes are distinct, and the ovary is frequently greenish in colour,
the testis red. The gonad is transversely wrinkled and lies between
the aorta and the intestine, extending from the pericardium to the
anterior end of the body. A simple gonaduct on each side arises

from the gonad near its posterior end and passes first forwards,
then backwards, and lastly outwards to the external opening in the
pallial groove, anterior to the renal aperture. There may be from
one to nine gills between the genital and renal pores.

Heart and Vascular System. — The heart is enclosed in the peri-
cardium, and consists of a median elongated ventricle and a pair of
lateral auricles, so that the structure somewhat resembles that in
the Lamellibranchiata. The openings of the auricles into the
ventricle vary in different forms. In many of the lower forms
(Lepidopleuridae, Mopalidae, Ischnochitontdae) the opening pn each
side is single and anterior. In the true Chitonidae there are generally
two apertures on each side, and in two species three or four, another
instance of the tendency to metamenc repetition in the group.
The auricles are connected with one another posteriorly behind the
ventricle. The ventricle leads into a single anterior median aorta.
As in other molluscs, the arteries do not extend far, but lead into
inter-visceral blood-spaces. The venous blood is conducted from
the tissues to a large sinus on either side above the pallial groove,
and from this sinus passes to the gills by an afferent vessel in each
gill on the internal or pedal margin of the axis. The oxygenated
blood is carried from each gill by an efferent vessel on the external
or pallial side of the axis to another longitudinal vessel which leads
to the auricle on each side.

Nervous System. — There are no well-marked specialized ganglia
in the central nervous system, nerve-cells being distributed uni-
formly along the cords. There
are two pairs of longitudinal
cords, a pedal pair situated
ventrally and united beneath
the intestine by numerous
commissures, and a pallial
pair situated laterally and
continuous with one another
above the rectum (fig. 7).
The four cords are all con-
nected anteriorly with the
cerebral commissure which
lies above the buccal mass
anteriorly. From the points
where the cords meet the
cerebral commissure, arise on
each an anterior labial com-
missure and a stomatogastric
commissure. The letter bears
two ganglion swellings, the
buccal ganglia. The labial
commissure gives off a subra-
dular commissure which also
bears two ganglia, these being
in close relation to a special
sense-organ called the subra-
dular organ, an epithelial pro-
jection with nerve-endings,
lying in front of the radula
and probably gustatory in
function. One osphradium
or branchial olfactory organ
is usually present on each side,
on either side of the anus on
the inner wall of the mantle, After Hallet (ArbcUen zoo/. InM.), Vienna,
near the bast of the last gill. l882-

In Lepidopleuridae an osphra- FlG- 6.— Dissection of the renal
dium occurs at the base of organs (nephridia) of Chiton iiculus.
each gill. 1 he sense organs p Foot

of the shell- valves have L\ Edgeof the mantle not removed
already been described. in ^ front part of the specimen.

Development.— The eg_gs i-0-i Oesophagus.
of, Anus.

may be laid separately in-
vested by a chitinous en- gg> VJCllllai uuwl.
velope or as in IschnocUton go> Externai opening of the same.
magdalenensis they may form eg< stem of the nephridium leading
strings containing nearly to nOj its externai aperture.

200,000 eggs, or the ova may nk Reflected oortion ofthe neph-
be retained in the pallial
groove and undergo develop-
ment there, as in Chiton palii
and Hemiarthrum setulosum.
One species Callistochiton
viviparus is viviparous and its
ova develop without a larval
stage in the maternal oviduct. Segmentation is total and at first
regular, and is followed by invagination, the blastopore passing to the
position of the future mouth. By the development of a ciliated ring
just in front of the mouth the embryo becomes a trochosphere. In
the centre of the praeoral lobe is a tuft of cilia. Just behind the
ciliated ring is a pair of larval eyes which disappear in the adult;
these correspond to the cephalic eyes of Lamellibranchs. An
ectpdemic invagination forms a large mucous gland on the foot,
which is more or less atrophied in adult life. The gonads originate
by proliferation of the anterior wall of the pericardium. The shell-

Genital duct.

ridial stem.
Fine caeca of the nephridium,
which are seen ramifying trans-
versely over the whole inner
surface of the pedal muscular
mass.

250

CHITON

valves arise as transverse thickenings of the dorsal cuticle behind the
ciliated ring, the tegmentum being the first part formed.

Classification.

Suborder I. EOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry. — Tegmentum coextensive
with articulamentum, or the latter projecting in smooth unslit
plates.

Fam. I. Lepidopleuridae. — Terminal margins of end valves never
elevated ; form oval or oblong. Lepidopleurus cancellatus, Sow.
North Atlantic and Mediterranean; various abyssal species.
Hanleya hanleyi, Bean, north Atlantic. Hemiarthrum Microplax.

The extinct Gryptochi-
tonidae, Pilsbry, with
other Palaeozoic genera,
narrow and elongated in
form with terminal
margins of end valves
elevated, belong to this
group.

Suborder II. MESOPLACO-
PHORA, Pilsbry. — Insertion
plates well developed and
slit.

Fam. 2. Ischnochitonidae.
— All the valves with
slits, and the inner layer
well covered by the
youter.

Subfam. I. Ischnochito-
ninae. — No shell-eyes :
sutural laminae sepa-
rated ; slits in the valves
1-7 do not correspond
with the ribs of the
tegmentum. Ishcno-
chilon, Trachydermon,
Chaetopleura, Stenoplax,
Stenoradsia.

0

pc

Alter Hubrecht, lac. at.

FIG. 7. — Diagrams of the nervous
system of Amphineura.

A, Proneomenia.

B, Neomenia.

C, Chaetoderma.

D, Chiton.

c, Cerebral ganglia.
s, Sublingual ganglia.
v, Pedal (ventral) nerve-cord.
/, Visceral (lateral) nerve-cord.
pc, Post-anal junction of the visceral
nerve-cords.

From Gegenbaur, Elements of Comp.
Anatumy.

FIG. 8. — Anterior part of the
nervous system of Chiton cin-
ereus, in more detail.

B, Buccal ganglia (concerned

with the odontophore).

C, Cerebral nerve-mass.

P, Pedal ganglion and com-
mencement of pedal
nerve-cord.

pi, Visceral nerve-cord. The
sublingual ganglia are not
lettered.

Subfam. 2. Callochitoninae. With shell-eyes and united sutural

laminae. Callochiton laevis, North Atlantic and Mediterranean.

Subfam. 3. Callistoplacinae. No shell-eyes, slits in the valves 1-7

corresponding with the ribs of the tegmentum. Callistochiton

(viviparous). Nuttalochiton.

Fam. 3. Mopaliidae. Each intermediate valve with a single slit;

girdle hairy. Mopalia, Placiphorella, Plaxiphora, Placo-

phoropsis.
Fam. 4. Acanthochitonidae. Valves immersed in the girdle, with

small tegmentum. Acanthochiton (A.fascicularis, North Atlantic

and Mediterranean. Spongiochiton, Kaiharina, Amicula, Crypto-

chiton (C. stelleri, arctic).
Fam. 5. Cryptoplacidae. Vermiform, with thick girdle and small

valves; insertion and sutural plates strongly drawn forward,

sharp and smooth. Cryptoplax, Choneplax.
Suborder III. TELEOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry. — All the valves, or at

least the seven anterior, with insertion plates cut into teet!
by slits.

Fam. 6. Chitonidae. Characters of the suborder.
Subfam. I. Chitoninae. No extra-pigmental eyes; insertion
plates with pectinations between the fissures. Chiton, Ettdoxo-
chilon, Trachyodon, Radsia.

Subfam. 2. Toniciinae. Extra-pigmental shell-eyes. Tonicia,
Acanthopleura, Enoplochiton, Onithochiton, Schizochiton,
Lorica, Loricella, Liolophura.

Order 2. — APLACOPHORA, von Jhering.

Chaetoderma was first described by S. Loven, in 1841, and was
for a long time believed to be a Gephyrean worm. Neomenia,
mentioned first by Michael Sars in 1868 under the name Soleno-
pus, was afterwards included among the Opisthobranchs by
J. Koren and D. C. Danielssen. C. Gegenbaur placed the two
genera in a division of Vermes which he called Solenogastres.

The chief points in which the Aplacophora differ from the
Polyplacophora are: (i) they are worm-like in shape; (2) there is
no distinct foot, and the mantle bears no shell-valves, but only
numerous calcareous spicules; (3) the digestive tube is straight.

Neomenia and its allies are marine animals living at depths
of 15 to 800 fathoms on soft muddy ground; they are found
crawling on corals and hydrozoa, on which they feed. The
British genera are: Neomenia, Rhopalomenia and Myzomenia.
They have been taken in nearly all seas except the South Atlantic
and S.E. and N.W. Pacific. About forty species are known.
Chaetoderma, of which nine species have been described, has
similar habits and distribution, but feeds chiefly on Protozoa.
The order Aplacophora is divided into two suborders.

Suborder I. NEOMENIOMORPHA. — Aplacophora with a distinct
longitudinal ventral groove; bisexual with paired genital glands
and no disti.ict liver. The whole of the skin except the ventral groove
corresponds to the mantle of Chiton. The cuticle, in some species
very thick, contains numerous spicules which are long, hollow and
calcified; they are secreted by epithelial papillae. In some species
there are also sensory papillae comparable to the aesthetes of Chitons.
A small longitudinal projection in the ventral groove represents the

C D

FIG. 9. — Neomenia carinata, Tullberg (after Tullberg).

A, Lateral view. a, Anterior.

B, Ventral view. b, Posterior extremity.

C, Dorsal view. c, Furrow, in which the narrow

D, Ventral view of a more ex- foot is concealed.

tended specimen.

foot. Into the groove open mucous glands, a large one anteriorly
and another opening into a posteriorly cloacal, branchial cavity.

Branchiae. — In Neomeniidae and most of the Parameniidae there
is a circlet of gills on the inner walls of the cloacal chamber. These
gills are simple folds or laminae of the body wall. In other species
they are absent.

Intestine. — The mouth opens into a muscular pharynx lined by
a thick cuticle. Into the pharyngeal cavity open salivary glands
and radular sac. The former are paired and ventral, and open on
a subradular prominence. In some species there is a second dorsal
pair. Neomenia and other genera have no salivary glands.

The radula when present comprises several transverse rows of
teeth, and each transverse row may have several teeth (polystichous),
two teeth (distichous), or one tooth (monostichous). It is a curious
fact that in the_original type Neomenia the radula is entirely absent,
as it likewise is in several genera of Proneomeniidae. The oesophagus
is short and leads into a long, straight stomach, provided with
numerous symmetrical lateral caeca. The stomach opens into a
short straight rectum which opens into the branchial chamber.

Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs. — The coelom differs from
that of the Chitons in the fact that the cavities of the genital organs
are continuous with it, and in the fact that there is only one pair of
coelomoducts resembling the renal organs of Chitons, but serving
also as genital ducts. The gonads are paired and hermaphrodite,
they form a pair of anterior prolongations of the pericardium,
extending nearly to the anterior end of the body. Ova are developed
on the median, spermatozoa on the outer wall of each genital tube.
The pericardium is ciliated internally on its dorsal and lateral walls.
The urino-genital tubes arise from the posterior angles of the peri-
cardium, pass first forwards, then backwards, and unite to open
by a common opening into the cloaca below the anus except in

CHITRAL

251

Slrophomenia, where the openings are separate. Usually each tube
is provided with caecal appendages on its proximal portion, and these
serve as vesiculae seminales, while the distal portion is enlarged
and glandular and secretes the egg-shell.

H$art and Vascular System. — There is a heart in the pericardium
consisting of a median ventricle attached, except in Neomenia, to
the dorsal wall of the pericardium, and in Neomenia a pair of auricular
ducts returning blood from the gills to the ventricle. The aorta is
not independent as in Chitons, but is a sinus like the other channels
of the circulation. A single median ventral sinus passes backwards
to the gills or cloaca. The blood is coloured red by haemoglobin in
blood corpuscles.

Nervous System. — Ganglionic enlargements are more conspicuous
than in the Chitons. In front of the buccal mass is a median cere-
bral ganglion. From this pass off two pairs of cords, the pleural
and pedal, in Proneomenia separate from their origin, in Neomenia
united at first and diverging at a pleural ganglion. The pedal cords
anteriorly form a pair of pedal ganglia united by a thick commissure.
The supra-rectal commissure may be present and bear an ovoid
ganglion; or may be wanting. With regard to sense organs the
epithelial papillae of the mantle have been mentioned. There is
also in some genera a median retractile sensory papilla on the dorsal
posterior surface above the rectum, not covered by the cuticle.

Development has only been described in Myzomenia banyulensis,
by G. Pruvot. It closely resembles in the early stages that of
Chitons. The external surface of the trochosphere is formed of a
number of ciliated test-cells. The ectoderm behind the ciliated ring
develops spicules, and the post-oral region of the larva elongates.
Later the ciliated ring or velum disappears and seven imbricated
calcareous plates, made up of flattened spicules, are formed on the
dorsal surface. This appears to indicate that the Neomeniomorpha
are descended from Owton-like ancestors, and that they have lost
their shell valves.

Classification of the NEOMENIOMORPHA. — Fam. I. Lepidomeniidae.
Slender, tapering behind, with subventral cloacal orifice; thin
cuticle without papillae; flattened spicules; no gills. Lepido-
menia, Ismenia, Ichthyodes, Stylomenia, Dondersia, Nematomenia,
Myzomenia, M. banyulensis, Mediterranean and Plymouth.
Fam. 2. Neomeniidae. Short, truncate in front and behind;
cloacal orifice transverse; gills present; rather thin cuticle;
no radula. Neomenia (N. carinata, N. Atlantic and N. and
N.W. Scotland), Hemimenia.

Fam. 3. Proneomeniidae. Elongated, cylindrical, rounded at both
ends; thick cuticle with acicular spicules; radula polystichous
or wanting. Proneomenia, Amphimenia, Echinomenia, Rho-
palomenia (R. aglaopheniae, Mediterranean and Plymouth),
Notomenia, Pruvotia, Slrophomenia.

Fam. 4. Parameniidae. Short and truncated in front; thick

cuticle, often without papillae; gills and radula present.

Paramenia, Macellomenia, Pararhopalia, Dinomenia, Cyclo-

menia, Proparamenia, Uncimenia, Kruppomenia.

Suborder II. CHAETODERMOMORPHA. — Aplacophora without

distinct ventral groove, with single median unisexual gonad, with

differentiated hepatic sac,
and with cloacal chamber
furnished with two bipec-
tinate gills. There are only
two genera in this sub-
order : Chaetoderma, and
FIG. 10. — Chaetoderma nitidulum, Limifossor from Alaska.
Loven (after Graff). The cephalic The characters therefore
enlargement is to the left, the anal are very uniform. The body
chamber (reduced pallial chamber, con- is worm-like and cylindri-
taining the concealed pair of ctenidia) cal, the posterior half a
to the right. little thicker than the an-

terior; the posterior ex-
tremity forms the enlarged funnel-like branchial or cloacal chamber.
The anterior extremity is also somewhat enlarged. The whole
surface is uniformly covered with short compressed calcareous spicula
embedded in the cuticle.

Branchiae. — The single pair of branchiae are placed sym-
metrically right and left of the anus, and each has the structure
of a ctenidium bearing a row of lamellae on each side as in the
Polyplacophora.

Intestine. — The mouth is anterior, terminal and crescentic, and
beneath it is a rounded ventral shield. On the floor of the pharynx
or buccal mass is a rudimentary radula, which in many species
consists of a single large tooth, bearing two small teeth or a row of
teeth. In other species the radula is more of the usual type consist-
ng of several transverse rows of two or three teeth each. Two
>airs of salivary glands open into the buccal cavity. The digestive
tube is straight and simple, wider in its anterior part, into which
pens the duct of the hepatic caecum (fig. 4, B). The latter extends
ackwards on the ventral side of the intestine.
Coelom, Conads and Excretory Organs. — These are closely similar
in their relations to those of the Neomeniomorpha. The chief
difference is that the gonad or generative portion of the coelom is
single and median, opening into the pericardium by a single posterior
aperture. The excretory organs or coelomoducts arise from the
sterior corners of the pericardium, run forwards and then back-

wards to open by separate apertures lateral to the gills (fig. 5, A).
There are no accessory generative organs.

The heart and vascular system are similar to those of the Neo-
meniomorpha, the only important differences being that the ventricle
is nearly free in the pericardia! cavity, and that the latter is traversed
by the retractor muscles of the gills.

Nervous System. — There are two closely connected cerebral ganglia,
from which arise the usual two pairs of nerve cords. Pallial and
pedal on each side are closer together than in the other groups, and
posteriorly they unite into a supra-rectal cord provided with a
median ganglionic enlargement (fig. 7, C). A small stomatogastric
commissure bearing two small ganglia arises from the cerebral
ganglia and surrounds the oesophagus.

The development is at present entirely unknown.

General Remarks on the Amphineura.

The most important theoretical question concerning the
Amphineura is how far do they represent the original condition
of the ancestral mollusc? That is to say, we have to inquire
which of their structural features is primitive and which modified.
Their bilateral symmetry is obviously to be regarded as primitive,
and the nervous system shows an original condition from which
that of the asymmetrical twisted Gastropods can be derived.
But in many other features both external and internal the three
principal divisions differ so much from one another that we have
to consider in the case of each organ-system which condition
is the more primitive. According to Paul Pelseneer the Poly-
placophora are the most archaic, the Aplacophora being
specialized in (i) the great reduction of the foot, (2) the dis-
appearance of the shell (Cryploplax among the Polyplacophora
showing both reductions in progress), (3) the disappearance of
the radula. But it is a widely recognized principle of morphology
that a much modified animal is by no means modified to the
same degree in all its organs. A form which is primitive on the
whole may show a more advanced stage of evolution in some
particular system of organs than another animal which is on the
whole more highly developed and specialized. Thus the inde-
pendent metamerism of certain organs in the Chitons is not
primitive but acquired within the group: e.g. the shell valves
and the ctenidia. And although embryology seems to prove
that the Neomeniomorphs are derived from forms with a series
of shell-valves, nevertheless it seems probable that the calcareous
spicules which alone are present in adult Aplacophora preceded
the solid shell in evolution.

It is held by some morphologists that the mollusc body is
unsegmented, and therefore is to be compared to a single segment
of a Chaetopod or Arthropod. In this case there should be only
one pair of coelomoducts in the adult, the pair of true nephridia
which should also occur being represented by the larval nephridia.
There should also be only a single coelom, or a pair of lateral
coelomic cavities. On this view then the Aplacophora are more
primitive than the Polyplacophora in the relations of coelom,
gonad and coelomoducts; and the genital ducts of the Chitons
have arisen either by metameric repetition within the group,
or by the gradual loss of an original connexion between the
generative sac and the renal tube, as in Lamellibranchs and
Gastropods, the generative sac acquiring a separate duct and
opening to the exterior on each side.

LITERATURE. — A. Sedgwick, " On certain Points in the Anatomy
of Chiton," Proc. R. Soc. Land, xxxiii., 1881 ; J. Blumrich, " Das
Integument der Chitonen," Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool. Hi., 1891 ; A. C.
Haddon, " Report on the Polyplacophora," Challenger Reports. Zool.
pt. xliii., 1886; H. N. Moseley, " On the presence of Eyes in the
Shells of certain Chitonidae, and on the structure of these Organs,"
Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. new ser. xxv., 1885; A. A. W. Hubrecht,
"Proneomenia Sluiteri," Nied. Arch. f. Zool. Suppl. I., 1881; A.
Kowalewsky and A. F. Marion, " Contr. a 1'histoire des Solenogastres
ou Aplacophores," Ann. Mus. Marseille, Zool. iii., 1887; A. Kowal-
ewsky, " Sur le genre Chaetoderma," Arch, de zoo/, exptr. (3) ix.,
1901 ; P. Pelseneer, " Mollusca," Treatise on Zoology, edited by
E. Ray Lankester, pt. v., 1906; E. Ray Lankester, " Mollusca,
in the gth ed. of this Encyclopaedia, to which this article is much
indebted. (J. T. C.)

CHITRAL, a native state in the North- West Frontier Province
of India. The state of Chitral (see also HINDU KUSH) is some-
what larger than Wales, and supports a population of about
35,000 rough, hardy hillmen. Previous estimates put the number
far higher, but as the Mehtar assesses his fighting strength at

252

CHITTAGONG— CHIUSI

8000 only, this number is probably not far wrong. Both the
state and its capital are called Chitral, the latter being situated
about 47 m. from the main watershed of the range of the Hindu
Kush, which divides the waters flowing down to India from those
which take their way into the Oxus. Chitral is an important
state because of its situation at the extremity of the country over
which the government of India exerts its influence, and for some
years before 1895 it had been the object of the policy of the
government of India to control the external affairs of Chitral
in a direction friendly to British interests, to secure an effective
guardianship over its northern passes, and to keep watch over
what goes on beyond these passes. This policy resulted in a
British agency being established at Gilgit (Kashmir territory),
with a subordinate agency in Chitral, the latter being usually
stationed at Mastuj (65 m. nearer to Gilgit than the Chitral
capital), and occasional visits being paid to the capital. Chitral
can be reached either by the long circuitous route from Gilgit,
involving 200 m. of hill roads and the passage of the Shandur
pass (12,250 ft.), or (more directly) from the Peshawar frontier
at Malakand by 100 m. of route through the independent terri-
tories of Swat and Bajour, involving the passage of the Lowarai
(10,450 ft.)- It is held by a small force as a British outpost.

The district of Chitral is called Kashgar (or Kashkar) by the
people of the country; and as it was under Chinese domination in
the middle of the 1 8th century, and was regarded as a Buddhist
centre of some importance by the Chinese pilgrims in the early
centuries of our era, it is possible that it then existed as an outlying
district of the Kashgar province of Chinese Turkestan, where
Buddhism once flourished in cities that have been long since buried
beneath the sand- waves of the Takla Ma'c^n. The aboriginal
population of the Chitral valley is probably to be recognized in the
people called Kho (speaking a language called Khowar), who form
the majority of its inhabitants. Upon the Kho a people called Ronas
have been superimposed. The Ronas, who form the chief caste and
fighting race of the Chitral districts, originally came from the north,
but they have adopted the language and fashions of the conquered
Chitrali.

The town of Chitral (pop. in 1901, 8128), is chiefly famous for a
siege which it sustained in the spring of 1895. Owing to complica-
tions arising from the demarcation of the boundary of Afghanistan
which was being carried out at that time, and the ambitious projects
of Umra Khan, chief of Jandol, which was a tool in the hands of Sher
Afzul, a political refugee from Chitral supported by the amir at
Kabul, the mehtar (or ruler) of Chitral was murdered, and a small
British and Sikh garrison subsequently besieged in the fort. A large
force of Afghan troops was at that time in the Chitral river valley to
the south of Chitral, nominally holding the Kafirs in check during the
progress of boundary demarcation. It is considered probable that
some of them assisted the Chitralis in the siege. The position of the
political agent Dr Robertson (afterwards Sir George Robertson) and
his military force of 543 men (of whom 137 were non-combatants)
was at one time critical. Two forces were organized for the relief.
One was under Sir R. Low, with 15,000 men, who advanced by way
of the Malakand pass, the Swat river and Dir. The other, which was
the first to reach Chitral, was under Colonel Kelly, commanding the
32nd Pioneers, who was placed in command of all the troops in the
Gilgit district, numbering about 600 all told, with two guns, and in-
structed to advance by the Shandur pass and Mastuj. This force
encountered great difficulties owing to the deep snow on the pass
(12,230 ft. high), but it easily defeated the Chitrali force opposed
to it and relieved Chitral on the 2Oth of April, the siege having begun
on the 4th of March. Sher Afzul, who had joined Umra Khan,
surrendered, and eventually Chitral was restored to British political
control as a dependency of Kashmir. During Lord Curzon's vice-
royalty the British troops were concentrated at the extreme southern
end of the Chitral country at Kila Drosh and the force was reduced,
while the posts vacated and all outlying posts were handed over to
levies raised for the purpose from the Chitralis themselves. The
troops in Swat were also concentrated at Chakdara and reduced
in strength. The mehtar, Shuja-ul-Mulk, who was installed in
September 1895, visited the Delhi durbar in January 1903. .

See Sir George Robertson, Chitral (1898). (T. H. H.*)

CHITTAGONG, a seaport of British India, giving its name
to a district and two divisions of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
It is situated on the right bank of the Karnaphuli river, about
12 m. from its mouth. It is the terminus of the Assam-Bengal
railway. The municipal area covers about 9 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
22,140. The sea-borne exports consist chiefly of jute, other
items being tea, raw cotton, rice and hides. There is also a large
trade by country boats, bringing chiefly cotton, rice, spices, sugar
and tobacco. Since October 1905 Chittagong has become the
chief port of the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.

The DISTRICT OF CHITTAGONG is situated at the north-east corner
of the province, occupying a strip of coast and hills between the sea
and the mountains of Burma. Its area is 2492 sq. m. In 1901 the
population was 1,353.250, showing an increase of 5% in the decade.
A lew unimportant ranges rise within the north-eastern portion, the
highest hill being the sacred Sitakund, 1155 ft. high. The principal
rivers are the Karnaphuli, on which Chittagong town is situated,
navigable by sea-going ships as far as Chittagong port, and by large
trading boats for a considerable distance higher up, and the Halda
and the Sangu, which are also navigable by large boats. The wild
animals are tigers, elephants, rhinoceros, leopards and deer. The
climate is comparatively cool, owing to the sea breeze which prevails
during the day; but for the same reason, the atmosphere is very
moist, with heavy dews at night and fogs. Chittagong was ceded to
the East India Company by Nawab Mir Kasim in 1760. The
northern portion of the district is traversed by the Assam-Bengal
railway. Tea cultivation is moderately successful.

The CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS formed an independent district
from 1860 to 1891, were then reduced to the status of a sub-division,
but were again created a district in 1900. They occupy the ranges
between Chittagong proper and the south Lushai hills. The area
covers 5138 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 124,762, showing an
increase of 16% in the decade. The inhabitants, who are either
Arakanese or aboriginal tribes, are almost all Buddhists. The head-
quarters are at Rangamati, which was wrecked by the cyclone of
October 1897.

The DIVISION OF CHITTAGONG lies at the north-east corner of the
Bay of Bengal, extending northward along the left bank of the
Meghna. It consists of the districts of Chittagong, the Hill Tracts,
Noakhali and Tippera. Its area covers 1 1 ,773 sq. m. ; the population
in 1901 was 4,737,731.

CHITTUR, a town of British India, in the North Arcot district
of Madras, with a station on the South Indian railway. Pop.
(1901) 10,893. Formerly a military cantonment, it is now only
the civil headquarters of the district. It has an English church,
mission chapel, and .Roman Catholic chapel, a high school,
and several literary institutes.

CHITTY, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM (1828-1899), English judge,
was born in London. He was the second son of Thomas Chitty
(himself son and brother of well-known lawyers), a celebrated
special pleader and writer of legal text-books, in whose pupil-
room many distinguished lawyers began their legal education.
Joseph Chitty was educated at Eton and Balliol, Oxford, gaining
a first-class in Literae Humaniorcs in 1851, and being afterwards
elected to a fellowship at Exeter College. His principal distinc-
tions during his school and college career had been earned in
athletics, and he came to London as a man who had stroked
the Oxford boat and captained the Oxford cricket eleven. He
became a member of Lincoln's Inn in 1851, was called to the
bar in 1856, and made a queen's counsel in 1874, electing to
practise as such in the court in which Sir George Jessel, master
of the rolls, presided. Chitty was highly successful in his
method of dealing with a very masterful if exceedingly able
judge, and soon his practice became very large. In 1880 he
entered the house of commons as liberal member for Oxford
(city). His parliamentary career was short, for in 1881 the
Judicature Act required that the master of the rolls should cease
to sit regularly as a judge of first instance, and Chitty was selected
to fill the vacancy thus created in the chancery division. Sir
Joseph Chitty was for sixteen years a popular judge, in the best
meaning of the phrase, being noted for his courtesy, geniality,
patience and scrupulous fairness, as well as for his legal attain-
ments, and being much respected and liked by those practising
before him, in spite of a habit of interrupting counsel, possibly
acquired through the example of Sir George Jessel. In 1897,
on the retirement of Sir Edward Kay, L.J., he was promoted
to the court of appeal. There he more than sustained — in fact,
he appreciably increased — his reputation as a lawyer and a
judge, proving himself to possess considerable knowledge of the
common law as well as of equity. He died in London on the
ijth of February 1899. He married in 1858 Clara Jessie,
daughter of Chief Baron Pollock, and left children who could
thus claim descent from two of the best-known English legal
families of the igth century.

See E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904).

CHIUSI (anc. Cluslum), a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the
province of Siena, 55 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Siena,
and 26 m. N.N.W. of Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 6011. It is situated

CHIVALRY— CHLORAL

253

on a hill 1305 ft. above sea-level, and is surrounded by medieval
walls, in which, in places, fragments of the Etruscan wall are
incorporated. The cathedral of S. Mustiola is a basilica with a
nave and two aisles, with eighteen columns of different kinds
oi marble, from ancient buildings. It has been restored and
decorated with frescoes in modern times. The campanile belongs
to the I3th century. The place was devastated by malaria in
the middle ages, and did not recover until the Chiana valley was
drained in the i8th century. For the catacombs see CLUSIUM.

CHIVALRY (O. Fr. cheoalcrie, from Late Lat. caballerius),
the knightly class of feudal times, possessing its own code of
rules, moral and social (see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY). The
primary sense in the middle ages is " knights " or " fully armed
and mounted fighting men." Thence the term came to mean
that gallantry in battle and high sense of honour in general
expected of knights. Thus " to do chivalry " was a medieval
phrase tor " to act the knight." Lastly, the word came to be
used in its present very general sense of " courtesy." In English
law chivalry meant the tenure of land by knights' service. It
was a service due to the crown, usually forty days' military
attendance annually. The Court of Chivalry was a court in-
stituted by Edward III., of which the lord high constable and
earl marshal of England were joint judges. When both sat the
court had summary criminal jurisdiction as regards all offences
committed by knights, and generally as to military matters.
When the earl marshal alone presided, it was a court of honour
deciding as to precedence, coats of arms, &c. This court sat
for the last time in 1737. The heraldic side of its duties are
now vested in the earl marshal as head of the Heralds' College.

CHIVASSO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in
the province of Turin, 18 m. N.E. by rail from the town of Turin,
600 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 4169 (town), 9804 (com-
mune). It is situated on the left bank of the Po, near the influx
of the Oreo. The cathedral is of the isth century with a fine
facade ornamented with statues in terra-cotta. It was an
important fortress in the middle ages, and until 1804, when the
French dismantled it. One tower only of the old castle of the
marquesses of Monferrato, who possessed the town from 1164
to 1435, remains. Chivasso is on the main line from Turin to
Milan, and is the junction of branches for Aosta and Casale
Monferrato.

CHIVE (Allium Schoeneprasum), a hardy perennial plant,
with small narrow bulbs tufted on short root-stocks and long
cylindrical hollow leaves. It is found in the north of England
and in Cornwall, and growing in rocky pastures throughout
• temperate and northern Europe and Asiatic Russia, and also
in the mountain districts of southern Europe. It is cultivated
for the sake of its leaves, which are used in salads and soups as
a substitute for young onions. It will grow in any good soil,
and is propagated by dividing the roots into small clumps in
spring or autumn; these are planted from 8 to 12 in. apart and
soon form large tufts. The leaves should be cut frequently so
as to obtain them tender and succulent.

CHLOPICKI, GREGORZ JOZEF (1772-1854), Polish general,
was born in March 1772 in Podolia. He was educated at the
school of the Basilians at Szarogrod, from which in 1787 he ran
away in order to enlist as a volunteer in the Polish army. He
was present at all the engagements fought during 1792-1794,
especially distinguishing himself at the battle of Raclawice,
when he was General Rymkiewicz's adjutant. On the formation
of the Italian legion he joined the second battalion as major,
and was publicly complimented by General Oudinot for his
extraordinary valour at the storming of Peschiera. He also
distinguished himself at the battles of Modena, Busano, Casa-
bianca and Ponto. In 1807 he commanded the first Vistulan
regiment, and rendered good service at the battles of Eylau and
Friedland. In Spain he obtained the legion of honour and the
rank of a French baron for his heroism at the battle of Epila
and the storming of Saragossa, and in 1809 was promoted to be
general of brigade. In 1812 he accompanied the Grande Annie
to Russia, was seriously wounded at Smolensk, and on the
reconstruction of the Polish army in 1813 was made a general

of division. On his return to Poland in 1814, he entered the
Russian army with the rank of a general officer, but a personal
insult from the grand duke Constantine resulted in his retiring
into private life. He held aloof at first from the Polish national
rising of 1830, but at the general request of his countrymen
accepted the dictatorship on the sth of December 1830; on the
23rd of January 1831, however, he resigned in order to fight as
a common soldier. At Wavre (Feb. 19) and at Grochow (Feb.
20) he displayed all his old bravery, but was so seriously
wounded at the battle of Olszyna that he had to be conveyed to
Cracow, near which city he lived in complete retirement till his
death in 1854.

See Jozef Maczynski, Life and Death of Joseph Chlopicki (Pol.)
(Cracow, 1858); Ignacy Pradzynski, The Four I^ist Polish Com-
manders (Pol.) (Posen, 1865).

CHLORAL,orTRiCHLORACETALDEHYDE,CCl3-CHO,asubstance
discovered by J. von Liebig in 1832 (Ann., 1832, i, p. 189) and
further studied by J. B. A. Dumas and Staedeler. It is a heavy,
oily and colourless liquid, of specific gravity 1-541 at o° C., and
boiling-point 97-7° C. It has a greasy, somewhat bitter taste,
and gives off a vapour at ordinary temperature which has a
pungent 'odour and an irritating effect on the eyes. The word
chloral is derived from the first syllables of chlorine and alcohol,
the names of the substances employed for its preparation.
Chloral is soluble in alcohol and ether, in less than its own
weight of water, and in four times its weight of chloroform; it
absorbs chlorine, and dissolves bromine, iodine, phosphorus and
sulphur. Chloral deliquesces in the air, and is converted by
water into a hydrate, with evolution of heat; it combines with
alcohols and mercaptans. An ammoniacal solution of silver
nitrate is reduced by chloral; and nascent hydrogen converts
it into aldehyde. By means of phosphorus pentachloride,
chlorine can be substituted for the oxygen of chloral, the
body CC13-CC12H being produced; an analogous compound,
CCl3-C(C6H5)2H, is obtained by treating chloral with benzene
and sulphuric acid. With an alkali, chloral gives chloroform
(q.v.) and a formate; oxidizing agents give trichloracetic acid,
CCls- CO (OH) . When kept for some days, as also when placed in
contact with sulphuric acid or a very small quantity of water,
chloral undergoes spontaneous change into the polymeride
metachloral (C2Cl3OH)3, a white porcellaneous body, slowly
volatile in the air, and reconverted into chloral without melting
at 1 80° C. Chloral unites directly with hydrocyanic acid to
form j3-trichloracetonitrile, CCU- CH(OH) CN, and with hydroxyl-
amine it forms chlorglyoxime, C2HsClN2O2.

Chloral is prepared by passing dry chlorine into absolute
alcohol; the latter must be cooled at first, but towards the end
of the operation has to be heated nearly to boiling. The alcohol
is converted finally into a syrupy^ fluid, from which chloral is
procured by treatment with sulphuric acid (see P. Fritsch, Ann.,
1894, pp. 279, 288). The crude chloral is distilled over lime,
and is purified by further treatment with sulphuric acid, and by
redistillation. A mixture of starch or sugar with manganese
peroxide and hydrochloric acid may be employed instead of
alcohol and chlorine for the manufacture of chloral (A. Staedeler,
Ann. Ch. Pharm.', 1847, 61, p. 101). An isomer of chloral,
parachloralide, is made by passing excess of dry chlorine into
absolute methyl alcohol.

Chloral hydrate, CC13-CH(OH)2, forms oblique, often very short,
rhombic prisms. The crystals are perfectly transparent, only slightly
odorous, free from powder, and dry to the touch, and do not become
white by exposure. The melting-point of pure chloral hydrate is
57°, the boiling-point 96-98° C. When heated with sulphuric acid
it is converted into anhydrous chloral and Moralide, CsH8Cl«Oa.
When mixed with water, chloral hydrate causes a considerable degree
of cold; and, as with camphor, small fragments of it placed on the
surface of water exhibit gyratory movements. Chloral hydrate does
not restore the colour to a solution of fuchsine which has been
decolorized by sulphurous acid, and so one must assume that the
water present is combined in the molecular condition (V. Meyer,
Ber., 1880, 13, p. 2343). Chloral may be estimated by distilling the
hydrate with milk of Ume and measuring the volume of chloroform
produced (C. H. Wood, Pharm. Journ., (3) I, p. 703), or by hydrolysis
with a known volume of standard alkali and back titration with
standard acid (V. Meyer, Ber., 1873, 6, p. 600). Chloral hydrate
has the property of checking the decomposition of a great number

254

CHLORATES— CHLORINE

of albuminous substances, such as milk and meat; and a mixture
of it with glycerin, according to J. Personne, is suitable for the
preservation of anatomical preparations. When heated with con-
centrated glycerin to a temperature of no" to 230° C., chloral
hydrate yields chloroform, CHCla, and allyl formate, HCO(OC8HS).

Pharmacology and Therapeutics. — The breaking up of chloral
hydrate, in the presence of alkalis, with the production of chloroform
and formates, led Liebreich to the conjecture that a similar decom-
position might be produced in the blood ; and hence his introduction
of the drug, in 1869, as an anaesthetic and hypnotic. It is now
known, however, that the drug circulates in the blood unchanged,
and is excreted in the form of urochloralic acid. The dose is from
five to twenty grains or somewhat more, and it is often given in the
form of the pharmacopoeial Syrupus Chloral, which contains ten
grains of chloral hydrate to the fluid drachm. Chloral hydrate must
be well diluted when given by the mouth, as otherwise it may cause
considerable gastro-intestinal irritation. In large doses chloral
hydrate is a depressant to the circulation and the respiration, and
also lowers the temperature. In the above doses the drug is a
powerful and safe hypnotic, acting directly on the brain, and pro-
ducing no preliminary stage of excitement. Very soon — perhaps
twenty minutes — after taking such a dose, the patient falls into a sleep
which lasts several hours, and is not distinguishable from natural
sleep. When he wakes, it is without disagreeable after-symptoms,
but with a feeling of natural refreshment. The pupils are always
contracted under its influence, except in large doses. There is also
rapidly induced a depression of the anterior horns of grey matter in
the spinal cord, and as the symptoms of strychnine poisoning are
due to violent stimulation of these areas, chloral hydrate is a valuable
antidote in such cases. It should not be hypodermically injected.
Its disadvantages are that it is powerless when there is pain, re-
sembling in this feature nearly all hypnotics except opium (morphine)
and hyoscin. Its action on the gastro-intestinal canal and on the
respiratory and circulatory systems renders its use inadvisable when
disease of these organs is present. Its action on the spinal cord has
been employed with success in cases of tetanus, whooping-cough,
urinary incontjnence, and strychnine poisoning. In the latter case
twenty grains in " normal saline " solution may be directly injected
into a subcutaneous vein, but not into the subcutaneous tissues.

Toxicology. — In cases of acute poisoning by chloral hydrate, the
symptoms may be summarized as those of profound coma. The
treatment is to give a stimulant emetic such as mustard; to keep
up the temperature by hot bottles, &c. ; to prevent or disturb the
patient's morbid sleep by the injection of hot strong coffee into the
rectum, and by shouting, flipping with towels, &c. ; to use artificial
respiration in extreme cases; and to inject strychnine. Strychnine
is much less likely, however, to save life after poisoning by chloral
hydrate, than chloral hydrate is to save lite in poisoning by strychnine.

Chronic poisoning by chloral is a most pernicious drug-habit.
The vice is easily and very rapidly acquired. The victim is usually
excited and loquacious. He is easily fatigued and suffers from
attacks of easily induced syncope. There are signs of gastro-in-
testinal irritation, and a tendency to cutaneous eruptions of an
erythematous type. The patient may succumb to a dose only
slightly larger than usual. The treatment is on general principles,
there being no specific remedy. The patient must be persuaded to
put himself under restraint, and the drug must be stopped at once
and entirely.

CHLORATES, the metallic salts of chloric acid; they are all
solids, soluble in water, the least soluble being the potassium
salt. They may be prepared by dissolving or suspending a
metallic oxide or hydroxide in water and saturating the solution
with chlorine; by double decomposition; or by neutralizing a
solution of chloric acid by a metallic oxide, hydroxide or carbonate.
They are all decomposed on heating, with evolution of oxygen;
and in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid with liberation
of chlorine peroxide. The most important is potassium chlorate,
KClOs, which was obtained in 1786 by C. L. Berthollet by the
action of chlorine on caustic potash, and this method was at first
used for its manufacture. The modern process consists in the
electrolysis of a hot solution of potassium chloride, or, preferably,
the formation of sodium chlorate by the electrolytic method and
its subsequent decomposition by potassium chloride. (See
ALKALI MANUFACTURE.) Potassium chlorate crystallizes in large
white tablets, of a bright lustre. It melts without decomposition,
and begins to give off oxygen at about 370° C. According to
F. L. Teed (Proc. Chem. Soc., 1886, p. 141), the decomposition of
potassium chlorate by heat is not at all simple, the quantities
of chloride and perchlorate produced depending on the tempera-
ture. A very gentle heating gives decomposition approximating
to the equation of 22KC1O3=14KC1O4+SKC1+502, whilst on a
more rapid heating the quantities correspond more nearly to
lOKClOs = 6KC1O4+4KC1+3O2. The decomposition is rendered

more easy and regular by mixing the salt with powdered man-
ganese dioxide. The salt finds application in the preparation of
oxygen, in the manufacture of matches, for pyrotechnic purposes,
and in medicine. Sodium chlorate, NaClOa, is prepared by the
electrolytic process; by passing chlorine into milk of lime and
decomposing the calcium chlorate formed by sodium sulphate;
or by the action of chlorine on sodium carbonate at low tempera-
ture (not above 35° C.). It is much more soluble in water than
the potassium salt.

Potassium chlorate is very valuable in medicine. Given in large
doses it causes rapid and characteristic poisoning, with alterations
in the blood and rapid degeneration of nearly all the internal
organs; but in small doses — 5 to 15 grains — it partly undergoes
reduction in the blood and tissues, the chloride being formed
and oxygen being supplied to the body-cells in nascent form.
Its special uses are in ulceration of the mouth or tongue (ulceralive
stomatitis), tonsillitis and pharyngitis. For these conditions it is
administered in the form of a lozenge, but may also be swallowed
in solution, as it is excreted by the saliva and so reaches the
diseased surface. Its remarkable efficacy in healing ulcers of
the mouth — for which it is the specific — has been ascribed to a
decomposition effected by the carbonic acid which is given off
from these ulcers. This releases chloric acid, which, being an
extremely powerful antiseptic, kills the bacteria to which the
ulcers are due.

CHLORINE (symbol Cl, atomic weight 35-46 (O=i6), a
gaseous chemical element of the halogen group, taking its name
from the colour, greenish-yellow (Gr. x^wpos). It was discovered
in 1774 by Scheele, who called it dephlogisticated muriatic acid;
about 1785, C. L. Berthollet, regarding it as being a compound of
hydrochloric acid and oxygen, termed it oxygenized muriatic acid.
This view was generally held until about 1810-1811, when Sir
H. Davy showed definitely that it was an element, and gave
it the name which it now bears.

Chlorine is never found in nature in the uncombined condition,
but in combination with the alkali metals it occurs widely
distributed in the form of rock-salt (sodium chloride) ; as sylvine
and carnallite, at Stassfurt; and to a smaller extent in various
other minerals such as matlockite and horn-mercury. In the
form of alkaline chlorides it is found in sea-water and various
spring waters, and in the tissues of animals and plants; while,
as hydrochloric acid it is found in volcanic gases.

The preparation of chlorine, both on the small scale and
commercially, depends on the oxidation of hydrochloric acid;
the usual oxidizing agent is manganese dioxide, which, when
heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid, forms manganese
chloride, water and chlorine :— MnO2+4HCl = MnCl2+2H2O+
C12. The manganese dioxide may be replaced by various other
substances, such as red lead, lead dioxide, potassium bichromate,
and potassium permanganate. Instead of heating hydrochloric
acid with manganese dioxide, use is frequently made of a mixture
of common salt and manganese dioxide, to which concentrated
sulphuric acid is added and the mixture is then heated: — MnO2
+2NaCl+3H2SO4 = MnS04+2NaHSO4+2H2O+Cl2. Chlorine
may also be obtained by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on
bleaching powder.

Owing to the enormous quantities of chlorine required for
various industrial purposes, many processes have been devised,
either for the recovery of the manganese from the crude man-
ganese chloride of the chlorine stills, so that it can be again utilized,
or for the purpose of preparing chlorine without the necessity of
using manganese in any form (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).

Owing to the reduction in the supply of available hydrochloric acid
(on account of the increasing use of the " ammonia-soda " process in
place of the " Leblanc " process for the manufacture of soda) Weldon
tried to adapt the former to the production of chlorine or hydro-
chloric acid. His method consisted in using magnesia instead of
lime for the recovery of the ammonia (which occurs in the form of
ammonium chloride in the ammonia-soda process), and then by
evaporating the magnesium chloride solution and heating the residue
in steam, to condense the acid vapours and so obtain hydrochloric
acid. One day before him E. Solvay had patented the same process,
but neither of them was able to make the method a commercial
success. However, in conjunction with Pechiney, of Salindres (near

CHLORINE

255

Alais, France), the Weldon-Pechiney process was worked out. The
residual magnesium chloride of the ammonia-soda process is eva-
porated until it ceases to give off hydrochloric acid, and is then mixed
with more magnesia; the magnesium oxychloride formed is broken
into small pieces and heated in a current of air, when it gives up its
chlorine, partly in the uncombined condition and partly in the form
of hydrochloric acid, and leaves a residue of magnesia, which can
again be utilized for the decomposition of more ammonium chloride
(VV. Weldon, Journ. ofSoc. of Ghent. Industry, 1884, p. 387). Greater
success attended the efforts of Ludwig Mond, of the firm of Brunner,
Mond & Co. In this process the ammonium chloride is volatilized
in large iron retorts lined with Doulton tiles, and then led into large
upright wrought-iron cylinders lined with fire-bricks. These cylinders
are filled with pills, made of a mixture of magnesia, potassium
chloride and fireclay, the object of the potassium chloride being to
prevent any formation of hydrochloric acid, which might occur if
the magnesia was not perfectly dry. At 300° C. the ammonium
chloride is decomposed by the magnesia, with the formation of
magnesium chloride and ammonia. The mixture is now heated to
600° C. in a current of hot dry gas, containing no free oxygen

gas from the carbonating plant being used), and then a current of air
at the same temperature is passed in. Decomposition takes place
and the issuing gas contains 18-20% of chlorine. This percentage
drops gradually, and when it is reduced to about 3 % the temperature
of the apparatus is lowered, by the admission of air, to about 350° C.,
and the air stream containing the small percentage of chlorine is
led off to a second cylinder of pills, which have just been treated
with ammonium chloride vapour and are ready for the hot air
current. With four cylinders the process is continuous (L. Mond,
British Assoc. Reports, 1896, p. 734).

More recently, owing to the production of caustic soda by electro-
lytic methods, much chlorine has consequently been produced in
the same manner (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).

Chlorine is a gas of a greenish-yellow colour, and possesses
a characteristic unpleasant and suffocating smell. It can be
liquefied at - 34° C. under atmospheric pressure, and at — 102° C.
it solidifies and crystallizes. Its specific heat at constant pressure
is 0-1155, and at constant volume 0-08731 (A. Strecker, Wied.
Ann., 1877 [2], 13, p. 20); and its refractive index 1-000772, whilst
in the liquid condition the refractive index is 1-367. The density
is 2-4885 (air= i) (Treadwell and Christie, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905,
47, p. 446). Its critical temperature is 146° C. Liquid and solid
chlorine are both yellow in colour. The gas must be collected
either by downward displacement, since it is soluble in water and
also attacks mercury; or over a saturated salt solution, in which
it is only slightly soluble. At ordinary temperatures it unites
directly with many other elements; thus with hydrogen, com-
bination takes place in direct sunlight with explosive violence;
arsenic, antimony, thin copper foil and phosphorus take fire in an
atmosphere of chlorine, forming the corresponding chlorides.
Many compounds containing hydrogen are readily decomposed
by the gas; for example, a piece of paper dipped in turpentine
inflames in an atmosphere of chlorine, producing hydrochloric
acid and a copious deposit of soot; a lighted taper burns in
chlorine with a dull smoky flame. The solution of chlorine in
water, when freshly prepared, possesses a yellow colour, but on
keeping becomes colourless, on account of its decomposition into
hydrochloric acid and oxygen. It is on this property that its
bleaching and disinfecting power depends (see BLEACHING).
Water saturated with chlorine at o° C. deposits crystals of a
hydrate Cl2-8H2O, which is readily decomposed at a higher
temperature into its constituents. Chlorine hydrate has an
historical importance, as by sealing it up in a bent tube, and
heating the end containing the hydrate, whilst the other limb of
the tube was enclosed in a freezing mixture, M. Faraday was first
able to obtain liquid chlorine.

Chlorine is used commercially for the extraction of gold (?.».) and
for the manulacture of " bleaching powder " and of chlorates.
It also finds an extensive use in organic chemistry as a substituting
and oxidizing agent, as well as for the preparation of addition com-
pounds. For purposes of substitution, the free element as a rule only
works slowly on saturated compounds, but the reaction may be
accelerated by the action of sunlight or on warming, or by using a
" carrier." In these latter cases the reaction may proceed in different
directions; thus, with the aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorine in the
cold or in the presence of a carrier substitutes in the benzene nucleus,
but in the presence of sunlight or on warming, substitution takes
place in the side chain. Iodine, antimony trichloride, molybdenum
pentachloride, ferric chloride, ferric oxide, antimony, tin, stannic
oxide and ferrous sulphate have all been used as chlorine carriers.

The atomic weight of chlorine was determined by J. Berzelius

and by F. Penny (Phil. Trans., 1830, 13). J. S. Stas, from the
synthesis of silver chloride, obtained the value 35-457 (O = l6),
and C. Marignac found the value 34-462. More recent determinations
are: H. B. Dixon and E. C. Edgar (Phil. Trans., 1905); T. W.
Richards and G. Jones (Abst. J.C.S., 1907) ; W. A. Noyes and H. C.
Weber (ibid., 1908), and Edgar (ibid., 1908).

Hydrochloric Acid. — Chlorine combines with hydrogen to
form hydrochloric acid, HC1, the only known compound of
these two elements. The acid itself was first obtained by J. R.
Glauber in about 1648, but J. Priestley in 1772 was the first to
isolate it in the gaseous condition, and Sir H. Davy in 1810
showed that it contained hydrogen and chlorine only, as up to
that time it was considered to contain oxygen. It may be pre-
pared by the direct union of its constituents (see Burgess and
Chapman, J.C.S., 1906, 89, p. 1399), but on the large scale
and also for the preparation of small quantities it is made by
the decomposition of salt by means of concentrated sulphuric
acid, NaCl+H2SO4 = NaHSO4+HCl. It is chiefly obtained as a
by-product in the manufacture of soda-ash by the Leblanc
process (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE). The commercial acid is
usually yellow in colour and contains many impurities, such as
traces of arsenic, sulphuric acid, chlorine, ferric chloride and
sulphurous acid; but these do not interfere with its application
to the preparation of bleaching powder, in which it is chiefly
consumed. Without further purification it is also used for
" souring " in bleaching, and in tin and lead soldering.

It is a colourless gas, which can be condensed by cold and pressure
to a liquid boiling at - 83-7° C.,and can also be solidified, the solid
melting at - 112-5° C. (K. Olszewski). Its critical temperature is
52-3° C., and its critical pressure is 86 atmos. The gas fumes strongly
in moist air, and it is rapidly dissolved by water, one volume of
water at o° C. absorbing 503 volumes of the gas. The gas does not
obey Henry's law, that is, its solubility in water is not proportional
to its pressure. It is one of the " strong " acids, being ionized to the
extent of about 91-4% in dacinormal solution. The strongest
aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid at 15° C. contains 42-9% of
the acid, and has a specific gravity of 1-212. Perfectly dry hydro-
chloric acid gas has no action on metals, but in aqueous solution it
dissolves many of them with evolution of hydrogen and formation
of chlorides.

The salts of hydrochloric acid, known as chlorides, can, in most
cases, be prepared by dissolving either the metal, its hydroxide,
oxide, or carbonate in the acid ; or by heating the metal in a current
of chlorine, or by precipitation. The majority of the metallic chlorides
are solids (stannic chloride, titanic chloride and antimony penta-
chloride are liquids) which readily volatilize on heating. Many are
readily soluble in water, the chief exceptions being silver chloride,
mercurous chloride, cuprous chloride and palladious chloride which
are insoluble in water, and thallous chloride and lead chloride which
are only slightly soluble in cold water, but are readily soluble in hot
water. Bismuth and antimony chlorides are decomposed by water
with production of oxychlorides, whilst titanium tetrachloi ide
yields titanic acid under the same conditions. All the metallic
chlorides, with the exception of those of the alkali and alkaline
earth metals, are reduced either to the metallic condition or to that
of a lower chloride on heating in a current of hydrogen ; most are
decomposed by concentrated sulphuric acid. They can be dis-
tinguished from the corresponding bromides and iodides by the
fact that on distillation with a mixture of potassium bichromate
and concentrated sulphuric acid they yield chromium oxychloride,
whereas bromides and iodides by the same treatment give bromine
and iodine respectively. Some metallic chlorides readily form
double chlorides, the most important of these double salts being the
platinochlorides of the alkali metals. The chlorides of the non-
metallic elements are usually volatile fuming liquids of low boiling-
point, which can be distilled without decomposition and are de-
composed by water. Hydrochloric acid and its metallic salts can
be recognized by the formation of insoluble silver chloride, on adding
silver nitrate to their nitric acid solution, and also by the formation
of chromium oxychloride (see above). Chlorides can be estimated
quantitatively by conversion into silver chloride, or it in the form of
alkaline chlorides (in the absence of other metals, and of any free
acids) by titration with standard silver nitrate solution, using
potassium chromate as an indicator.

Chlorine and oxygen do not combine directly, but compounds can
be obtained indirectly. Three oxides are known : chlorine monoxide,
CljO, chlorine peroxide, ClOj, and chlorine heptoxide, CljO?.

Chlorine monoxide results on passing chlorine over dry precipitated
mercuric oxide. It is a pale yellow gas which can be condensed, on
cooling, to a dark-coloured liquid boiling at 5° C. (under a pressure
of 737-9 mm.). It is extremely unstable, decomposing with extreme
violence on the slightest shock or disturbance, or on exposure to
sunlight. It is readily soluble in water, with which it combines to
form hypochlorous acid. Sulphur, phosphorus, carbon compounds,

256

CHLORITE

and the alkali metals react violently with the gas, taking fire with
explosive decomposition. A. J. Bajard determined the volume
composition of the gas by decomposition over mercury on gentle
warming, followed by the absorption of the chlorine produced with
potassium hydroxide, and then measured the residual oxygen.

Chlorine peroxide was first obtained by Sir H. Davy in 1815 by
the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on potassium chlorate.
As this oxide is a dangerous explosive, great care must be taken in
its preparation; the chlorate is finely powdered and added in the
i-nid, in small quantities at a time, to the acid contained in a retort.
After solution the retort is gently heated by warm water when the
easisliberated :— 3KC1O,+2H?SO4 = KClO<+2KHSO4-f;H2O+ClO!.
A mixture of chlorine peroxide and chlorine is obtained by the
action of hydrochloric acid on potassium chlorate, and similarly,
on warming a mixture of potassium chlorate and oxalic acid to
70° C. on the water bath, a mixture of chlorine peroxide and carbon
•dioxide is obtained. Chlorine peroxide must be collected by displace-
ment, as it is soluble in water and readily attacks mercury. It is
a heavy gas of a deep yellow colour and possesses an unpleasant
smell. It can be liquefied, the liquid boiling at 9-9° C., and on
further cooling it solidifies at -79° C. It is very explosive, being
resolved into its constituents by influence of light, on warming,
or on application of shock. It is a very powerful oxidant ; a mixture
of potassium chlorate and sugar in about equal proportions spon-
taneously inflames when touched with a rod moistened with con-
centrated sulphuric acid, the chlorine peroxide liberated setting fire
to the sugar, which goes on burning. Similarly, phosphorus can be
burned under water by covering it with a little potassium chlorate
and running in a thin stream of concentrated sulphuric acid (see
papers by Bray, Zeii. phys. Chem., 1906, et seq.).

Chlorine heptoxide was obtained by A. Michael by slowly adding ,
perchloric acid to phosphoric oxide below -10° C. ; the mixture is
allowed to stand for a day and then gently warmed, when the oxide
•distils over as a colourless very volatile oil of boiling-point 82° C.
It turns to a greenish-yellow colour in two or three days and gives
off a greenish gas; it explodes violently on percussion or in contact
with a flame, and is gradually converted into perchloric acid by the
action of water. On the addition of iodine to this oxide, chlorine
is liberated and a white substance is produced, which decomposes, on
heating to 380° C., into iodine and oxygen; bromine is without
action (see A. Michael, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1900, vol. 23; 1901, vol.

25)-

Several oxy-acids of chlorine are known, namely, hypochlorous
acid, HC1O, chlorous acid, HC1O2 (in the form of its salts), chloric
acid, HClOs, and perchloric acid, HCIOi. Hypochlorous acid is
formed when chlorine monoxide dissolves in water, and can be pre-
pared (in dilute solution) by passing chlorine through water con-
taining precipitated mercuric oxide in suspension. Precipitated
calcium carbonate may be used in place of the mercuric oxide, or a
•hypochlorite may be decomposed by a dilute mineral acid and the
.resulting solution distilled. For this purpose a filtered solution of
bleaching-powder and a very dilute solution of nitric acid may be
-employed. The acid is only known in aqueous solution, and only
dilute solutions can be distilled without decomposition. The solution
has a pale yellow colour, and is a strong oxidizing and bleaching
agent; it is readily decomposed by hydrochloric acid, with evolution
of oxygen. The salts of this acid are known as hypochlorites, and
like the acid itself are very unstable, so that it is almost impossible
to obtain them pure. A solution of sodium hypochlorite (Eau de
Javel), which can be prepared by passing chlorine into a cold aqueous
solution of caustic soda, has been extensively used for bleaching
purposes. One of the most important derivatives of hypochlorous
acid is bleaching powder. Sodium hypochlorite can be prepared by
the electrolysis of brine solution in the presence of carbon electrodes,
having no diaphragm in the electrolytic cell, and mixing the anode
and cathode products by agitating the liquid. The temperature
should be kept at about 15° C., and the concentration of the hypo-
chlorite produced must not be allowed to become too great, in order
to prevent reduction taking place at the cathode.

Chlorous acid is not known in the pure condition; but its sodium
salt is prepared by the action of sodium peroxide on a solution of
chlorine peroxide:2ClO2 + Na2Oo=2NaClO?+O2. Thesilverand lead
salts are unstable, being decomposed with explosive violence at
100° C. On adding a caustic alkali solution to one of chlorine
peroxide, a mixture of a chlorite and a chlorate is obtained.

Chloric acid was discovered in 1786 by C. L. Berthollet, and is
best prepared by decomposing barium chlorate with the calculated
amount of dilute sulphuric acid. The aqueous solution can be con-
centrated in vacua ov.er sulphuric acid until it contains 40% of
chloric acid. Further concentration leads to decomposition, with
•evolution of oxygen and formation of perchloric acid. The con-
centrated solution is a powerful oxidizing agent; organic matter
being oxidized so rapidly that it frequently inflames. Hydrochloric
acid, sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid are rapidly oxidized
by chloric acid. J. S. Stas determined its composition by the analysis
of pure silver chlorate. The salts of this acid are known as chlorates
(q.v.).

Perchloric acid is best prepared by distilling potassium perchlorate
with concentrated sulphuric acid. According to Sir H. Roscoe, pure
perchloric acid distils over at first, but if the distillation be continued

a white crystalline mass of hydrated perchloric acid, HCIO«-H2O,
passes over; this is due to the decomposition of some of the acid
into water and lower oxides of chlorine, the water produced then
combining with the pure acid to produce the hydrated form. This
solid, on redistillation, gives the pure acid, which is a liquid boiling at
39° C. (under a pressure of 56 mm.) and of specific gravity I -764 (V °).
The crystalline hydrate melts at 50° C. The pure acid decom-
poses slowly on standing, but is stable in dilute aqueous solution.
It is a very powerful oxidizing agent; wood and paper in contact
with the acid inflame with explosive violence. In contact with the
skin it produces painful wounds. It may be distinguished from
chloric acid by the fact that it does not give chlorine peroxide when
treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, and that it is not reduced
by sulphurous acid. The salts of the acid are known as the per-
chlorates, and are all soluble in water; the potassium and rubidium
salts, however, are only soluble to a slight extent. Potassium
perchlorate, KClOi, can be obtained by carefully heating the chlorate
until it first melts and then nearly all solidifies again. The fused
mass is then extracted with water to remove potassium chloride, and
warmed with hydrochloric acid to remove unaltered chlorate, and
finally extracted with water again, when a residue of practically pure
perchlorate is obtained. The alkaline perchlorates are isomorphous
with the permanganates.

CHLORITE, a group of green micaceous minerals which are
hydrous silicates of aluminium, magnesium and ferrous iron.
The name was given by A. G. Werner in 1798, from x^>P""w,
" a green stone." Several species and many rather ill-defined
varieties have been described, but they are difficult to recognize.
Like the micas, the chlorites (or " hydromicas ") are monoclinic
in crystallization and have a perfect cleavage parallel to the flat
face of the scales and plates. The cleavage is, however, not
quite so prominent as in the micas, and the cleavage flakes
though pliable are not elastic. The chlorites usually occur as
salt (H=2~3) scaly aggregates of a dark-green colour. They
vary in specific gravity between 2-6 and 3-0, according to the
amount of iron present. Well-developed crystals are met with
only in the species clinochlore and penninite; those of the former
are six-sided plates and are optically biaxial, whilst those of the
latter have the form of acute rhombohedra and are usually
optically uniaxial. The species prochlorite and corundophilite
also occur as more or less distinct six-sided plates. These four
better crystallized species are grouped together by G. Tschermak
as orthochlorites, the finely scaly and indistinctly fibrous forms
being grouped by the same author as leptochlorites.

Chemically, the chlorites are distinguished from the micas by
the presence of a considerable amount of water (about 13%)
and by not containing alkalis; from the soft, scaly, mineral
talc they differ in containing aluminium (about 20%) as an
essential constituent. The magnesia (up to 36%) is often
in part replaced by ferrous oxide (up to 30%), and the alu-
mina to a lesser extent by ferric oxide; alumina may also be
partly replaced by chromic oxide, as in the rose-red varieties
kammererite and kotschubeite. The composition of both
clinochlore and penninite is approximately expressed by
the formula HstMg^^sAUSisOig, and the formulae of pro-
chlorite and corundophilite are H^MgjFe^AluSiisOso and
H2o(Mg,Fe)nAl8Si6045 respectively. The variation in com-
position of these orthochlorites is explained by G. Tschermak
by assuming them to be isomorphous mixtures of HiMgsSiA
(the serpentine molecule) and I^MgsAlzSiOs (which is approxi-
mately the composition of the chlorite amesite). The lepto-
chlorites are still more complex, and the intermixture of other
fundamental molecules has to be assumed ; the species recognized
by Dana are daphnite, cronstedtite, thuringite, stilpnomelane,
strigovite, diabantite, aphrosiderite, delessite and rumpfite.

The chlorites usually occur as alteration products of other
minerals, such as pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, garnet, &c.,
often occurring as pseudomorphs after these, or as earthy
material filling cavities in igneous rocks composed of these
minerals. Many altered igneous rocks owe their green colour
to the presence of secondary chlorite. Chlorite is also an im-
portant constituent of many schistose rocks and phyllites, and
of chlorite-schist it is the only essential constituent. Well-
crystallized specimens of the species clinochlore are found with
crystals of garnet in cavities in chlorite-schist at Achmatovsk
near Zlatoust, in the Urals, and at the Ala valley near Turin,

CHLOROFORM— CHMIELNICKI

257

Piedmont ; also as large plates at West Chester hi Pennsylvania
and at other American localities. Crystals of penninite are
found in serpentine at Zermatt in Switzerland and in the green
schists of the Zillerthal in Tirol.

Closely allied to the chlorites is another group of micaceous
minerals known as the vermiculites, which have resulted by the
alteration of the micas, particularly biotite and phlogopite.
The name is from the Latin vermicular, " to breed worms,"
because when heated before the blowpipe these minerals ex-
foliate into long worm-like threads. They have the same
chemical constituents as the chlorites, but the composition
is variable and indefinite, varying with that of the original
mineral and the extent of its alteration. Several indistinct
varieties have been named, the most important of which is
jeffersonite. (L. J. S.)

CHLOROFORM (trichlor-methane), CHClj, a valuable an-
aesthetic, a colourless liquid, possessing an agreeable smell and
a pleasant taste. It may be prepared by the action of bleaching
powder on many carbon compounds, such, for example, as ethyl
alcohol and acetone (E. Soubeiran, Ann. chim. phys., 1831 [2],
48, p. 131; J. v. Liebig, Ann., 1832, i, p. 199), by heating chloral
with alkalis (Liebig), CC13CHO + NaHO= CHCU + NaHCO2, or '
by heating trichloracetic acid with ammonia (J. Dumas, Ann.,
1839, 32, p. 113). In the preparation of chloroform by the action
of bleaching powder on ethyl alcohol it is probable that the
alcohol is first oxidized to acetaldehyde, which is subsequently
chlorinated and then decomposed. Chloroform solidifies in the
cold and then melts at -62° C.; it boils at 61-2° C., and has a
specific gravity 1-52637 (o°/4°) (T. E. Thorpe). It is an exceed-
ingly good solvent, especially for fats, alkaloids and iodine.
It is not inflammable. The vapour of chloroform when passed
through a. red-hot tube yields hexachlorbenzene CeCl6, per-
chlorethane C2Cle, and some perchlorethylene C2CU (W.
Ramsay and S. Young, Jahresberichte, 1886, p. 628). Chromic
acid converts it into phosgene (carbonyl chloride, COC12). It
reacts with sodium ethylate to form ortho-formic ester,
CH(OC2H5)3, and when heated with aqueous ammonia for some
hours at 200-220° C. gives carbon monoxide and ammonium
formate, 2CHC13 + 7NH3 + 3H2O = NHvHCO2 + CO+eNI^Cl
(G. Andr6, Jahresb., 1886, p. 627). When digested with phenols
and caustic soda it forms oxyaldehydes (K. Reimer, Ber., 1876,
9, p. 423) ; and when heated with alcoholic potash it is converted
into potassium formate, CHCU + 4KHO = KHCO2 + 3KC1+
2H2O. It combines with acetoacetic ester to form the aromatic
compound meta-oxyuvitic acid, CsH2-CH3-OH-(COOH)2. A
hydrate, of composition CHC13-18H2O, has been described
(G. Chancel, Fresenius Zeitschrifl f. anal. Chemie, 1886, 25, p.
118); it forms hexagonal crystals which melt at 1-6° C.

Chloroform may be readily detected by the production of
an isonitrile when it is heated with alcoholic potash and a primary
amine; thus with aniline, phenyl isocyanide (recognized by its
nauseating smell) is produced,

CHC1,+QH6NH2+3KHO = C,H6NC+3KC1+3H2O.

For the action and use of chloroform as an anaesthetic, see
ANAESTHESIA. Chloroform may be given internally La doses
of from one to five drops. The British Pharmacopoeia contains
a watery solution — the Aqua Chloroformi — which is useful in
disguising the taste of nauseous drugs; a liniment which consists
of equal parts of camphor liniment and chloroform, and is a
useful counter-irritant; the Spiritus Chloroformi (erroneously
known as " chloric ether "), which is a useful anodyne in doses
of from five to forty drops; and the Tinctura Chloroformi et
Morphinae Composite, which is the equivalent of a proprietary
drug called chlorodyne. This tincture contains chloroform, mor-
phine and prussic acid, and must be used with the greatest care.

Externally chloroform is an antiseptic, a local anaesthetic
if allowed to evaporate, and a rubefacient, causing the vessels
of the skin to dilate, if rubbed in. Its action on the stomach
is practically identical with that of alcohol (?.».), though in very
much smaller doses. The uses of chloroform which fall to be
mentioned here are: — as a counter-irritant; as a local anaes-

tic for toothache due to caries, it being applied on a cotton-
'•

wool plug which is inserted into the carious cavity; as an
antispastnodic in tetanus and hydrophobia; and as the best
and most immediate and effective antidote in cases of strychnine
poisoning.

CHLOROPHYLL (from Gr. xA«p6s, green, <t>v\\ov, a leaf),
the green colouring matter of leaves. It is universally present
in growing vegetable cells. The pigment of leaves is a complex
mixture of substances; of these one is green, and to this the
name, originally given in 1817 by Pelletier and Caventou, is
sometimes restricted; xanthophyll (Gr. I~a.v6bs, yellow) is ,dark
brown ; carotin is copper-coloured. Chlorophyll is related chemi-
cally to the proteids; a decomposition product, phylloporphyrin,
being very closely related to haematoporphyrin, which is a
decomposition product of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter
of the blood. Chlorophyll is neutral in reaction, insoluble in
water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, &c., the solutions exhibiting
a green colour and a vivid red fluorescence. Magnesium is a
necessary constituent. (See S. B. Schryver, Science Progress,

1909, 3, P- 42S-)

CHLOROSIS (Gr. xXwp6s, pale green), the botanical term for
loss of colour in a plant-organ, a sign of disease; also in medicine,
a form of anaemia (see BLOOD: Pathology).

CHLORPICRIN (Nitrochloroform), C-NOyCU, the product
of the distillation of many nitro compounds (picric acid, nitro-
methane, &c.) with bleaching powder; it can also be prepared
by the action of concentrated nitric acid on chloral or chloroform.
A. W. von Hofmann (Annalen, 1866, 139, p. in) mixed 10 parts
of bleaching powder into a paste with cold water and added a
solution (saturated at 30° C.) of i part of picric acid. ' A violent
reaction is set up and the chlorpicrin distils over, generally
without the necessity for any external heating. It is a colourless
liquid of boiling-point 112° C., and of specific gravity 1-692. It
is almost insoluble in water, but is readily soluble in alcohol; it
has a sharp smell, and its vapour affects the eyes very powerfully.
Iron filings and acetic acid reduce it to trimethylamine, whilst
alcoholic ammonia converts it into guanidine, HN:C(NHj)i,
and sodium ethylate into ortho-carbonic es^er, C(OCjHt)4.
The corresponding brompicrin is also known.

CHMIELNICKI, BOGDAN (c. 1593-1657), hetman of the
Cossacks, son of Michael Chmielnicki, was born at Subatow,
near Chigirin in the Ukraine, an estate given to the elder
Chmielnicki for his lifelong services to the Polish crown.
Bogdan, after learning to read and write, a rare accomplishment
in those days, entered the Cossack ranks, was dangerously
wounded and taken prisoner hi his first battle against the Turks,
and found leisure during his two years' captivity at Constanti-
nople to acquire the rudiments of Turkish and French. On
returning to the Ukraine he settled down quietly on his paternal
estate, and in all probability history would never have known
his name if the intolerable persecution of a neighbouring Polish
squire, who stole his hayricks and flogged his infant son to death,
had not converted the thrifty and acquisitive Cossack husband-
man into one of the most striking and sinister figures of modern
times. Failing to get redress nearer home, he determined to seek
for justice at Warsaw, whither he had been summoned with other
Cossack delegates to assist Wladislaus IV. in his long-projected
war against the Turks. The king, perceiving him to be a man
of some education and intelligence, appointed him pisarz or
secretary of the registered Cossacks, and he subsequently served
under Koniecpolski in the Ukraine campaign of 1646. His hopes
of distinction were, however, cut short by a decree of the
Polish diet, which, in order to vex the king, refused to sanction
the continuance of the war. Chmielnicki, now doubly hateful
to the Poles as being both a royalist and a Cossack, was again
maltreated and chicaned, and only escaped from gaol by bribing
his gaolers. Thirsting for vengeance, he fled to the Cossack
settlements on the Lower Dnieper and thence sent messages to
the khan of the Crimea, urging a simultaneous invasion of
Poland by the Tatars and the Cossacks (1647).

On the nth of April 1648, at an assembly of the Zaporozhians
(see POLAND: History), he openly declared his intention of pro-
ceeding against the Poles, and was elected ataman by acclamation.

258

CHOATE

At Zheltnaya Vodui (Yellow Waters) in the Ukraine he
annihilated, on the loth of May, a detached Polish army corps
after three days' desperate fighting, and on the 26th routed the
main Polish army under the grand hetman, Stephen Potocki,
at Kruta Balka (Hard Plank), near the river Korsun. The
immediate consequence of these victories was the outbreak of a
" serfs' fury." Throughout the Ukraine the Polish gentry
were hunted down, flayed and burnt alive, blinded and sawn
asunder. Every manor-house was reduced to ashes. Every
Uniat and Catholic priest was hung up before his own altar,
along with a Jew and a hog. The panic-stricken inhabitants
fled to the nearest strongholds, and soon the rebels were swarming
all over the palatinates of Volhynia and Podolia. But the ataman
was as crafty as he was cruel. Disagreeably awakened to the
insecurity of his position by the refusal of the tsar and the sultan
to accept him as a vassal, he feigned to resume negotiations
with the Poles in order to gain time, dismissed the Polish com-
missioners in the summer of 1648 with impossible conditions,
and on the 23rd of September, after a contest of three days,
utterly routed the Polish chivalry, 40,000 strong, at Pildawa,
where the Cossacks are said to have reaped an immense booty
after the fight was over. All Poland now lay at his feet, and
the road to the defenceless capital was open before him; but he
wasted the precious months in vain before the fortress of Zamosc,
and was then persuaded by the new king of Poland, John
Casimir, to consent to a suspension of hostilities. In June 1649,
arrayed in cloth-of-gold and mounted on a white charger,
Chmielnicki made his triumphal entry into Kiev, where he was
hailed as the Maccabaeus of the Orthodox faith, and permitted
the committal of unspeakable atrocities on the Jews and Roman
Catholics. At the ensuing peace congress at Pereyaslavl he
demanded terms so extravagant that the Polish commissioners
dared not listen to them. In 1649, therefore, the war was re-
sumed. A bloody battle ensued near Zborow, on the banks of
the Strypa, when only the personal valour of the Polish king,
the superiority of the Polish artillery, and the defection of
Chmielnicki's allies the Tatars enabled the royal forces to hold
their own. Peace was then patched up by the compact of
Zborow (August 21, 1649), whereby Chmielnicki was virtually
recognized as a semi-independent prince.

For the next eighteen months he was the absolute master of
the Ukraine, which he divided into sixteen provinces, made his
native place Chigirin the Cossack capital, and entered into direct
relations with foreign powers. Poland and Muscovy competed
for his alliance, and in his more exalted moods he meditated an
Orthodox crusade against the Turk at the head of the northern
Slavs. But he was no statesman, and his difficulties proved
overwhelming. Instinct told him that his old ally the khan of
the Crimea was unreliable, and that the tsar of Muscovy was his
natural protector, yet he could not make up his mind to abandon
the one or turn to the other. His attempt to carve a principality
for his son out of Moldavia, which Poland regarded as her vassal,
led to the outbreak in 1651 of a third war between subject and
suzerain, which speedily assumed the dignity and the dimensions
of a crusade. Chmielnicki was now regarded not merely as a
Cossack rebel, but as the arch-enemy of Catholicism in eastern
Europe, and the pope granted a plenary absolution to all who
took up arms against him. But Bogdan himself was not without
ecclesiastical sanction. The archbishop of Corinth girded him
with a sword which had lain upon the Holy Sepulchre, and the
metropolitan of Kiev absolved him from all his sins, without
the usual preliminary of confession, before he rode forth to battle.
But fortune, so long his friend, now deserted him, and at
Beresteczko (July I, 1651) the Cossack ataman was defeated
for the first time. But even now his power was far from broken.
In 1652 he openly interfered in the affairs of Transylvania and
Walachia, and assumed the high-sounding title of " guardian
of the Ottoman Porte." In 1653 Poland made a supreme effort,
the diet voted 17,000,000 gulden in subsidies, and John Casimir
led an army of 60,000 men into the Ukraine and defeated the
arch-rebel at Zranta, whereupon Chmielnicki took the oath of
allegiance to the tsar (compact of Pereyaslavl, February 19,1654),

and all hope of an independent Cossack state was at an end. He
died on the 7th of August 1657. With all his native ability,
Chmielnicki was but an eminent savage. He was the creature
of every passing mood or whim, incapable of cool and steady
judgment or of the slightest self-control — an incalculable weather-
cock, blindly obsequious to every blast of passion. He could
destroy, but he could not create, and other people benefited by
his exploits.

See P. Kulish, On the Defection of Malo- Russia from Poland (Rus.)
(Moscow, 1890); S. M. Soloyev, History of Russia (Rus.) (Moscow,
1857, &c.), vol. x.; Robert Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs, chaps.
3-4 (London, 1905). (R. N. B.)

CHOATE, JOSEPH HODGES (1832- ), American lawyer
and diplomat, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 24th of
January 1 83 2 . He was the son of Dr George Choate, a physician
of considerable note, and was a nephew of Rufus Choate. After
graduating at Harvard College in 1852 and at the law school
of Harvard University in 1854, he was admitted first to the
Massachusetts (1855) and then (1856) to the New York bar,
and entered the law office of Scudder & Carter in New York City.
His success in his profession was immediate, and in 1860 he
became junior partner in the firm of Evarts, Southmayd & Choate,
the senior partner in which was William M. Evarts. This firm
and its successor, that of Evarts, Choate & Beaman, remained
for many years among the leading law firms of New York and
of the country, the activities of both being national rather than
local. During these busy years Mr Choate was associated with
many of the most famous litigations in American legal history,
including the Tilden, A. T. Stewart, and Stanford will cases,
the Kansas prohibition cases, the Chinese exclusion cases, the
Maynard election returns case, and the Income Tax Suit. In
1871 he became a member of the " Committee of Seventy " in
New York City, which was instrumental in breaking up the
" Tweed Ring," and later assisted in the prosecution of the
indicted officials. In the retrial of the General Fitz John Porter
case he obtained a reversal of the decision of the original court-
martial. His greatest reputation was won perhaps in cross-
examination. In politics he allied himself with the Republican
party on its organization, being a frequent speaker in presidential
campaigns, beginning with that of 1856. He never held political
office, although he was a candidate for the Republican senatorial
nomination against Senator Thomas C. Platt in 1897. In 1894
he was president of the New York state constitutional convention.
He was appointed, by President McKinley, ambassador to Great
Britain to succeed John Hay in 1899, and remained in this
position until the spring of 1905. In England he won great
personal popularity, and accomplished much in fostering the
good relations of the two great English-speaking powers. He
was one of the representatives of the United States at the second
Peace Congress at the Hague in 1907.

Several of his notable public addresses have been published.
The Choate Story Book (New York, 1903) contains a few of his
addresses and after-dinner speeches, and is prefaced by a brief
biographical sketch.

CHOATE, RUFUS (1799-1859), American lawyer and orator,
was born at Ipswich, Massachusetts, on the ist of October 1799,
the descendant of a family which settled in Massachusetts in
1667. As a child he was remarkably precocious; at six he is
said to have been able to repeat large parts of the Bible and of
Pilgrim's Progress by heart. He graduated as valedictorian of
his class at Dartmouth College in 1819, was a tutor there in 1819-
1820, spent a year in the law school of Harvard University, and
studied for a like period at Washington, in the office of William
Wirt, then attorney-general of the United States. He was
admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1823 and practised at
what was later South Danvers (now Peabody) for five years,
during which time he served in the Massachusetts House of
Representatives (1825-1826) and in the state senate (1827).
In 1828 he removed to Salem, where his successful conduct of
several important law-suits brought him prominently into public
notice. In 1830 he was elected to Congress as a Whig from the
Salem district, defeating the Jacksonian candidate for re-election,

CHOBE— CHODKIEWICZ

259

B. W. Crowninshield (1772-1851), a former secretary of the navy,
and in 1832 he was re-elected. His career in Congress was
marked by a notable speech in defence of a protective tariff.
In 1834, before the completion of his second term, he resigned
and established himself in the practice of law in Boston. Already
his fame as a speaker had spread beyond New England, and he
was much sought after as an orator for public occasions. For
several years he devoted himself unremittingly to his profession,
but in 1841 succeeded Daniel Webster in the United States
Senate. Shortly afterwards he delivered one of his most eloquent
addresses at the memorial services for President Harrison in
Faneuil Hall, Boston. In the Senate he made a series of brilliant
speeches on the tariff, the Oregon boundary, in favour of the
Fiscal Bank Act, and in opposition to the annexation of Texas.
On Webster's re-election to the Senate, Choate resumed (1845)
his law practice, which no amount of urging could ever persuade
him to abandon for public office, save for a short term as attorney-
general of Massachusetts in 1853-1854. In 1853 he was a
member of the state constitutional convention. He was a
faithful supporter of Webster's policy as declared in the latter's
famous " Seventh of March Speech " (1850) and laboured to
secure for him the presidential nomination at the Whig national
convention in 1852. In 1856 he refused to follow most of his
former Whig associates into the Republican party and gave his
support to James Buchanan, whom he considered the repre-
sentative of a national instead of a sectional party. In July 1859
failing health led him to seek rest in a trip to Europe, but he
died on the I3th of that month at Halifax, Nova Scotia, where
he had been put ashore when it was seen that he probably could
not outlive the voyage across the Atlantic. Choate, besides being
one of the ablest of American lawyers, was one of the most
scholarly of American public men, and his numerous orations
and addresses were remarkable for their pure style, their grace
and elegance of form, and their wealth of classical allusion.

His Works (edited, with a memoir, by S. G. Brown) were published
in 2 vols. at Boston in 1862. The Memoir was afterwards published
separately (Boston, 1870). See also E. G. Parker's Reminiscences
of Rufus Choate (New York, 1860); E. P. Whipple's Some Recollec-
tions of Rufus Choate (New York, 1879) ; and the Albany Law Review
(1877-1878).

CHOBE, a large western affluent of the middle Zambezi (q.v.).
The river was discovered by David Livingstone in 1851, and to
him was known as the Chobe. It is also called the . Linyante
and the Kwando, the last name being that commonly used.

CHOCOLATE, a paste of the ground kernels of the cocoa bean,
mixed with sugar, vanilla or other flavouring, made into a cake,
which is used for the manufacture of various forms of sweetmeat,
or in making the beverage, also known as " chocolate," obtained
by dissolving cakes of chocolate in boiling water or milk (see
COCOA). The word came into Eng. through the'Fr. chocolat or
Span, chocolate from the Mex. chocolatl. According to the New
English Dictionary (quoting R. Simeon, Diet, de la langue
Nahuatl), this was " an article of food made of ... the seeds of
cacao and of the tree pochotl (Bombay, ceiba)," and was etymo-
logically distinct from the Mexican cacauatl, cacao, or cocoa.

CHOCTAWS, CHAHTAS, or CHACATOS (apparently a corruption
of Span, chalo, flattened), a tribe of North American Indians of
Muskhogean stock. They are now settled in Oklahoma, but when
first known to Europeans they occupied the district now forming
the southern part of Mississippi and the western part of Alabama.
On the settlement of Louisiana they formed an alliance with
the French, and assisted them against the Natchez and Chicka-
saws; but by degrees they entered into friendly relations with
the English, and at last, in 1786, recognized the supremacy of
the United States by the treaty of Hopewell. Their emigration
westward began about 1800, and the last remains of their original
territory were ceded in 1830. In their new settlements the
Choctaws continued to advance in prosperity till the outbreak
of the Civil War, which considerably diminished the population
and ruined a large part of their property. They sided with the
Confederates, and their territory was occupied by Confederate
troops; and accordingly at the close of the war they were
rded as having lost their rights. Part of their land they

rega

were forced to surrender to the government; th^r slaves were
emancipated; and provision was claimed for them in the shape
of either land or money. Since then they have considerably
recovered their position. They long constituted a quasi-inde-
pendent people under the title of the Choctaw nation, and were
governed by a chief and a national council of forty members,
according to a written constitution, dating in the main from
1838; they possessed a regular judicial system and employed
trial by jury. Tribal government virtually ceased in 1906. The
Choctaws number some 18,000. A few groups still linger in
Mississippi and Louisiana. The Choctaw language has been re-
duced to writing, and brought to some degree of literary precision.
See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN; Handbook of American Indians,
ed. F. W. Hodge (Washington, 1907).

CHODKIEWICZ, JAN KAROL (1560-1621), Polish general,
was the son of Hieronymus Chodkiewicz, castellan of. Wilna.
After being educated at the Wilna academy lie went abroad to
learn the science of war, fighting in the Spanish service under
Alva, and also under Maurice of Nassau. In 1593 he married
the wealthy Sophia Mielecka, by whom he had one son who
predeceased him. His first military service at home was against
the Cossack rising of Nalewajko as lieutenant to Zolkiewski,
and he subsequently assisted Zamoyski in his victorious Mol-
davian campaign. Honours and dignities were now showered
upon him. In 1599 he was appointed starosta of Samogitia,
and in 1600 acting commander-in-chief of Lithuania. In the
war against Sweden for the possession of Livonia he brilliantly
distinguished himself, capturing fortress after fortress, and repuls-
ing the duke of Sudermania, afterwards Charles IX, from Riga.
In 1604 he captured Dorpat, twice defeated the Swedish generals
at Bialy Kamien, and was rewarded with the grand baton of
Lithuania. Criminally neglected by the diet, which from sheer
niggardliness turned a deaf ear to all his requests for reinforce-
ments and for supplies and money to pay his soldiers, Chodkiewicz
nevertheless more than held his own against the Swedes. His
crowning achievement was the great victory of Kirkholm
(Aug. 27th, 1605), when with barely 5000 men he annihilated a
threefold larger Swedish army; for whicn feat he received
letters of congratulation from the pope, all the Catholic poten-
tates of Europe, and even from the sultan of Turkey and the
shah of Persia. Yet this great victory was absolutely fruitless,
owing to the domestic dissensions which prevailed in Poland
during the following five years. Chodkiewicz's own army,
unpaid for years, abandoned him at last en masse in order to
plunder the estates of their political opponents, leaving the grand
hetman to carry on the war as best he could with a handful of
mercenaries paid out of the pockets of himself and his friends.
Chodkiewicz was one of the few magnates who remained loyal
to the king, and after helping to defeat the rebels in Poland a
fresh invasion of Livonia by the Swedes recalled him thither,
and once more he relieved Riga besides capturing Pernau.
Meanwhile the war with Muscovy broke out, and Chodkiewicz
was sent against Moscow with an army of 2000 men — though
if there had been a spark of true patriotism in Poland he could
easily have marshalled 100,000. Moreover, the diet neglected
to pay for the maintenance even of this paltry 2000, with the
result that they mutinied and compelled their leader to retreat
through the heart of Muscovy to Smolensk. Not till the crown
prince Wladislaus arrived with tardy reinforcements did the
war assume a different character, Chodkiewicz opening a new
career of victory by taking the fortress of Drohobu in 1617.
The Muscovite war had no sooner been ended by the treaty of
Deulina than Chodkiewicz was hastily despatched southwards
to defend the southern frontier against the Turks, who after the
catastrophe of Cecora (see ZOLKIEWSKI) had high hopes of
conquering Poland altogether. An army of 160,000 Turkish
veterans led by Sultan Osman in person advanced from
Adrianople towards the Polish frontier, but Chodkiewicz crossed
the Dnieper in September 1621 and entrenched himself in the
fortress of Khotin right in the path of the Ottoman advance.
Here for a whole month the Polish hero held the sultan at bay,
till the first fall of autumn snow compelled Osman to withdraw

26o

CHODOWIECKI— CHOIR

his diminished forces. But the victory was dearly purchased by
Poland. A few days before the siege was raised the aged grand
hetman died of exhaustion in the fortress (Sept. 24th, 1621).

See Adam Stanislaw Naruszewicz, Life of J. K. Chodkiewicz (Pol. ;
4th ed., Cracow, 1857-1858); Lukasz Golebiowski, The Moral
Side of J. K. Chodkiewicz as indicated by his Letters (Pol. ; Warsaw,
1854). (R. N. B.)

CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL NICOLAS (1726-1801), German
painter and engraver of Polish descent, was born at Danzig.
Left an orphan at an early age, he devoted himself to the practice
of miniature painting, the elements of which his father had taught
him, as a means of support for himself and his mother. In 1743
he went to Berlin, where for some time he worked as clerk in an
uncle's office, practising art, however, in his leisure moments,
and gaining a sort of reputation as a painter of miniatures for
snuff-boxes. The Berlin Academy, attracted by a small en-
graving of his, entrusted to him the illustration of its yearly
almanac. After designing and engraving several subjects from
the story of the Seven Years' War, Chodowiecki produced the
famous " History of the Life of Jesus Christ," a set of admirably
painted miniatures, which made him at once so popular that he
laid aside all occupations save those of painting and engraving.
Few books were published in Prussia for some years without
plate'or vignette by Chodowiecki. It is not surprising, therefore,
that the catalogue of his works (Berlin, 1814) should include over
3000 items, of which, however, the picture of " Jean Galas and
his Family " is the only one of any reputation. He became
director of the Berlin Academy in 1797. The title of the German
Hogarth, which he sometimes obtained, was the effect of an
admiration rather imaginative than critical, and was disclaimed
by Chodowiecki himself. The illustrator of Lavater's Essays
on Physiognomy, the painter of the " Hunt the Slipper " in the
Berlin museum, had indeed but one point in common with the
great Englishman — the practice of representing actual life and
manners. In this he showed skilful drawing and grouping,
and considerable expressional power, but no tendency whatever
to the use of the grotesque.

His brother Gottfried (1728-1781) and son Wilhelm (1765-
1803) painted and engraved after the style of Daniel, and some-
times co-operated with him.

CHOERILUS. (i) An Athenian tragic poet, who exhibited
plays as early as 524 B.C. He was said to have competed with
Aeschylus, Pratinas and even Sophocles. According to F. G.
Welcker, however, the rival of Sophocles was a son of Choerilus,
who bore the same name. Suidas states that Choerilus wrote
150 tragedies and gained the prize 13 times. His works are all
lost; only Pausanias (i. 14) mentions a play by him entitled
Alope (a mythological personage who was the subject of dramas
by Euripfides and Carcinus) . His reputation as a writer of satyric
dramas is attested in the well-known line

TJnjia niv fia<ri\(vs ^v XoipiXos tv Zaripois.

The Choerilean metre, mentioned by the Latin grammarians,
is probably so called because the above line is the oldest extant
specimen. Choerilus was also said to have introduced consider-
able improvements in theatrical masks and costumes.

See A. Nauck, Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta (1889); F. G.
Welcker, Die griechischen Tragodien, pp. 18, 892.

(2) An epic poet of Samos, who flourished at the end of the sth
century B.C. After the fall of Athens he settled at the court of
Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where he was the associate of
Agathon, Melanippides, and Plato the comic poet. The only
work that can with certainty be attributed to him is the Iltpcn/is
or litpauid., a history of the struggle of the Greeks against Persia,
the central point of which was the battle of Salamis. His import-
ance consists in his having taken for his theme national and con-
temporary events in place of the deeds of old-time heroes. For
this new departure he apologizes in the introductory verses
(preserved in the scholiast on Aristotle, Rhetoric, iii. 14), where
he says that, the subjects of epic poetry being all exhausted, it
was necessary to strike out a new path. The story of his intimacy
with Herodotus is probably due to the fact that he imitated him
and had recourse to his history for the incidents of his poem.

The Perseis was at first highly successful and was said to have
been read, together with the Homeric poems, at the Panathenaea,
but later critics reversed this favourable judgment. Aristotle
(Topica, viii. i) calls Choerilus's comparisons far-fetched and
obscure, and the Alexandrians displaced him by Antimachus in
the canon of epic poets. The fragments are artificial in tone.

G. Kinkel, Epicorum Graecorum Frag. {. (1877); for another view
of his relations with Herodotus see Miider in Klio (1907), 29-44.

(3) An epic poet of lasus in Caria, who lived in the 4th century
B.C. He accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns as
court-poet. He is well known from the passages in Horace
(Epistles, ii. i, 232; Ars Poetica, 357), according to which he
received a piece of gold for every good verse he wrote in celebra-
tion of the glorious deeds of his master. The quality of his verses
may be estimated from the remark attributed to Alexander,
that he would rather be the Thersites of Homer than the Achilles
of Choerilus. The epitaph on Sardanapalus, said to have been
translated from the Chaldean (quoted in Athenaeus, viii. p. 336),
is generally supposed to be by Choerilus.

See G. Kinkel, Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, i. (1877); A. F.
Nake, De Choerili Samii Aetate Vita et Poesi aiiisque Choerilis (1817),
where the above poets are carefully distinguished; and the articles
in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, iii. 2 (1899).

CHOEROBOSCUS, GEORGIUS (c. A.D. 600), deacon and pro-
fessor at the oecumenical school at Constantinople. He is also
called charlophylax either as the holder of some ecclesiastical
office or as superintendent of the university library. It is not
known whether " Choeroboscus " (Gr. for ' swineherd ") is an
allusion to his earlier occupation or an inherited family name.
During his tenure of office he delivered a course of lectures on
grammar, which has come down to us in the shape of notes taken
by his pupils. He drew from the best authorities — Apollonius
Dyscolus, Herodian, Orion, Theodosius of Alexandria. The
lectures are written in simple style, but suffer from diffuseness.
They were much used by Constantine Lascaris in his Greek
grammar and by Urban of Belluno (end of isth cent.). The
chief work of Choeroboscus, which we have in its complete form,
is the commentary on the canons of Theodosius on Declension
and Conjugation. Mention may also be made of a treatise on
orthography, of which a fragment (on Quantity) has been
preserved; a tract on prosody; commentaries on Hephaestion
and Dionysius Thrax; and grammatical notes on the Psalms.

See C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897) ;
A. Hilgard, Grammatici Graeci, iy. (1889-1894), containing the text
of the commentary on Theodosius, and a full account of the life
and writings of Choeroboscus; L. Kohn in Pauly-Wissowa's Real-
encyclopadie, iii. 2 (1889) ; Reitzenstein, Etymologika, 190, n. 4.

CHOIR (O. Fr. cuer from Lat. chorus; pronounced quire, and
until the end of the I7th century so spelt, the spelling being
altered to agree with the Fr. choiur), the body of singers who
perform the musical portion of the service in a church, or the
place set apart for them. Any organized body of singers per-
forming full part choral works or oratorios is also called a choir.

In English cathedrals the choir is composed of men (vicars-
choral or lay clerks) and boys (choristers). They are divided
into two sets, sitting on the north and south sides of the chancel
respectively, called cantoris and decani, from being on the same
side as the cantor (precentor) or the decanus (dean) . This arrange-
ment, together with the custom of vesting choirmen and choristers
in surplices (traditional only in cathedrals and collegiate
churches), has, since the middle of the igth century, been adopted
in a large number of parish and other churches. SurpUced
choirs of women have occasionally been introduced, notably
in America and the British colonies, but the practice has no
warrant of traditional usage. In the Roman Catholic Church
the choir plays a less conspicuous r&le than in the Church of
England, its members not being regarded as ministers of the
church, and non-Catholics are allowed to sing in it. The singers
at Mass or other solemn services are usually placed in a gallery
or some other inconspicuous place. The word " choir," indeed,
formerly applied to all the clergy taking part in services of the
church, and the restriction of the term to the singing men and
boys, who were in their origin no more than the representatives

CHOISEUL

261

(vicars) of the clergy, is a comparatively late development.
The distinction between " choir services " (Mattins, Vespers,
Compline, &c.) — consisting of prayers, lections, the singing
of the psalms, &c. — and the service of the altar was sharply
drawn in the middle ages, as in the modern Roman Church.
" Choir vestments " (surplice, &c.) are those worn by the clergy
at the former, as distinguished from those used at the Mass
(see VESTMENTS). In England at the Reformation the choir
services (Mattins, Evensong) replaced the Mass as the principal
popular services, and, in general, only the choir vestments were
retained in use. In the English cathedrals the members of the
choir often retain privileges reminiscent of an earlier definite
ecclesiastical status. At Wells, for instance, the vicars-choral
form a corporation practically independent of the dean and
chapter; they have their own lodgings inside the cathedral
precincts (Vicars' Close) and they can only be dismissed by a vote
of their own body. (W. A. P.)

In an architectural sense a " choir " is strictly that part of
a church which is fitted up for the choir services, and is thus
limited to the space between the choir screen and the presbytery.
Some confusion has arisen owing to the term being employed
by medieval writers to express the entire space enclosed for the
performance of the principal services of the church, and therefore
to include not only the choir proper, but the presbytery. In
the case of a cruciform church the choir is sometimes situated
under the central tower, or in the nave, and this is the case in
Westminster Abbey, where it occupies four bays to the west of
the transept. The choir is usually raised one step above the
nave, and its sides are fitted up with seats or stalls, of which in
large buildings there are usually two or three rows rising one
behind the other.

In Romanesque churches there are eastern and western choirs,
and in former times the term was given to chantries and sub-
sidiary chapels, which were also called chancels. In the early
Christian church the ambones where the gospels and epistles
were read were placed one on either side of the choir and formed
part of its enclosure, and this is the case in S. Clemente, S.
Lorenzo and S. Maria in Cosmedin in Rome. In England the
choir seems almost universally to have assembled at the eastern
part of the church to recite the breviary services, whereas on
the continent it was moved from one place to another according
to convenience. In Spanish churches it occupies the nave of the
church, and in the church of the Escorial in Spain was at the
west end above the entrance vestibule. (R. P. S.)

CHOISEUL, CESAR, Due DE (1602-1675), French marshal
and diplomatist, generally known for the best part of his life
as the marshal du Plessis-Praslin, came of the old French family
of Choiseul, which arose in the valley of the Upper Marne in the
loth century and divided into many branches, three of the names
of which, Hostel, Praslin and du Plessis, were borne, at one
time or another, by the subject of this article. Entering the
army at the age of fourteen as proprietary colonel of an infantry
regiment, he shared in almost all the exploits of the French
arms during the reign of Louis XIII. He took part in the siege
of La Rochelle, assisted to defend the island of R6 against the
attacks of the English under the duke of Buckingham, and
accompanied the French forces to Italy in 1629. In 1630 he
was appointed ambassador at the court of the duke of Savoy,
and was engaged hi diplomatic and administrative work in
Italy until 1635, when war was declared between France and
Spain. In the war that followed Plessis-Praslin distinguished
himself in various battles and sieges in Italy, including the
action called the " Route de Quiers " and the celebrated four-
cornered operations round Turin. In 1 640 he was made governor
of Turin, and in 1642 lieutenant-general, and after further
service in Italy he was made a marshal of France (1645) an(i
appointed second in command in Catalonia. During the first
War of the Fronde, which broke out in 1649, he assisted Conde
in the brief siege of Paris; and in the second war, remaining
loyal to the queen regent and the court party, he won his greatest
triumph in defeating Turenne and the allied Spaniards and

ibels at Rethel (or Blanc-Champ) in 1650. He then held high

office at the court of Louis XIV., became minister of state in
1652, and in November 1665 was created due de Choiseul. He
was concerned in some of the negotiations between Louis and
Charles II. of England which led to the treaty of Dover, and
died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1675.

CHOISEUL, ETIENNE FRANCOIS, Due DE (1719-1785),
French statesman, was the eldest son of Francois Joseph de
Choiseul, marquis de Stainville (1700-1770), and bore in early
life the title of comte de Stainville. Born on the 28th of June
1719, he entered the army, and during the War of the Austrian
Succession served in Bohemia in 1741 and in Italy, where he
distinguished himself at the battle of Coni, in 1744. From 1745
until 1748 he was with the army in the Low Countries, being
present at the sieges of Mons, Charleroi and Maestricht. He
attained the rank of lieutenant-general, and in 1750 married
Louise Honorine, daughter of Louis Francois Crozat, marquis
du Chatel (d. 1750), who brought her husband a large fortune
and proved a most devoted wife.

Choiseul gained the favour of Madame de Pompadour by
procuring for her some letters which Louis XV. had written
to his cousin Madame de Choiseul, with whom the king had
formerly had an intrigue; and after a short time as bailli of the
Vosges he was given the appointment of ambassador to Rome
in 1753, where he was entrusted with the negotiations concerning
the disturbances called forth by the bull Unigenitus. He
acquitted himself skilfully in this task, and in 1757 his patroness
obtained his transfer to Vienna, where he was instructed to
cement the new alliance between France and Austria. His
success at Vienna opened the way to a larger career, when in
1758 he supplanted Antoine Louis Rouille (1689-1761) as
minister for foreign affairs and so had the direction of French
foreign policy during the Seven Years' War. At this time he
was made a peer of France and created due de Choiseul. Al-
though from 1761 until 1766 his cousin Cesar, due de Choiseul-
Praslin (1712-1785), was minister for foreign affairs, yet Choiseul
continued to control the policy of France until 1770, and during
this period held most of the other important offices of state.
As the author of the " Family Compact " he sought to retrieve
by an alliance with the Bourbon house of Spain the disastrous
results of the alliance with Austria; but his action came too
late. His vigorous policy in other departments of state was not,
however, fruitless. Coming to power in the midst of the demoral-
ization consequent upon the defeats of Rossbach and Crefeld,
by boldness and energy he reformed and strengthened both army
and navy, and although too late to prevent the loss of Canada
and India, he developed French colonies in the Antilles and
San Domingo, and added Corsica and Lorraine to the crown of
France. His management of home affairs in general satisfied
the philosophes. He allowed the Enrydoptdie to be published,
and brought about the banishment of the Jesuits and the tem-
porary abolition of the order by Pope Clement IV.

Choiseul's fall was caused by his action towards the Jesuits,
and by his support of their opponent La Chalotais, and of the
provincial parlements. After the death of Madame de Pompa-
dour in 1764, his enemies, led by Madame Du Barry and the
chancellor Maupeou, were too strong for him, and in 1770 he
was ordered to retire to his estate at Chanteloupe. The intrigues
against him had, however, increased his popularity, which was
already great, and during his retirement, which lasted until
1774, he lived in the greatest affluence and was visited by many
eminent personages. Greatly to his disappointment Louis XVI.
did not restore him to his former position, although the king
recalled him to Paris in 1774, when he died on the 8th of May
1785, leaving behind him a huge accumulation of debt which
was scrupulously discharged by his widow.

Choiseul possessed both ability and diligence, and though
lacking in tenacity he showed foresight and liberaJity in his
direction of affairs. In appearance he was a short, ill-featured
man, with a ruddy countenance and a sturdy frame. His
MSmoires were written during his exile from Paris, and are
merely detached notes upon different questions. Horace
Walpole, in his Memoirs, gives a very vivid description of the

262

CHOISEUL-STAINVILLE— CHOLERA

duke's character, accuses him of exciting the war between
Russia and Turkey in 1768 in order to be revenged upon the
tsarina Catherine II., and says of his foreign policy, " he
would project and determine the ruin of a country, but could
not meditate a little mischief or a narrow benefit." " He
dissipated the nation's wealth and his own; but did not repair
the latter by plunder of the former," says the same writer, who
in reference to Choiseul's private life asserts that " gallantry
without delicacy was his constant pursuit." Choiseul's widow,
a woman " in whom industrious malice could not find an
imperfection," lived in retirement until her death on the 3rd of

December 1808.

See Memoires du due de Choiseul, edited by F. Calmettes (Pans,

- - 7-1758

Pompadour, Correspondence (Paris, 1878); Revue historique, tomes
82 and 87 (Paris, 1903-1905) ; Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign
of George III., edited by G. F. R. Barker (London, 1894); G.
Mangros, Le due el la duchesse de Choiseul (Paris, 1903) ; and La
Disgrace du due et de la duchesse de Choiseul (Paris, 1903) ; E.
Calmettes, Choiseul et Voltaire (Paris, 1902) ; A. Bourguet, Etudes
sur la politique etrangere du due de Choiseul (Paris, 1907) ; and Le
Due de Choiseul et ValUance espagnole (Paris, 1906). See also the
Edinburgh Review for July 1908.

CHOISEUL-STAINVILLE, CLAUDE ANTOINE GABRIEL,
Due DE (1760-1838), French soldier, was brought up at Chante-
loup, under the care of his relative, fitienne Francois, due de
Choiseul, who was childless. The outbreak of the Revolution
found him a colonel of dragoons, and throughout those troublous
times he was distinguished for his devotion to the royal house.
He took part in the attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from Paris
on the 20th of June 1791; was arrested with the king, and
imprisoned. Liberated in May 1792, he emigrated in October,
and fought in the " army of Conde " against the republic.
Captured in 1795, he was confined at Dunkirk; escaped, set
sail for India, was wrecked on the French coast, and condemned
to death by the decree of the Directory. Nevertheless, he was
fortunate enough to escape once more. Napoleon allowed him
to return to France in 1801, but he remained in private life
until the fall of the Empire. At the Restoration he was called
to the House of Peers by Louis XVIII. At the revolution of
1830 he was nominated a member of the provisional government;
and he afterwards received from Louis Philippe the post of
aide-de-camp to the king and governor of the Louvre. He
died in Paris on the ist of December 1838.

CHOISY, FRANCOIS TIMOLEON, ABBE DE (1644-1724),
French author, was born in Paris on the i6th of August 1644,
and died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1724. His father was
attached to the household of the duke of Orleans, and his mother,
who was on intimate terms with Anne of Austria, was regularly
called upon to amuse Louis XIV. By a whim of his mother, the
boy was dressed like a girl until he was eighteen, and, after
appearing for a short time in man's costume, he resumed woman's
dress on the advice — doubtless satirical — of Madame de La
Fayette. He delighted in the most extravagant toilettes until
he was publicly rebuked by the due de Montausier, when he
retired for some time to the provinces, using his disguise to
assist his numerous intrigues. He had been made an abbe
in his childhood, and poverty, induced by his extravagance,
drove him to live on his benefice at Sainte-Seine in Burgundy,
where he found among his neighbours a kindred spirit in Bussy-
Rabutin. He visited Rome in the suite of the cardinal de
Bouillon in 1676, and shortly afterwards a serious illness brought
about a sudden and rather frivolous conversion to religion.
In 1685 he accompanied the chevalier de Chaumont on a mission
to Siam. He was ordained priest,'and received various ecclesi-
astical preferments. He was admitted to the Academy in 1687,
and wrote a number of historical and religious works, of which
the most notable are the following: — Quatre dialogues sur
I'immortalite de V&me . . . (1684), written with the Abbe
Dangeau and explaining his conversion; Traduction de I' Imita-
tion de Jesus-Christ (1692); Histoire de France sous les regnes
de Saint Louis . . . de Charles V et Charles VI (5 vols.,

1688-1695); and Histoire de I'Eglise (n vols., 1703-1723).
He is remembered, however, by his gossiping Memoires (1737),
which contain striking and accurate pictures of his time and
remarkably exact portraits of his contemporaries, although he
has otherwise small pretensions to historical accuracy.

The Memoires passed through many editions, and were edited in
1888 by M. de Lescure. Some admirable letters of Choisy are in-
cluded in the correspondence of Bussy-Rabutin. Choisy is said to
have burnt some of his indiscreet revelations, but left a considerable
quantity of unpublished MS. Part of this material, giving an
account of his adventures as a woman, was surreptitiously used in
an anonymous Histoire de madame la comtesse de Barres (Antwerp,
1735), and again with much editing in the Vie de M. I' abbe de Choisy
(Lausanne and Geneva, 1742), ascribed by Paul Lacroix to Lenglet
Dufresnoy; the text was finally edited (1870) by Lacroix as Aven-
tures de I' abbe de Choisy. See also Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi,
vol. iii.

CHOLERA (from the Gr. x°Ml, bile, and frltiv, to flow), the
name given to two distinct forms of disease, simple cholera and
malignant cholera. Although essentially different both as to
their causation "and their pathological relationships, these two
diseases may in individual cases present many symptoms of
mutual resemblance.

SIMPLE CHOLERA (synonyms, Cholera Europaea, British
Cholera, Summer or Autumnal Cholera) is the cholera of ancient
medical writers, as is apparent from the accurate description
of the disease given by Hippocrates, Celsus and Aretaeus. Its
occurrence in an epidemic form was noticed by various physicians
in the i6th century, and an admirable account of the disease
was subsequently given by Thomas Sydenham in 1660-1672.
This disease is sometimes called Cholera Nostras, the word
nostras, which is good Latin and used by Cicero, meaning " be-
longing to our country." The relations between it and Asiatic
cholera (see below) are obscure. Clinically they may exactly
resemble each other, and bacteriology has not been able to draw
an absolute line between them. The real difference is epidemic-
logical, cholera nostras having no epidemic significance.

The chief symptoms in well-marked cases are vomiting and
purging occurring either together or alternately. The seizure
is usually sudden and violent. The contents of the stomach are
first ejected, and this is followed by severe retching and vomiting
of thin fluid of bilious appearance and bitter taste. The diarrhoea
which accompanies or succeeds the vomiting, and is likewise
of bilious character, is attended with severe griping abdominal
pain, while cramps affecting the legs or arms greatly intensify
the suffering. The effect upon the system is rapid, and alarming,
a few hours of such an attack sufficing to reduce the strongest
person to a state of extreme prostration. The surface of the
body becomes cold, the pulse weak, the voice husky, and the
whole symptoms may resemble in a striking manner those of
malignant cholera, to be subsequently described. In unfavour-
able cases, particularly where the disorder is epidemic, death
may result within forty-eight hours. Generally, however, the
attack is arrested and recovery soon follows, although there may
remain for a considerable time a degree of irritability of the
alimentary canal, rendering necessary the utmost care in regard
to diet.

Attacks of this kind are of frequent occurrence in summer and
autumn in almost all countries. They appear specially liable
to occur when cold and damp alternate with heat. Occasionally
the disorder prevails so extensively as to constitute an epidemic.
The exciting causes of an attack are in many cases errors in diet,
particularly the use of unripe fruit and new vegetables, and
the excessive drinking of cold liquids .during perspiration. Out-
breaks of this disorder in a household or community can some-
times be traced to the use of impure water, or to noxious
emanations from the sewers.

In the treatment, vomiting should be encouraged so long as
it shows the presence of undigested food, after which opiates
ought to be administered. Small opium pills, or Dover's powder,
or the aromatic powder of chalk with opium, are likely to be
retained in the stomach, and will generally succeed in allaying
the pain and diarrhoea, while ice and effervescing drinks serve

CHOLERA

263

to quench the thirst and subdue the sickness. In aggravated
cases where medicines are rejected, enemata of starch and
laudanum, or the hypodermic injection of morphia, ought to be
resorted to. Counter-irritation by mustard or turpentine over
the abdomen is always of use, as is also friction with the hands
where cramps are present. When sinking threatens, brandy and
ammonia will be called for. During convalescence the food
should be in the form of milk and farinaceous diet, or light soups,
and all indigestible articles must be carefully avoided.

In the treatment of this disease as it affects young children
(Cholera Infantum), most reliance is to be placed on the adminis-
tration of chalk and the use of starch enemata. In their case
opium in any form cannot be safely employed.

MALIGNANT CHOLERA (synonyms, Asiatic Cholera, Indian
Cholera, Epidemic Cholera, Algide Cholera) is one of the most
severe and fatal diseases. In describing the symptoms it is
customary to divide them into three stages, but it must be noted
that these do not always present themselves in so distinct a
form as to be capable of separate recognition. The first or
premonitory stage consists in the occurrence of diarrhoea.
Frequently of mild and painless character, and coming on after
some error in diet, this symptom is apt to be disregarded. The
discharges from the bowels are similar to those of ordinary
summer cholera, which the attack closely resembles. There
is, however, at first the absence of vomiting. This diarrhoea
generally lasts for two or three days, and then if it does not
gradually subside either may pass into the more severe pheno-
mena characteristic of the second stage of cholera, or on the other
hand may itself prove fatal.

The second stage is termed the stage of collapse or the algide
or asphyxial stage. As above mentioned, this is often preceded
by the premonitory diarrhoea, but not infrequently the pheno-
mena attendant upon this stage are the first to manifest them-
selves. They come on often suddenly in the night with diarrhoea
of the most violent character, the matters discharged being of
whey-like appearance, and commonly termed the " rice-water "
evacuations. They contain large quantities of disintegrated
epithelium from the mucous membrane of the intestines. The
discharge, which is at first unattended with pain, is soon suc-
ceeded by copious vomiting of matters similar to those passed
from the bowels, accompanied with severe pain at the pit of
the stomach, and with intense thirst. The symptoms now
advance with rapidity. Cramps of the legs, feet, and muscles
of the abdomen come on and occasion great agony, while the
signs of collapse make their appearance. The surface of the
body becomes cold and assumes a blue or purple hue, the skin
is dry, sodden and wrinkled, indicating the intense draining
away of the fluids of the body, the features are pinched and the
eyes deeply sunken, the pulse at the wrist is imperceptible, and
the voice is reduced to a hoarse whisper (the vox cholerica).
There is complete suppression of the urine.

In this condition death often takes place in less than one
day, but in epidemics cases are frequently observed where
the collapse is so sudden and complete as to prove fatal in one
or two hours even without any great amount of previous purging
or vomiting. In most instances the mental faculties are com-
paratively unaffected, although in the later stages there is in
general more or less apathy.

Reaction, however, may take place, and this constitutes the
third stage. It consists in the arrest of the alarming symptoms
characterizing the second stage, and the gradual but evident
improvement in the patient's condition. The pulse returns,
the surface assumes a natural hue, and the bodily heat is restored.
Before long the vomiting ceases, and although diarrhoea may
continue for a time, it is not of a very severe character and soon
subsides, as do also the cramps. The urine mayremain suppressed
for some time, and on returning is often found to be albuminous.
Even in this stage, however, the danger is not past, for relapses
sometimes occur which speedily prove fatal, while again the
reaction may be of imperfect character, and there may succeed
an exhausting fever (the so-called typhoid stage of cholera)

ich may greatly retard recovery, and under which the patient

whii

may sink at a period even as late as two or three weeks from the
commencement of the illness.

Many other complications are apt to arise during the progress
of convalescence from cholera, such as diphtheritic and local
inflammatory affections, all of which are attended with grave
danger.

When the attack of cholera is of milder character in all its
stages than that above described, it has been named Cholerine,
but the term is an arbitrary one and the disease is essentially
cholera.

The bodies of persons dying of cholera are found to remain
long warm, and the temperature may even rise after death.
Peculiar muscular contractions have been observed to take
place after death, so that the position of the limbs may become
altered. The soft textures of the body are found to be dry and
hard, and the muscles of a dark brown appearance. The blood
is of dark colour and tarry consistence. The upper portion of
the small intestines is generally found distended with the rice-
water discharges, the mucous membrane is swollen, and there
is a remarkable loss of its natural epithelium. The kidneys are
usually in a state of acute congestion. This form of cholera
belongs originally to Asia, more particularly to India, where,
as well as in the Indian archipelago, epidemics are known to have
1 occurred at various times for several centuries.

Much light has been thrown upon Asiatic cholera by Western
experience; and the study of the disease by modern methods
has resulted in important additions to our previous knowledge
of its nature, causation, mode of dissemination and prevention.

The cause is a micro-organism identified by Koch in 1883
(see PARASITIC DISEASES). For some years it was called the

" comma bacillus," from its supposed resemblance _

, ., i , Causation.

in shape to a comma, but it was subsequently found

to be a vibrio or spirillum, not a bacillus. The discovery was
received with much scepticism in some quarters, and the claim of
Koch's vibrio to be the true cause of cholera was long disputed,
but is now universally acknowledged. Few micro-organisms
have been more elaborately investigated, but very little is known
of its natural history, and its epidemiological behaviour is still
surrounded by obscurity. At an important discussion on the
subject, held at the International Hygienic Congress in 1894,
Professor Gruber of Vienna declared that the deeper investigators
went the more difficult the problem became, while M. Elie Metsch-
nikoff of the Pasteur Institute made a similar admission. The
difficulty^lies chiefly in the variable characters assumed by the
organism and the variable effects produced by it. The type
reached by cultivation through a few generations may differ so
widely from the original in appearance and behaviour as to be
hardly recognizable, while, on the other hand, of two organisms
apparently indistinguishable one may be innocuous and the other
give rise to the most violent cholera. This variability offers a
possible explanation of the frequent failure to trace the origin
of epidemic outbreaks in isolated places. It is commonly assumed
that the micro-organism is of a specific character, and always
introduced from without, when cholera appears in countries
or places where it is not endemic. In some cases such introduc-
tion can be proved, and in others it can be inferred with a high
degree of probability, but sometimes it is impossible to trace
the origin to any possible channel of communication. A remark-
able case of this kind occurred at the Nietleben lunatic asylum
near Halle, in 1893, in the shape of a sudden, explosive and
isolated outbreak of true Asiatic cholera. It was entirely con-
fined to the institution, and the peculiar circumstances enabled
a very exact investigation to be made. The facts led Professor
Arndt, of Greifswald, to propound a novel and interesting
theory. No cholera existed in the surrounding district and no
introduction could be traced, but for several months in the
previous autumn diarrhoea had prevailed in the asylum. The
sewage from the establishment was disposed of on a farm, and
the effluent passed into the river Saale above the intake of the
water-supply for the asylum. Thus a circulation of morbid
material through the persons of the inmates was established. Dr
Arndt's theory was that by virtue of this circulation cholera was

264

CHOLERA

gradually developed from previously existing intestinal disease
of an allied but milder type. The outbreak occurred in winter,
and coincided with the freezing of the filter-beds at the water-
works. The theory is worth notice, because a similar relation
between the drainage and the water-supply frequently exists
in places severely attacked by cholera, and it has repeatedly
been observed that the latter is preceded by the prevalence
of a milder form of intestinal disease. The inference is not that
cholera can be developed de novo, but that the type is unstable,
and that a virulent form may be evolved under favourable
conditions from another so mild as to be unrecognized, and
consequently undetected in its origin or introduction. This is
quite in keeping with the observed variability of the micro-
organism, and with the trend of modern research with regard
to the relations between other pathogenic germs and the multi-
farious gradations of type assumed by other zymotic diseases.
The same thing has been suggested of diphtheria.

Cholera is endemic in the East over a wide area, ranging from
Bombay to southern China, but its chief home is British India.
It principally affects the alluvial soil near the mouths
of the great rivers, and more particularly the delta
of the Ganges. Lower Bengal is pre-eminently the
standing focus and centre of diffusion. In some years it is
quiescent, though never absent; in others it becomes diffused,
for reasons of which nothing is known, and its diffusive activity
varies greatly from equally inscrutable causes. At irregular
intervals this property becomes so heightened that the disease
passes its natural boundaries and is carried east, north and west,
it may be to Europe or beyond to the American continent. We
must assume that the micro-organism, like those of other epidemic
diseases, acquires greater vitality and toxic energy, or greater
power of reproduction at some times than at others, but the con-
ditions that govern this behaviour are quite unknown, though
no problem has a more important bearing on public health.
Bacteriology, as already intimated, has thrown no light upon it,
nor has meteorology. Some results of modern research, indeed,
tend to assign increasing importance to the relations between
surface soil and certain micro-organisms, and suggest that
changes in the level of the subsoil water, to which Professor
Max von Pettenkoffer long ago drew attention, may be a domin-
ant factor in determining the latency or activity of pathogenic
germs. But this is largely a matter of conjecture, and, so far as
cholera is concerned, the conditions which turn an endemic into
an epidemic disease must be admitted to be still unknown.

On the other hand, the mode of dissemination is now well
understood. Diffusion takes place along the lines of human
intercourse. The poison is carried chiefly by infected persons
moving from place to place; but soiled clothes, rags and other
articles tha^ have come into contact with persons suffering
from the disease may be the means of conveyance to a distance.
There is no reason to suppose that it is air-borne, or that atmo-
spheric influences have anything to do with its spread, except
in so far as meteorological conditions may be favourable to the
growth and activity of the micro-organisms. Beyond all doubt,
the great manufactory of the poison is the human body, and the
discharges from it are the great source of contagion. They may
infect the ground, the water, or the immediate surroundings
of the patient, and so pass from hand to hand, the poison finding
entrance into the bodies of the healthy by means of food and drink
which have become contaminated in various ways. Flies which
feed upon excreta and other foul matters may be carriers of
contagion . Of all the means of local dissemination , contaminated
water is by far the most important, because it affects the greatest
number of people, and this is particularly the case in places which
have a public water-supply. A single contaminated source may
expose the entire population to danger. All severe outbreaks of
an explosive character are due to this cause. It is also possible
that the cholera poison multiplies rapidly in water under favour-
able conditions, and that a reservoir, for instance, may form
a sort of forcing-bed. But it would be a mistake to regard
cholera as purely a water-borne disease, even locally. It may
infect the soil in localities which have a perfectly pure water-

supply, but have defective drainage or no drainage at all, and
then it will be found more difficult to get rid of, though less
formidable in its effects, than when the water alone is the source
of mischief. In all these respects it has a great affinity to enteric
fever. With regard to locality, no situation can be said to be free
from attack if the disease is introduced and the sanitary condi-
tions are bad; but, speaking generally, low-lying places on
alluvial soil near rivers are more liable than those standing high
or on a rocky foundation. Of meteorological conditions it can
only be said with certainty that a high temperature favours the
development of cholera, though a low one does not prevent it.
In temperate climates the summer months, and particularly
August and September, are the season of its greatest activity.

Cholera spreads westwards from India by two routes — (i) by
sea to the shores of the Red Sea, Egypt and the Mediterranean;
and (2) by land to northern India and Afghanistan,
thence to Persia and central Asia, and so to Russia. In
the great invasions of Europe during the iQth century
it sometimes followed one route and sometimes the other. It
was not till 1817 that the attention of European physicians was
specially directed to the disease by the outbreak of a violent
epidemic of cholera at Jessore in Bengal. This was followed
by its rapid spread over a large portion of British India, where
it caused immense destruction of life both among natives and
Europeans. During the next three years cholera continued to
rage all over India, as well as in Ceylon and others of the Indian
islands. The disease now began to spread over a wider extent
than hitherto, invading China on the east and Persia on the west.
In 1823 it had extended into Asia Minor and Russia in Asia, and
it continued to advance steadily though slowly westwards, while
at the same time fresh epidemics were appearing at intervals
in India. From this period up till 1830 no great extension of
cholera took place, but in the latter year it reappeared in Persia
and along the shores of the Caspian Sea, and thence entered
Russia in Europe. Despite the strictest sanitary precautions,
the disease spread rapidly through that whole empire, causing
great mortality and exciting consternation everywhere. It
ravaged the northern and central parts of Europe, and spread
onwards to England, appearing in Sunderland in October 1831,
and in London in January 1832, during which year it continued
to prevail in most of the cities and large towns of Great Britain
and Ireland. The disease subsequently extended into France,
Spain and Italy, and crossing the Atlantic spread through North
and Central America. It had previously prevailed in Arabia,
Turkey, Egypt and the Nile district, and in 1835 it was general
throughout North Africa. Up till 1837 cholera continued to
break out in various parts of the continent of Europe, after which
this epidemic disappeared, having thus within twenty years
visited a large portion of the world.

About the year 1841 another great epidemic of cholera
appeared in India and China, and soon began to extend in the
direction traversed by the former, but involving a still wider
area. It entered Europe again in 1847, and spread through
Russia and Germany on to England, and thence to France,
whence it passed to America, and subsequently appeared in the
West Indies. This epidemic appears to have been even more
deadly than the former, especially as regards Great Britain and
France. A third great outbreak of cholera took place in the
East in 1850, entering Europe in 1853. During the two succeed-
ing years it prevailed extensively throughout the continent,
and fell with severity on the armies engaged in the Crimean
War. Although widely prevalent in Great Britain and Ireland
it was less destructive than former epidemics. It was specially
severe throughout both North and South America. A fourth
epidemic visited Europe again in 1865-1866, but was on the
whole less extensive and destructive than its predecessors.

By some writers the epidemic of 1853 is regarded as a re-
crudescence of that of 1847. The earlier ones followed the land
route by way of Afghanistan and Persia, and took several years
to reach Europe. That of 1865 travelled more rapidly, being
carried from Bombay by sea to Mecca, from there to Suez and
Alexandria, and then on to various Mediterranean ports. Within

CHOLERA

265

the year it had not only spread extensively in Europe, but had
reached the West Indies. In 1866 it invaded England and the
United States, but during the following year it died down in the
West. The subsequent history of cholera in Europe may be
stated chronologically.

1869-1874. — This invasion was traced to the great gathering
of pilgrims at Hardwar on the Upper Ganges in the month of
April 1867. From there the returning pilgrims carried it to the
Punjab, Kashmir and Afghanistan, whence it spread to Persia
and the Caspian, but it did not reach Russia until 1869. During
the next four years a number of outbreaks occurred in central
Europe, and notably one at Munich in the winter of 1873. The
irregular character of these epidemics suggests that they were
rather survivals from the pandemic wave of 1867 than fresh
importations, but there is no doubt that cholera was carried
overland into Russia in the manner described.

1883-1887. — This visitation, again, came by the Mediterranean.
In 1883 a severe outbreak occurred in Egypt, causing a mortality
of above 25,000. Its origin remained unknown. During this
epidemic Koch discovered the comma bacillus. The following
year cholera appeared at Toulon. It was said to have been
brought in a troopship from Saigon in Cochin-China, but it may
have been connected with the Egyptian epidemic. A severe
outbreak followed and reached Italy, nearly 8000 persons dying
in Naples alone. In 1885 the south of France, Italy, Sicily
and Spain all suffered, especially the last, where nearly 1 20,000
deaths occurred. Portugal escaped, and the authorities there
attributed their good fortune to the institution of a military
cordon, in which they have had implicit confidence ever since.
In 1886 the same countries suffered again, and also Austria-
Hungary. From Italy the disease was carried to South America,
and even travelled as far as Chile, where it had previously been
unknown. In 1887 it still lingered in the Mediterranean, causing
great mortality in Messina especially. According to Dr A. J.
Wall, this epidemic cost 250,000 lives in Europe and at least
50,000 in America. A particular interest attaches to it in the
fact that a localized revival of the disease was caused in Spain
in 1800 by the disturbance of the graves of some of the victims
who had died of cholera four years previously.

1892-189$. — This great invasion reverted again to the old
overland route, but the march of the disease was of unprece-
dented rapidity. Within less than five months it travelled from
the North- West Provinces of India to St Petersburg, and probably
to Hamburg, and thence in a few days to England and the
United States. This speed, in such striking contrast to the
slow advance of former occasions, was attributed, and no doubt
, rightly, to improved steam transit, and particularly the Trans-
caspian railway. The progress of the disease was traced from
place to place, and almost from day to day, with great precision,
showing how it moves along the chief highways and is obviously
carried by man. The main facts are as follows: — Cholera was
extensively and severely prevalent in India in 1891, causing
601,603 deaths, the highest mortality since 1877. In March
1892 it broke out at the Hardwar fair, a day or two before the
pilgrims dispersed; on the I9th of April it was at Kabul, on the
ist of May at Herat, and on the 26th of May at Meshed. From
Meshed it moved in three directions — due west to Teheran in
Persia, north-east by the Transcaspian railway to Samarkand
in Central Asia, and north-west by the same line in the opposite
direction to Uzun-ada on the Caspian Sea. It reached Uzun-ada
on the 6th of June; crossed to Baku, June i8th; Astrakhan,
June 24-th; then up the Volga to Nizhniy-Novgorod, arriving
at Moscow and St Petersburg early in August. The part played
by steam transit is clear from the fact that the disease took no
longer to travel all the way from Meshed to St Petersburg by
rail and steamboat than to traverse the short distance from
Meshed to Teheran by road. On the i6th of August cases began
to occur in Hamburg; on the igth of August a fireman was
taken ill at Grangemouth in Scotland, where he had arrived
the day before from Hamburg; and on the 3ist of August a
vessel reached New York from the same port with cholera on
board. On the 8th of September the disease appeared in Galicia,

having moved somewhat slowly westwards across Russia into
Poland, and on the 26th of September it was in Budapest. Hol-
land and Servia were also attacked, while isolated cases were
carried to Norway, Denmark and Italy. Meanwhile two entirely
separate epidemics were in progress elsewhere. The first was
confined to Arabia and the Somali coast of Africa, and was
connected with the remains of an outbreak in Syria and Arabia
in 1890-1891. The second arose mysteriously in France about
the time when the overland invasion started from India. The
first known case occurred in the prison at Nanterre, near Paris,
on the 3ist of March. Paris was affected in April, and Havre
in July. The origin of this outbreak, which was of a much less
violent character than that which came simultaneously by way
of Russia, was never ascertained. Its activity was confined
to France, particularly in the neighbourhood of Paris, together
with Belgium and Holland, which was placed between two fires,
but escaped with but little mortality. The number of persons
killed by cholera in 1892, outside of India, was reckoned at
378,449, and the vast majority of those died within six months.
The countries which suffered most severely were as follows: —
European Russia, 151,626; Caucasus, 69,423; Central Asian
Russia, 31,804; Siberia, 15,037 — total for Russian empire,
267,890; Persia, 63,982 ;Somaliland, 10,000; Afghanistan, 7,000;
Germany, 9563; France, 455°; Hungary, 1255; Belgium, 961.
Curiously enough, the south of Europe, which had been the
scene cf the previous epidemic visitation, escaped. The disease
was of the most virulent character. In European Russia
the mortality was 45-8% of the cases, the highest- rate ever
known in that country; in Germany it was 51-3%; and in
Austria-Hungary, 57-5%. Of all the localities attacked, the
case of Hamburg was the most remarkable. The presence of
cholera was first suspected on the i6th of August, when two
cases occurred, but it was not officially declared until the 23rd
of August. By that time the daily number of victims had
already risen to some hundreds, while the experts and authorities
were making up their minds whether they had cholera to deal
with or not. Their decision eventually came too late and was
superfluous, for by the 27th of August the people were being
stricken down at the rate of 1000 a day. This rate was main-
tained for four days, after which the vehemence of the pestilence
began to abate. It gradually declined, and ceased on the i4th
of November. During those three months 16,956 persons were
attacked and 8605 died, the majority within the space of a few
weeks. The town, ordinarily one of the gayest places of business
and pleasure on the continent, became a city of the dead.
Thousands of persons fled, carrying the disease into all parts
of Germany; the rest shut themselves indoors; the shops were
closed, the trams ceased to run, the hotels and restaurants were
deserted, and few vehicles or pedestrians were seen in the streets.
At the cemetery, which lies about 10 m. from the town, some
hundreds of men were engaged day and night digging long
trenches to hold double rows of coffins, while the funerals formed
an almost continuous procession along the roads; even so
the victims could not be buried fast enough, and their bodies
lay for days in sheds hastily run up as mortuaries. Hamburg
had been attacked by cholera on fourteen previous occasions,
beginning with 1831, but the mortality had never approached
that of 1892; in the worst year, which was 1832, there were
only 3687 cases and 1765 deaths. The disease was believed to
have been introduced by Jewish emigrants passing through on
their way from Russia, but the importation could not be traced.
The Jews were segregated and kept under careful supervision
from the middle of July onwards, and no recognized case occurred
among them. The total number of places in Germany in which
cholera appeared in 1892 was 269, but it took no serious hold
anywhere save in Hamburg. The distribution was chiefly by the
waterways, which seem to affect a larger number of places than
the railways as carriers of cholera. In Paris 907 persons died,
and in Havre 498. Between the i8th of August and the 2ist of
October 38 cases were imported into England and Scotland
through eleven different ports, but the disease nowhere obtained
a footing. Seven vessels brought 72 cases to the United States,

266

CHOLERA

and 1 6 others occurred on shore, but there was no further
dissemination.

During the winter of 1892-1893 cholera died down, but never
wholly ceased in Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary and
France. With the return of warm weather it showed renewed
activity, and prevailed extensively throughout Europe. The
recorded mortality for the principal countries was as follows: —
Russia (chiefly western provinces), 41,047; Austria-Hungary,
4669; France, 4000; Italy, 3036; Turkey, 150x3; Germany,
298; Holland, 376; Belgium, 372; England, 139. Hardly any
country escaped altogether; but Europe suffered less than
Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Cholera broke out at Mecca
in June, and owing to the presence of an exceptionally large
number of pilgrims caused an appalling mortality. The chief
shereef estimated the mortality at 50,000. The pilgrims carried
the disease to Asia Minor and Constantinople. In Persia also
a recrudescence took place and proved enormously destructive.
Dr Barry estimated the mortality at 70,000. At Hamburg,
where new waterworks had been installed with sand nitration,
only a few sporadic cases occurred until the autumn, when a
sudden but limited rush took place, which was traced to a
defect in the masonry permitting unfiltered Elbe water to pass
into the mains. In England cholera obtained a footing on the
Humber at Grimsby, and to a lesser extent at Hull, and isolated
attacks occurred in some 50 different localities. Excluding a
few ship-borne cases the registered number of attacks was
287, with 135 deaths, of which 9 took place in London. It is
interesting to compare the mortality from cholera in England
and Wales, and in London, for each year in which it has prevailed
since registration began : —

Year.

England and Wales.

London.

Deaths.

Deaths per 10,000
living.

Deaths.

Deaths per 10,000
living.

I 1848
? 1849

i 1853
1 1854
1 1865
1 1866

1893
1 1894

1,908
53-293
4-419
20,097
1,297
14.378

'35
nil

l-l
3°-3
2-4
10-9
0-6
6-8
0-05
nil

652
14,137
883
10,738
196
5.596
9
nil

2-9

61-8

3-5
42-8
0-6
18-4

O-OO2

nil

Preven-
tion.

In 1894 no deaths from cholera were recorded in England,
but on the continent it still prevailed over a wide area. ' In
Russia over 30,000 persons died of it, in Germany about 500,
but the most violent outbreak was in Galicia, where upwards
of 8000 deaths were registered. In 1895 it still lingered, chiefly
in Russia and Galicia, but with greatly diminished activity.
In that year Egypt, Morocco and Japan were attacked, the last
severely. The disease then remained in abeyance until the
severe epidemic in India in 1900.

The great invasion just described was fruitful in lessons for
the prevention of cholera. It proved that the one real and
sufficient protection lies in a standing condition of
good sanitation backed by an efficient and vigilant
sanitary administration. The experience of Great
Britain was a remarkable piece of evidence, but that of Berlin
was perhaps even more striking, for Berlin lay in the centre of
four fires, in direct and frequent communication with Hamburg,
Russia, France and Austria, and without the advantage of a
sea frontier. Cholera was repeatedly brought into Berlin, but
never obtained a footing, and its successful repression was
accomplished without any irksome interference with traffic or
the ordinary business of life. The general success of Great
Britain and Germany in keeping cholera in check by ordinary
sanitary means completed the conversion of all enlightened
nations to the policy laid down so far back as 1865 by Sir John
Simon, and advocated by Great Britain at a series of international
congresses — the policy of abandoning quarantine, which Great
Britain did in 1873, and trusting to sanitary measures with
medical inspection of persons arriving from infected places.
This principle was formally adopted at the international con-

ference held at Dresden in 1893, at which a convention was signed
by the delegates of Germany, Austria, Belgium, France, Great
Britain, Italy, Russia, Switzerland, Luxemburg, Montenegro
and the Netherlands. Under .this instrument the practice is
broadly as follows, though the procedure varies a good deal in
different countries: — Ships arriving from infected ports are
inspected, and if healthy are not detained, but bilge-water and
drinking-water are evacuated, and persons landing may Ke placed
under medical supervision without detention; infected ships are
detained only for purposes of disinfection; persons suffering
from cholera are removed to hospital; other persons landing
from an infected ship are placed under medical observation,
which may mean detention for five days from the last case, or,
as in Great Britain, supervision in their own homes, for which
purpose they give their names and places of destination before
landing. All goods are freed from restrictions, except rags and
articles believed to be contaminated by cholera matters. By
land, passengers from infected places are similarly inspected
at the frontiers and their luggage " disinfected " — in all cases
a pious ceremony of no practical value, involving a short but
often a vexatious delay; only those found suffering from cholera
can be detained. Each nation is pledged to notify the others
of the existence within its own borders of a " foyer " of cholera,
by which is meant a focus or centre of infection. The precise
interpretation of the term is left to each government, and is
treated in a rather elastic fashion by some, but it is generally
understood to imply the occurrence of non-imported cases in
such a manner as to point to the local presence of infection.
The question of guarding Europe generally from the danger of
diffusion by pilgrims through the Red Sea was settled at another
conference held in Paris in 1894. The provisions agreed on
included the inspection of pilgrims at ports of departure, deten-
tion of infected or suspected persons, and supervision of pilgrim
ships and of pilgrims proceeding overland to Mecca.

The substitution of the procedure above described for the
old measures of quarantine and other still more drastic inter-
ferences with traffic presupposes the existence of a sanitary
service and fairly good sanitary conditions if cholera is to be
effectually prevented. No doubt if sanitation were perfect in
any place or country, cholera, along with many other diseases,
might there be ignored, but sanitation is not perfect anywhere,
and therefore it requires to be supplemented by a system of
notification with prompt segregation of the sick and destruction
of infective material. These things imply a regular organization,
and it is to the public health service of Great Britain that the
complete mastery of cholera has mainly been due in recent years,
and particularly in 1893. Of sanitary conditions the most
important is unquestionably the water-supply. So many
irrefragable proofs of this fact were given during 1892-1893
that it is no longer necessary to refer to the time-honoured case
of the Broad Street pump. At Samarkand three regiments
were encamped side by side on a level plain close to a stream of
water. The colonel of one regiment took extraordinary precau-
tions, placing a guard over the river, and compelling his men to
use boiled water even for washing. Not a single case of cholera
occurred in that regiment, while the others, in which only
ordinary precautions were taken, lost over 100 men. At Askabad
the cholera had almost disappeared, when a banquet was given
by the governor in honour of the tsar's name-day. Of the guests
one-half died within twenty-four hours; a military band, which
was present, lost 40 men out of 50; and one regiment lost half
its men and 9 officers. Within forty-eight hours 1300 persons
died out of a total population of about 1 3 ,000. The water supply
came from a small stream, and just before the banquet a heavy
rain-storm had occurred, which swept into the stream all surface
refuse from an infected village higher up and some distance from
the banks. But the classical example was Hamburg. The
water-supply is obtained from the Elbe, which became infected
by some means not ascertained. The drainage from the town
also runs into the river, and the movement of the tide was
sufficient to carry the sewage matter up above the water-intake.
The water itself, which is no cleaner than that of the Thames

CHOLET— CHOLULA

267

,.

at London Bridge, underwent no purification whatever before
distribution. It passed through a couple of ponds, supposed
to act as settling tanks, but owing to the growth of the town
and increased demand for water it was pumped through too
rapidly to permit of any subsidence. Eels and other fish con-
stantly found their way into the houses, while the mains were
lined with vegetation and Crustacea. The water-pipes of Ham-
burg had a peculiar and abundant fauna and flora of their own,
and the water they delivered was commonly called Fleischbriihe,
from its resemblance to thick soup. On the other hand, at
Altona, which is continuous with Hamburg, the water was
filtered through sand. In all other respects the conditions were
identical, yet in Altona only 328 persons died, against 8605 in
Hamburg. In some streets one side lies in Hamburg, the other
in Altona, and cholera stopped at the dividing line, the Hamburg
side being full of cases and the Altona side untouched. In the
following year, when Hamburg had the new filtered supply, it
enjoyed equal immunity, save for a short period when, as we
have said, raw Elbe water accidentally entered the mains.

But water, though the most important condition, is not the
only one affecting the incidence of cholera. The case of Grimsby
furnished a striking lesson to the contrary. Here the disease
obtained a decided hold, in spite of a pure water-supply, through
the fouling of the soil by cesspits and defective drainage. At
Havre also its prevalence was due to a similar cause. Further,
it was conclusively proved at Grimsby that cholera can be spread
by sewage-fed shell-fish. Several of the local outbreaks in
England were traced to the ingestion of oysters obtained from
the Grimsby beds. In short, it may be said that all insanitary
conditions favour the prevalence of cholera in some degree.
Preventive inoculation with an attenuated virus was introduced
by W. M. W. Haffkine, and has been extensively used in India,
with considerable appearance of success so far as the statistical
evidence goes.

As already remarked, the latest manifestations of cholera
show that it has lost none of its former virulence and fatality.
Treatment 'The symptoms are now regarded as the effects of the
toxic action of the poison formed by the micro-organisms
upon the tissues and especially upon the nervous system. But
this theory has not led to any effective treatment. Drugs in
great variety were tried in the continental hospitals in 1892, but
without any distinct success. The old controversy between the
aperient and the astringent treatment reappeared. In Russia
the former, which aims at evacuating the poison, was more
generally adopted; in Germany the latter, which tries to
conserve strength by stopping the flux, found more favour.
Two methods of treatment were invariably found to give great
relief, if not to prolong life and promote recovery — the hot bath
and the injection of normal saline solution into the veins or the
subcutaneous tissue. These two should always be tried in the
cold and collapsed stages of cholera.

See Local Government Board Reports, iSp-j-pj-p^-pj ; Clemow,
The Cholera Epidemic of 1892 in the Russian Empire; Wall, Asiatic
Cholera-, Notter, Epidemiological Society's Transactions, vol. xvii. ;
Emmerich and Gemiind, Munchen. med. Wochenschr. (1904), pp. 1086-
1157; Wherry, Department of the Interior Bureau of Government
Laboratories, No. 19 (October 1904, Manila) ; Wherry and M'Dill,
Ibid. No. 31 (May 1905, Manila).

CHOLET, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Maine-et-Loire, 41 m. S.E. of Nantes
on the Quest- Etat railway between that town and Poitiers. Pop.
(1906) 16,554. Cholet stands on an eminence on the right bank
of the Moine, which is crossed by a bridge of the i sth century.
A public garden occupies the site of the old castle; the public
buildings and churches, the finest of which is Notre-Dame, are
modern. The public institutions include the sub-prefecture, a
tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce, a board of
trade-arbitrators, and a communal college. There are granite
quarries in the vicinity of the town. The chief industry is the
manufacture of linen and linen handkerchiefs, which is also
carried on in the neighbouring communes on a large scale.
Woollen and cotton fabrics are also produced, and bleaching

.d the manufacture of preserved foods are carried on. Cholet

is the most important centre in France for the sale of fat cattle,
sheep and pigs, for which Paris is the chief market. Megalithic
monuments are numerous in the neighbourhood. The town owes
the rise of its prosperity to the settlement of weavers there by
Edouard Colbert, count of Maul6vrier, a brother of the great
Colbert. It suffered severely in the War of La Vendee of 1703,
insomuch that for years afterwards it was almost without in-
habitants.

CHOLON (" great market "), a town of French Indo-China,
the largest commercial centre of Cochin China, 3! m. S.W. of
Saigon, with which it is united by railway, steam-tramway and
canal. Cholon was founded by Chinese immigrants about 1780,
and is situated on the Chinese arroyo at the junction of the
Lo-Gom and a canal. Its waterways are frequented by innumer-
able boats and lined in some places with native dwellings built
on piles, in others by quays and houses of French construction.
Its population is almost entirely Asiatic, and has more than
trebled since 1880. In that year it had only 45,000 inhabit-
ants; in 1907 it numbered about 138,000. Of these, 42,000 were
Chinese, 73 ,000 Annamese, and 155 French (exclusive of a garrison
of 92) ; the remainder consisted of Cambodians and Asiatic
foreigners. During the rice season the town is visited by a
floating population of 21,000 persons. The Chinese are divided
into congregations according to their place of origin. Cholon is
administered by a municipal council, composed of French,
Annamese and Chinese traders. An administrator of native
affairs, nominated by the governor, fills the office of mayor.
There are a fine municipal hospital and municipal schools for boys
and girls. The principal thoroughfares are lighted by electric
light. The rice trade, almost monopolized by the Chinese, is
the leading industry, the rice being treated in large steam mills.
Tanning, dyeing, copper-founding, glass, brick and pottery
manufacture, stone working, timber-sawing and junk building
are also included among the industries.

CHOLONES, a tribe of South American Indians living on the
left bank of the Huallaga river in the Amazon valley. The name
is that given them by the Spanish. They were first met by the
Franciscans, who established mission villages among them
in 1676. They are a wild race but mild-mannered, very super-
stitious, and pride themselves on their skill as doctors. Their
chief weapon is the blow-pipe, in the use of which they are adepts.

CHOLULA, an ancient town of Mexico, in the state and on
the plateau of Puebla, 8 m. by rail W. by N. of the city of that
name, and 6912 ft. above sea-level. Pop'. (1000, estimate) 9000.
The Interoceanic railway passes through Cholula, but the city's
commercial and industrial standing is overshadowed by that of
its larger and more modern neighbour. At the time of the
Spanish Conquest, Cholula — then known as Chololan — was a
large and important town, consecrated to the worship of the
god Quetzalcoatl, who had here one of the most imposing temples
in Anahuac, built on the summit of a truncated pyramid, the
largest of its kind in the world. This pyramid, constructed of
sun-dried bricks and earth, 177 ft. high, and covering an area
of nearly 45 acres, is the most conspicuous object in the town
and is surmounted by a chapel dedicated to Nuestra Senora
de los Remedies. A corner of the lower terrace of this great
pyramid was cut through in the construction of the Puebla road,
but nothing was discovered to explain its purpose, which was
probably that of furnishing an imposing site for a temple.
Nothing definite is known of its age and history, as the fanatical
zeal of Cortez and his companions destroyed whatever historical
data the temple may have contained. Cholula was visited by
Cortez in 1519 during his eventful march inland to Montezuma's
capital, Tenochtitlan, when he treacherously massacred its
inhabitants and pillaged the city, pretending to distrust the
hospitable inhabitants. Cortez estimated that the town then
had 20,000 habitations, and its suburbs as many more, but this
was undoubtedly a deliberate exaggeration. The Cholulans
were of Nahuatl origin and were semi-independent, yielding
only a nominal allegiance to Montezuma. They were a trading
people, holding fairs, and exchanging their manufactures of
textiles and pottery for other produce. The pyramid is believed

268

CHOPIN

to have been built by a people occupying this region before the
Cholulans.

CHOPIN, FREDERIC FRANCOIS (1810-1849), Polish musical
composer and pianist, was born at Zelazowa-Wola, near Warsaw,
on the zznd of February 1810 (not the ist of March 1800).
His father, of French origin, born at Nancy in 1770, had married
a Polish lady, Justine Krzyzanowska. Frederic was their third
child. His first musical education he received from Adalbert
Ziwny, a Czech musician, who is said to have been a passionate
admirer of J. S. Bach. He also received a good general education
at one of the first colleges of Warsaw, where he was supported
by Prince Antoine Radziwill, a generous protector of artistic
talent and himself well known as the composer of music to
Goethe's Faust and other works. His musical genius opened
to Chopin the best circles of Polish society, at that time unrivalled
in Europe for its ease of intercourse, the beauty and grace of its
women, and its liberal appreciation of artistic gifts. These early
impressions were of lasting influence on Chopin's development.
While at college he received thorough instruction in the theory
of his art from Joseph Eisner, a learned musician and director of
the conservatoire at Warsaw. When in 1829 he left his native
town for Vienna, where his debut as a pianist took place, he was
in all respects a perfectly formed and developed artist. There
is in his compositions little of that gradual progress which, for
instance, in Beethoven necessitates a classification of his works
according to different periods. Chopin's individuality and his
style were distinctly pronounced in that set of variations on
" La ci darem " which excited the wondering enthusiasn of Robert
Schumann. In 1831 he left Vienna with the intention of visiting
London; but on his way to England he reached Paris and settled
there for the rest of his life. Here again he soon became the
favourite and musical hero of society. His connexion with
Madame Dudevant, better known by her literary pseudonym
of George Sand (q.v.), is an important feature of Chopin's life.
When in 1839 his health began to fail, George Sand went with him
to Majorca, and it was mainly owing to her tender care that the
composer recovered his health for a time. Chopin declared that
the destruction of his relations with Madame Dudevant in 1847
broke up his life. The association of these two artists has
provoked a whole literature on the nature of their relations, of
which the novelist's Un Hiver & Majorque was the beginning.
The last ten years of Chopin's life were a continual struggle
with the pulmonary disease to which he succumbed in Paris
on the 1 7th of October 1849. The year before his death he
visited England, where he was received with enthusiasm by his
numerous admirers. Chopin died in the arms of his sister, who
hastened from Poland to his death-bed. He was buried in the
cemetery of Pere Lachaise. A small monument was erected to
the memory of the composer at Wasswan in 1880. Portraits
and medallions of Chopin were executed by Ary Scheffer and
Eugene Delacroix, and by the sculptors Bary and C16singer.

A distinguished English amateur thus records his impressions
of Chopin's style of pianoforte-playing compared with those of
other masters. " His technical characteristics may be broadly
indicated as negation of bravura, absolute perfection of finger-
play, and of the legatissimo touch, on which no other pianist has
ever so entirely leant, to the exclusion of that high relief and point
which the modern German school, after the examples of Liszt
and Thalberg, has so effectively developed It is in these feature
that we must recognize that Grundverschiedenheil (fundamental
difference) . which according to Mendelssohn distinguished
Chopin's playing from that of these masters, and in no less degree
from the example and teaching of Moscheles. . . . Imagine a
delicate man of extreme refinement of mien and manner, sitting
at the piano and playing with no sway of the body and scarcely
any movement of the arms, depending entirely upon his narrow
feminine hands and slender fingers. The wide arpeggios in the
left hand, maintained in a continuous stream of tone by the strict
legato and fine and constant use of the damper-pedal, formed
an harmonious substructure for a wonderfully poetic cantabile.
His delicate pianissimo, the ever-changing modifications of tone
and time (tempo rubato) were of indescribable effect. Even in

energetic passages he scarcely ever exceeded an ordinary mezzo-
forte. His playing as a whole was unique in its kind, and no
traditions of it can remain, for there is no school of Chopin the
pianist, for the obvious reason that he could never be regarded
as a public player, and his best pupils were nearly all
amateurs."

In looking through the list of his compositions, teeming with
mazurkas, valses, polonaises, and other forms of national dance
music, one could hardly suppose that here one of the most
melancholy natures has revealed itself. This seeming paradox
is solved by the type of Chopin's nationality, of which it has justly
been said that its very dances are sadness intensified. But not-
withstanding this strongly pronounced national type of his
compositions, his music is always expressive of his individual feel-
ings and sufferings to a degree rarely met with in the annals of
the art. He is indeed the lyrical composer par excellence of the
modern school, and the intensity of his expression finds its equal
in literature only in the songs of Heinrich Heine, to whom Chopin
has been justly compared. A sensation of such high -strung passion
cannot be prolonged. Hence we see that the shorter forms of
music, the 6tude, the nocturne, besides the national dances already
alluded to, are chosen by Chopin hi preference. Even when he
treats the larger forms of the concerto or the sonata this concen-
trated, not to say pointed, character of Chopin's style becomes
obvious. The more extended dimensions seem to encumber
the freedom of his movements. The concerto for pianoforte
with accompaniment of the orchestra in E may be instanced.
Here the adagio takes the form of a romance, and in the final
rondo the rhythm of a Polish dance becomes recognizable while
the instrumentation throughout is meagre and wanting in colour.
Chopin is out of his element, and even the beauty of his melodies
and harmonies cannot wholly banish the impression of incon-
gruity. Fortunately he himself knew the limits of his power, and
with very few exceptions his works belong to that class of minor
compositions of which he was an unrivalled master. Barring
a collection of Polish songs, two concertos, and a very small
number of concerted pieces of chamber music, almost all his
works are written for the pianoforte solo; the symphony, the
oratorio, the opera, he never attempted.

Chopin's works group themselves firstly into the period from Op. 1
to 22, which includes nearly all his attempts at large or classical
forms, e.g. the works with orchestra, Op. 2 (variations on La ci
darem), Opp. n and 14 (concertos), Op. 13 (Polish fantasia), Op. 14
(Krakowiak, a concerto-rondo in mazurka-rhythm), and Op. 22
(Andante spianato and Polonaise), besides the solo rondos Opp. I,
5, 16, and the variations Op. 12 and the essays in chamber music
Opp. 3, 8, 65. Meanwhile, however, the mature lyric style of his
second period already began with Op. 6 (4 mazurkas), and though
it is not confined to small forms, the larger mature works (beginning
with the ballade Op. 23 and excepting only the sonata Op. 58 and
the Allegro de Concert Op. 46) are as independent of tradition as
the smallest. It is well to sift the posthumous works from those
published under Chopin's direction, for the last three mazurkas are
the only things he did not keep back as misrepresenting him. On
these principles his mature works are summed up in the 42 mazurkas
(Opp. 6, 7, 17, 24, 30, 33, 41, 50, 56, 59, 63, and the beautiful con-
tribution to the collection Notre temps) ; 7 polonaises (Opp. 26, 40,
53, 61); 24 preludes (in all the major and minor keys) Op. 28, and
the single larger prelude Op. 45; 27 etudes (12 in Op. 10, 12 in Op. 25,
and 3 written for the Methode des methodes) ; 18 nocturnes (Opp. 9,
T5. 27. 32. 37. 48. 55. 62); 4 ballades, in forms of Chopin's own
invention (Opp. 23, 38, 47, 52); 4 scherzos (Opp. 20, 31, 39, 54);
8 waltzes (Opp. 18, 34, 42, 64) ; and several pieces of various de-
scription, notably the great fantasia Op. 49 and the impromptus
Opp. 29, 36, 51.

The posthumous works number 35 pieces, besides a small volume
of songs a few of which are of great interest.

Franz Liszt wrote a charming sketch of Chopin's life and art (F.
Chopin, par F. Liszt, Paris, 1851), and a very appreciative though
somewhat eccentric analysis of his work appeared anonymously in
1842 (An Essay on the Works of Frederic Chopin, London). The
standard biography is the English work of Professor F. Niecks
(Novello, 1888). See also W. H. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music,
second series (1908). The editions of Chopin's works by his pupil
Mikuli and by Klindworth are full of valuable elucidation as to
methods of performance, but unfortunately they dp not distinguish
the commentary from the text. The critical edition published by
Breitkopf and Hartel, with all its mistakes, is absolutely necessary
for students who wish to know what Chopin wished to put into
the hands of players of independent judgment.

CHOPSTICKS— CHORICIUS

269

CHOPSTICKS, the " pidgin-English " name for the pair of
small tapering sticks used by the Chinese and Japanese in eating.
" Chop " is pidgin-English for " quick," the Chinese word
for the articles being kwai-lsze, meaning " the quick ones."
" Chopsticks " are commonly made of wood, bone or ivory,
somewhat longer and slightly thinner than a lead-pencil. Held
between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, they are used
as tongs to take up portions of the food, which is brought to table
cut up into small and convenient pieces, or as means for sweeping
the rice and small particles of food into the mouth from the bowl.
Many rules of etiquette govern the proper conduct of the chop-
sticks; laying them across the bowl is a sign that the guest
wishes to leave the table; they are not used during a time of
mourning, when food is eaten with the fingers; and various
methods of handling them form a secret code of signalling.

CHORAGUS (the Lat. form of Gr. xopayte or xopnte, leader
of the chorus), the citizen chosen to undertake the expense of
furnishing and instructing the chorus at the Dionysiac festivals
at Athens (see LITURGY and FINANCE). The name is given to an
assistant to the professor of music at the university of Oxford,
whose office was founded, with that of the professor, in 1626 by
Dr William Heather.

CHORALE (from the Lat. choralis, sc. cantus; the final e is
added to show the Ger. pronunciation choral), a term in music
used by English writers to indicate the hymn-tunes composed
or adopted for use in church by the German reformers. German
writers, however, apply the terms " Choral " and " Chorale-
gesang," as Luther himself would apply them, to any solemn
melody used in the church. It is thus the equivalent of canto
fermo; and the German rhymed versions of the biblical and
other ancient canticles, such as the Magnificat and the Te Deum,
are set to curious corruptions of the corresponding Gregorian
tunes, which adaptations the composers of classical German
music called chorales with no more scruple than they applied
the name to tunes of secular origin, German or foreign. The
peculiarity of German chorale-music, however, is that its use,
and consequently much of its invention, not only arose in
connexion with the Reformation, by which the liturgy of the
church became " understanded of the people," but also that
it belongs to a musical epoch in which symmetry of melody
and rhythm was beginning to assume artistic importance. The
growing sense of form shown by some of Luther's own tunes
(e.g. Vom Himmel hoch, da komm' ich her) soon advanced, especi-
ally in the tunes of Criiger, beyond any that was shown by folk-
music; and it provided an invaluable bulwark against the
chaos that was threatening to swamp music on all sides at the
beginning of the I7th century. By Bach's time all the poly-
phonic instrumental and vocal art-forms of the i8th century
were mature; and though he loved to derive the design as well
as the details of a large movement from the shape of the chorale
tune on which it was based, he became quite independent of any
aid from symmetry in the tune as raw material. The chorus
of his cantata Jesus nun sei gepreiset is one of the most perfectly
designed and quite the longest of movements ever based upon
a chorale-tune treated phrase by phrase. Yet the tune is one
of the most intractable in the world, though its most unpromising
portion is the basis of the most impressive feature in Bach's
design (the slow middle section in triple time).

The national character of the German chorale, and the recent
great development of interest in folk-music, together with the
unique importance of Bach's work, have combined to tempt
writers on music to over-estimate the distinctness of the art-
forms based upon the German chorale. There is really nothing
in these art-forms which is not continuous with the universal
practice of writing counterpoint on a canto fermo. And it
should never be forgotten that, however fascinating may be
the study of the relation between artistic forms and the spirit
of the age, no art can successfully express more of the spirit of
the age than its own technical resources will admit. Choral
music in all ages has tended to consist largely of counterpoint
on a canto fermo (see CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS). Where there are
not many canto fermos in constant use in the church, composers

will be driven to use them rather unsystematically as special
effects, and to rely for the most part on other artistic devices,
though any use of melodies in long notes against quicker counter-
point will be aesthetically indistinguishable from counterpoint
on a canto fermo. Thus Handel in his Italian and English works
wrote no entire chorale movements, yet what is the passage
in the " Hallelujah " chorus from " the kingdom of this world "
to the end but a treatment of the second part of the chorale
Wachet auf? How shall we describe the treatment of the words
" And their cry came up unto the Lord " in the first chorus of
Israel in Egypt, except as the treatment of a phrase of chorale
or canto fermo? Again, to return to the i6th century, what are
the hymns of Palestrina but figured chorales? In what way,
except in the lack of symmetry in the Gregorian phrasing, do
they differ from the contemporary setting by Orlando di Lasso,
also a Roman Catholic, of the German chorale Voter unstr im
Himmelreich? In modern times the use of German chorales,
as in Mendelssohn's oratorios and organ-sonatas, has had rather
the aspect of a revival than of a development; though the
technique and spirit of Brahms's posthumous organ chorale-
preludes is thoroughly modern and vital.

One of the most important, and practically the earliest collection
of " Chorales " is that made by Luther and johann Walther (1496-
1570), the Enchiridion, published in 1524. Next in importance we
may place the Genevan Psalter (isted., Strassburg, 1542, final edition
1562), which is now conclusively proved to be the work of Bourgeois.
From this Sternhold and Hopkins borrowed extensively (1562).
The psalter of C. Goudimel (Paris, 1565) is another among many
prominent collections showing the steps towards congregational
singing, i.e. the restriction to " note-against-note " counterpoint
(sc. plain harmony), and, in twelve cases, the assigning of the melody
to the treble instead of to the tenor. The first hymn-book in which
this latter step was acted on throughout is Osiander's Geistliche
Lieder . . . also gesetzt, dass ein christliche Gemein durchaus mit-
singen kann (1586). But many of the finest and most famous tunes
are of much later origin than any such collections. Several (e.g.
Ichfreue mich in dir) cannot be traced before Bach, and were very
probably composed by him. (D. F. T.)

CHORIAMBIC VERSE, or CHORIAMBICS, the name given to
Greek or Latin lyrical poetry in which the sound of the chori-
ambus predominates. The choriambus is a verse-foot consisting
of a trochee united with and preceding an iambus, -ou-. The
choriambi are never used alone, but are usually preceded by a
spondee and followed by an iambus. The line so formed is called
an asclepiad, traditionally because it was invented by the
Aeolian poet Asclepiades of Samos. Choriambic verse was first
used by the poets of the Greek islands, and Sappho, in particular,
produced magnificent effects with it. The measure, as used by
the early Greeks, is essentially lyrical and impassioned. Mingled
with other metres, it was constantly serviceable in choral writing,
to which it was believed to give a stormy and mysterious char- "
acter. The Greater Asclepiad was a term used for a line in which
the wild music was prolonged by the introduction of a supple-
mentary choriambus. This was much employed by Sappho
and by Alcaeus, as well as in Alexandrian times by Callimachus
and Theocritus. Among the Latins, Horace, in imitation of
Alcaeus, made constant use of choriambic verse. Metrical
experts distinguish six varieties of it in his Odes. This is an
example of his greater asclepiad (Od. i. n): —

./— — V

TU ne | quaesieris | scire nefas | quern mihi, quern | tibi
Finem | L)i dederint I Leuconoe; | nee Babylon|ios
Tentar|is numeros. | Ut melius | quicquid erit, j pati!
Seu plu|res hiemes, | seu tribuit | Jupiter ul|timam,
Ouae nunc | oppositis | debilitat | pumicibus | mare
Tyrrhe|num.

In later times of Rome, both Seneca and Prudentius wrote

choriambic verse with a fair amount of success. Swinburne

even introduced it into English poetry: —

Love, what | ailed them to leave | life that was made | lovely, we
thought | with love?

What sweet | vision of sleep | lured thee away | down from the light

I above?
Such lines as these make a brave attempt to resuscitate the

measured sound of the greater asclepiad. (E. G.)

CHORICIUS, of Gaza, Greek sophist and rhetorician, flourished

in the time of Anastasius I. (A.D. 491-518). He was the pupil

270

CHORIN — CHORUS

of Procopius of Gaza, who must be distinguished from Procopius
of Caesarea, the historian. A number of his declamations and
descriptive treatises have been preserved. The declamations,
which are in many cases accompanied by explanatory commen-
taries, chiefly consist of panegyrics, funeral orations and the
stock themes of the rhetorical schools. The ' ErriflaXiitjuwH or
wedding speeches, wishing prosperity to the bride and bride-
groom, strike out a new line. Choricius was also the author
of so-called ' EiK<t>p&<rets, descriptions of works of art after the
manner of Philostratus. The moral maxims, which were a
constant feature of his writings, were largely drawn upon by
Macarius Chrysocephalas, metropolitan of Philadelphia (middle
of the 1 4th century), in his Rodonia (rose-garden), a voluminous
collection of ethical sayings. The style of Choricius is praised
by Photius as pure and elegant, but he is censured for lack of
naturalness. A special feature of his style is the persistent
avoidance of hiatus, peculiar to what is called the school of
Gaza.

Editions by J. F. Boissonade (1846, supplemented by C. Graux
in Revue de philologie, 1877) and R. Forster (1882-1894); see a'so
C. Kirsten, " Quaestiones Choricianae in Breslauer philologische
Abhandlungen, vii. (1894), and article by W. Schmid in Pauly-
Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, iii. 2 (1899). On the Gaza school see
K. Seitz, Die Schule von Gaza (Heidelberg, 1892).

CHORIN, AARON (1766-1844), Hungarian rabbi and pioneer
of religious reform. He favoured the use of the organ and of
prayers in the vernacular, and was instrumental in founding
schools on modern lines. Chorin was thus regarded as a leader
of the newer Judaism. He also interested himself in public
affairs; and his son Francis was a Hungarian deputy.

See L. Low, Gesammelte Schriften, ii. 251.

CHORIZONTES (" separators "), the name given to the
Alexandrian critics who denied the single authorship of the
Iliad and Odyssey, and held that the latter poem was the work
of a later poet. The most important of them were the gram-
marians Xeno and Hellanicus; Aristarchus was their chief
opponent (see HOMER).

CHORLEY, HENRY FOTHERGILL (1808-1872), English
musical critic, one of an old Lancashire family, began in a
merchant's office, but soon took to musical journalism. He
began to write for the Athenaeum in 1830, and remained its
musical critic for more than a generation; and he also became
musical critic for The Times. In these positions he had much
influence; he had strong views, and was a persistent opponent
of innovation. In addition to musical criticism, he wrote
voluminously on literature and art, besides novels, dramas and
verse, and various librettos; and he published several books,
including Modern German Music (1854), Handel Studies (1859),
and Thirty Years' Musical Recollections (1862). He died in
London on the i6th of February 1872.

See his Autobiography, Memoir and Letters, edited by H. G.
Hewlett (1873).

CHORLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the
Chorley parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on
the river Yarrow, 202 m. N.W. by W. from London and 22m.
N.W. from Manchester, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire and
London & North- Western railways and the Leeds & Liverpool
Canal. Pop. (1891) 23,087; (1901) 26,852. The church of St
Lawrence is of Perpendicular and earlier date, largely restored;
it contains fine woodwork and some interesting monuments.
Cotton spinning and the manufacture of cotton and muslin
are extensively carried on, and there are also iron and brass
foundries and boiler factories. Railway- wagon building is an im-
portant industry. The district contains a number of coal-mines
and stone-quarries. Close to the town is the beautiful Elizabethan
mansion of Astley Hall, which is said to have sheltered Oliver
Cromwell after the battle of Preston (1648). The corporation
consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 3614
acres.

CHORLU, TCHORLAU or SCHORLAU, a town of European
Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; on the left bank of the
Chorlu, a small left-hand tributary of the Ergene, 20 m. N.E. of

Rodosto. Pop. (1905) about 12,000, of whom one-half are Greeks,
one-third Turks, and the remainder Armenians and Jews. Chorlu
has a station on the Constantinople-Adrianople branch of the
Oriental railways. It manufactures woollen cloth (shayak) and
native carpets, and exports cereals, oil-cloth, carpets, cattle,
poultry, fresh meat, game, fruits, wine, alcohol, hides and
bones.

CHOROGRAPHY. (i) (From the Gr. \upa, a tract of country,
and yp6.<t>tiv, to write), a description or delineation on a map of
a district or tract of country; it is to be distinguished from
" geography " and " topography," which treat of the earth as a
whole and of particular placesrespectively. The word is common
in old geographical treatises, but is now superseded by the
wider use of " topography." (2) (From the Gr. "xppbi, dance),
the art of dancing, or a system of notation to indicate the steps
and movements in dancing.

CHORUM, the chief town of a sanjak of the Angora vilayet
in Asia Minor, altitude 2300 ft., situated on the edge of a wide
plain, almost equidistant from Amasia and Yuzgat. Pop. about
1 2 , 500, including a few Christians. Its importance is largely due
to its situation on the great trade-route from Kaisarieh (Caesarea)
by Yuzgat and Marzivan to Samsun on the Black Sea. It
corresponds to the ancient Euchaita, which lay 1 5 m. E. Euchaiti
was attacked by the Huns A.D. 508, and became a bishopric
at an early period and a centre of religious enthusiasm, as con-
taining the tomb of the revered St Theodore, who slew a dragon
in the vicinity and became one of the great warrior saints of the
Greek Church. Something of the old enthusiasm seems to have
passed to the inhabitants of Chorum, whom most travellers have
found bigoted and fanatical Mahommedans (see J.G.C. Anderson,
Studia Pontica, pp. 6 ff.).

CHORUS (Gr. x°P°s), properly a dance, and especially the
sacred dance, accompanied by song, of ancient Greece at the
festivals of the gods. The word xopoi seems originally to have
referred to a dance in an enclosure, and is therefore usually
connected with the root appearing in Gr. \bpros, hedge, enclosure,
Lat. hortus, garden, and in the Eng. " yard," " garden " and
" garth." Of choral dances in ancient Greece other than those
in honour of Dionysus we know of the Dance of the Crane at
Delos, celebrating the escape of Theseus from the labyrinth, one
telling of the struggle of Apollo and the Python at Delphi, and
one in Crete recounting the saving of the new-born Zeus by the
Curetes. In the chorus sung in honour of Dionysus the ancient
Greek drama had its birth. From that of the winter festival,
consisting of the K&HUK or band of revellers, chanting the
" phallic songs," with ribald dialogue between the leader and his
band, sprang " comedy," while from the dithyrambic chorus
of the spring festival came " tragedy." For the history of the
chorus in Greek drama, with the gradual subordination of the
lyrical to the dramatic side in tragedy and its total disappearance
in the middle and new comedy, see DRAMA: Greek Drama.

The chorus as a factor in drama survived only in the various
imitations or revivals .of the ancient Greek theatre in other
languages. A chorus is found in Milton's Samson Agonistes.
The Elizabethan dramatists applied the name to a single char-
acter employed for the recitation of prologues or epilogues.
Apart from the uses of the term in drama, the word " chorus "
has been employed chiefly in music. It is used of any organized
body of singers, in opera, oratorio, cantata, &c., and, in the form
" choir," of the trained body of singers of the musical portions of
a religious service in a cathedral or church. As applied to musical
compositions, a " chorus " is a composition written in parts, each
to be sung by groups of voices in a large body of singers, and
differs from " glee " (<?.».), where each part is for a single voice.
The word is also used of that part of a song repeated at the close
of each verse, in which the audience or a body of singers may join
with the soloist.

In the early middle ages the name chorus was given to a
primitive bagpipe without a drone. The instrument is best known
by the Latin description contained in the apocryphal letter of
St Jerome, ad Dardanum: " Chorus quoque simplex, pellis cum
duabus cicutis aereis, et per primam inspiratur per secundam

CHOSE— CHOSROES

271

vocem emittit." Several illuminated MSS.1 from the 9th to the
nth century give fanciful drawings, accompanied by descriptions
in barbarous Latin, evidently meant to illustrate those described
in the letter to Dardanus. The original MS., probably an
illustrated transcript of this letter, which served as a copy for
the others, was apparently produced at a time when the Roman
bagpipe (tibia utricularia) had fallen into disuse in common with
other musical instruments, and was unknown except to the few.
The Latin description given above is correct and quite unmis-
takable to any one who knows the primitive form of bagpipe; the
illustrations must therefore represent theeffortofanartisttodepict
an unknown instrument from a description. Virdung, Luscinius
and Praetorius seem to have had access to a MS. of the Dardanus
letter now lost, and to have reproduced the drawings without
understanding them. In a MS. of the i4th century at the British
Museum,2 containing a chronicle of the world's history to the
death of King Edward I., the chorus is mentioned and described
in similar words to those quoted above; in the margin is an
elementary sketch of a primitive bagpipe with blowpipe and
chaunter with three holes, but no drone. Bagpipes with drones
abound on sculptured monuments and in miniatures of that
century. Gerbert gives illustrations of the fanciful chorus from
the Dardanus letter and of two other instruments of later date;
one of these represents a musician playing the Platerspiel,the other
the bagpipe known as chevrette, in which the whole skin of the
animal (a kid or pig), with head and feet, has been used for the
bag. Edward Buhle,3 in his admirable work on the musical
instruments in the illuminated MSS. of the middle ages, points out
that Gerbert,4 who gives the dates of his two MSS. as " 6th and
9th centuries," has a singular method of reckoning the date
of a MS.; he refers to the age of a MS. at the time of writing
(i8th century), not to the date at which it was produced. The
MS. .containing the two figures of musicians mentioned above,
instead of being ascribed to the 6th century, was six centuries
old when Gerbert wrote in 1774, and dates therefore from the
i zth century. It is interesting to note that Giraldus Cambrensis 6
mentions the chorus as one of the three instruments of Wales
and Scotland, ascribing superior musical skill to the latter.
Historians record that King James I. of Scotland was renowned
for his skill as a performer on various musical instruments, one
of which was the chorus.6 This bears out the traditional belief
that the bagpipe had been a Scottish attribute from the earliest
times. The word " chorus " occurs once or twice in French
medieval poems with other instruments, but without indication
as to the kind of instrument thus designated. The word was
probably the French equivalent for the Platerspiel.

See also G. Kastner, Danses des marts (pp. 200 to 202, pi. xv.,
No. 103); and Dom Pedro Cerone, El Melopeo y maestro (Naples,
1613), p. 248. (K. S.)

CHOSE (Fr. for " thing "), a term used in English law in
different senses. Chose local is a thing annexed to a place, as a
mill. A chose transitory is that which is movable, and can be
carried from place to place. But the use of the word " chose "
in these senses is practically obsolete, and it is now used only
in the phrases chose in action and chose in possession. A " chose
in action," sometimes called a chose in suspense, in its more
limited meaning, denotes the right of enforcing by legal pro-

1 The MSS. are a psaiterium, 9th century, Bibl. publique, Angers,
fol. 133; Boulogne Psalterium glossatum c. A.D. 1000, MS. No. 20,
Bibl. publique. For reproduction of musical instruments see A nnales
archeologiques, tome iv. (1846), p. 38; Cotton MS., Tiberius C. vi.,
loth to nth century, fol. l6b, British Museum, illustrated
in Strutt's Horda Angel-cynnan, vol. ii. pis. xx. and xxi. ; MS. psalter
of St Emmeran, now in Munich Staatsbibliothek, elm. 14523, fol.
Sib, loth century, illustrated by Gerbert, De Cantu el Mus. Sacra,
tome ii. pi. xxiii. ; Paris, Bibl. Nat. Fonds Latin, 7211, loth century,
fol. 150 and 1513.

1 Cotton MS., Nero D. ii. f. 153, Chronicon ab orbe condito ad

titum Regis Edwardi I., 1307.

3 Die musikalischen Instrument* in den Miniaturen desfriihen Mit-
\lalters, part i. " Die Blasinstrumente " (Leipzig, 1903), p. 7, note I.

4 Op. cit. (1774), tome ii. pi. xxv. No. 13, pp. 130, 151, 152, and
pi. xxxi. No. 12.

' Topographic Hiberniae, cap. xi.

• Scotichronicon (Fordun and Bower), xvi. 28; and Dalyell,
fusical Memoirs of Scotland, p. 47, pis. x. and xi.

ceedings the payment of a debt, or the obtaining money by way
of damages for breach of contract, or as a recompense for a
wrong. Less accurately, the money itself which could be
recovered is frequently termed a chose in action, as is also
sometimes the document evidencing a title to a chose in action,
such as a bond or a policy of insurance, though strictly it is only
the right to recover the money which can be so termed. Choses
in action were, before the Judicature Acts, either legal or equitable.
Where the chose could be recovered only by an action at law,
as a debt (whether arising from contract or tort), it was termed
a legal chose in action; where the chose was recoverable only
by a suit in equity, as a legacy or money held upon a trust, it
was termed an equitable chose in action. Before the Judicature
Act, a legal chose in action was not assignable, i.e. the assignee
could not sue at law in his own name. To this rule there were
two exceptions: — (i) the crown has always been able to assign
choses in action that are certain, such as an ascertained debt,
but not those that are uncertain; (2) assignments valid by
operation of law, e.g. on marriage, death or bankruptcy. On
the other hand, however, by the law merchant, which is part
of the law of England, and which disregards the rules of common
law, bills of exchange were freely assignable. The consequence
was that, with these and certain statutory exceptions (e.g.
actions on policies of insurance), an action on an assigned chose
in action must have been brought at law in the name of the
assignor, though the sum recovered belonged in equity to the
assignee. All choses in action being in equity assignable,
except those which are altogether incapable of being assigned,
in equity the assignee might have sued in his own name, making
the assignor a party as co-plaintiff or as defendant. The Judica-
ture Acts made the distinction between legal and equitable
choses in action of no importance. The Judicature Act of 1873,
s. 25 (6), enacted that the legal right to a debt or other legal
chose in action could be passed by absolute assignment in
writing under the hand of the assignor.

" Chose in possession " is opposed to chose in action, and
denotes not only the right to enjoy or possess a thing, but also
the actual or constructive enjoyment of it. The possession may
be absolute or qualified. It is absolute when the person is fully
and completely the proprietor or owner of the thing; it is
qualified when he " has not an exclusive right, or not a per-
manent right, but a right which may sometimes subsist and at
other times not subsist," as in the case of animals ferae naturae.
A chose in possession is freely transferable by delivery. Previ-
ously to the Married Women's Property Act 1882, a wife's
choses in possession vested in her husband immediately on her
marriage, while her choses in action did not belong to the husband
until he had reduced them into possession, but this difference
is now practically obsolete.

CHOSROES, in Middle and Modern Persian Khosrau (" with
a good name "), a very common Persian name, borne by a famous
king of the Iranian legend (Kai Khosrau) ; by a Parthian king,
commonly called by the Greeks Osroes (q.v.) ; and by the following
two Sassanid kings.

i. CHOSROES I., " the Blessed " (Anuskirvan) , 531-579, the
favourite son and successor of Kavadh I., and the most famous
of the Sassanid kings. At the beginning of his reign he concluded
an " eternal " peace with the emperor Justinian, who wanted
to have his hands free for the conquest of Africa and Sicily. But
his successes against the Vandals and Goths caused Chosroes
to begin the war again in 540. He invaded Syria and carried the
inhabitants of Antioch to his residence, where he built for them
a new city near Ctesiphon under the name of Khosrau-Antioch
or Chosro-Antioch. During the next years he fought successfully
in Lazica or Lazistan(the ancient Colchis, q.v.), on the Black Sea,
and in Mesopotamia. The Romans, though led by Belisarius,
could do little against him. In 545 an armistice was concluded,
but in Lazica the war went on till 556. At last, in 562, a peace
was concluded for 50 years, in which the Persians left Lazistan
to the Romans, and promised not to persecute the Christians,
if, they did not attempt to make proselytes among the Zara-
thustrians; on the other hand, the Romans had again to pay

272

CHOTA NAGPUR— CHOUANS

subsidies to Persia. Meanwhile in the east the Hephthalites
had been attacked by the Turks, who now appear for the first
time in history. Chosroes united with them and conquered
Bactria, while he left the country north of the Oxus to the
Turks. Many other rebellious tribes were subjected. About

570 the dynasts of Yemen, who had been subdued by the Ethi-
opians of Axum, applied to Chosroes for help. He sent a fleet
with a small army under Vahriz, who expelled the Ethiopians.
From that time till the conquests of Mahomet, Yemen was
dependent on Persia, and a Persian governor resided here. In

571 a new war with Rome broke out about Armenia, in which
Chosroes conquered the fortress Dara on the Euphrates, invaded
Syria and Cappadocia, and returned with large booty. During
the negotiations with the emperor Tiberius Chosroes died in
579, and was succeeded by his son Hormizd IV.

Although Chosroes had in the last years of his father extirpated
the heretical and communistic Persian sect of theMazdakites (see
KAVADH) and was a sincere adherent of Zoroastrian orthodoxy,
he was not fanatical or prone to persecution. He tolerated
every Christian confession. When one of his sons had rebelled
about 550 and was taken prisoner, he did not execute him; nor
did he punish the Christians who had supported him. He
introduced a rational system of taxation, based upon a survey
of landed possessions, which his father had begun, and tried in
every way to increase the welfare and the revenues of his empire.
In Babylonia he built or restored the canals. His army was
in discipline decidedly superior to the Romans, and apparently
was well paid. He was also interested in literature and philo-
sophical discussions. Under his reign chess was introduced
from India, and the famous book of Kalilah and Dimnah was
translated. He thus became renowned as a wise prince. When
Justinian in 529 closed the university of Athens, the last seat of
paganism in the Roman empire, the last seven teachers of
Neoplatonism emigrated to Persia. But they soon found out
that neither Chosroes nor his state corresponded to the Platonic
ideal, and Chosroes, in his treaty with Justinian, stipulated
that they should return unmolested.

2. CHOSROES II., " the Victorious " (Panez), son of Hormizd
IV., grandson of Chosroes I., 590-628. He was raised to the
throne by the magnates who had rebelled against Hormizd IV.
in 590, and soon after his father was blinded and killed. But at
the same time the general Bahram Chobin had proclaimed
himself king, and Chosroes II. was not able to maintain himself.
The war with the Romans, which had begun in 571, had not
yet come to an end. Chosroes fled to Syria, and persuaded the
emperor Maurice (q.v.) to send help. Many leading men and
part of the troops acknowledged Chosroes, and in 591 he was
brought back to Ctesiphon. Bahram Chobin was beaten and
fled to the Turks, ^mong whom he was murdered. Peace with
Rome was then concluded. Maurice made no use of his advan-
tage; he merely restored the former frontier and abolished the
subsidies which had formerly been paid to the Persians. Chosroes
II. was much inferior to his grandfather. He was haughty and
cruel, rapacious and given to luxury; he was neither a general
nor an administrator. At the beginning of his reign he favoured
the Christians; but when in 602 Maurice had been murdered
by Phocas, he began war with Rome to avenge his death. His
armies plundered Syria and Asia Minor, and in 608 advanced
to Chalcedon. In 613 and 614 Damascus and Jerusalem were
taken by the general Shahrbaraz, and the Holy Cross was carried
away in triumph. Soon after, even Egypt was conquered.
The Romans could offer but little resistance, as they were torn
by internal dissensions, and pressed by the Avars and Slavs.
At last, in 622, the emperor Heraclius (who had succeeded
Phocas in 610) was able to take the field. In 624 he advanced
into northern Media, where he destroyed the great fire-temple
of Gandzak (Gazaca); in 626 he fought in Lazistan (Colchis),
while Shahrbaraz advanced to Chalcedon, and tried in vain,
united with the Avars, to conquer Constantinople. In 627
Heraclius defeated the Persian army at Nineveh and advanced
towards Ctesiphon. Chosroes fled from his favourite residence,
Dastagerd (near Bagdad), without offering resistance, and as

his despotism and indolence had roused opposition everywhere,
his eldest son, Kavadh II., whom he had imprisoned, was set
free by some of the leading men and proclaimed king. Four
days afterwards, Chosroes was murdered in his palace (February
628). Meanwhile, Heraclius returned in triumph to Constanti-
nople, in 629 the Cross was given back to him and Egypt evacu-
ated, while the Persian empire, from the apparent greatness
which it had reached ten years ago, sank into hopeless anarchy.

SeePERSlA: Ancient History. For the Roman wars see authorities
quoted under MAURICE and HERACLIUS. (Eo. M.)

CHOTA (or CHUTIA) NAGPUR, a division of British India
in Bengal, consisting of five British districts and two feudatory
states. It is a hilly, forest-clad plateau, inhabited mostly by
aboriginal races, between the basins of the Sone, the Ganges
and the Mahanadi. The five British districts are Hazaribagh,
Ranchi, Palamau, Manbhum and Singhbhum. The total
area of the British districts is 27,101 sq. m. The population in
1901 was 4,900,429. The tributary states are noticed separately
below. The Chota Nagpur plateau is an offshoot of the great
Vindhyan range, and its mean elevation is upwards of 2000 ft.
above the sea-level. In the W. it rises to 3600 ft., and to the E.
and S. its lower steppe, from 800 to 1000 ft. in elevation, com-
prises a great portion of the Manbhum and Singhbhum districts.
The whole is about 14,000 sq. m. in extent, and forms the source
of the Barakhar, Damodar, Kasai, Subanrekha, Baitarani,
Brahmani, Ib and other rivers. Sal forests abound. The
principal jungle products are timber, various kinds of medicinal
fruits and herbs, lac, tussur silk and mahud flowers, which are
used as food by the wild tribes and also distilled into a strong
country liquor. Coal exists in large quantities, and is worked
in the Jherria, Hazaribagh, Giridih and Gobindpur districts.
The chief workings are at Jherria, which were started in 1893,
and have developed into one of the largest coal-fields in India.
Formerly gold was washed from the sands in the bed of the
Subanrekha river, but the operations are now almost wholly
abandoned. Iron-ores abound, together with good building
stone. The indigenous inhabitants consist of non-Aryan tribes
who were driven from the plains by the Hindus and took refuge
in the mountain fastnesses of the Chota Nagpur plateau. The
principal of them are Kols, Santals, Oraons, Dhangars, Mundas
and Bhumij. These tribes were formerly turbulent, and a source
of trouble to the Mahommedan governors of Bengal and Behar;
but the introduction of British rule has secured peace and
security, and the aboriginal races of Chota Nagpur are now
peaceful and orderly subjects. The principal agricultural
products are rice, Indian corn, pulses, oil-seeds and potatoes.
A small quantity of tea is grown in Hazaribagh and Ranchi
districts. Lac and tussur silk-cloth are largely manufactured.
The climate of Chota Nagpur is dry and healthy. The Jherria
extension branch of the East India railway runs to Katrasgarh,
while the Bengal-Nagpur railway also serves the division.

The CHOTA NAGPUR STATES were formerly nine in number.
But the five states of Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur
and Jashpur were transferred from Bengal to the Central Pro-
vinces in October 1905, and the two Uriya-speaking states of
Gangpur and Bonai were attached to the Orissa Tributary
States. There now remain, therefore, only the two states of
Kharsawan and Saraikela. At the decline of the Mahratta
power in the early part of the igth century, the Chota Nagpur
states came under British protection. Before the rise of the
British power in India their chiefs exercised almost absolute
sovereignty in their respective territories.

See F. B. Bradley-Birt, Chota Nagpore (1903).

CHOUANS (a Bas-Breton word signifying screech-owls), the
name applied to smugglers and dealers in contraband salt, who
rose in insurrection in the west of France at the time of the
Revolution and joined the royalists of La Vendee. It has been
suggested that the name arose from the cry they used when
approaching their nocturnal rendezvous; but it is more probable
that it was derived from a nickname applied to their leader Jean
Cottereau (1767-1794). Originally a contraband manufacturer
of salt, Cottereau along with his brothers had several times been

CHRESMOGRAPHION— CHRISM

273

condemned and served sentence; but the Revolution, by
destroying the inland customs, ruined his trade. On the i$th
of August 1 792, he led a band of peasants to prevent the departure
of the volunteers of St Ouen, near Laval, and retired to the wood
of Misdon, where they lived in huts and subterranean chambers.
The Chouans then waged a guerrilla warf areagainst therepublicans
and, sustained by the royalists and from abroad, carried on their
assassinations and brigandage with success. From Lower Maine
the insurrection soon spread to Brittany, and throughout the
west of France. In 1793 Cottereau came to Laval with some
500 men ; the band grew rapidly and swelled into a considerable
army, which assumed the name of La Petite Vend6e. But after
the decisive defeats at Le Mans and Savenay, Cottereau retired
again to his old haunts in the wood of Misdon, and resumed his
old course of guerrilla warfare. Misfortunes here increased upon
him, until he fell into an ambuscade and was mortally wounded.
He died among his followers in February 1794. Cottereau's
brothers also perished in the war, with the exception of Rene,
who lived until 1846. Royalist authors have made of Cottereau
a hero and martyr, titles to which his claim is not established.
After the death of Cottereau, the chief leaders of the Chouans
were Georges Cadoudal (q.v.) and a man who went by the name
of Jambe d'Argent. For several months the Chouans continued
their petty warfare, which was disgraced by many acts of ferocity
and rapine; in August 1795 they dispersed; but they were
guilty of several conspiracies up to 1815. (See also VENDEE.)

See the articles in La Revolution franc.aise, vol. 29, La Chouannerie
dans la Manche; vol. 32, La Chouannerie dans I'Eure; vol. 40,
La Chouannerie dans le Morbihan (7705-1794) ; Sarot, Les Tribunaux
repressifs ordinaires de la Manche en matiere politique pendant la
premiere Revolution (Paris, 1881), 4 vols. ; Th. de Closmadeux,
Quiberon (1795), Emigres et Chouans, commissions militaires, interro-
gations et jugements (Paris, 1898), the only authority on the cele-
brated affair of Quiberon ; E. Daudet, La Police et les Chouans dans
le Consulat et I'Empire, 1800-1815 (Paris, 1895). Also the works
of Ch. L. Chessin mentioned under VENDEE.

CHRESMOGRAPHION (from Gr. XP^MOS, oracle, and ypafaiv,
to write) , an architectural term sometimes given to the chamber
between the pronaos and the cella in Greek temples where oracles
were delivered.

CHRESTIEN, FLORENT (1541-1596), French satirist and
Latin poet, the son of Guillaume Chrestien, an eminent French
physician and writer on physiology, was born at Orleans on the
z6th of January 1541. A pupil of Henri Estienne, the Hellenist,
at an early age he was appointed tutor to Henry of Navarre,
afterwards Henry IV., who made him his librarian. Brought up
as a Calvinist, he became a convert to Catholicism. He was the
author of many good translations from the Greelt into Latin
verse, — amongst others, of versions of the Hero and Leander
attributed to Musaeus, and of many epigrams from the Anthology.
In his translations into French, among which are remarked those
of Buchanan's Jephthe (1567), and of Oppian De Venatione
(1575), he is not so happy, being rather to be praised for fidelity
to his original than for excellence of style. His principal claim
to a place among memorable satirists is as one of the authors
of the Satyre Mtnippfe, the famous pasquinade in the interest of
his old pupil, Henry IV., in which the harangue put into the
mouth of cardinal de Pelv6 is usually attributed to him. He
died on the 3rd of October 1596 at Vend&me.

CHRETIEN, or CRESTIEN, DE TROYES, a native of Champagne,
and the most famous of French medieval poets. Unfortunately
we have few exact details as to his life, and opinion differs as to
the precise dates to be assigned to his poems. We know that he
wrote the Chevalier de la Charrelte at the command of Marie,
countess of Champagne (the daughter of Louis VII. and Eleanor,
who married the count of Champagne in 1164), and Le Conte del
Graal or Perceval for Philip, count of Flanders, who died of the
plague before Acre in 1191. This prince was guardian to the
young king, Philip Augustus, and held the regency from 1180 to
1182. As Chretien refers to the story of the Grail as the best tale
told au cort roial, it seems very probable that it was composed
during the period of the count's regency. It was left unfinished,
and added to at divers times by at least three writers, Wauchier

de D'enain, Gerbert de Montreuil and Manessier. The second of
these states definitely that Chr6tien die.d before he could finish
his poem. Probably the period of his literary activity lies
between the dates 1150 and 1182, when his patron, Count
Philip, fell into disgrace at court. The extant poems of Chretien
de Troyes, in their chronological order are, £rec et Enide, Cligts,
Le Chevalier de la Charrelte (or Lancelot), Le Chevalier au Lion (or
Yvain), and Le Conte del Graal (Perceval), all dealing with
Arthurian legend. Besides these he states in the opening lines of
Cligts that he had composed a Tristan (of which so far no trace
has been found), and had made certain translations from Ovid's
Ars A malaria a.nd Metamorphoses. A portion of the last has been
found by Gaston Paris included in the translation of Ovid made
by Chretien Legouais. There exists also a poem, Guillaume
d'Anglelerre, purporting to be by Chretien, but the authorship is a
matter of debate. Professor Foerster claims it as genuine, and
includes it in his edition of the poems, but Gaston Paris never
accepted it.

Chretien's poems enjoyed widespread favour, and of the three
most popular (£rec, Yvain and Perceval) there exist old Norse
translations, while the two first were admirably rendered into
German by Hartmann von Aue. There is an English translation
of the Yvain, Yivain and Gawain, and there are Welsh versions of
all three stories, though their exact relation to the French has not
been determined. Chretien's style is easy and graceful, such as
might be expected from a court poet; he is analytical, but not
dramatic; in depth of thought and power of characterization he
is decidedly inferior to Wolfram von Eschenbach, and as a poet he
is probably to be ranked below Thomas, the author of the
Tristan, and the translator of Thomas, Gottfried von Strassburg.
Much that has been claimed as characteristic of his work has been
shown by M. Willmotte to be merely reproductions of literary
conceits employed by his predecessors; in the words of a recent
writer, M. Bedier, " Chretien semble moins avoir ete un createur
epique qu'un habile arrangeur." The special interest of his pcems
lies in the problems surrounding their origin. So far as the MSS.
are concerned they are the earliest Arthurian romances we
possess. Did Chretien invent the genre , or did he simply turn to
account the work of earlier, and less favoured, poets? Round
this point the battle still rages hotly, and though the extensive
claims made by the enthusiastic editor of his works are gradually
yielding to the force of critical investigation, it cannot be said that
the question is in any way settled (see ARTHURIAN LEGEND).

Chretien's poems, except the Perceval, have been critically edited
by Professor Foerster (4 vols.). There is no easily available edition
of the Perceval, which was printed from the Mons MS. by M. Potvin
(6 vols., 1866-1871), but is difficult to procure. For Ywain and
Gawain see the edition by Schleich (1887). The German versions are
in Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters, 1888 (Iwein), 1893 (Erec); the
Welsh, in Lady Charlotte Guest's translation of the Mabinogion (Nutt,
1902) ; Scandinavian translations, ed. E. Kolbing (1872). For general
criticism see Willmotte, L' Evolution du roman franc.ais aux environs
de 7750 (1903) ; also Legend of Sir Lancelot and Legend of Sir Percival
(Grimm Library) ; and M. Borodine, La Femme el V amour au XII'
siecle, d'apres les poemes de Chretien de Troyes (1909).

CHRISM (through Lat. chrisma, from Gr. \piafM, an anointing
substance, xp'LfiV > to anoint; through a Romanic form cresma
comes the Fr. crime, and Eng. " cream "), a mixture of olive oil
and balm, used for anointing in the Roman Catholic church in
baptism, confirmation and ordination, and in the consecrating
and blessing of altars, chalices, baptismal water, &c. The
consecration of the " chrism " is performed by a bishop, and
since the sth century has taken place on Maundy Thursday. In
the Orthodox Church the chrism contains, besides olive oil, many
precious spices and perfumes, and is known as " muron " or
" myron." The word is sometimes-used loosely for the unmixed
olive oil used in the sacrament of extreme unction. The
" Chrisom " or " chrysom," a variant of " chrism," lengthened
through pronunciation, is a white cloth with which the head of a
newly baptized child was covered to prevent the holy oil from
being rubbed off. If the baby died within a month of its baptism ,
it was shrouded in its chrisom; otherwise the cloth or its value
was given to the church as an offering by the mother at her
churching. Children dying within the month were called

274

CHRIST— CHRISTIAN II.

" chrisom-children " or " chrisoms," and up to 1726 such entries
occur in bills of mortality. The word was also used generally for
a very young and innocent child, thus Shakespeare, Henry V., ii.
3, says of Falstaff : " A' made a finer end and went away an it had
been any Chrisom Child."

CHRIST (Gr. Xptoros, Anointed), the official title given in the
New Testament to Jesus of Nazareth, equivalent to the Hebrew
Messiah. See JESUS CHRIST; MESSIAH; CHRISTIANITY.

CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906), German classical
scholar, was born in Geisenheim in Hesse-Nassau on the 2nd of
August 1831. From 1854 till 1860 he taught in the Maximilians-
gymnasium at Munich, and in 1861 was appointed professor of
classical philology in the university. His most important works
are his Geschichte der griechischen Literalur (sth ed., 1908 f.), a
history of Greek literature down to the time of Justinian, one of
the best works on the subject; Metrik der Criechen und Romer
(1879); editions of Pindar (1887); of the Poetica (1878) and
Metaphysica (1895) of Aristotle; Iliad (1884). His contributions
to the Silzungsberichte and Abhandlungen of the Bavarian
Academy of Sciences are particularly valuable.

See O. Crusius, Geddchtnisrede (Munich, 1907).

CHRISTADELPHIANS (XpurroD fiStX^ot, "brothers of
Christ "), sometimes also called Thomasites, a community
founded in 1848 by John Thomas (1805-1871), who, after
studying medicine in London, migrated to Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.A.
There he at first joined the " Campbellites," but afterwards
struck out independently, preaching largely upon the application
of Hebrew prophecy and of the Book of Revelation to current and
future events. Both in America and in Great Britain he gathered
a number of adherents, and formed a community which has
extended to several English-speaking countries. It consists of
exclusive " ecclesias," with neither ministry nor organization.
The members meet on Sundays to " break bread " and discuss
the Bible. Their theology is strongly millenarian, centering in
the hope of a world-wide theocracy with its seat at Jerusalem.
Holding a doctrine of " conditional immortality," they believe
that they alone have the true exegesis of Scripture, and that the
" faith of Christendom " is" compounded of the fables predicted
by Paul. " No statistics of the community are published. It prob-
ably numbers from two to three thousand members. A monthly
magazine, The Christadelphian, is published in Birmingham.

See R. Roberts, Dr Thomas, his Life and Work (1884).

CHRISTCHURCH, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Hampshire, England, at the confluence of the rivers Avon and
Stour, ij m. from the sea, and 104 m. S.W. by W. from London
by the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4204.
It is famous for its magnificent priory church of the Holy Trinity.
The church is cruciform, lacking a central tower, but having a
Perpendicular tower at the west end. The nave and transepts
are principally Norman, and very fine; the choir is Perpendicular.
Early English additions appear in the nave, clerestory and
elsewhere, and the rood-screen is of ornate Decorated workman-
ship. Other noteworthy features are the Norman turret at the
north-east angle of the north transept, covered with arcading
and other ornament, the beautiful reredos, similar to that in
Winchester cathedral, and several interesting monuments,
among which is one to the poet Shelley. Only fragments remain
of the old castle, but an interesting ruin adjoins it known as the
Norman House, apparently dating from the later part of the
1 2th century. Hosiery, and chains for clocks and watches are
manufactured, and the salmon fishery is valuable. There is a
small harbour, but it is dry at low water. The parliamentary
borough, returning one member, includes the town of Bourne-
mouth. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 832 acres.

Christchurch is mentioned in Saxon documents under the
name of Tweotneam or Tweonaeteam, which long survived in
the form Christchurch Twineham. In 901 it was seized by
Aethelwald, but was recaptured by Edward the Elder. In the
Domesday Survey, under the name of Thuinam, it appears as a
royal manor, comprising a mill and part of the king's forest;
its value since the time of Edward the Confessor had decreased

by almost one-half. Henry I. granted Christchurch to Richard
de Redvers, who erected the castle. The first charter was granted
by Baldwin earl of Exeter in the I2th century; it exempted
the burgesses from certain tolls and customs, including the tolls
on salt within the borough, and the custody of thieves. The
2nd Earl Baldwin granted to the burgesses the tolls of the fair
at St Faith and common of pasture in certain meads. The above
charters were confirmed by Edward II., Henry VII. and Eliza-
beth. The Holy Trinity fair is mentioned in 1 226. Christchurch
was governed by a bailiff in the I3th century, and was not
incorporated till 1670, when the government was vested in a
mayor and 24 capital burgesses, but this charter was shortly
abandoned. The borough was summoned to send representatives
to parliament in 1307 and 1308, but no returns are registered
until 1572, from which date it was represented by two members
until the Reform Act of 1832 reduced the number to one. The
secular canons of the church of Holy Trinity held valuable
possessions in Hampshire at the time of Edward the Confessor,
including a portion of Christchurch, and in 1 1 50 the establishment
was constituted a priory of regular canons of St Augustine.
Baldwin de Redvers confirmed the canons in their right to the
first salmon caught every year and the tolls of Trinity fair. The
priory, which attained to such fame that its name of Christchurch
finally replaced the older name of Twineham, was dissolved in

1539-

See Victoria County History. — Hampshire; Benjamin Ferrey,
Antiquities of the Priory of Christchurch, 2nd edition, revised by
J. Britton (London, 1841).

CHRISTCHURCH, a city near the east coast of South Island,
New Zealand, to the north of Banks Peninsula, in Selwyn county,
the capital of the provincial district of Canterbury and the seat
of a bishop. Pop. (1906) 49,928; including suburbs, 67,878.
It stands upon the great Canterbury plain, which here is a dead
level, though the monotony of the site has been much relieved by
extensive plantations of English and Australian trees. A back-
ground is supplied by the distant mountains to the west, and by
the nearer hills to the south. The small river Avon winds
through the city, pleasantly bordered by terraces and gardens.
The wide streets cross one another for the most part at right
angles. The predominance of stone and brick as building
materials, the dominating cathedral spire, and the well-planted
parks, avenues and private gardens, recall the aspect of an
English residential town. Christchurch is mainly dependent on
the rich agricultural district which surrounds it, the plain being
mainly devoted to cereals and grazing. Wool is extensively
worked, and meat is frozen for export. Railways connect with
Culverden to the north and with Dunedin and the south coast,
with many branches through the agricultural districts; also
with Lyttelton, the port of Christchurch, 8 m. S.E. There are
tramways in the city, and to New Brighton, a seaside suburb,
and other residential quarters. The principal public buildings
are the government buildings and the museum, with its fine
collection of remains of the extinct bird, moa. The cathedral
is the best in New Zealand, built from designs of Sir G. Gilbert
Scott in Early English style, with a tower and spire 240 ft. high.
Among educational foundations are Canterbury College (for
classics, science, engineering, &c.), Christ's College (mainly
theological) and grammar school, and a school of art. There
is a Roman Catholic pro-cathedral attached to a convent of the
Sacred Heart. A large extent of open ground, to the west of the
town, finely planted, and traversed by the river, comprises
Hagley Park, recreation grounds, the Government Domain
and the grounds of the Acclimatization Society, with fish-ponds
and a small zoological garden. The foundation of Christchurch
is connected with the so-called " Canterbury Pilgrims," who
settled in this district in 1850. Lyttelton was the original
settlement, but Christchurch came into existence in 1851, and
is thus the latest of the settlements of the colony. It became a
municipality in 1862. In 1903 several populous suburban
boroughs were amalgamated with the city.

CHRISTIAN II. 0481-1559), king of Denmark, Norway and
Sweden, son of John (Hans) and Christina of Saxony, was

CHRISTIAN II.

275

born at Nyborg castle in 1481, and succeeded his father as king
of Denmark and Norway in 1 5 1 3 . As viceroy of Norway ( 1 506-
1512) he had already displayed a singular capacity for ruling
under exceptionally difficult circumstances. Patriotism, insight,
courage, statesmanship, energy, — these great qualities were
indisputably his; but unfortunately they were vitiated by
obstinacy, suspicion and a sulky craftiness, beneath which
simmered 'a very volcano of revengeful cruelty. Another
peculiarity, more fatal to him in that aristocratic age than any
other, was his fondness for the common people, which was
increased by his passion for a pretty Dutch girl, named Dyveke,
who became his mistress in 1507 or 1509.

Christian's succession to the throne was confirmed at the
Herredag, or assembly of notables from the three northern king-
doms, which met at Copenhagen in 1513. The nobles and clergy
of all three kingdoms regarded with grave misgivings a ruler
who had already shewn in Norway that he was not afraid of
enforcing his authority to the uttermost. The Rigsraads of
Denmark and Norway insisted, in the haandfaestning or charter
extorted from the king, that the crowns of both kingdoms were
elective and not hereditary, providing explicitly against any
transgression of the charter by the king, and expressly reserving
to themselves a free choice of Christian's successor after his
death. But the Swedish delegates could not be prevailed upon
to accept Christian as king at all. " We have," they said, " the
choice between peace at home and strife here, or peace here and
civil war at home, and we prefer the former." A decision as
to the Swedish succession was therefore postponed. On the
1 2th of August 1515 Christian married Isabella of Burgundy,
the grand-daughter of the emperor Maximilian. But he would
not give up his liaison with Dyveke, and it was only the death
of the unfortunate girl in 1517, under suspicious circumstances,
that prevented serious complications with the emperor Charles
V. Christian revenged himself by executing the magnate Torben
Oxe, who, on very creditable evidence, was supposed to have
been Dyveke's murderer, despite the strenuous oppositidn of
Oxe's fellow-peers; and henceforth the king lost no opportunity
of depressing the nobility and raising plebeians to power. His
chief counsellor was Dyveke's mother Sigbrit, a born admini-
strator and a commercial genius of the first order. Christian
first appointed her controller of the Sound tolls, and ultimately
committed to her the whole charge of the finances. A bourgeoise
herself, it was Sigbrit's constant policy to elevate and extend
the influence of the middle classes. She soon became the soul
of a middle-class inner council, which competed with Rigsraad
itself. The patricians naturally resented their supersession and
nearly every unpopular measure was attributed to the influence
of " the foul-mouthed Dutch sorceress who hath bewitched
the king."

Meanwhile Christian was preparing for the inevitable war with
Sweden, where the patriotic party, headed by the freely elected
governor Sten Sture the younger, stood face to face with the
philo-Danish party under Archbishop Gustavus Trolle. Christian,
who had already taken measures to isolate Sweden politically,
hastened to the relief of the archbishop, who was beleagured
in his fortress of Stake, but was defeated by Sture and his peasant
levies at Vedla and forced to return to Denmark. A second
attempt to subdue Sweden in 1518 was also frustrated by Sture's
victory at Brankyrka. A third attempt made in 1520 with a
large army of French, German and Scottish mercenaries proved
successful. Sture was mortally wounded at the battle of Bor-
gerund, on the ipth of January, and the Danish army, unopposed,
was approaching Upsala, where the members of the Swedish
Riksr&d had already assembled. The senators consented to
ender homage to Christian on condition that he gave a full
ndemnity for the past and a guarantee that Sweden should b»

Jed according to Swedish laws and custom; and a convention

i this effect was confirmed by the king and the Danish Rigsraad
on the 3ist of March. But Sture's widow, Dame Christina
Gyllenstjerna, still held out stoutly at Stockholm, and the
easantry of central Sweden, stimulated by her patriotism,

ew to arms, defeated the Danish invaders at Balundsas (March

igth), and were only with the utmost difficulty finally defeated
at the bloody battle of Upsala (Good Friday, April 6th). In
May the Danish fleet arrived, and Stockholm was invested by
land and sea; but Dame Christina resisted valiantly for four
months longer, and took care, when she surrendered on the 7th
of September, to exact beforehand an amnesty of the most
explicit and absolute character. On the ist of November the
representatives of the nation swore fealty to Christian as
hereditary king of Sweden, though the law of the land distinctly
provided that the Swedish crown should be elective. On the
4th of November he was anointed by Gustavus Trolle in Stock-
holm cathedral, and took the usual oath to rule the realm
through native-born Swedes alone, according to prescription.
The next three days were given up to banqueting, but on the
7th of November " an entertainment of another sort began."
On the evening of that day Christian summoned his captains
to a private conference at the palace, the result of which was
quickly apparent, for at dusk a band of Danish soldiers, with
lanterns and torches, broke into the great hall and carried off
several carefully selected persons. By 10 o'clock the same
evening the remainder of the king's guests were safely under
lock and key. All these persons had previously been marked
down on Archbishop Trolle's proscription list. On the following
day a council, presided over by Trolle, solemnly pronounced
judgment of death on the proscribed, as manifest heretics.
At 12 o'clock that night the patriotic bishops of Skara and
Strangnas were led out into the great square and beheaded.
Fourteen noblemen,three burgomasters,fourteen town-councillors
and about twenty common citizens of Stockholm were then
drowned or decapitated. The executions continued throughout
the following day; in all, about eighty-two people are said to
have been thus murdered. Moreover, Christian revenged himself
upon the dead as well as upon the living, for Sten Sture's body was
dug up and burnt, as well as the body of his little child. Dame
Christina and many other noble Swedish ladies were sent prisoners
to Denmark. It has well been said that the manner of this
atrocious deed (the " Stockholm Massacre " as it is generally
called) was even more detestable than the deed itself. Christian
suppressed his political opponents under the pretenceof defending
an ecclesiastical system which in his heart he despised. Even
when it became necessary to make excuses for his crime, we see
the same double-mindedness. Thus, while in a proclamation
to the Swedish people he represented the massacre as a measure
necessary to avoid a papal interdict, in his apology to the pope
for the decapitation of the innocent bishops he described it as an
unauthorized act of vengeance on the part of his own people.

It was with his brain teeming with great designs that Christian
II. returned to his native kingdom. That the welfare of his
dominions was dear to him there can be no doubt. Inhuman as
he could be in his wrath, in principle he was as much a humanist
as any of his most enlightened contemporaries. But he would
do things his own way; and deeply distrusting the Danish
nobles with whom he shared his powers, he sought helpers from
among the wealthy and practical middle classes of Flanders.
In June 1521 he paid a sudden visit to the Low Countries, and
remained there for some months. He visited most of the large
cities, took into his service many Flemish artisans, and made
the personal acquaintance of Quentin Matsys and Albrecht
Diirer, the latter of whom painted his portrait. Christian also
entertained Erasmus, with whom he discussed the Reformation,
and let fall the characteristic expression: " Mild measures are of
no use; the remedies that give the whole body a good shaking
are the best and surest."

Never had King Christian seemed so powerful as on his return
to Denmark on the 5th of September 1521, and with the con-
fidence of strength he at once proceeded recklessly to inaugurate
the most sweeping reforms. Soon after his return he issued his
great Landelove, or Code of Laws. For the most part this is
founded on Dutch models, and testifies in a high degree to the
king's progressive aims. Provision was made for the better
education of the lower, and the restriction of the political influence
of the higher clergy; there were stern prohibitions against

276

CHRISTIAN III.-IV.

wreckers and " the evil and unchristian practice of selling
peasants as if they were brute beasts "; the old trade gilds were
retained, but the rules of admittance thereto made easier, and
trade combinations of the richer burghers, to the detriment of
the smaller tradesmen, were sternly forbidden. Unfortunately
these reforms, excellent in themselves, suggested the Standpoint
not of an elected ruler, but of a monarch by right divine. Some
of them were even in direct contravention of the charter; and
the old Scandinavian spirit of independence was deeply wounded
by the preference given to the Dutch. Sweden too was now in
open revolt; and both Norway and Denmark were taxed to
the uttermost to raise an army for the subjection of the sister
kingdom. Foreign complications were now superadded to these
domestic troubles. With the laudable object of releasing Danish
trade from the grinding yoke of the Hansa, and making Copen-
hagen the great emporium of the north, Christian had arbitrarily
raised the Sound tolls and seized a number of Dutch ships which
presumed to evade the tax. Thus his relations with the Nether-
lands were strained, while with Liibeck and her allies he was
openly at war. Finally Jutland rose against him, renounced its
allegiance and offered the Danish crown to Duke Frederick of
Holstein (January 2oth, 1523). So overwhelming did Christian's
difficulties appear that he took ship to seek help abroad, and on
May ist landed at Veere in Zealand. Eight years later (October
24th, 1531) he attempted to recover his kingdoms, but a tempest
scattered his fleet off the Norwegian coast, and on the ist of July
1532, by the convention of Oslo, he surrendered to his rival,
King Frederick, and for the next 27 years was kept in solitary
confinement, first in the Blue Tower at Copenhagen and after-
wards at the castle of Kabendborg. He died in January 1 559.

See K. P. Arnoldson, Nordens enhet och Kristian II. (Stockholm,
1899); Paul Frederik Barfod, Danmarks Historic fra 1319 til 1536
(Copenhagen, 1885) ; Danmarks Riges Historic, vol. 3 (Copenhagen,
1897-1905) ; Robert Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia, chap 2 (Cambridge,
1905). (R. N. B.)

CHRISTIAN III. (1503-1559), king of Denmark and Norway,
was the son of Frederick I. of Denmark and his first consort,
Anne of Brandenburg. His earliest teacher, Wolfgang von
Utenhof, who came straight from Wittenberg, and the Lutheran
Holsteiner Johann Rantzau, who became his tutor, were both
able and zealous reformers. In 1521 Christian travelled in
Germany, and was present at the diet of Worms, where Luther's
behaviour profoundly impressed him. On his return he found
that his father had been elected king of Denmark in the place of
Christian II., and the young prince's first public service was
the reduction of Copenhagen, which stood firm for the fugitive
Christian II. He made no secret of his Lutheran views, and his
outspokenness brought him into collision, not only with the
Catholic Rigsraad, but also with his cautious and temporizing
father. At his own court at Schleswig he did his best to introduce
the Reformation, despite the opposition of the bishops. Both
as stadtholder of the Duchies in 1526, and as viceroy of Norway
in 1529, he displayed considerable administrative ability, though
here too his religious intolerance greatly provoked the Catholic
party. There was even some talk cf passing him over in the
succession to the throne, in favour of his half-brother Hans, who
had been brought up in the old religion. On his father's death
Christian was proclaimed king at the local diet of Viborg, and
took an active part in the " Grevens Fejde " or " Count's War."

The triumph of so fanatical a reformer as Christian brought
about the fall of Catholicism, but the Catholics were still so strong
in the council of state that Christian was forced to have recourse
to a coup d'etat, which he successfully accomplished by means of
his German mercenaries (i2th of August 1536), an absolutely
inexcusable act of violence loudly blamed by Luther himself,
and accompanied by the wholesale spoliation of the church.
Christian's finances were certainly readjusted thereby, but the
ultimate gainers by the confiscation were the nobles, and both
education and morality suffered grievously in consequence.
The circumstances under which Christian III. ascended the throne
naturally exposed Denmark to the danger of foreign domination.
It was with the help of the gentry of the duchies that Christian

had conquered Denmark. German and Holstein noblemen had
led his armies and directed his diplomacy. Naturally, a mutual
confidence between a king who had conquered his kingdom and
a people who had stood in arms against him was not attainable
immediately, and the first six years of Christian III.'s reign were
marked by a contest between the Danish Rigsraad and the
German counsellors, both of whom sought to rule " the pious
king " exclusively. Though the Danish party won a signal
victory at the outset, by obtaining the insertion in the charter
of provisions stipulating that only native-born Danes should
fill the highest dignities of the state, the king's German counsellors
continued paramount during the earlier years of his reign. The
ultimate triumph of the Danish party dates from 1539, the
dangers threatening Christian III. from the emperor Charles V.
and other kinsmen of the imprisoned Christian II. convincing
him of the absolute necessity of removing the last trace of dis-
content in the land by leaning exclusively on Danish magnates
and soldiers. The complete identification of the Danish king
with the Danish people was accomplished at the Herredag of
Copenhagen, 1542, when the nobility of Denmark voted
Christian a twentieth part of all their property to pay off his
heavy debt to the Holsteiners and Germans.

The pivot of the foreign policy of Christian III. was his alliance
with the German Evangelical princes, as a counterpoise to the
persistent hostility of Charles V., who was determined to support
the hereditary claims of his nieces, the daughters of Christian II.,
to the Scandinavian kingdoms. War was actually declared
against Charles V. in 1542, and, though the German Protestant
princes proved faithless allies, the closing of the Sound against
Dutch shipping proved such an effective weapon in King
Christian's hand that the Netherlands compelled Charles V. to
make peace with Denmark at the diet of Spires, the 23rd of May
1544. The foreign policy of Christian's later days was regulated
by the peace of Spires. He carefully avoided all foreign complica-
tions; refused to participate in the Schmalkaldic war of 1546;
mediated between the emperor and Saxony after the fall of
Maurice of Saxony at the battle of Sievershausen in 1553, and
contributed essen tially to the conclusion of peace. King Christian
III. died on New Year's Day 1559. Though not perhaps a great,
he was, in the fullest sense of the word, a good ruler. A strong
sense of duty, genuine piety, and a cautious but by no means
pusillanimous common-sense coloured every action of his
patient, laborious and eventful life. But the work he left
behind him is the best proof of his statesmanship. He found
Denmark in ruins; he left her stronger and wealthier than she had
ever been before.

See Danmarks Riges Historic, vol. 3 (Copenhagen, 1897-1901);
Huitfeld, King Christian III.'s Historic (Copenhagen, 1595) ; Bain,
Scandinavia, cap. iv. v. (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.)

CHRISTIAN IV. (1577-1648), king of Denmark and Norway,
the son of Frederick II., king of Denmark, and Sophia of Mecklen-
burg, was born at Fredriksborg castle in 1577, and succeeded to
the throne on the death of his father (4th of April 1588), attaining
his majority on the I7th of August 1596. On the 27th of
November 1597 he married Anne Catherine, a daughter of
Joachim Frederick, margrave of Brandenburg. The queen died
fourteen years later, after bearing Christian six children. Four
years after her death the king privately wedded a handsome
young gentlewoman, Christina Munk, by whom he had twelve
children, — a connexion which was to be disastrous to Denmark.

The young king's court was one of the most joyous and
magnificent in Europe; yet he found time for work of the most
various description, including a series of domestic reforms (see
DENMARK: History). He also did very much for the national
armaments. New fortresses were constructed under the direction
of Dutch engineers. The Danish navy, which in 1 596 consisted of
but twenty-two vessels, in 1610 rose to sixty, some of them being
built after Christian's own designs. The formation of a national
army was more difficult. Christian had to depend mainly upon
hired troops, supported by native levies recruited for the most
part from the peasantry on the crown domains. His first
experiment with his newly organized army was successful. In

CHRISTIAN V.

277

the war with Sweden, generally known as the " Kalmar War,"
because its chief operation was the capture by the Danes of
Kalmar, the eastern fortress of Sweden, Christian compelled
Gustavus Adolphus to give way on all essential points (treaty of
Knared, 2oth of January 1613). He now turned his attention'to
Germany. His object was twofold: first, to obtain the control
of the great German rivers the Elbe and the Weser, as a means of
securing his dominion of the northern seas; and secondly, to
acquire the secularized German bishoprics of Bremen and Werden
as appanages for his younger sons. He skilfully took advantage
of the alarm of the German Protestants after the battle of
White Hill in 1620, to secure the coadjutorship to the see of
Bremen for his son Frederick (September 1621), a step followed
in November by a similar arrangement as to Werden; while
Hamburg by the compact of Steinburg (July 1621) was induced
to acknowledge the Danish overlordship of Holstein. The
growing ascendancy of the Catholics in North Germany in and
after 1623 almost induced Christian, for purely political reasons,
to intervene directly in the Thirty Years' War. For a time,
however, he stayed his hand, but the urgent solicitations of the
western powers, and, above all, his fear lest Gustavus Adolphus
should supplant him as the champion of the Protestant cause,
finally led him to plunge into war against the combined forces of
the emperor and the League, without any adequate guarantees of
co-opefation from abroad. On the gth of May 1625 Christian
quitted Denmark for the front. He had at his disposal from
19,000 to 25,000 men, and at first gained some successes; but on
the 27th of August 1626 he was utterly routed by Tilly at
Lutter-am-Barenberge, and in the summer of 1627 both Tilly and
Wallenstein, ravaging and burning, occupied the duchies and
the whole peninsula of Jutland. In his extremity Christian now
formed an alliance with Sweden (ist of January 1628), whereby
Gustavus Adolphus pledged himself to assist Denmark with a
fleet in case of need, and shortly afterwards a Swedo-Danish army
and fleet compelled Wallenstein to raise the siege of Stralsund.
Thus the possession of a superior sea-power enabled Denmark
to tide over her worst difficulties, and in May 1629 Christian was
able to conclude peace with the emperor at Liibeck, without any
diminution of territory.

Christian IV. was now a broken man. His energy was tem-
porarily paralysed by accumulated misfortunes. Not only his
political hopes, but his domestic happiness had suffered ship-
wreck. • In the course of 1628 he discovered a scandalous intrigue
of his wife, Christina Munk, with one of his German officers; and
when he put her away she endeavoured to cover up her own
disgrace by conniving at an intrigue between Vibeke Kruse, one of
her discharged maids, and the king. In January 1630 the rupture
became final, and Christina retired to her estates in Jutland.
Meanwhile Christian openly acknowledged Vibeke as his mistress,
and she bore him a numerous family. Vibeke's children were of
course the natural enemies of the children of Christina Munk,
and the hatred of the two families was not without influence
on the future history of Denmark. Between 1629 and 1643,
however, Christian gained both in popularity and influence.
During that period he obtained once more the control of the
foreign policy of Denmark as well as of the Sound tolls, and
towards the end of it he hoped to increase his power still further
with the assistance of his sons-in-law, Korfits Ulfeld and Hannibal
Sehested, who now came prominently forward.

Even at the lowest ebb of his fortunes Christian had never
lost hope of retrieving them, and between 1629 and 1643 the
European situation presented infinite possibilities to politicians
with a taste for adventure. Unfortunately, with all his gifts,
Christian was no statesman, and was incapable of a consistent
policy. He would neither conciliate Sweden, henceforth his
most dangerous enemy, nor guard himself against her by a
definite system of counter-alliances. By mediating in favour of
the emperor, after the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632,
he tried to minimize the influence of Sweden in Germany, and
did glean some minor advantages. But his whole Scandinavian
olicy was so irritating and vexatious that Swedish statesmen
nade up their minds that a war with Denmark was only a

question of time; and in the spring of 1643 it seemed to them
that the time had come. They were now able, thanks to their
conquests in the Thirty Years' War, to attack Denmark from the
south as well as the east; the Dutch alliance promised to secure
them at sea, and an attack upon Denmark would prevent her
from utilizing the impending peace negotiations to the prejudice
of Sweden. In May the Swedish Riksrdd decided upon war;
on the 1 2th of December the Swedish marshal Lennart Torstens-
son, advancing from Bohemia, crossed the northern frontier of
Denmark; by the end of January 1644 the whole peninsula of
Jutland was in his possession. This totally unexpected attack,
conducted from first to last with consummate ability and
lightning-like rapidity, had a paralysing effect upon Denmark.
Fortunately, in the midst of almost universal helplessness and
confusion, Christian IV. knew his duty and had the courage
to do it. In his sixty-sixth year he once more displayed some-
thing of the magnificent energy of his triumphant youth. Night
and day he laboured to levy armies and equip fleets. Fortunately
too for him, the Swedish government delayed hostilities in
Scania till February 1644, so that the Danes were able to
make adequate defensive preparations and save the important
fortress of Malmo. Torstensson, too, was unable to cross from
Jutland to Funen for want of a fleet, and the Dutch auxiliary
fleet which came to his assistance was defeated between the
islands of Sylt and Ronno on the west coast of Schleswig by the
Danish admirals. Another attempt to transport Torstensson
and his army to the Danish islands by a large Swedish fleet was
frustrated by Christian IV. in person on the ist of July 1644.
On that day the two fleets encountered off Kolberge .Heath, S.E.
of Kiel Bay, and Christian displayed a heroism which endeared
him ever after to the Danish nation and made his name famous in
song and story. As he stood on the quarter-deck of the " Trinity"
a cannon close by was exploded by a Swedish bullet, and splinters
of wood and metal wounded the king in thirteen places, blinding
one eye and flinging him to the deck. But he was instantly on his
feet again, cried with a loud voice that it was well with him, and
set every one an example of duty by remaining on deck till the
fight was over. Darkness at last separated the contending fleets ;
and though the battle was a drawn one, the Danish fleet showed
its superiority by blockading the Swedish ships in Kiel Bay.
But the Swedish fleet escaped, and the annihilation of the Danish
fleet by the combined navies of Sweden and Holland, after an
obstinate fight between Fehmarn and Laaland at the end of
September, exhausted the military resources of Denmark and
compelled Christian to accept the mediation of France and the
United Provinces; and peace was finally signed at Bromsebro
on the 8th of February 1645.

The last years of the king were still further embittered by
sordid differences with his sons-in-law, especially with the most
ambitious of them, Korfits Ulfeld. On the 2 ist of February
1648, at his earnest request, he was carried in a litter from
Fredriksborg to his beloved Copenhagen, where he died a week
later. Christian IV. was a good linguist, speaking, besides hi?
native tongue, German, Latin, French and Italian. Naturally
cheerful and hospitable, he delighted in lively society; but he
was also passionate, irritable and sensual. He had courage,
a vivid sense of duty, an indefatigable love of work, and all
the inquisitive zeal and inventive energy of a born reformer.
Yet, though of the stuff of which great princes are made, he
never attained to greatness. His own pleasure, whether it took
the form of love or ambition, was always his first consideration.
In the heyday of his youth his high spirits and passion for
adventure enabled him to surmount every obstacle with flan.
But in the decline of life he reaped the bitter fruits of his lack
of self-control, and sank into the grave a weary and broken-
hearted old man.

'• See Life (Dan.), by H. C. Bering Liisberg and A. L. Larsen (Copen-
hagen, 1800-1891); Letters (Dan.), ed. Carl Frederik Bricka and
Julius Albert Fridericia (Copenhagen, 1878); Danmarks Rites
Historie, vol. 4 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); Robert Nisbet Bain,
Scandinavia, cap. vii. (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.)

CHRISTIAN V. (1646-1699), king of Denmark and Norway,
the son of Frederick III. of Denmark and Sophia Amelia of

278

CHRISTIAN VII.-IX.

Brunswick-Luneburg, was born on the isth of April 1646 at
Flensberg, and ascended the throne on the 9th of February 1670.
He was a weak despot with an exaggerated opinion of his dignity
and his prerogatives. Almost his first act on ascending the
throne was publicly to insult his consort, the amiable Charlotte
Amelia of Hesse-Cassel, by introducing into court, as his officially
recognized mistress, Amelia Moth, a girl of sixteen, the daughter
of his former tutor, whom he made countess of Samso. His
personal courage and extreme affability made him highly
popular among the lower orders, but he showed himself quite
incapable of taking advantage permanently of the revival of
the national energy, and the extraordinary overflow of native
middle-class talent, which were the immediate consequences
of the revolution of 1660. Under the guidance of his great
chancellor Griffenfeldt, Denmark seemed for a brief period to
have a chance of regaining her former position as a great power.
But in sacrificing Griffenfeldt to the clamour of his adversaries,
Christian did serious injury to the monarchy. He frittered
away the resources of the kingdom in the unremunerative
Swedish war of 1675-79, and did nothing for internal progress
in the twenty years of peace which followed. He died in a
hunting accident on the 25th of August 1699.

See Peter Edvard Holm, Danmarks indre Historic under Ene-
vaelden (Copenhagen, 1881-1886); Adolf Ditleva Jprgensen, Peter
Griffenfeldt (Copenhagen, 1893) ; Robert Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia
cap. x., xi. (Cambridge, 1905).

CHRISTIAN VII. (1749-1808), king of Denmark and Norway,
was the son of Frederick V., king of Denmark, and his first
consort Louisa, daughter of George II. of Great Britain. He
became king on his father's death on the I4th of January 1766.
All the earlier accounts agree that he had a winning personality
and considerable talent, but he was badly educated, systematic-
ally terrorized by a brutal governor and hopelessly debauched
by corrupt pages, and grew up a semi-idiot. After his marriage
in 1 766 with Caroline Matilda (1751-1775), daughter of Frederick,
prince of Wales, he abandoned himself to the worst excesses.
He ultimately sank into a condition of mental stupor, and
became the obedient slave of the upstart Struensee (<?.».). After
the fall of Struensee (the warrant for whose arrest he signed
with indifference), for the last six-and-twenty years of his
reign, he was only nominally king. He died on the I3th of March
1808. In 1772 the king's marriage with Caroline Matilda, who
had been seized and had confessed to criminal familiarity with
Struensee, was dissolved, and the queen, retaining her title,
passed her remaining days at Celle, where she died on the nth
of May 1775.

See E. S. F. Reverdil, Struensee et la cour de Copenhague, 1760-
1772 (Paris, 1858) ; Danmarks Riges Historic, vol. v. (Copenhagen,
1897-1905) ; and for Caroline Matilda, Sir F. C. L. Wraxall, Life
and Times of Queen Caroline Matilda (1864), and W. H. Wilkins,
A Queen of Tears (1904).

CHRISTIAN VIII. (1786-1848), king of Denmark and Norway,
the eldest son of the crown prince Frederick and Sophia Frederica
of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, was born on the i8th of September
1786 at Christiansborg castle. He inherited the talents of his
highly gifted mother, and his amiability and handsome features
made him very popular in Copenhagen. His unfortunate first
marriage with his cousin Charlotte Frederica of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin was dissolved in 1810. In May 1813 he was sent as
stadtholder to Norway to promote the loyalty of the Northmen
to the dynasty, which had been very rudely shaken by the
disastrous results of Frederick VI.'s adhesion to the falling
fortunes of Napoleon. He did all he could personally to
strengthen the bonds between the Norwegians and the royal
house of Denmark, and though his endeavours were opposed
by the so-called Swedish party, which desired a dynastic union
with Sweden, he placed himself at the head of the Norwegian
party of independence, and was elected regent of Norway by an
assembly of notables on the i6th of February 1814. This
election was confirmed by a Storthing held at Eidsvold on the
loth of April, and on the I7th of May Christian was elected king
of Norway, despite the protests of the Swedish party. Christian
next attempted to interest the great powers in his cause, but

without success. On being summoned by the commissioners
of the allied powers at Copenhagen to bring about a union between
Norway and Sweden in accordance with the terms of the treaty
of Kiel, and then return to Denmark, he replied that, as a
constitutional king, he could do nothing without the consent
of the Storthing, to the convocation of which a suspension of
hostilities on the part of Sweden was the condition precedent.
Sweden refusing Christian's conditions, a short campaign ensued,
in which Christian was easily worsted by the superior skill and
forces of the Swedish crown prince (Bernadotte). The brief
war was finally concluded by the convention of Moss on the
i4th of August 1814 (see NORWAY: History). Henceforth
Christian's suspected democratic principles made him persona
ingratissima at all the reactionary European courts, his own
court included, and he and his second wife, Caroline Amelia
of Augustenburg, whom he married in 1815, lived in comparative
retirement as the leaders of the literary and scientific society
of Copenhagen. It was not till 1831 that old King Frederick
gave him a seat in the council of state. On the i3th of December
1839 he ascended the Danish throne as Christian VIII. The
Liberal party had high hopes of " the giver of constitutions,"
but he disappointed his admirers by steadily rejecting every
Liberal project. Administrative reform was the only reform
he would promise. He died of blood-poisoning on the 2oth
of January 1848.

See Just Matthias Thiele, Christian den Ottende (Copenhagen, 1 848) ;
Yngvar Nielsen, Bidrag til Norges Historic (Christiania, 1882-1886).

CHRISTIAN IX. (1818-1906), king of Denmark, was a younger
son of William, duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-GIiicks-
burg (d. 1831), a direct descendant of the Danish king Christian
III. by his wife Louise, a daughter of Charles, prince of Hesse-
Cassel (d. 1836), and grand-daughter of King Frederick V.
Born at Gottorp on the 8th of April 1818, Christian entered the
army, and alone among the members of his family served with
the Danish troops in Schleswig during the insurrection of 1848;
but he was a personage of little importance until about 1852,
ten years after his marriage with Louise (1817-1898), daughter
of William, prince of Hesse-Cassel (d. 1867), and cousin of King
Frederick VII. At this time it became imperative that satis-
factory provision should be made for the succession to the Danish
throne. The reigning king, Frederick VII., was childless, and
the representatives of the great powers met in London and
settled the crown on Prince Christian and his wife (May 1852),
an arrangement which became part of the law of Denmark in
1853. The " protocol king," as Christian was sometimes called,
ascended the throne on Frederick's death in November 1863,
and was at once faced by formidable difficulties. Reluctantly
he assented to the policy which led to war with the combined
power of Austria and Prussia, and to the separation of the duchies
of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg from Denmark (see
ScHLESwic-HoLSTEiN QUESTION). Within the narrowed limits
of his kingdom Christian's difficulties were more protracted and
hardly less serious. During almost the whole of his reign the
Danes were engaged in a political struggle between the " Right "
and the " Left," the party of order and the party of progress,
the former being supported in general by the Landsting, and
the latter by the Folketing. The king's sympathies lay with the
more conservative section of his subjects, and for many years
he was successful in preventing the Radicals from coming into
office. The march of events, however, was too strong for him,
and in 1901 he assented in a dignified manner to the formation
of a " cabinet of the Left " (see DENMARK: History). In spite
of these political disturbances Christian's popularity with his
people grew steadily, and was enhanced by the patriarchal and
unique position which in his later years he occupied in Europe.
With his wife, often called " the aunt of all Europe," he was
related to nearly all the European sovereigns. His eldest son
Frederick had married a daughter of Charles XV. of Sweden;
his second son George had been king of the Hellenes since 1863;
and his youngest son Waldemar (b. 1858) was married to Marie
d'Orleans, daughter of Robert, due de Chartres. Of his three
daughters, Alexandra married Edward VII. of Great Britain;

CHRISTIAN, W.— CHRISTIANIA

279

Dagmar (Marie), the tsar Alexander III.; and Thyra, Ernest
Augustus, duke of Cumberland. One of his grandsons, Charles,
became king of Norway as Haakon VII. in 1905, and another,
Constantine, crown prince of Greece, married a sister of the
German emperor William II. Christian was also the ruler of
Iceland, where he was received with great enthusiasm when he
visited the island in 1874. He died at Copenhagen on the 2gth
of January 1906, and was buried at Roskilde.

See Barfod, Kong KristianlX.'s Regerings-Dagbog (Copenhagen,
1876); and Hans Majestet Kong Kristian IX. (Copenhagen, 1888).

CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663), Manx politician, a son
of Ewan Christian, one of the Manx deemsters, was born on the
I4th of April 1608, and was known as Illiam Dhone, or Brown
William. In 1648 the lord of the Isle of Man, James Stanley,
7th earl of Derby, appointed Christian his receiver-general; and
when in 1651 the earl crossed to England to fight for Charles II.
he left him in command of the island militia. Derby was taken
prisoner at the battle of Worcester, and his famous countess,
Charlotte de la .Tremouille, who was residing in Man, sought to
obtain her husband's release by negotiating with the victorious
parliamentarians for the surrender of the island. At once a
revolt headed by Christian broke out, partly as a consequence
of this step, partly owing to the discontent caused by some
agrarian arrangements recently introduced by the earl. The
rebels seized many of the forts; then Christian in his turn entered
into negotiations with the parliamentarians; and probably
owing to his connivance the island was soon in the power of
Colonel Robert Duckenfield, who had brought the parliamentary
fleet to Man in October 1651. The countess of Derby was
compelled to surrender her two fortresses, Castle Rushen and
Peel castle, while Christian remained receiver-general, becoming
governor of the island in 1656. Two years later, however, he
was accused of misappropriating some money; he fled to
England, and in 1660 was arrested in London. Having under-
gone a year's imprisonment he returned to Man, hoping that his
offence against the earl of Derby would be condoned under the
Act of Indemnity of 1661; but, anxious to punish his conduct,
Charles, the new earl of Derby, ordered his seizure; he refused
to plead, and a packed House of Keys declared that in this case
his life and property were at the mercy of the lord of the island.
The deemsters then passed sentence, and in accordance therewith
Christian was executed by shooting on the 2nd of January 1663.
This arbitrary act angered Charles II. and his advisers; the
deemsters and others were punished, and some reparation was
made to Christian's family. Christian is chiefly celebrated
through the Manx ballad Baase Illiam Dhone, which has been
translated into English by George Borrow, and through the
references to him in Sir Walter Scott's Pcveril of the Peak.

See A. W. Moore, History of the Isle of Man (1900).

CHRISTIAN OF BRUNSWICK (1599-1626), bishop of Halber-
stadt and a general during the earlier part of the Thirty Years'
War, a younger son of Henry Julius, duke of Brunswick- Wolfen-
buttel, was born at Groningen on the 2oth of September 1599.
Having succeeded his father as " bishop " of Halberstadt in 1616,
he obtained some experience of warfare under Maurice, prince
of Orange, in the Netherlands. Raising an army he entered the
service of Frederick V., elector palatine of the Rhine, just after
that prince had been driven from Bohemia; glorying in his
chivalrous devotion to Frederick's wife Elizabeth, he attacked
the lands of the elector of Mainz and the bishoprics of Westphalia.
* After some successes he was defeated by Tilly at Hochst in June
1622; then, dismissed from Frederick's service, he entered that
of the United Provinces, losing an arm at*the battle of Fleurus,
a victory he did much to win. In 1623 he gathered an army and
broke into lower Saxony, but was beaten by Tilly at Stadtlohn
and driven back to the Netherlands. When in 1625 Christian IV.,
king of Denmark, entered the arena of the war, he took the field
again in the Protestant interest, but after some successes he died
at Wolfenbuttel on the i6th of June 1626. Christian, who loved
to figure as " the friend of God, the enemy of the priests," is
sometimes called " the mad bishop," and was a merciless, coarse,
and blasphemous man.

CHRISTIAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, the name assumed by a
religious organization founded at Zion City near Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A., in 1896, by John Alexander Dowie (?.».). Its
members added to the usual tenets of Christianity a special
belief in faith-healing, and laid much stress on united consecra-
tion services and the threefold immersion of believers. To assist
Dowie, assistant overseers were appointed, and the operations,
of the community included religious, educational and commercial
departments. Small branches sprang up in other parts of the
United States, Mexico, Canada, Europe and Australasia. At the
end of 1901 there were nearly 12,000 baptized believers. After
1903 considerable dissension arose among Dowie's followers:
he was deposed in 1906; and after his death (1907) the city
gradually became a community of normal type.

CHRISTIAN CONNECTION, a denomination of Christians in
North America formed by secession, under James O'Kelly (1735-
1826), of members of the Methodist Episcopal Church in North
Carolina in 1793. The movement resembled those under the
Campbells and Stone in Kentucky in 1801-1804, and in Lyndon,
Vermont, among the Baptists in 1800. The predisposing cause
in each case was the desire to be free from the " bondage of
creed." Some of O'Kelly's followers joined the Disciples of
Christ (<?.».). Their form of church government is Congregational;
they take the Bible as the sole rule of faith and practice, and
while adopting immersion as the proper mode of baptism, freely
welcome Christians of every sect to their communion. They
number about 100,000 members, mainly in the states of Ohio,
Indiana and Illinois. The original seceders in Virginia and
North Carolina bore for a time the name " Republican Metho-
dists," and then called themselves simply "Christians," a
designation which with the pronunciation "Christ-yans" is still
often applied to them. Their position is curiously akin to that
outlined by William Chillingworth (q.v.) in his famous work The
Religion of Protestants (1637-1638).

CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR SOCIETIES, organizations formed
for the purpose of promoting spiritual life among young people.
They date from 1881, in which year Dr Francis E. Clark (q.v.)
formed a Young People's Society of Christian Endeavour in
his (Congregational) church at Portland, Maine, U.S.A. The
idea was taken up elsewhere in America and spread to other
countries, till, under the presidency of Dr Clark, a huge number
of affiliated societies came into operation throughout the world.
They take as their motto " For Christ and the Church," and have
done much, especially in the non-episcopal churches, to prepare
young men and women for active services in the Church. The
organization is international and interdenominational, a World's
ChristianEndeavourUnionbeingformedini895. Themembersdo
not form a separate denomination, but remain attached to their re-
spective churches, being grouped in voluntary district federations.

CHRISTIANIA (officially KRISTIANIA), the capital of Norway,
forming a separate county (ami), and the seat of a bishopric
(stiff). Pop. (1901) 229,101. It lies on the south-eastern coast,
at the head of Christiania Fjord, about 80 m. from the open
waters of the Skagerrack, is 59° 54' N. (about the latitude of the
southern extremity of the Shetland Islands) and 10° 45' E.,
mainly on the west bank of the small Aker river. The situation
is very beautiful, pine-wooded hills rising sharply behind the
city, while several islands stud the fjord. The town is mainly
modern, having increased rapidly in and since the second half
of the igth century, when brick and stone largely superseded
wood as the building material. It is the seat of government,
of the supreme courts, of the parliament (Storthing), and of a
university. The harbour is of two parts, the Bjorvik, where
the larger steamers lie, and the Pipervik, west of this. On the
promontory intervening between these two inlets stands the old
fortress of Akershus, occupied as an arsenal and prison, and
having a pleasant promenade upon its ramparts. Until 1719
it was a royal palace. At the head of the Bjorvik the principal
railway station (Hovedbanegaard) stands in the Jernbanetorv
(railway square), and north-west from this runs the principal
street, Karl-Johans-gade. In this street, passing the Vor
Frelsers Kirke (Church of our Saviour), the Storthings-Bygning

280

CHRISTIANITY

(parliament-house, 1866) is seen, facing a handsome square
planted with trees. Beyond this is the National theatre (1899),
with colossal statues -of the dramatists Ibsen and Bjornsen.
It faces the Fridericiana University, housed in three buildings
dating from 1853, but founded by Frederick VI. of Denmark in
1811, embracing the five faculties of theology, law, medicine,
history and philology, mathematics and natural sciences. The
equipment of the university is very complete: it has attached
to it a large and valuable library, natural history, ethnological
and numismatic collections, with one of Scandinavian anti-
quities; also botanical gardens and an observatory. The Karl-
Johans-gade gives upon the beautiful Slotspark, a wooded
elevation crowned with the royal palace (slot), a plain building
completed in 1848. North of the university is the museum of
art, containing a noteworthy collection of sculpture and paintings
of ancient and modern foreign masters, and of native works.
The historical museum adjoining this contains northern antiqui-
ties, including two viking's ships, excavated, in 1867 and 1880
respectively, from the burial-places of the viking chiefs who
owned and, according to custom, were buried in them. Another
noteworthy collection is that of industrial art. The Bank of
Norway, the exchange, and the courts of law lie between the
harbours. Other institutions are the Freemasons' Lodge, housed
in one of the handsomest buildings in the city (1844), a conserva-
tory of music, naval, military and art schools, Athenaeum, and
the great Dampkjokken or kitchen (1858), where dinners are
provided for the poor.

The suburbs of Christiania are attractive and rapidly growing.
On the east side of the river Aker is that of Oslo, with the existing
episcopal palace, and an old bishop's palace, in which James VI.
of Scotland (I. of England) was betrothed to Princess Anne of
Denmark (i 589). In the environs of the city are the royal plea sure
castle of Oscarshal (1847-1852), on the peninsula Bygdo (Ladu-
gaard) to the west of the city, and the Norwegian national museum
(1881), containing industrial and domestic exhibits from the
various provinces. Close at hand is an interesting collection of old
Norwegian buildings, brought here from all parts, and re-erected,
including an example of the timber church of the izth century
(Slavekirke). A collection of ancient agricultural implements is
also shown. On Hovedo (Head Island) in the fjord, immediately
opposite to the Akershus, are the ruins of a Cistercian monastery,
founded in 1147 by monks from Kirkstead in Lincolnshire,
England, and burnt down in 1532. There are sanatoria and inns
among the surrounding hills, on which beautiful gardens are laid
out, such as Hans Haugen, Frognersaeter, Holmenkollen, where
the famous ski (snow-shoe) races are held in February, and
Voksenkollen. Electric tramways connect the city and suburbs,
and local steamers run from the Pipervik to the neighbouring
islands and fjord-side towns and villages.

Christiania has two railway stations, the Hovedbanegaard by
the Bjorvik, and the Vestbanegaard by the Pipervik. From the
first trains run south to Fredrikshald and Gothenburg, east to
Charlottenberg and Stockholm, north to Hamar and Trondhjem,
and Otta in Gudbrandsdal, and to Gjovik and the Valdres district.
From the west station start the lines to Drammen, Laurvik,
Skien and Kongsberg (for the Telemark district). The eastward
extension of the railway between Bergen and Vossevangen,
undertaken in 1896, had as its ultimate object the connexion of
Christiania and Bergen by rail. With these extensive land
communications Christiania is at once the principal emporium
of southern Norway, and a favourite centre of the extensive
tourist traffic. Regular passenger steamers serve the port from
Hull, Newcastle, Grangemouth and London, from Trondhjem,
Bergen and the Norwegian coast towns, from Hamburg, Amster-
dam, Antwerp, &c. Except for two large shipbuilding yards, one
with a floating dock, the other with a dry dock, most of the
manufactories are concentrated in the suburb of Sagene, on the
north side of the city, deriving their motive power from the
numerous falls of the river Aker. They embrace factories for
cotton and woollen spinning and weaving, paper, flour, soap and
oil, bricks and tiles, matches, nails (especially horse-shoe nails),
margarine, foundries and engineering shops, wood-pulp, tobacco,

matches, linen, glass, sail-cloth, hardware, gunpowder, chemicals,
with sawmills, breweries and distilleries. There is also a busy
trade in the preparation of granite paving-stones, and in the
storing and packing of ice. Imports greatly exceed exports, the
annual values being about 7 J and i J millions sterling respectively.
The former consist principally of grain and flour, cottons and
woollens, coffee, iron (raw and manufactured), coal, bacon and
salt meat, oils, sugar, machinery, flax, jute and hemp, paper-
hangings, paints, colours, &c., wines and spirits, raw tobacco,
copper, zinc, lead and tin, silk, molasses and other commodities.
The principal exports are wood-pulp, timber, nails, paper, butter
and margarine, matches, condensed milk, fish, leather and hides,
ice, sealskins, &c. Of the imports, Great Britain supplies the
greater part of the cotton and woollen yarn, the machinery
(including ships), and the raw metals; the United States about
one-half of the oils and fats, and a large proportion of the food-
stuffs, and skins, feathers, &c. Of the exports, almost the whole
of the timber goes to Great Britain, together with the larger
portion of the paper and food-stuffs (butter, &c.).. The harbour is
ice-bound for three or four months in the winter, when ships lie at
Drobak, lower down the fjord; but ice-breakers are also used.
Early in 1899 the municipality voted £47,000 for the construction
of a pier, a harbour for fishing-boats, protected by a mole, and a
quay, 345 ft. long, on the shore underneath the Akershus. These
works signalized a great scheme of improvement, involving a
general rearrangement of the entire harbour.

The present suburb of Oslo represents the original city, which
was founded on this site under that name (or Opslo) by Harald
Sigurdsson in 1048. By the close of the i4th century it was
established as the chief city of Norway. Trade was long
dominated by the powerful Hanseatic League, at least until the
beginning of the i6th century. The town, built mainly of wood,
was no less subject to fires than all Norwegian towns have always
been, and after one of these King Christian IV. refounded the
capital on the new site it now occupies, and gave his name to it in
1624. By the close of the century it was fortified, but this did not
prevent Charles XII. from gaining possession of it in 1716.

SeeL. Daae, DetgamU Christiania, 1624-1824 (Christiania, 1890);
Y. Nielsen, Christiania und Umgegend (Christiania, 1 894); G.
Amn£us, La Vitte de Christiania . . . Resume historique, &fc. (Chris-
tiania, 1900).

CHRISTIANITY, the religion which accepts Jesus Christ as
Lord and Saviour, embracing all who profess and call themselves
Christians, the term derived from his formal title (xpwros, i.e.
the anointed). Within this broad characterization are found
many varieties of cult, organization and creed (see CHURCH
HISTORY). Christianity is classed by the students of the science
of religion as a universal religion; it proclaims itself as intended
for all men without distinction of race or caste, and as in posses-
sion ol absolute truth. In fact, Christianity has been widely
accepted by varied races in very different stages of culture, and it
has maintained itself through a long succession of centuries in
lands where the transformations in political structure, the
revolutions in social conditions, and the changes in science and
philosophy, have been numerous and extreme.

Beginning in Asia, Christianity extended itself rapidly through-
out the Roman empire and beyond its borders among the
barbarians. When the Empire in the 4th century adopted it, its
cult, organization and teaching were carried throughout the
western world. The influences and motives and processes
which led to the result were many and varied, but ultimately in
one way or another it,became the religion of Europe and of the
nations founded by the European races beyond the seas and in
the northern part of Asia called Siberia. Beyond these bounds it
has not greatly prospered. The explanation of the apparent
bounding of Christianity by Europe and its offspring is not,
however, to be found in any psychological peculiarity separating
the European races from those of other continents, nor in any
special characteristic of Christianity which fits it for European
soil. For not only were its founder and his disciples Asiatics,
and the original authoritative writings Semitic, but Asiatic tribes
and nations coming into Europe have been readily converted.

CHRISTIANITY

281

Missions in Asia too have achieved sufficient success to prove
that there exists no inherent obstacle either in the gospel or in
the Asiatic mind. Moreover, Christianity was once represented
in Asia by a powerful organization extending throughout Persia
and central Asia into India (see PERSIA). Mutatis mutandis, the
same applies to Africa also, and Christianity still survives in both
continents in the Coptic, Abyssinian and Armenian Churches.
The explanation is rather to be sought in the political condition of
the early centuries of the Christian era, especially in the rise of
Mahommedanism. This may be regarded indeed as a form of
Christianity, for it is not more foreign perhaps to the prevailing
type than are some sects which claim the name. It exerted a
strong influence upon Europe, but its followers have been
peculiarly unsusceptible to missionary labours, and even in
Europe have retained the faith of the Prophet. In the limita-
tions of the Roman empire and in the separation of East and
West consequent upon its decline, Christianity, as a dominant
religion, was confined for a thousand years to Europe, and even
portions of this continent for centuries were in the hands of its
great foe. The East appeared as the Mahommedan dominions,
and beyond these the continents of Asia and Africa were so
dimly discerned th'at little reciprocal influence was felt. Thus
the development of the two great civilized portions of the race in
Europe and Asia followed independent lines in religion as in all
else; and Africa, excepting its northern border, was left un-
touched by the progress of enlightenment.

Not only is Christianity thus the religion of a wide variety of
races but across the divisions there cut other lines. In its
organization Christianity exists in three great divisions, Roman,
Greek and Protestant; and in various ancient sects in the Orient.
The Roman Catholic and Greek divisions of the Christian Church
are homogeneous in organization, but in Protestantism certain
denominations are national, established by differing govern-
ments, and others are independent of governmental aid, making
a large number of differing denominations. Some of these
divisions are mutually antagonistic, denying to each other the
name of Christian and even the hope of salvation.

According to a second classification, Christianity may be placed
among the " individual " religions, since it traces its origin, like
Islam and Buddhism, to an individual as its founder. This
beginning is not in the dimness of antiquity nor in a multitude
of customs, beliefs, traditions, rites and personalities, as is the
case with the so-called " natural " religions. It is not implied
that in the formation of the " natural " religions individuals
were not of great importance, nor, on the other hand, that in
individual religions the founder formed his faith independently
of the community of which he was a part; but only that as
undoubted historic facts certain religions, in tracing their lines to
individuals, thereby acquired a distinctive character, and retain
the impress of their founder. Such religions begin as a reform
or a protest or revolt. They proclaim either a new revelation,
or the return to an ancient truth which has been forgotten or
distorted. They demand repentance and change of heart, i.e. the
renouncing of the ordinary faith of the community and the
acceptance of a new gospel. Thus demanding an act of will on
the part of individuals, they are classed once more as " ethical "
religions. To be sure, the new is built upon the old — in part
unconsciously — and the rejection of the faith of the past, however
violent, is never thoroughgoing. In consequence the old affects
the new in various ways. Thus in Buddhism the presupposi-
tions which Buddha uncritically took over work out their
logical results in the Mahayana, so that great sects calling
themselves " Buddhist " affirm what the Master denied and.
eny what he taught. Christianity takes Judaism (see HEBREW
EUGION) for granted — rejects it in part as a merely preparatory
age, in part reinterprets it, and does not submit what it accepts
> rigorous scrutiny. As a result the Old Testament (see BIBLE)
emains not only as the larger part of the Christian canon, but,
ometimes, in some churches, as obscuring its distinctive truth,
loreover, in the transference of Christianity from the Jewish
the Greek-Roman world again various elements were taken
nto it. More properly perhaps we might consider the Greek

and Roman civilization as the permanent element — so that the
relationship to it was not different from the relationship to
Judaism — in part it was denied, in part it was of purpose accepted,
in still larger part unconsciously the Greek- Roman converts took
over with them the presuppositions of their older world view —
and thus formed the moulds into which the Christian truth was
run. Here again, in some instances the pre-Christian elements
so asserted themselves as to obscure the new and distinctive
teaching.

Christianity, regarded objectively as one of the great religions
of the world, owes its rise to Jesus of Nazareth, in ancient
Galilee. (See JESUS CHRIST.) By reverent disciples
his ancestry was traced to the royal family of David, Relation
and his birth isascribed by the church to the miraculous ju<fa;,m.
act of God. His life was spent, until the beginning
of his public ministry, in humble circumstances as the son of a
carpenter and his wife, Joseph and Mary. Of Joseph we hear
nothing after the boyhood of Jesus, who followed the same
trade, supporting himself and perhaps his mother and younger
brothers and sisters. Of this period we have only a few frag-
mentary anecdotes and a stray reference or two. At thirty
years of age he appeared in public, and after a short period
(we cannot determine how long, but possibly eighteen months)
he was crucified, upon the accusation of his countrymen, by the
Roman authorities. He was without technical education, but
he had been carefully trained in the sacred books, as was usual
with his people. Belonging neither to the aristocracy nor to
the learned class, he was one of the common people yet separate
from them — a separation not of race or caste or education, but
of unique personality.

His career is understood only in the light of his relations to
Judaism (see HEBREW RELIGION). This faith, in a peculiarly
vivid fashion, illustrates the growth and development of religion,
for its great teachers in the highest degree possessed what the
Germans call God-consciousness. The Hebrew national literature
centres in the thought of God. It is Yahweh who is all and in all,
the father, the leader, the hope, the hero of his people. No other
national literature is so continuously and so highly religious.
Another factor gives it still greater interest for the student of
religion, — in it the progress of religious thought can be traced,
and the varying elements of the religious life seen in harmony
and in conflict.

In the early period the Hebrew religion was of the ordinary
Semitic type. In its ancient stories were remnants of primitive
religion, of tabu, of anthropomorphic gods, of native forms of
worship, of magic and divination, of local and tribal cults. Out
of these developed, by the labours of the prophets, a religion of
high spirituality and exalted ethical ideals. According to it
God demands not ritual nor sacrifice nor offerings. He does not
delight in prayers and praise, but he demands truth in the soul
and bids man to walk humbly and deal righteously and mercifully
with his brother (Micah vi.6-8 ; Isa. i. 2-20). He requires kindness,
forgiveness and loving sacrifice from all to all (Isa. Iviii.3-i2).
This conception of God revealed itself as so essential to the
prophets that their intense national feeling was modified. God
would not deliver Israel because it was his people, descended
from Abraham, his chosen, but he would punish it even more
severely than the other nations because it denied him by its sins
(Amos iii. 1-2). Yet Israel would not be destroyed, for a
spiritual remnant, loving and obeying God, would be saved and
purified (Ezek. xxxvi.-xxxvii.). Thus Israel survived its mis-
fortunes. When the national independence was destroyed,
the prophetic teaching held the people together in the hope of
a re-establishment of the Kingdom when all nations should be
subject to it and blessed in its everlasting reign of righteousness
and peace (Isa. xlix., lx.).

Some of the prophets associated the restoration of the Kingdom
with the coming of the Messiah, the anointed one, who should
re-establish the line of David (Isa. ix. 6 f., xi. i f. ; Micah v. 2;
Ezek. xxxiv. 23, xxxvii. 24; Zech. ix. 9; Ps. ii. 72). Others
said nothing of such a one, but seemed to expect the regenera-
tion of Israel through the labours, sufferings and triumphs of

282

CHRISTIANITY

the righteous remnant (Isa. liii., Ezek. xxxvi.-xxxvii.). By the
strong emphasis upon righteousness, the tribal Lord of Israel was
revealed as the universal God, of one relationship to all men.
This monotheism was not primarily cosmological nor meta-
physical, but ethical. The Jews showed little capacity for abstract
reasoning and never pursued their inquiries to the discovery of
ultimate principles. Thus they did not develop a systematic
cosmology, nor formulate a system of metaphysics. Their
religion was pre-eminently " theocratic "; God was thought
of as King, enthroned in heaven and supreme. In the beginning
as a tribal deity his powers were limited and he was involved
in the fortunes of his people. But as the conception of Yahweh
was deepened and broadened, and, especially after the develop-
ment of ethical monotheism, not only was he believed to possess
power sufficient to ensure the triumph of his chosen people, but
to be the creator and ruler of all things in heaven and on earth,
the God whom all peoples should worship and obey.

But the prophetic teaching was obscured in part by the
nationalism of the prophets themselves, who exalted Israel as at
once God's instrument and the peculiar object of his love; and
in part by the triumph of a legal-ritualistic sacrificial system.
In the downfall of Jerusalem, the experiences of the exile in
Babylon, and the return to Judaea, the nation was transformed
into a church. Apart from the brief Maccabaean period, the
intense patriotism of the people centred in the ecclesiastical organ-
ization. As a result, cult and organization and code hardened,
forming a shell which proved strong enough to resist all dis-
integrating tendencies. Inevitably the freedom, spirituality and
universality of the prophetic teaching were obscured. In the
ist century A.D. the national and priestly, elements controlled;
doubtless many individuals still were faithful to the purer
prophetic message, though also zealous for the system of ritual
and sacrifice, but for the ruling majority ritualistic service was the
chief thing, justice, purity and mercy being subordinate. Hence
in their view all who did not -participate in the national worship
and conform to the national usages were outcasts. The triumph
of Israel was to be accomplished by the miraculous power of a
Messiah who should descend out of heaven. His coming was
delayed, in part by the opposition of demons, in part by the
failure of the people to obey the law. This law embraced both
moral ami-ceremonial elements derived from varied sources, but
in the apprehension of the people it was all alike regarded as of
divine origin. It was to be obeyed without question and without
inquiry as to its meaning, because established by God. It was
contained in the Sacred Scriptures (see BIBLE: Old Testament),
which had been revealed by God supernaturally, and its meaning
was set forth by schools of learned men whose interpretations
were authoritative. The conception of salvation was mingled
with ideas derived from the East during and after the period of
captivity. The priesthood held still the ancient ideas. Salvation
was for the nation, and the individual was not necessarily
participant in it. Life after death was disbelieved or held as the
existence of shades. There could be no resurrection of the body
and no immortality (in the Greek sense). With these beliefs
were associated a certain worldliness and want of fervour. The
more actively and aggressively religious party, on the other hand,
adopted the belief in the resurrection of the body, and in the
individual's participation in the Messiah's kingdom; all the
pious would have their share in it, while the wicked would be
outcast. But these doctrines were variously conceived. By
some the Messianic kingdom was thought of as permanent, by
others as intermediary, the external kingdom being transcendent.
So too some thought of a literal resurrection of the body of flesh
and blood, while others thought that it would be transformed.
The rudiments of some of these ideas can be found in the prophets,
but their development took place after the exile, and indeed for
the most part after the conclusion of the writings accounted
canonical. Thus too the belief in a kingdom of demons held a
large place in the mind of the people, though the references to
such evil beings are almost absent from the sacred writings of the
Old Testament. Again it is to the East that we must look for the
origin of these ideas.

of Jesus.

Jesus completed the prophetic teachings. He employed the
old phraseology and imagery, but he was conscious that he used
them in a new sense, and that he preached a new gospel
of great joy. Jesus was not a historian, a critic or a
theologian. He used the words of common men in the
sense in which common men understood them. He did
not employ the Old Testament as now reconstructed by scholar-
ship or judged by criticism, but in its simple and obvious and
traditional sense. And his background is the intellectual and
religious thinking of his time. The ideas of demons and of the
future, of the Bible and many other traditional conceptions, are
taken over without criticism. So the idea of God which he sets
forth is not that of a theologian or a metaphysician, but that
of the unlearned man which even the child could understand.
Yet though thus speaking in untechnical language, he revolution-
ized his terms and filled them with new meaning. His emphasis is
his own, and the traditional material affords merely the setting
for his thought. He was not concerned with speculative
questions about God, nor with abstract theories of his relation-
ship to the soul and to the world. God's continual presence, his
fatherly love, his transcendent righteousness, his mercy, his good-
ness, were the facts of immediate experience! Not in proofs by
formal logic but in the reality of consciousness was the certainty
of God. Thus religion was freed from all particular and national
elements in the simplest way. For Jesus did not denounce these
elements, nor argue against them, nor did he seek converts outside
of Israel, but he set forth communion with God as the most
certain fact of man's experience and as simple reality made it
accessible to every one. Thus his teaching contains the note of
universality — not in terms and proclamations but as plain matter
of fact. His way for others to this reality is likewise plain and
level to the comprehension of the unlearned and of children.

For him repentance is put first, for how vastly changed is the
conception of the religious life! The intricacies of ritual and
theology are ignored, and ancient laws which contradict the
fundamental beliefs are unhesitatingly abrogated or denied.
He seizes upon the most spiritual passages of the prophets, and
revives and deepens them. He sums up his teaching in supreme
love to God and a love for fellow-man like that we hold for
ourselves (Mark xii. 29-31). This supreme love to God is a
complete oneness with him in will, a will which is expressed in
service to our fellow-men in the simplest and most natural
relationship (Luke x. 2 5-3 7) . Thus religion is ethical through and
through, as God's inner nature, expressed in forgiveness, mercy,
righteousness and truth, is not something transcendental, but
belongs to the realm of daily life. We become children of God
and he our Father in virtue of a moral likeness (Matt. v. 43-48),
while of any metaphysical, or (so to speak) physical relationship
to God Jesus says nothing. With this clearly understood, man is
to live in implicit trust in the divine love, power, knowledge and
forgiveness. Hence he attains salvation, being delivered from
sin and fear and death, for the divine attributes are not ontological
entities to be discussed and defined in the schools, but they are
realities, entering into the practical daily life. Indeed they are
to be repeated in us also, so that we are to forgive our brethren as
we ask to be forgiven (Matt. vi. 12; Luke xi. 4).

As religion thus becomes thoroughly ethical, so is the notion
of the Messianic kingdom transformed. Its essential character-
istic is the doing of the Father's will on earth as in heaven.
Jesus uses parable after parable to establish its meaning. It is
a seed cast into the ground which grows and prospers (Matt,
xiii. 31-32). It is a seed sown in good ground and bringing
forth fruit, or in bad ground and fruitless (Luke viii. 5-8; Mark
iv. 1-32). It is a pearl of great price for which a man should sell
all that he possesses (Matt. xiii. 44-46). It is not come " with
observation," so that men shall say " lo here and lo there "
(Luke xvii. 20-21). It is not of this world, and does not possess
the characteristics or the glory of the kingdom of the earth
(Luke xxii. 24-26; Mark x. 13-16). It is already present among
men (Luke xvii. 21). Together with these statements in our
sources are still mingled fragments of the. more ordinary cata-
clysmic, apocalyptic conceptions, which in spite of much

CHRISTIANITY

283

ingenious exegesis, cannot be brought into harmony with Christ's
predominant teaching, but remain as foreign elements in the
words of the Master, possibly brought back through his disciples,
or, more probably, used by Jesus uncritically — a part of the
current religious imagery in which he shared.

It is often declared that in these teachings there is nothing
new, and indeed analogies can be found for many sayings; yet
nowhere else do we gain so strong an impression of
° J '" originality. The net result is not only new but re-
volutionary; so was it understood by the Pharisees.
They and Jesus spoke indeed the same words and appealed to the
same authorities, but they rightly saw in him a revolutionist
who threatened the existence of their most cherished hopes.
The Messianic kingdom which they sought was opposed point
by point to the kingdom of which he spoke, and their God and
his Father — though called by the same sacred name — were
different. Hence almost from the beginning of his public
ministry they constantly opposed him, the conflict deepening
into complete antagonism.

Jesus has already been termed unique, one of the common
people yet separated from them, and this description applies
to the breadth, depth and reality of his sympathy. In the meagre
records of his life there is evidence that he deemed no form of
suffering humanity foreign to himself. This was not a mere
sentiment, nor was his sympathy superficial, for it constituted
the essential characteristic of his personality — " He went about
doing good." In him the will of the Father for the redemption
of the race was incarnate. This led him into the society of those
outcasts who were condemned and rejected by the respectable
and righteous classes. In contemptuous condemnation he was
called the friend of the outcasts (Matt. xi. 19; Mark ii. 16-17),
and on his part he proclaimed that these sinners would enter into
the Kingdom of Heaven before the self-righteous saints (Matt.
xxi. 31). Even the most repulsive forms of disease and sin drew
from him only loving aid, while he recognized in all other men
who laboured for the welfare of their fellows the most intimate
relationship to himself. These constituted his family, and these
were they whom his Father will bless.

Jesus recognized his unique position; he could not be ignorant
of his powers. Even the prophets had spoken in the name of
God; they accepted neither book nor priesthood as authoritative,
but uttered their truth as they were inspired to speak, and com-
manded men to listen and obey. As in Jesus the whole prophetic
line culminates, so does its consciousness. Reverent toward the
Holy Scriptures, he spoke not as their expositor but with a
divine power which invests his words with immediate and full
authority. The prophets use the formula, " Thus saith the
Lord," but he goes beyond them and speaks in his own name,
" Amen, I say unto you." He knew himself as greater than the
prophets, indeed as him of whom the prophets spoke — the
Messiah. Only through this self-consciousness can we explain
his mission and the career of his disciples. The prophets up to
John foretold the coming of the kingdom (Matt. xi. 11-13; Luke
xvi. 16), but Jesus opened its doors and made possible entrance
into it. Where he is there it is, and hence those who follow him
are God's children, and those who refuse his message are left out-
side in darkness. He is to sit as enthroned, judge and king, and
by him is men's future to be determined (Matt. xxv. 31 f. ; Mark
xiii. 26). Indeed it was his presence more than his teaching
which created his church. Great as were his words, greater was
his personality. His disciples misunderstood what he said,
but they trusted and followed him. By him they felt themselves
freed from sin and fear — and under the influence of a divine
power.

Though his claims to authoritative pre-eminence thus took

him out of the class of prophets and put him even above Elijah

and Mo=es (Mark ix. 2-7; Luke vii. 28; Luke x. 23-24),

Messianic an^ though naturally this self-assertion seemed

iims. blasphemous to those who did not accept him, yet as
he had transformed the traditional notion of the
kingdom, so did he the current thought of the Messiah. The
pre-eminence was not to be of rank and glory but of service and

self-sacrifice. In his kingdom there can be no strife for pre-
cedence, since its King comes not to be ministered unto but to
minister and to give his life in the service of others (Mark ix.
33 f., x. 42-45). The formal acknowledgment of the Messiah's
worth and position matters little, for to call him Lord does not
ensure entrance into his kingdom (Matt. vii. 21-23). It is those
who fail to recognize the spirit of sympathy and self-sacrificing
service as divine and blaspheme redeeming love, who are in
danger of eternal sin (Mark iii. 28-29). All who do the will of
the Father, i.e. who serve their fellows, are the brethren of Christ,
even though they do not call him Lord (Mark iii. 31-35; Matt,
vii. 21): and those are blessed who minister to the needy even
though ignorant of any relation to himself (Matt. xxv. 37-40).
Finally, membership in his own selected company, or a place
in the chosen people, is not of prime importance (Mark ix. 38-40;
Luke xiii. 24-30).

Jesus also refuses to conform to the current ideas as to the estab-
lishment of the kingdom. He wrought miracles, it is true, because
of his divine sympathy and compassion, but he refused to show
miraculous signs as a proof of his Messianic character (Mark
viii. 1 2). The tradition of the people implied a sudden appearance
of the Messiah, but Jesus made no claims to a supernatural
origin and was consent to be known as the son of Joseph and Mary
(Mark vi. 3-4). His kingdom is not to be set up by wonders and
miraculous powers, nor is it to be established by force (Matt,
xxvi. 52). Such means would contradict its fundamental
character, for as the kingdom of loving service it can be estab-
lished only by loving service. And as God is love, he can be
revealed not by prodigies of power but only by a love which is
faithful unto death.

Even the disciples of Jesus could not grasp the simplicity and
profundity of his message; still less could his opponents. When
the crisis came, he alone remained unshaken in his faith. He was
accused of blasphemy to the ecclesiastical authorities and of
insurrection to the civil rulers. He was condemned and crucified.
His followers were scatteied every man to his own place as sheep
without a shepherd. Of his work nothing remained, not a
written word, nor more than the rudiments of an organization.
The decisive event, which turned defeat into victory and re-
established courage and faith, was the resurrection of Jesus from
the dead and his reappearance to his disciples. Our sources will
not permit the precise determination of the order or the nature of
these appearances, but in any case from them arose the faith
which was the basis of the Christian Church and the starting-
point of its theology.

The death of Jesus as a criminal, and his resurrection, pro-
foundly aroused the belief and hopes of the little group of Jews
who were his followers. His person and mission assumed the
first place in their affections and their thinking. He had been to
them a prophet, mighty in word and deed, but he now becomes
to them the Messiah, Christ. It is not his word but his person
which assumes first place, and faith is acceptance of him —
crucified and risen — as Messiah. Hence his followers early
acquire the name Christians from the Greek form of the word.
With this emphasis upon the Messiah the Jewish element would
seem to be predominant, but as a matter of fact it was not so.
The earlier group of disciples, it is true, did not appreciate the
universality of the teaching of Jesus, and they continued zealous
for the older forms, but St Paul through his prophetic conscious-
ness grasped the fundamental fact and became Jesus' true
interpreter. As a result Christianity was rejected by the Jews
and became the conquering religion of the Roman empire.
In this it underwent another modification of far-reaching
consequence.

In our earliest sources — the epistles of St Paul — Christ is the
pre-existent man from heaven, who had there existed in the form
of God, and had come to earth by a voluntary act of Christian -
self-humiliation. He is before and above all things, ttyaad
By him all things exist. In the Johannine writings he Oreek
is the Son of God — the Logos who in the beginning was a"Hvht-
with God— of whom are all things — who lightens every man — and
who was incarnate in Jesus. Here the cosmological element is

CHRISTIANITY

again made prominent though not yet supreme, and the meta-
physical problems are so close at hand that their discussion is
imperative. Even in Paul the term Messiah thus had lost its
definite meaning and became almost a proper name. Among the
Greek Christians this process was complete. Jesus is the " Son of
God "; and the great problem of theology becomes explicit.
Religion is in our emotions of reverence and dependence, and
theology is the intellectual attempt to describe the object of
worship. Doubtless the two do not exactly coincide, not only
because accuracy is difficult or even impossible, but also because
elements are admitted into the definition of God which are
derived from various sources quite distinct from the religious
experience. Like all concepts the meaning of religious terms is
changed with a changing experience and a changing world-view.
Transplanted into the Greek world-view, inevitably the Christian
teaching was modified — indeed transformed. Questions which
had never been asked came into the foreground, and the Jewish
presuppositions tended to disappear. Especially were the
Messianic hopes forgotten or transferred to a transcendent
sphere beyond death. When the empire became Christian in the
4th century, the notion of a kingdom of Christ on earth to be
introduced by a great struggle all but disappeared, remaining
only as the faith of obscure groups. Immortality — the philo-
sophical conception — took the place of the resurrection of the
body. Nevertheless the latter continues because of its presence
in the primary sources, but it is no longer a determining factor,
since its presupposition — the Messianic kingdom on earth — has
been obscured. As thus the background is changed from Jewish
to Greek, so are the fundamental religious conceptions.

The Semitic peoples were essentially theocratic in their
religion; they used the forms of the sensuous imagination in
setting forth the realities of the unseen world. They were not
given to metaphysical speculation, nor long insistent in their
inquiries as to the meaning and origin of things. With the
Greeks it was far otherwise. For them ideas and not images set
forth fundamental reality, and their restless intellectual activity
would be content with nothing else than the ultimate truth.
Their speculation as to the nature of God had led them gradually
to separate him by an infinite distance from all creation, and to
feel keenly the opposition of the finite and the infinite, the perfect
and the imperfect, the eternal and the temporal. To them,
therefore, Christianity presented itself not primarily as the
religion of a redemption through the indwelling power of a risen
saviour, as with Paul, nor even as the solution of the problem how
the sins of men could be forgiven, but as the reconciliation of the
antinomy of the intellect, indicated above. The incarnation
became the great truth: God is no longer separated by a measure-
less distance from the human race, but by his entering into
humanity he redeems it and makes possible its ultimate unity
with himself. Such lines of thought provoke discussion as to the
relationship of Jesus to God the Father, and, at a later period, of
the nature of the Holy Spirit who enters into and transforms
believers.

Greek philosophy in the second century A.D. had sunk for the
most part into scepticism and impotence; its original impulse
had been lost, and no new intellectual power took its place; only
in Alexandria was there a genuine effort make to solve the
fundamental problems of God and the world. Plato had made
God accessible to the highest knowledge as the transcendent idea,
remote from the world. For Aristotle, too, God in his essence is
far above the world and at most its first mover. The stoics, on
the other hand, taught his immanence, while the eclectics sought
truth by the mingling of the two ideas. They accomplished their
purpose in various ways, by distinguishing between God and his
power — or by the notion of a hierarchy of super-sensible beings,
or in a doctrine which taught that the operations of nature are
the movement of pure spirit; or by the use of the " Word " of
" Wisdom," half personified as intermediate between God and
the world. While these monotheistic, pantheistic doctrines were
taught in the schools, the people were left to a debased polytheism
and to new superstitions imported from the Orient; the philo-
sophers themselves were by no means unaffected by the popular

beliefs. Mingled with all these were the ancient legends of gods
and heroes, accepted as inspired scripture by the people, and by
philosophers in part explained away by an allegorical exegesis and
in part felt increasingly as a burden to the intelligence. In this
period of degeneracy there were none the less an awakening to
religious needs and a profound longing for a new revelation of
truth, which should satisfy at once the intellect and the religious
emotions.

Christianity came as supplying a new power; it freed philo-
sophy from scepticism by giving a definite object to its efforts
and a renewed confidence in its mission. Monotheism henceforth
was to be the belief not of philosophers only but even of the
ignorant, and in Jesus Christ the union of the divine and the
human was effected. The Old Testament, allegorically explained,
became the substitute for the outgrown mythology; intellectual
activity revived; the new facts gained predominant influence
in philosophy, and in turn were shaped according to its canons.
In theology the fundamental problems of ontological philosophy
were faced; the relationship of unity to multiplicity, of noumenon
to phenomena, of God to man. The new element is the historical
Jesus, at once the representative of humanity and of God. As
in philosophy, so now in theology, the easiest solution of the
problem was the denial of one of its factors: and successively
these efforts were made, until a solution was found in the doctrine
of the Trinity, which satisfied both terms of the equation and
became the fundamental creed of the church. Its moulds of
thought are those of Greek philosophy, and into these were run
the Jewish teachings. We have thus a peculiar combination —
the religious doctrines of the Bible, as culminating in the person
of Jesus, run through the forms of an alien philosophy.

The Jewish sources furnished the terms Father, Messiah,
Son and Spirit. Jesus seldom employed the last term, and St
Paul's use of it is not altogether clear. Already in The
Jewish literature it had been all but personified (cf. doctrine
the Wisdom of Solomon) . Thus the material is Jewish, »' '*•
though already modified doubtless by Greek influence.
But the problem is Greek. It is not primarily ethical nor even
religious, but it is metaphysical. What is the ontological relation-
ship between these three factors? The answer is given in the
Nicene formula, which is characteristically Greek. By it we
perceive how God, the infinite, the absolute, the eternal, is yet not
separated from the finite, the temporal, the relative, but, through
the incarnation, enters into humanity. We further see how this
entering into humanity is not an isolated act but continues in all
the children of God by the indwelling spirit. Thus, according
to the canons of the ancient philosophy, justice is done to all the
factors of our problem — God remains as Father, the infinitely
remote and absolute source of all; as Son, the Word who is
revealed to man and incarnate in him; as Spirit, who dwells even
in our own souls and by his substance unites us to God.

While thus the Greek philosophy furnished the dialectic and
the mould for the characteristic Christian teaching, the doctrine
of the Trinity preserved religious values. By Jesus the disciples
had been led to God, and he was the central fact of faith. After
the resurrection he was the object of praise, and soon prayers were
offered in his name and to him. Already to the apostle Paul he
dominates the world and is above all created things, visible and
invisible, so that he has the religious value of God. It is not God
as abstract, infinite and eternal, as the far-away creator of the
universe, or even as the ruler of the world, which Paul worships,
but it is God revealed in Jesus Christ, the Father of Jesus Christ,
the grace and mercy in Jesus Christ which deliver from evil.
Metaphysics and speculative theories were valueless for Paul;
he was conscious of a mighty power transforming his own life
and filling him with joy, and that this power was identical with
Jesus of Nazareth he knew. In all this Paul is the representative
of that which is highest and best in early Christianity. Specula-
tion and hyperspiritualization were ever tending to obscure
this fundamental religious fact: in the interest of a higher
doctrine of God his true presence in Jesus was denied, and by
exaggeration of Paul's doctrine of " Christ in us " the significance
of the historic Jesus was given up. The Johannine writings,

CHRISTIANITY

285

which presupposed the Pauline movement, are a protest against
the hyperspiritualizing tendency. They insist that the Son of
God has been incarnate in Jesus of Nazareth, and that our hands
have handled and our eyes have seen the word of life. This same
purpose, namely, to hold fast to the historic Jesus, triumphed
in the doctrine of the Trinity; Jesus was not to be resolved
into an aeon or into some mysterious tertium quid, neither God
nor man, but to be recognized as very God who redeemed the
soul. Through him men were to understand the Father and
to understand themselves as God's children. Thus the doctrine
of the Trinity satisfied at once the philosophic intelligence of
scholars and the religious needs of Christians. Only thus can its
adoption and ultimate acceptance be explained. Its doctrinal
form is the philosophic statement of beliefs held by the common
people, who had little interest in theology, but whose faith
centred in Jesus. It marks the naturalization of Christianity
ia the Greek world for the common people who believed in Christ,
and for the philosophers who justified the faith to reason.

The historic and religious values of the doctrine of the Trinity
may be illustrated by way of contrast. The Mahayana systems
are the union of Buddha's teaching with the forms of the Brah-
man philosophy. The historic Buddha — the man Gautama —
is taught as only one of a limitless series of incarnations or
(better) appearances. For his life on earth with his material
body was only an appearance, a seeming, a phenomenon, and
simultaneously with its activities the true Buddha existed
unmoved and eternal. Thus the way was opened for other
apparitional Buddhas, and different sects take different ones
as the objects of faith and worship. Moreover, our true nature is
also Buddha. The conscious life of all men is apparitional and
illusive. Salvation is the comprehension of this fact, and in the
apprehension of our essential oneness with the absolute. Hence
the way of salvation is by knowledge. In the Mahayana
gnosticism was triumphant, and the historic values of Gautama's
teaching and personality are lost. The Mahayana illustrates
in part what would have followed the triumph of gnosticism
in Christianity, for not only would the historic value of the life
and teaching of Jesus have been lost, but with it the significance
of humanity.

It is apparent that such a doctrine as the Trinity is itself
susceptible of many explanations, and minds differently con-
stituted lay emphasis upon its different elements. Especially
is this true as its Greek terminology was translated into Latin,
and from Latin came into modern languages — the original
meaning being obscured or disguised, and the original issues
forgotten. For some the first thought of God, the infinite and
ultimate reality lying beyond and behind all phenomena, pre-
dominates. With these the historic manifestation of Jesus
becomes only a guide to lead us to that immediate apprehension
of God which is the end of theology, and to that immediate union
with God which is the end of religion. Such an end is accom-
plished either by means of pure thought or by a oneness of pure
feeling, giving as results the theological or philosophical con-
struction of the concept God, or a mystical ecstasy which is itself
at once immediate, inexplicable and indescribable. On the other
hand, minds of a different and more concrete character so
emphasize the distinctions God, Son and Holy Spirit, that a
tritheistic construction appears — three individuals in the one
Godhead: these individuals appearing, as for example in the
Father and the Son, even in opposition to each other. In general
we may say then that the Trinity takes on four differing aspects
in the Christian church: in its more common and easily appre-
hended form as three Gods, in its ecclesiastical form as a mystery
which is above reason to be accepted by faith, in its philosophic
form as the highest reason which solves the ultimate problems
of the universe, and finally, as a mode by which the spirit through

i emotional content enters into communion with God himself.

To some Christians the doctrine of the Trinity appeared
nconsistent with the unity of God which is emphasized in the

criptures. They therefore denied it, and accepted Jesus Christ,
not as incarnate God, but as God's highest creature by whom
all else was created, or as the perfect man who taught the true

doctrine of God. The first view in the early Church long con-
tended with the orthodox doctrine, but finally disappeared,
and the second doctrine in the modern Church was set forth as
easily intelligible, but has remained only as the faith of sects
relatively small in number.

Allied with the doctrine of God which seeks the solution of the
ultimate problem of all philosophy, the doctrine of salvation has
taken the most prominent place in the Christian faith: Tbg
so prominent, indeed, that to a large portion of believers doctrine
it has been the supreme doctrine, and the doctrine of the of the
deity of Jesus has been valued only because of its "»**•
necessity on the effect of the atonement. Jesus alone of the great
founders of religion suffered an early and violent death, even the
death of a criminal. It became therefore the immediate task of
his followers to explain this fact. This explanation was the more
urgent because under the influence of Jewish monotheism the
rule of God was accepted as an undoubted presupposition, so that
the death of Jesus must be in accordance with his will. The early
Church naturally used the terms and phrases of the prophets.
He died the death of a criminal, not for his sins, but for ours.
Isaiah liii. was suggested at once and became the central ex-
planation: Christ is the suffering servant who is numbered with
the transgressors and who bears the sins of many.

Jesus faced this problem perhaps before the opening of his
ministry, certainly from his break with the ecclesiastical
authorities. As his violent death drew near, his words indicated
how he preserved his deep faith unshaken while yet recognizing
the seeming failure of his mission. He devotes himself more
exclusively to the little body of his faithful friends and commits
his mission to them. As his work is sealed by his death his body
is broken and his blood is shed for them. Through this is to come
the victory which is denied to his life, as the seed cast into the
ground and dead brings forth fruit. Our hints are few of Jesus'
teaching, but this much, at least, we cannot doubt unless we
suppose that death took him unawares, or that his explanation
of the impending fact took on some un- Jewish form; and further,
that the earliest tradition misrepresents him. But these hypo-
theses do not commend themselves, and we accept the tradition
that Jesus taught that his death was an atonement for others.

Beyond this the gospel does not go. Why vicarious suffering is
needed, or why the God who is the loving Father does not
simply forgive, as in the parable of the prodigal son, is not asked.
For after all it is not theory which is central, but the fact of the
death, and the reason assigned is simply " for others."

In St Paul we find the beginnings of explanation, indeed of two
explanations, and in the Epistle to the Hebrews the whole
sacrificial system is found to culminate in Christ, of whom all
priests and sacrifices are symbols, so that they are abolished
with the coming of the great reality.

In the Greek world further questions are raised and the thought
of the death as a ransom is prominent. To whom was the
ransom paid? For a thousand years the answer was " to the
devil." He had gained control of man by man's sin, and Christ
set man free. God then, who is love, delivers us from evil
through Christ, who pays the penalty of our transgression to the
enemy of God and man. There were other theories also, indeed
the germs of all later theories existed even in the second century,
but this one prevailed. The heretic Marcion taught a variant,
namely, the existence of two Gods, one of the Old Testament of
law, the other of the New Testament of grace. Christ, unjustly
condemned by the God of law, is given as reparation for all men
who put their trust in him. From Anselm's time (izth century
A.D.) this theory of Marcion's is held as orthodox in substance but
is made monotheistic in form. St Anselm denied that any penalty
was due to the devil, and in terms of feudal honour restated
the problem. The conflict here is in God himself, so to speak,
between his immutable righteousness and his limitless grace.
In the sacrifice of Jesus these are reconciled. This doctrine of
St Anselm's attaches itself readily to texts of St Paul, for his
teachings contain undeniably the vicarious propitiatory element.

These theories have to do with the being to whom the ransom
is paid or the sacrifice offered. Another group of theories deals

286

CHRISTIANITY

with the effect of the death of Christ upon the sinner. One of
these is the so-called governmental theory, wherein the death of
Christ is set forth as for the sake of good government, so that the
forgiveness of sins shall not be thought a sign of laxity. Again,
by other theologians the death of Jesus is extolled because of
the moral influence it exerts, since Christ's devotion unto death
incites a like devotion in us.

Excepting in relatively narrow circles these theories have
been seriously studied only by professed theologians. That Christ
died for us, and that we are saved by him, is indeed the living
truth of the Church in all ages, and a false impression of the fact is
given by dwelling upon theories as if they were central. At best
they bear only the relationship of philosophy to life.

Another explanation, or (better) system of beliefs, has been
far more influential in the Church. Belief in mysterious powers
attached to food, feasts, ceremonial rites and sacred things is
all but universal. Primitive man seldom connects sacrifice with
notions of propitiation, indeed only in highly ethicized religions is
the consciousness of sin or of guilt pre-eminent. Sacrifice was
believed to exert an influence on the deity which is quasi-
physical, and in sacrificial feasts God and worshipper are in
mysterious union. Sometimes, indeed, such contact with deity
is thought to be dangerous, and the rites indicate avoidance
(tabu), and sometimes it is thought desirable.

So universal are such ideas that the problem in particular
religions is not their origin but their form. In the Old Testament
repeatedly they are found in conflict with the prophetic ideals.
Sometimes the prophets denounce them, sometimes ignore them,
sometimes attempt to reform and control them. Jesus ignores
them, his emphasis being so strong upon the ethical and spiritual
that the rest is passed by. In the early Church, still Jewish, the
belief was in the coming of a mysterious power from God which
produced ecstasy and worked wonders. St Paul also believes in
this, but insists that it is subordinate to the peaceable fruits of
righteousness. With the naturalization of the Church in the
Gentile world ethical ideas became less prominent, and the
sacramental system prevailed. By baptism and the Lord's
Supper grace is given (ex opere operato), so that man is renewed
and made capable of salvation. Already in the 2nd century
baptism was described as a bath in which the health of the soul is
restored, and the Lord's Supper as the potion of immortality.
Similar notions present in the ethnic faiths take the Christian
facts into their service, the belief of the multitude without
essential change remaining vague and undefined. While the
theologians discussed doctrine the people longed for mystery, as it
satisfied their religious natures. By sacraments they felt them-
selves brought into the presence of God, and to sacraments tliey
looked for aid. Many sacraments were adopted by portions of the
Church, until at last the sacred number seven was agreed upon.

As the way of salvation was modified, so too was the idea of
salvation: the dream of a Messianic kingdom on earth, with its
corollary the resurrection of the physical body, faded
awa>% especially after the Roman empire adopted
salvation. Christianity. It was no longer the Jewish nation against
the heathen empire, for the Jewish nation had ceased
to be, and the empire and the Church were one. Salvation
henceforth is not the descent of the New Jerusalem out of
heaven, but the ascent of the saints to heaven ; for the individual
it is not the resurrection of the body but the immortality of the
soul. So Jesus is no longer Christ or Messiah, but the Son of God.
These terms again are variously 'interpreted: heaven is still
thought of by many under the imagery of the book of Revelation,
and by others it is conceived as'a mystical union of the soul with
God through the intelligence or of feelings. Yet the older con-
ceptions still continue, Christianity not becoming purely and
simply Greek. Again and again individuals and groups turn
back to the Semitic cycle of hopes and ideas, while the reconcilia-
tion of the two systems, Jewish and Graeco-Roman, becomes the
task of exegetes and theologians.

These hopes and theories of salvation, however, do not explain
the power of Christianity. Jesus wearied himself with the healing
of man's physical ailments, and he was remembered as the great

physician. Early Christian literature is filled with medical terms,
applied (it is true) for the greater part to the cure of souls.
The records of the Church are also filled with the efforts of Jesus'
followers to heal the diseases and satisfy the wants of men. A
vast activity animated the early Church: to heal the sick,
to feed the hungry, to succour the diseased, to rescue the fallen,
to visit the prisoners, to forgive the erring, to teach the ignorant,
were ministries of salvation. A mighty power impelled men
to deny themselves in the service of others, and to find in this
service their own true life. None the less the first place is
given to the salvation of the soul, since, created for an unend-
ing existence, it is of transcendent importance. While man
is fallen and by nature vile, nevertheless his possibilities are
so vast that in comparison the affairs of earth are insignificant.
The word, " What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world
and lose his own soul?" comes to mean that the individual soul
outvalues the whole world. With emphasis upon God as creator
and ruler, and upon man as made in God's image, endowed with
an unending existence, and subject to eternal torture if not
redeemed, the concept of personality has been exalted at the
expense of that of nature, and the future has been magnified
at the expense of the present. Thus a future heaven is man's
true home, and theology instead of philosophy or natural science
is his proper study.

Indeed, intellectual interest centred in religion. Natural
science was forsaken, except in so far as it ministered to theology.
Because the Old Testament contained references to the origin
and the objects of the universe, a certain amount of natural
science was necessary, but it was only in this connexion that
it had any value. By Augustine's time this process is complete.
His writings contain most of the knowledge of his age, but it
is strictly subordinate to his theological purpose. Hence, when
the barbarians submerged southern Europe, theology alone
survived. The Church entered upon a new task. In the begin-
ning Christianity had been the teacher of religion to highly
civilized peoples — now it became the civilizing agent to the
barbarians, the teacher of better customs, the upholder of law
and the source of knowledge. The learned men were monks
and priests, the universities were Church institutions, and
theology was the queen of the sciences.

The relation of cult to creed is still undetermined. Theoreti-
cally the first depends on the second, for its purpose is twofold :
the excitation of worthy religious emotions and the
attaining of our desires; and how shall these objects be
attained unless we know him whom we worship and worship.
to whom we pray? But it is plausibly maintained
that the reverse is true, namely, that theology rests on cult.
In the beginnings of consciousness instinctive reactions precede
definite thoughts, and even in mature life thoughts often follow
acts instead of preceding them. Our religious consciousness
is simply our ordinary consciousness obeying its laws. So un-
purposed does cult grow up that it combines many elements of
diverse origin, and is seldom precisely and wholly in accordance
with the creed. No doubt the two interact, cult influencing
creed and creed modifying cult — cult, perhaps, being most
powerful in forming the actual religious faith of the multitude.
Cult divides into two unequal parts, the stimulation of the
religious emotions and the control of piety. In the Church
service it came early to centre in the sacrament of the Eucharist
(q.v.). In the earliest period the services were characterized by
extreme freedom, and by manifestations of ecstasy which were
believed to indicate the presence of the spirit of God; but as
the years went by the original enthusiasm faded away, the cult
became more and more controlled, until ultimately it was com-
pletely subject to the priesthood, and through the priesthood
to the Church. In the Roman communion the structure of the
sacred edifice, the positions and attitudes of the priest and the
congregation, the order of service, emphasize the mystery and
the divine efficacy of the sacrament. The worshipper feels him-
self in the immediate presence of God, and enters into physical
relations with him. Participation in the mass also releases from
guilt, as the Lamb of God offered up atones for sin and intercedes

° ogy

CHRISTIANITY

287

Polity.

with the Father in our behalf. Thus in this single act of deyotion
both objects of all cults are attained.

As the teaching and person of Jesus were fitted into the
framework of the Greek philosophy, and the sacraments into
the deeper and broader forms of popular belief, so was
the organization shaped by the polity of the Roman
empire. Jesus gathered his group of followers and committed
to it his mission, and after his resurrection the necessities of the
situation brought about the choice of quasi-officials. Later the
familiar polity of the synagogue was loosely followed. A com-
pleter organization was retarded by two factors, the presence
of the apostles and the inspiration of the prophets. But when
the apostles died and the early enthusiasm disappeared, a stricter
order arose. Practical difficulties called for the enforcement of
discipline, and differences of opinion for authority in doctrine;
and, finally, the sacramentarian system required a priesthood.
In the 2nd century the conception of a Catholic Church was
widely held and a loose embodiment was given it; after the con-
version of the empire the organization took on the official forms
of the empire. Later it was modified by the rise of the feudal
system and the re-establishment of the modern European
nationalities (see CHURCH HISTORY).

The polity of the Church was more than a formal organization;
it touched the life of each believer. Very early, Christianity
Penance was conceived to be a new system of law, and faith was
interpreted as obedience. Legalism was joined with
sacramentarianism, doubling the power of the priest. Through
him Church discipline was administered, a complete system of
ecclesiastical penalties, i.e. penance, growing up. It culminated
the doctrine of purgatory, a place of discipline, of purifying
iuffering after death. The Roman genius for law strengthened
nd systematized this tendency.

The hierarchy which centres in the pope constitutes the Church
if which the sacramental system is the inn^r life and penance
the sanction. It is thus a divine-human organization. It
teaches that the divine-human Son of God established it, and
returning to heaven committed to the apostles, especially to St
'eter, his authority, which has descended in an unbroken line
rough the popes. This is the charter of the Church, and its
iceptance is the first requisite for salvation; for the Church
etermines doctrine, exercises discipline and administers sacra-
ments. Its authority is accompanied by the spirit of God, who
guides it into truth and gives it miraculous power. Outside the
Church there are only the " broken lights " of man's philosophy
and the vain efforts of weak human nature after virtue.

Christianity in its complete Roman development is thus the
iming of the supernatural into the natural. The universe falls
into these orders, the second for the sake of the first, as
nature is of and for God. Without him nature at its
highest is like a beautiful statue, devoid of life; it is of
secondary moment compared even to men, for while it
passes away he continues for ever. He is dependent,
therefore, not upon nature, but upon God's grace for
salvation, and this comes through the Church. In the book of
Revelation the New Jerusalem descending from heaven to the
earth may be taken as a symbol of a continuing process: the
human receives the divine, as the Virgin Mary received the Holy
Spirit and brought forth Jesus, perfect man and perfect God.
hus the Church ever receives God and has a twofold nature;
its sacraments through material and earthly elements impart a
divine power; its teachings agree with the highest truths of
ihilosophy and science, yet add to these the knowledge of
ysteries which eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither hath it
tered into the heart of man to conceive; it sanctifies human
lationships, but the happiness of earth at purest and best is
>nly a shadow of the divine bliss which belongs to the redeemed
soul. Hence man should deny the world for the sake of the other
orld, and the title " religious " belongs distinctly to the monastic
id priestly life. Theology is the queen of the sciences, and
icthing should be taught in school or university which contradicts
its conclusions. Moreover, nothing should be done by the state
'hich interferes with the transcendent interest committed to the

The

completed

doctrine

of the

Homan

Church.

Church. Thus the Church touches and controls all realms of life,
and the cycle is complete. It began as separate from the world
and proscribed by it; next it adapted itself to the learning, the
customs and the polity of the world. Finally it asserted its
mastery and assumed sovereign power over all. The Church in
its completed form was the outcome of a long development; if
the seed was Jewish the environment was Gentile. Into the full
tree were gathered the effects, not only of the initial energy, but
of the forces of earth, air, water and sun. The Roman Church
expressed the beliefs and answered the needs of the people, and
this explains in part both its forms and its power, its long
continuance and wide supremacy.

The Church was never completely successful in unifying its
organization. In part it shared the destiny of the Roman
empire, and with it fell into two parts, East separating
from West. Indeed the East never really acknowledged Eastern
the Roman primacy nor shared in its development, Church.
and it still remains apart. With characteristic oriental
conservatism it claims the title of " Orthodox," and retains the
creed and organization of the early Church. In general its
conception of the relation of the world to the super-world is
identical with that of the Roman Church, though somewhat less
defined, as its organization is less complete. It has remained in
the second stage mentioned above; established, as in Russia, by
the empire, it is dependent upon it and in alliance with it. In
the Mahommedan dominions it has been recognized as a state
within the state, and in these communities faith and patriotism
are one.

The idea of the Roman Church was imperfectly enlbodied at the
best; the divine gift was in earthen vessels. The world was never
completely cast out; indeed the Church became the
scene for ambition and the home of luxury and pleasure. geformtt-
It was entangled also in the political strife of the feudal tioo.
ages and of the beginning of modern empires. Its
control of the sciences embroiled it with its own philosophers and
scholars, while saints and pure-minded ecclesiastics attempted,
without success, its reform from within. Finally, through
Luther, the explosion came, and western Christendom broke into
two parts — Catholic and Protestant.

Protestantism in its primary principle is the return to primitive
Christianity. The whole development which we have traced,
culminating in the ecclesiastical-doctrinal system of the Roman
Church, is regarded as a corruption, since foreign and even
heathen elements have been brought in, so that the religion
established by Christ is obscured or lost. For Protestants the
Bible only now becomes the infallible, inspired authority in faith
and morals. Interpretations by the Fathers or by the councils are
to be taken only as aids to its understanding. With this principle
is associated a second, the liberty of the individual; he reads the
sacred Scriptures and interprets them for himself without the
intervention of priests or church; and he enters by faith in Christ
into communion with God, so that all believers are priests. Here
may be noted a fundamental difference in the psychology of
religion, since in the Roman Church the chief appeal is to the
emotions, while in the Reformed it is to the intelligence. Yet
this appeal to the intelligence is not rationalism: the latter
makes reason the supreme authority, rejecting all which does not
conform to it; the Bible is treated like any other book, to be
accepted or rejected in part or in whole as it agrees with our
canons of logic and our general science, while religion submits to
the same process as do other departments of knowledge. But in
Protestantism reason and the light of nature are in themselves as
impotent as in the Roman Church. The Bible interpreted by
man's unaided intelligence is as valueless as other writings, but it
has a sacramental value when the Holy Spirit accompanies its
teaching, and the power of God uses it and makes the soul capable
of holiness. In all this the supernatural is as vividly realized as in
the Roman Church; it is only its mediation which is different.

These principles are variously worked out in the different
churches and variously expressed. In part because of historical
circumstances, the divergence from the older systems is more
marked in some Protestant churches than in others, yet on the

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CHRISTIANITY

whole these two principles determine cult and in part organiza-
tion. As in the Roman Church cult centres in the mass, so in
the Reformed Church it centres in the sermon. The
Holy Spirit, the determining factor in the religious life,
uses the Bible as his means, and calls the intelligence
into action. The clergyman is primarily the preacher, renewed by
God's power and enlightened by the Spirit, so that he speaks with
divine authority. The ancient Jewish prophetic office is revived,
yet with a difference: the ancient prophets acknowledged no
external authority, but the Protestant preacher is strictly
subordinate to the Scriptures of which he is the interpreter.
Beside the sermon the sacraments are observed as established by
Christ — two in number, baptism and the Lord's Supper. But
these do not exert a quasi-physical or magical influence, ex opere
operate. Unless there be faith in the recipient, an understanding
of the meaning of the sacrament and an acceptance of it, it is
valueless or harmful. Prayer and praise also are effective only as
the congregation intelligently join in them; hence they are not
to be solely by a priest nor in a strange tongue, as the clergyman
is simply the leader of the devotions of the people. In large
portions of the Church also opportunity for the free expression of
the religious experience of the laity is found.

The emphasis upon the believer and his freedom from all ex-
ternal authority do not result in a thoroughgoing individualism.
Luther clearly held to the unity of all Christians, and Protestants
are agreed in this. For them, as for the Roman Church, there is a
belief in a catholic or all-embracing Church, but the unity is not
that of an organization ; Christians are one through an indwelling
spirit; they hold the same faith, undergo the same experience
and follow the same purpose. This inner life constitutes the
oneness of believers and forms the true Church which is invisible.
It expresses itself in outward forms, yet there are not two
Churches visible and invisible, but only one. The spiritual
experience of the individual utters itself in words, and desires
association with others who know the same grace. There is
formed a body of teaching in which all agree, and an organization
in which the common experience finds expression and aid. While
then membership in this organization is not primary, it assumes
a higher and even a vital importance, since a true experience
recognizes the common faith and the common fellowship. Were
it to refuse assent to these, doubt would be thrown upon its own
trustworthiness.

Historically these principles were only in part embodied, for the
Reformation was involved in political strife. The Reformers
turned to the government for aid and protection, and throughout
Europe turmoil and war ensued. In consequence, in the Pro-
testant nations the state assumed the ultimate authority over
the Church. Moreover, in the early days of the Reformation the
Catholic Church charged it with a lawless individualism, a charge
which was seemingly made good by an extreme divergence in
theological opinion and by riots in various parts of the Protestant
world. The age was indeed one of ferment, so that the foundations
of society and of religion seemed threatened. The Reformers
turned to the state for protection against the Roman Church, and
ultimately as a refuge from anarchy, and they also returned to
the theology of the Fathers as their safeguard against heresy.
Instead of the simplicity of Luther's earlier writings, a dogmatic
theology was formed, and a Protestant ecclesiasticism estab-
lished, indistinguishable from the Roman Church in principle.
The main difference was in the attitude to the Roman allegiance
and to the sacramentarian system. There was thus by no means
a complete return to the Bible as the sole authority, but the
Bible was taken as interpreted by the earlier creeds and as
worked into a doctrinal system by the scholastic philosophy.
Thus Protestantism also came to identify theology with the
whole range of human knowledge, and in its official forms it was
as hostile to the progress of science as was the Roman Church
itself.

Many Protestants rebelled against this radical departure from
the principles of the Reformation and of Biblical Christianity.
To them it seemed the substitution of the authority of the Church
for the authority of a living experience and of intellectual

adherence to theological propositions for faith. The freedom of
the individual was denied when the state enforced religious
conformity. Thus a struggle within Protestantism arose, with
persecutions of Protestants by Protestants. Moreover, many
failed to find the expression of their faith in the official creed or in
the established organization, and Protestantism divided into
many sects and denominations, founded upon special types of
religious experience or upon particular points in doctrine or in
cult. Thus Protestantism presents a wide diversity in com-
parison with the regularity of the Roman Church. This we
should expect indeed from its insistence upon individual freedom;
yet, notwithstanding certain notable exceptions, amid the
diversity there is a substantial unity, a unity which in our day
finds expression in common organizations for great practical ends,
for example in the " Bible Societies," " Tract Societies," the
" Young Men's Christian Associations," " Societies of Christian
Endeavour," &c., which disregard denominational lines.

The coming of the northern peoples into the Roman world
profoundly modified Christianity. It shared indeed in the
dreariness and corruption of the times commonly called christi-
the " dark ages," but when at last a productive period aaUyand
began the Church was the first to profit by it. Since all t^e0^tnt
educated men were priests, it assimilated the new"'1
learning — the revived Aristotelianism — and continued its control
of the universities. In the I3th century it was supreme, and
Christianity was identified with world systems of knowledge and
politics. Both were deemed alike divine in origin, and to question
their validity was an offence against God. Christianity thus had
passed through three stages in politics as in science. At first it
was persecuted by the state, then established by it, and finally
dominated over it; so its teaching was at first alien to philosophy
and despised by it, next was accepted by it and given form and
rights through it, and finally became queen of the sciences as
theology and ruled over the whole world of human knowledge.
But the triumph by its completeness ensured new conflicts; from
the disorder of the middle ages arose states which ultimately
asserted complete autonomy, and in like fashion new intellectual
powers came forth which ultimately established the independence
of the sciences.

In the broadest sense the underlying principle of the struggle
is the reassertion of interest in the world. It is no longer merely
the scene for the drama of the soul and God, nor is man inde-
pendent of it, but man and nature constitute an organism,
humanity being a part of the vaster whole. Man's place is not
even central, as he appears a temporary inhabitant of a minor
planet in one of the lesser stellar systems. Every science is
involved, and theology has come into conflict with metaphysics,
logic, astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, zoology, biology,
history and even economics and medicine. From the modem
point of view this is unavoidable and even desirable, since
" theology " here represents the science of the I3th century. As
in the political world the states gained first the undisputed
control of matters secular, rejecting even the proffered counsel of
the Church, and then proceeded to establish their sovereignty
over the Church itself, so was it in the empire of the mind. The
rights gained for independent research were extended over the
realm of religion also; the two indeed cannot remain separate,
and man must subordinate knowledge to the authority of
religion — or make science supreme, submitting religion to its
scrutiny and judging it like other phenomena. Under this
investigation Christianity does not appear altogether exceptional.
Its early logic, ontology and cosmology, with many of its dis-
tinctive doctrines, are shown to be the natural offspring of the
races and ages which gave them birth. Put into their historical
environment they are freed from adverse criticism, and indeed
valued as steps in the intellectual development of man's mind.
Advanced seriously, however, as truths to-day, they are put
aside as anachronisms not worthy of dispute. The Bible is
studied like other works, its origins discovered and its place in
comparative religion assigned. It does not appear as altogether
unique, but it is put among the other sacred books. For the
great religions of the world show similar cycles of development,

CHRISTIANITY

289

similar appropriations of prevalent science and philosophy,
similar conservative insistence upon ancient truth, and similar
claims to an exclusive authority.

'With this interest is involved an attitude of mind toward the
supernatural. As already pointed out, nature and super-nature
were taken as physically and spatially distinct. The latter could
descend upon the former and be imparted to it, neither subject
to nature nor intelligible by reason. In science the process has
been reversed; nature ascends, so to speak, into the region of
the supernatural and subdues it to itself; the marvellous or
miraculous is brought under the domain of natural law, the
canons of physics extend over metaphysics, and religion takes its
place as one element in the natural relationship of man to his
environment. Hence the new world-view threatens the founda-
tions of the ecclesiastical edifice. This revolution in the world-
view is no longer the possession of philosophers and scholars, but
the multitude accepts it in part. Education in general has
rendered many familiar with the teachings of science, and,
moreover, its practical benefits have given authority to its
maxims and theories. The world's problem is not only therefore
acute, but the demand for its solution is wider than ever before.
The Roman Catholic Church uncompromisingly reasserts its
ancient propositions, political and theological. The cause is
Theatti- lost indeed in the political realm, where the Church
tiide ofthe is obliged to submit, but it protests and does not
waive or modify its claims (see the Syllabus of 1864,
paragraphs 19 ff., 27, 54 and 55). In the Greek and
Protestant churches this situation cannot arise, as they make
no claims to governmental sovereignty. In the intellectual
domain the situation is more complex. Again the Roman Church
unhesitatingly reaffirms the ancient principles in their extreme
form (Syllabus, paragraphs 8-9-13; Decrees of the Vatican
Council, chapter 4, note especially canon 4-2). The works of
St Thomas Aquinas are recommended as the standard authority
in theology (Encyc. of Leo XIII., Aeterni Patris, Aug. 4, 1879).
In details also the conclusions of modern science are rejected,
as for example the origin of man from lower species, and, in a
different sphere, the conclusions of experts as to the origins of
the Bible. Faith is defined as " assent upon authority," and the
authority is the Church, which maintains its right to supremacy
over the whole domain of science and philosophy.

The Greek Church remains untouched by the modern spirit,
and the Protestant Churches also are bound officially to the
The Greek scholastic philosophy of the I7th century; their con-
aadPro- fessions of faith still assert the formation of the world
m s'x ^avs> an<^ recluire assent to propositions which
can be true only if the old cosmology be correct. Offici-
ally then the Church identifies Christianity with the position
outlined above, and hostile critics agree to this identification,
rejecting the faith in the name of philosophic and scientific truth.
On the other hand there are not wanting individuals and even
large bodies of Christians who are intent upon a reinterpretation.
Even in the official circles of the Church, not excepting
promises. tne Roman Church, there are many scholars who find
no difficulty in remaining Christian while accepting
the modern scientific view of the world. This is possible to some
because the situation in its sharp antithesis is not present to
their minds: by making certain compromises on the one side
and on the other, and by framing private interpretations of
important dogmas, they can retain their faith in both and yet
preserve their mental integrity. A large literature is produced,
reconciling science and theology by softening and compromising
and adapting; a procedure in accordance with general historical
development, for men do not love sharp antagonisms, nor are
they prepared to carry principles to their logical conclusions.
By a fortunate power of mind they are able to believe as truths
mutually inconsistent propositions.

Thus the crisis is in fact not so acute as it might seem. No
great institution lives or dies by logic. Christianity rests on great
religious needs which it meets and gratifies, so that its life (like all
other lives) is in unrationalized emotions. Reason seeks ever to
rationalize these, an attempt which seems to destroy yet really

VI. 10

fulfils. As thus the restless reason tests the emotions of the soul,
criticizes the traditions to which they cling, rejects the ancient
dogmas in which they have been defined, the Church slowly
participates in the process: silently this position and that are
forsaken, legends and beliefs once of prime importance are for-
gotten, or when forced into controversy many ways are found
by which the old and the new are reconciled: the sharpness of
distinctions can be rubbed off, expressions may be softened,
definitions can be modified and half-way resting-places afforded,
until the momentous transition has been made and the continuity
of tradition is maintained. Finally, as the last step, even the
official documents may be revised. Such a process in Christianity
is everywhere in evidence, for even the Roman Church admits
the modern astronomy. So too it accepts the changes in the world
of politics with qualified approval. In the Syllabus of 1864 the
separation of state and church was anathematized, yet in 1906
this separation in the United States was held up as an example
to be followed by the French government. In the Protestant
Churches the process is precisely similar. No great church has
yet modified its articles of religion so as to admit, for example,
that the Garden of Eden was not a definite place where Eve was
tempted, yet the doctrine is contradicted with approval by
individuals, and the results of modern science are accepted and
taught without rebuke. In all this the Church shows its essential
oneness with other organizations of society, the government,
the family, which are at once deeply rooted in the past, and yet
subject to the influences of the present. For Christianity is by
no means wholly intellectual, nor chiefly so. It would be fully
as true to facts to describe this religion as a vast scheme for
the amelioration of the condition of humanity. In education,
in care for the sick, the poor, the outcast, it has retained the
spirit of its Lord. Though it has at times denied this spirit,
been guilty of crimes, persecutions, wars and greed — still the
Church has never quite forgotten him who went about doing good,
nor freed itself from the contagion of his example. No age has
been so responsive to the needs of man as our own; whatever
doubts men have as to the doctrines or the cults there is an
agreement wider than in the past in the good works whose inspira-
tion is a divine love.

Yet the intellectual crisis cannot be ignored in the interest
of the practical life. Men must rationalize the universe. On
the one hand there are churchmen who attempt to
repeat the historical process which has naturalized
the Church in alien soils by appropriating the forces
of the new environment, and who hold that the entire
process is inspired and guided by the spirit of God. Hence
Christianity is the absolute religion, because it does not preclude
development but necessitates it, so that the Christianity that is to
come shall not only retain all that is important in the Christianity
of the past and present but shall assimilate new truth. On the
other hand some seek the essential Christianity in a life beneath
and separable from the historic forms. In part under the in-
fluence of the Hegelian philosophy, and in part because of the
prevalent evolutionary scientific world-view, God is represented
under the form of pure thought, and the world process as the
unfolding of himself. Such truth can be apprehended by the
multitude only in symbols which guide the will through the
imagination, and through historic facts which are embodiment
of ideas. The Trinity is the essential Christian doctrine, the
historic facts of the Christian religion being the embodiment
of religious ideas. The chief critical difficulty felt by this school
is in identifying any concrete historic fact with the unchanging
idea, that is, in making Jesus of Nazareth the incarnation of God.
God is reinterpreted, and in place of an extra-mundane creator
is an omnipresent life and power. The Christian attainment is
nothing else than the thorough intellectual grasp of the absolute
idea and the identification of our essential selves with God.
With a less thorough-going intellectualism other scholars re-
interpret Christianity in terms of current scientific phraseology.
Christianity is dependent upon the understanding of the universe ;
hence it is the duty of believers to put it into the new setting,
so that it adopts and adapts astronomy, geology, biology and

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CHRISTIANITY

psychology. With this accomplished, Christianity will resume
its ancient place. Consciously and of purpose the attempt is
made to do once more what has been done repeatedly before,
to restate Christianity in the terms of current science.

From all these efforts to reconstruct systematic theology with
its appropriations of philosophy and science, groups of Christians
turn to the inner life and seek in its realities to find the con-
firmation of their faith. They also claim oneness with a long line
of Christians, for in every age there have been men who have
ignored the dogma and the ritual of the Church, and in contempla-
tion and retirement have sought to know God immediately in
their own experience. To them at best theology with its cos-
mology and its logic is only a shadow of shadows, for God
reveals himself to the pure in heart, and it matters not what
science may say of the material and fleeting world. This spirit
manifests itself in wide circles in our day. The Gordian knot is
cut, for philosophy and religion no longer touch each other but
abide in separate realms.

In quite a different way a still more influential school seeks
essential Christianity in the sphere of the ethical life. It also
would disentangle religion from cosmology and formal philosophy.
It studies the historic development of the Church, noting how
element after element has been introduced into the simplicity
of the gospel, and from all these it would turn back to the Bible
itself. In a thorough-going fashion it would accomplish what
Luther and the Reformation attempted. It regards even the
earliest creeds as only more or less satisfactory attempts to
translate the Christian facts into the current language of the
heathen world. But the process does not stop with this re-
jection of the ancient and the scholastic theology. It recognizes
the scientific results attained in the study of the Bible itself,
and therefore it does not seek the entire Bible as its rule of truth.
To it Jesus Christ, and he alone, is supreme, but this supremacy
does not carry with it infallibility in the realm of cosmology or
of history. In these too Jesus participated in the views of his
own time; even his teaching of God and of the future life is
not lacking in Jewish elements, yet none the less he is the
essential element in Christianity, and to his life-purpose must all
that claims to be Christianity be brought to be judged. To this
school Christianity is the culmination of the ethical monotheism
of the Old Testament, which finds its highest ideal in self-
sacrificing love. Jesus Christ is the complete embodiment of this
ideal, in life and in death. This ideal he sets before men under
the traditional forms of the kingdom of God as the object to be
attained, a kingdom which takes upon itself the forms of the
family, and realizes itself in a new relationship of universal
brotherhood. Such a religion appeals for its self-verification
not to its agreement withtosmological conceptions, either ancient
or modern, or with theories of philosophy, however true these
may be, but to the moral sense of man. On the one hand, in its
ethical development, it is nothing less than the outworking of
that principle of Jesus Christ which led him not only to self-
sacrificing labour but to the death upon the cross. On the other
hand, it finds its religious solution in the trust in a power not
ourselves which makes for the same righteousness which was
incarnate in Jesus Christ.

Thus Christianity, as religion, is on the one hand the adoration
of God, that is, of the highest and noblest, and this highest and
noblest as conceived not under forms of power or knowledge but
in the form of ethical self-devotion as embodied in Jesus Christ,
and on the other hand it meets the requirements of all religion
in its dependence, not indeed upon some absolute idea or omni-
potent power, but in the belief that that which appeals to the
soul as worthy of supreme worship is also that in which the soul
may trust, and which shall deliver it from sin and fear and death.
Such a conception of Christianity can recognize many embodi-
ments in ritual, organization and dogma, but its test in all ages
and in all lands is conformity to the purpose of the life of Christ.
The Lord's Prayer in its oldest and simplest form is the expression
of its faith, and Christ's separation of mankind on the right hand
and on the left in accordance with their service or refusal of
service to their fellow-men is its own judgment of the right

of any age or church to the name Christian. This school also
represents historic Christianity, and maintains the continuity
of its life through all the ages past with Christ himself. But this
continuity is not then in theological systems or creeds, nor in
sacraments and cult, nor in organization, but in the noble
company of all who have lived in simple trust in God and love to
humanity. It is this true Church of the spirit and purpose of Jesus
which has been the supreme force for the uplifting of humanity.

Christianity has passed through too many changes, and it has
found too many interpretations possible, to fear the time to come.
Thoroughgoing reconstruction in every item of theology and in
every detail of polity there may be, yet shall the Christian life
go on — the life which finds its deepest utterance in the words of
Christ, " Thou shall love the Lord thy God with all thy heart
and thy neighbour as thyself "; the life which expresses its pro-
foundest faith in the words Christ taught it to pray, "Our Father";
the life which finds its highest rule of conduct in the words of its
first and greatest interpreter, " Let this mind be in you Which
was also in Christ Jesus our Lord."

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Detailed bibliographies accompany the separate
articles on subjects connected with the Christian religion and Church.
In the following list a selection is given of books on the wider and
general subject : —

Extent and Growth. — D. Dorchester, The Problem of Religious
Progress (revised ed., 1894) ; S. Gulick, The Growth of the Kingdom
of God (1895) ; James S. Dennis, Christian Missions and Social
Progress (1906).

Prophets of Israel. — Rudolf Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen
Religionsgeschichte (2nd ed., 1899); A. B. Davidson, Old Testament
Prophecy (1903) ; Karl Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile (1809) ;
W. Robertson Smith, The Prophets of Israel and their Place in History
(1899); A. F. Kirkpatrick, Doctrine of the Prophets (3rd ed., 1901);
Beruk Duhm, Die Theologie der Propheten (1875).

Judaism. — Emil Schiirer, History of the Jewish People in the Time
of Jesus Christ (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1890) ; C. G. Montefiore,
Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the
Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (2nd ed., 1893) ; W. Bousset, Die
Religion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter (2nd ed., 1906).

The Life and Teaching of Jesus. — Hans Heinrich Wendt, The
Teaching of Jesus (1892), 2 vols.; Oskar Holtzmann, The Life of Jesus
(Eng. trans., 1904) ; Paul Wernle, Beginnings of Christianity, 2 vols.
(1903-1904); T. Crawford Burkitt, The Gospel History and «t>
Transmission (1906).

The Beginnings of Christianity. — Ernst von Dobschiitz, Christian
Life in the Primitive Church (Eng. trans., 1904); A. C. McGiffert,
The Apostolic Age (1900); Carl Weizsacker, The Apostolic Age
(Eng. trans., 1897) ; Otto Pfleiderer, Das Urchristentum (1902).

The Expansion of Christianity. — Edwin Hatch, " The Influence
of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church," the Hibbert
Lectures, 1888 (1890).; Adolf Harnack, The Expansion of Christianity
in the First Three Centuries (Eng. trans., 1904) ; Sir W. M. Ramsay,
The Church in the Roman Empire (1893).

The History of Church and of Dogma. — Adolf Harnack, History
of Dogma (Eng. trans., 1895); Reinhold Seeberg, Lehrbuch der
Dogmengeschichte (1895, 2 vols.); Philip Schaff, The Creeds of
Christendom (3 vols., 1881, 3rd ed.).

The Roman Church. — Joseph Wilhelm and Thomas B. Scannell,
Manual of Catholic Theology (1906); J. A. Moehler, Symbolism
(trans. 1844); Thomas Aquinas, The Summa (Eng. trans., 1907);
William Ward, The Ideal of a Christian Church (1844).

The Greek Church. — " The Creeds of the Greek and Russian
Churches," in Schaff, Creeds, vol. ii. pp. 275-542; and J. Michalcesu,
Die Bekenntnisse und die wich'tigsten Glaubenszeugnisse der griechisch-
orientalischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1904).

Protestantism. — John Calvin, Institutio Religionis Christianae,
(1536; Eng. trans., 1816); Charles Hodge, Systematic Theolog
(3 vols., 1872); Ernst Troeltsch, Die Absolutheit des Christentum
und die Religionsgeschichte (1902); First Principles of the Refor-
mation, or the Ninety-five Theses and the Three Primary Works, Iran
by Henry Wace and C. A. Buchheinz (1883).

Christianity in the Modern World. — Andrew D. White, Confiit
of Science with Theology (2 vols., 1896); D. F. Strauss, Der alte un
der neue Glaube (1872 ; Eng. trans., 1873) ; A. J. Balfour, The Founda
tions of Belief (1897); J. Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism (1899).

Modern Adaptations of Christianity. — William Adams Brown
Christian Theology in Outline (1906); Augustus Sabatier, Religio
of Authority and the Religion of the Spirit (1904); J. A. Zaht
Evolution and Dogma (1896); John Henry Newman, An Essay c
the Development of Christian Doctrine (1845); Edward Caird, Th
Evolution of Religion (1893) ; Otto Pfleiderer, Philosophy of Religion
(Eng. trans., 1888, especially volumes 3 and 4); Newman Smyth,
Old Faiths in New Lights (1879), Through Science to Faith (1902);
Henry Drummpnd, The Ascent of Man (1894); -William Ralph Inge
Christian Mysticism (Bampton Lectures, 1894) ; Wilhelm Herrmann
The Communion of the Christian with God (1895); George Willian

CHRISTIANSAND— CHRISTINA

291

Knox Direct and Fundamental Proofs of the Christian Religion (1903) :
Albrecht Ritschl, Die ckristliche Lehre von der Rechlfertigung und
Versbhnung (1900).

Modern Definitions of Cnrtstiamty. — Alfred Loisy, The Oospe.1
und the Church (1904) ; Adolf Harnack, What is Christianity? (1901) :
William Adams Brown, The Essence of Christianity (1902); Ernest
Troettsch, Das Wesen des Christentums; J. Kaftan, Das Wesen der
christlichen Religion (2nd ed., 1888); J. Caird, The Fundamental
Ideas of Christianity (1899). (G. W. KM.)

CHRISTIANSAND (KRISTIANSAND), a fortified seaport of
Norway, the chief town of a diocese (slift), on a fjord of the
Skagerrack, 175 m- S.W. of Christiania by sea. Pop. (1900)
14,701. It stands on a square peninsula flanked by the western
and eastern harbours and by the Otter river. The situation, with
its wooded hills and neighbouring islands, is no less beautiful
than that of other south-coast towns, but the substitution of brick
for wood as building material after a fire in 1892 made against
the picturesqueness of the town. There is a fine cathedral,
rebuilt in Gothic style after a fire in 1880. Christiansand is
an important fishing centre (salmon, mackerel, lobsters), and
sawmills, wood-pulp factories, shipbuilding yards and mechanical
workshops are the principal industrial works. The port is the
largest on the south coast, and all the coast steamers, and those
serving Christiania from London, Hull, Grangemouth, Hamburg,
&c., touch here. The Saetersdal railway follows that valley
north to Byglandsfiord (48 m.), whence a good road continues
to Viken i Valle at the head pf the valley. Flekkero, a neighbour-
ing island, is a favourite pleasure resort. The town was founded
in 1641 by Christian IV., after whom it was named.

CHRISTIAN SCIENCE, a system of theosophic and therapeutic
doctrine, which was originated in America about 1866 by Mrs
Mary Baker Glover Eddy, and has in recent years obtained a
number of adherents both in the United States and in European
countries. Mrs. Eddy (1821-1910 ; nie Baker) was born near
Concord, New Hampshire; in 1843 she married Colonel G. W.
Glover (d. 1844), in 1853 she married Daniel Patterson (divorced
1873), and in 1877 Dr Asa Gilbert Eddy (d. 1883). About the
year 1867 she came forward as a healer by mind-cure. She
based her teaching on the Bible, and on the principles that man's
essential nature is spiritual, and that, the Spirit of God being
Love and Good, moral and physical evil are contrary to that
Spirit, and represent an absence of the True Spirit which was in
Jesus Christ. There is but one Mind, one God, one Christ, and
nothing real but Mind. Matter and sickness are subjective states
of error, delusions which can be dispelled by the mental process
of a true knowledge of God and Christ, or Christian science.
Ordinary medical science — using drugs, &c. — is therefore irrele-
vant; spiritual treatment is the only cure of what is really mental
error. Jesus himself healed by those means, which were therefore
natural and not miraculous, and promised that those who be-
lieved should do curative works like his. In 1876 a Christian
Scientist Association was organized. Mrs Eddy had published
in the preceding year a book entitled Science and Health, with
Key to the Scriptures, which has gone through countless editions
and is the gospel of Christian Science.* In 1879 she became
the pastor of a " Church of Christ, Scientist," in Boston, and also
founded there the " Massachusetts Metaphysical College " (1881 ;
closed 1889) for the furtherance of her tenets. The first denomi-
national chapel outside Boston was built at Oconto, Wisconsin, in
1886; and in 1894 (enlarged and reconstructed in 1906) a great
memorial church was erected in Boston. Mrs Eddy's publications
also include Retrospection and Introspection (1891), Unity of Good
and Unreality of Evil (1887), Rudimental Divine Science (1891),
Christian Healing ( 1 886) , &c. The progress of the cult of Christian
Science has been remarkable, and by the beginning of the
2oth century many hundreds of Christian Science churches had
been established; and the new religion found many adherents
also in England. A purely local and congregational form of
government was adopted, but Christian Scientists naturally
looked to the mother church in Boston, with Mrs Eddy as its
guiding influence, as their centre. A monthly magazine, The
Christian Science Journal (founded in 1883), and the weekly
Christian Science Sentinel are published officially in Boston.

The profession of the paid Christian Science " healer " has
been very prominent in recent years both in -America and. in
England; and very remarkable successes have been claimed
for the treatment. In some serious cases of death after illness,
where a coroner's inquest has shown that the only medical
attendancewas that of a Christian Science "healer," the question
of criminal responsibility has been prominently canvassed; but
an indictment in England against a healer for manslaughter in
1906 resulted in an acquittal. The theosophic and the medical
aspects of Christian Science may perhaps be distinguished;
the latter at all events is open to grave abuse. But the modern
reaction in medical practice against drugs, and the increased
study of the subject of " suggestion," have done much to encour-
age a belief in faith-healing and in " psychotherapy " generally.
In 1008, indeed, a separate movement (Emmanuel), inspired by
the success of Christian Science, and also emanating from
America, was started within the Anglican Communion, its
object being to bring prayer to work en the curing of disease;
and this movement obtained the approval of many leaders of
the church in England.

An " authorized " Life of Mrs Eddy, by Sibyl Wilbur (1908), deals
with the subject acceptably to her disciples. Georgine Milmine's
Life of M. B. G. Eddy, and History of Christian Science (1900),
though not so acceptable, is a judicious critical account. A detailed
indictment against the whole system, by a competent English
doctor (Stephen Paget), will be found in The Faith and Works of
Christian Science (1909).

CHRISTIANSUND (KRISTIANSUND), a seaport on the west coast
of Norway, in Romsdal ami (county), 259 m. N.E. -by N. of
Bergen, in the latitude of the Faeroe Islands. Pop. (1901)
11,982. It is built on four small islands, by which its harbour is
enclosed. The chief exports are wood, cod, herrings and fish
products, and butter to Great Britain. The town is served by the
principal steamers between the south Norwegian ports, Hull,
Hamburg, &c., and Trondhjem, and it is the chief port of the
district of Nordmore. Local steamers serve the neighbouring
fjords, including the Sundalsf jord, from which at Sundalspren a
driving road past the fine Dovrefjeld connects with the Gud-
brandsdal route. Till 1742, when it received town privileges
from Christian VI., Christiansund was called Lille-Fosen.

CHRISTIE, RICHARD COPIED (1830-1901), English scholar
and bibliophile, was born on the 22nd of July 1830 at Lenton in
Nottinghamshire, the son of a millowner. He was educated at
Lincoln College, Oxford, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's
Inn in 1857, and in 1872 became chancellor of the diocese of
Manchester. This he resigned in 1893. He held numerous
appointments, notably the professorships of history (from 1854 to
1856) and of political economy (from 1855 to 1866) at Owens
College, Manchester. He always took an active interest in this
college, of which he was one of the governors; in 1893 he gave the
Christie library building designed by Alfred Waterhouse, and in
1 897 he devoted £50,000 of the funds at his disposal as a trustee of
Sir Joseph Whitworth's estate for the building of Whitworth Hall,
which completed the front quadrangle of the college. He was an
enthusiastic book collector, and bequeathed to Owens College his
library of about 75,000 volumes, rich in a very complete set of
the books printed by Dolet, a wonderful series of Aldines, and of
volumes printed by Sebastian Gryphius. His £tienne Dolet, the
Martyr of the Renaissance (1880), is the most exhaustive work
on the subject. He died at Ribsden on the 9th of January 1901.

CHRISTINA (1626-1689), queen of Sweden, daughter of
Gustavus Adolphus and Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, was
born at Stockholm on the 8th of December 1626. Her father
died when she was only six years old. She was educated,
principally, by the learned Johannes Matthiae, in as masculine a
way as possible, while the great Oxenstjerna himself instructed
her in politics. Christina assumed the sceptre in her eighteenth
year (Dec. 8, 1644). From the moment when she took her seat
at the head of the council board she impressed her veteran
counsellors with the conviction of her superior genius. Axel
Oxenstjerna himself said of her, when she was only fifteen:
" Her majesty is not like women-folk, but is stout-hearted and of
a good understanding, so that, if she be not corrupted, we have

292

CHRISTINA— CHRISTISON

good hopes of her." Unfortunately her brilliant and commanding
qualities were vitiated by an inordinate pride and egoism, which
exhibited themselves in an utter contempt for public opinion, and
a prodigality utterly regardless of the necessities of the state.
She seemed to consider Swedish affairs as far too petty to occupy
her full attention; while her unworthy treatment of the great
chancellor was mainly due to her jealousy of his extra-
ordinary reputation and to the uneasy conviction that, so long
as he was alive, his influence must at least be equal to her own.
Recognizing that he would be indispensable so long as the Thirty
Years' War lasted, she used every effort to bring it to an end;
and her impulsive interference seriously hampered the diplomacy
of the chancellor, and materially reduced the ultimate gains of
Sweden. The general peace congress was not opened till April
1645. The Swedish plenipotentiaries were Johan Oxenstjema,
the chancellor's son, and Adler Salvius. From the first the
relations between them were strained. Young Oxenstjema,
haughty and violent, claimed, by right of birth and rank, to be
caput legationis. The chancellor, at home, took his son's part,
while Salvius was warmly supported by Christina, who privately
assured him of her exclusive favour and encouraged him to hold
his own. So acute did the quarrel become that there was a
violent scene in full senate between the queen and the chancellor;
and she urged Salvius to accelerate the negotiations, against the
better judgment of the chancellor, who hoped to get more by
holding out longer.

The longer Christina ruled, the more anxious for the future fate
of her empire grew the men who had helped to build it up. Yet
she gave fresh privileges to the towns; she encouraged trade and
manufactures, especially the mining industries of the Dales; in
1649 she issued the first school ordinance for the whole kingdom;
she encouraged foreign scholars to settle in Sweden; and native
science and literature, under her liberal encouragement, flourished
as they had never flourished before. In one respect, too, she
showed herself wiser than her wisest counsellors. The senate and
the estates, naturally anxious about the succession to the throne,
had repeatedly urged her majesty to marry, and had indicated
her cousin, Charles Gustavus, as her most befitting consort.
Wearied of their importunities, yet revolting at the idea of
submission to any member of the opposite sex, Christina settled
the difficulty by appointing Charles her successor, and at the
Riksdag of 1650 the Swedish crown was declared hereditary in
Charles and his heirs male. In the summer of 1651 Christina was,
with difficulty, persuaded to reconsider her resolution to abdicate,
but three years later the nation had become convinced that her
abdication was highly desirable, and the solemn act took place on
the 6th of July 1654 at the castle of Upsala, in the presence of the
estates and the great dignitaries of the realm. Many were the
causes which predisposed her to what was, after all, anything but
an act of self-renunciation. First of all she could not fail to
remark the increasing discontent with her arbitrary and wasteful
ways. Within ten years she had created 17 counts, 46 barons
and 428 lesser nobles; and, to provide these new peers with
adequate appanages, she had sold or mortgaged crown property
representing an annual income of 1,200,000 rix-dollars. Signs are
also not wanting that Christina was growing weary of the cares
of government; while the importunity of the senate and Riksdag
on the question of her marriage was a constant source of irritation.
In retirement she could devote herself wholly to art and science,
and the opportunity of astonishing the world by the unique
spectacle of a great queen, in the prime of life, voluntarily
resigning her crown, strongly appealed to her vivid imagination.
Anyhow, it is certain that, towards the end of her reign, she
behaved as if she were determined to do everything in her power
to make herself as little missed as possible. From 1651 there was
a notable change in her behaviour. She cast away every regard
for the feelings and prejudices of her people. She ostentatiously
exhibited her contempt for the Protestant religion. Her foreign
policy was flighty to the verge of foolishness. She contemplated
an alliance with Spain, a state quite outside the orbit of Sweden's
influence, the firstfruits of which were to have been an invasion of
Portugal. She utterly neglected affairs in order to plunge into a

whirl of dissipation with her foreign favourites. The situation be-
came impossible, and it was with an intense feeling of relief that
the Swedes saw her depart, iu masculine attire, under the name
of Count Dohna. At Innsbruck she openly joined the Catholic
Church, and was rechristened Alexandra. In 1656, and again
in 1657, she visited France, on the second occasion ordering the
assassination of her major-domo Monaldischi, a crime still unex-
plained. TwiceshereturnedtoSweden(i66oand 1667) in the vain
hope of recovering the succession, finally settling in Rome, where
she died on the igth of April 1689, poor, neglected and forgotten.
See Francis William Bain, Queen Christina of Sweden (London,
1890); Robert Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia (Cambridge, 1905);
Christina de Suede et le Cardinal Azzolino (Paris, 1899); Claretta
Gaudenzio, La Regina Christina de Suezia in Italia (Turin, 1892);
Hans Emil Friis, Dronning Christina (Copenhagen, 1896); C. N. D.
Bildt, Christina de Suede et le conclave de Clement X (Paris, 1906);
Drottning Kristinas sista dagar (Stockholm, 1897) ; and J. A. Taylor,
Christina of Sweden (1909). (R. N. B.)

CHRISTINA [MARIA CHRISTINA HENRIETTA DE SIREE FELICIT£
R£NIERE], for some years queen-regent of Spain (1858- ),
widow of Alphonso XII. and mother of Alphonso XIII., was born
at Gross Seelowitz, in Austria, on the zist of July 1858, being the
daughter of the archduke Charles Ferdinand and the archduchess
Elizabeth of Austria. She was brought up by her mother as a
rigid Catholic, and great care was taken with her education.
At eighteen she was appointed by the emperor Francis Joseph,
abbess of the House of Noble Ladies of Saint Theresa in Prague,
where she made herself very popular and distinguished herself by
her intellectual parts. It is said that at the court of Vienna the
archduchess saw the young prince Alphonso of Spain when he was
only a pretender in exile, before the restoration of the Bourbons.
A few years later, when Alphonso XII. had lost his first wife and
cousin, Queen Mercedes, daughter of the due de Montpensier, his
ministers, especially Sefior Canovas, urged him to marry again.
He told them that if he did so it would only be with the young
Austrian archduchess Maria Christina. After some negotiations
between the two courts and governments it was agreed that the
archduchess Elizabeth and her daughter should meet Alphonso
XII. at Arcachon, in the south of France, where a few days'
personal acquaintance was sufficient to make both come to a
decision. The duke of Bailen went officially to Vienna to get the
emperor of Austria's authorization, and on the i4th of November
1879, in the throne-room of the Imperial palace, the archduchess
solemnly abdicated all her rights of succession in Austria, in
accordance with the law obliging all princesses of the imperial
house to do so when they wed a foreign prince. On the 1 7th of
November the archduchess and her mother, with a numerous
suite, started for Spain, arriving at the royal castle of El Pardo,
near Madrid, on the 24th of November. The wedding took place
in the Atocha cathedral, on the 29th of November, in great state,
and was followed by splendid festivities. Queen Christina bore
her husband two daughters before he died in 1885 — Dona
Mercedes, born on the nth of September 1880, and Dona Maria
Theresa, born on the isth of November 1882. During her
husband's lifetime the young queen kept studiously apart from
politics, so much so that her inexperience caused much anxiety in
November 1885, when she was called upon to take the arduous
duties of regent. During the long minority of the posthumou
son of Alphonso XII., afterwards King Alphonso XIII., tb
Austrian queen-regent acted in a way that obliged even tl
adversaries of the throne and the dynasty to respect the mot
and the woman. The people of Spain, and the ever-restless civ
and military politicians, found that the gloved hand of the
constitutional ruler was that of a strong-minded and tenaciou
regent, who often asserted herself in a way that surprised then
much, but always, somehow, enforced obedience and resp
More could not be expected by a foreign ruler from a nation litt
prone to waste attachment or demonstrative loyalty upon any
body not Castilian born and bred.

CHRISTISON, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1797-1882), Scottis
toxicologist and physician, was born in Edinburgh on the i8th <
July 1797. After graduating at the university of that city
1819, he spent a short time in London, studying under Job

CHRISTMAS

293

Abernethy and Sir William Lawrence, and in Paris, where he
learnt analytical chemistry from P. J. Robiquet and toxicology
from M. J. B. Orfila. In 1822 he returned to Edinburgh as
professor of medical jurisprudence, and set to work to organize
the study of his subject on a sound basis. On poisons in parti-
cular he speedily became a high authority; his well-known
treatise on them was published in 1829, and in the course of his
inquiries he did not hesitate to try such daring experiments on
himself as taking large doses of Calabar bean, His attainments
in medical jurisprudence and toxicology procured him the
appointment, in 1829, of medical officer to the crown in Scotland,
and from that time till 1866 he was called as a witness in many
celebrated criminal cases. In 1832 he gave up the chair of
medical jurisprudence and accepted that of medicine and
therapeutics, which he held till 1877; at the same time he
became professor of clinical medicine, and continued in that
capacity till 1855. His fame as a lexicologist and medical jurist,
together with his work on the pathology of the kidneys and on
fevers, secured him a large private practice, and he succeeded to
a fair share of the honours that commonly attend the successful
physician, being appointed physician to Queen Victoria in 1848
and receiving a baronetcy in 1871. Among the books which he
published were a treatise on Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys
(1839), and a Commentary on the Pharmacopoeias of Great Britain
(1842). Sir Robert Christison, who retained remarkable physical
vigour and activity down to extreme old age, died at Edinburgh
on the 23rd of January 1882.
See the Life by his sons (1885-1886).

CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ), in the Christian Church,
the festival of the nativity of Jesus Christ. The history of this
feast coheres so closely with that of Epiphany (q.v.), that what
follows must be read in connexion with the article under that
heading.

The earliest body of gospel tradition, represented by Mark no
less than by the primitive non-Marcan document embodied in the
first and third gospels, begins,not with the birth and childhood of
Jesus, but with his baptism; and this order of accretion of
gospel matter is faithfully reflected in the time order of the
invention of feasts. The great church adopted Christmas much
later than Epiphany; and before the 5th century there was no
general consensus of opinion as to when it should come in the
calendar, whether on the 6th of January, or the 25th of March, or
the 25th of December.

The earliest identification of the 25th of December with the
birthday of Christ is in a passage, otherwise unknown and
probably* spurious, of Theophilus of Antioch (A.D. 171-183),
preserved in Latin by the Magdeburg centuriators (i. 3, 118), to
the effect that the Gauls contended that as they celebrated the
birth of the Lord on the 25th of December, whatever day of the
week it might be, so they ought to celebrate the Pascha on the
25th of March when the resurrection befell.

The next mention of the 25th of December is in Hippolytus'
(c. 202) commentary on Daniel iv. 23. Jesus, he says, was born
at Bethlehem on the 25th of December, a Wednesday, in the forty-
second year of Augustus. This passage also is almost certainly
interpolated. In any case he mentions no feast, nor was such a
feast congruous with the orthodox ideas of that age. As late as
245 Origen, in his eighth homily on Leviticus, repudiates as
sinful the very idea of keeping the birthday of Christ " as if he
were a king Pharaoh." The first certain mention of Dec. 25
is in a Latin chronographer of A.D. 354, first published entire by
Mommsen.1 It runs thus in English: " Year i after Christ, in the
consulate of Caesar and Paulus, the Lord Jesus Christ was born
on the 25th of December, a Friday and isth day of the new
moon." Here again no festal celebration of the day is attested.

There were, however, many speculations in the 2nd century
about the date of Christ's birth. Clement of Alexandria, towards
its close, mentions several such, and condemns them as super-
stitions. Some chronologists, he says, alleged the birth to have

1 In the Abhandlungen der sachsischen Akademie der Wissen-
schaften (1850). Note that in A.D. i, Dec. 25 was a Sunday and not
a Friday.

occurred in the twenty-eighth year of Augustus, on the asth of
Pachon, the Egyptian month, i.e. the 2oth of May. These were
probably the Basilidian gnostics. Others set it on the 24th or
25th of Pharmuthi, i.e. the igth or 2oth of April. Clement
himself sets it on the I7th of November, 3 B.C. The author of a
Latin tract, called the De Pascha computus, written in Africa in
243, sets it by private revelation, ab ipso deo inspirati, on the
28th of March. He argues that the world was created perfect,
flowers in bloom, and trees in leaf, therefore in spring; also at the
equinox, and when the moon just created was full. Now the
moon and sun were created on a Wednesday. The 28th of March
suits all these considerations. Christ, therefore, being the Sun of
Righteousness, was born on the 28th of March. The same
symbolical reasoning led Polycarp2 (before 160) to set his birth on
Sunday, when the world's creation began, but his baptism on
Wednesday, for it was the analogue of the sun's creation. On
such grounds certain Latins as early as 354 may have transferred
the human birthday from the 6th of January to the 25th of
December, which was then a Mithraic feast and is by the chrono-
grapher above referred to, but in another part of his compilation,
termed Natalis invicti solis, or birthday of the unconquered Sun.
Cyprian (de oral. dom. 35) calls Christ Sol serai, Ambrose Sol novus
nosier (Sermo vii. 13), and such rhetoric was widespread. The
Syrians and Armenians, who clung to the 6th of January,
accused the Romans of sun-worship and idolatry, contending
with great probability that the feast of the 25th of December had
been invented by disciples of Cerinthus and its lections by
Artemon to commemorate the natural birth of Jesus. Chrysostom
also testifies the 25th of December to have been from the begin-
ning known in the West, from Thrace even as far as Gades.
Ambrose, On Virgins, iii. ch. i, writing to his sister, implies that
as late as the papacy of Liberius 352-356, the Birth from the
Virgin was feasted together with the Marriage of Cana and the
Banquet of the 4000 (Luke ix. 13), which were never feasted on
any other day but Jan. 6.

Chrysostom, in a sermon preached at Antioch on Dec. 20,
386 or 388, says that some held the feast of Dec. 25 to have
been held in the West, from Thrace as far as Cadiz, from the
beginning. It certainly originated in the West, but spread
quickly eastwards. In 353-361 it was observed at the court of
Constantius. Basil of Caesarea (died 379) adopted it. Honorius,
emperor (395-423) in the West, informed his mother and brother
Arcadius (395-408) in Byzantium of how the new feast was kept
in Rome, separate from the 6th of January, with its own troparia
and sticharia. They adopted it, and recommended it to
Chrysostom, who had long been in favour of it. Epiphanius of
Crete was won over to it, as were also the other three patriarchs,
Theophilus of Alexandria, John of Jerusalem, Flavian of Antioch.
This was under Pope Anastasius, 398-400. John or Wahan of
Nice, in a letter printed by Combe&sin'hisHistoriamonothelitarum,
affords the above details. The new feast was communicated by
Proclus, patriarch of Constantinople (434-446), to Sahak,
Catholicos of Armenia, about 440. The letter was betrayed to the
Persian king, who accused Sahak of Greek intrigues, and deposed
him. However, the Armenians, at least those within the
Byzantine pale, adopted it for about thirty years, but finally
abandoned it together with the decrees of Chalcedon early in the
8th century. Many writers of the period 375-450, e.g. Epiphanius,
Cassian, Asterius, Basil, Chrysostom and -Jerome, contrast the
new feast with that of the Baptism as that of the birth after the
flesh, from which we infer that the latter was generally regarded
as a birth according to the Spirit. Instructive as showing that
the new feast travelled from West eastwards is the fact (noticed
by Usener) that in 387 the new feast was reckoned according to
the Julian calendar by writers of the province of Asia, who in
referring to other feasts use the reckoning of their local calendars.
As early as 400 in Rome an imperial rescript includes Christmas
among the three feasts (the others are Easter and Epiphany) on
which theatres must be closed. Epiphany and Christmas were
not made judicial non dies until 534.

1 In a fragment preserved by an Armenian writer, Ananias of
Shirak.

294

CHRISTMAS ISLAND

For some years in the West (as late as 353 in Rome) the birth
feast was appended to the baptismal feast on the 6th of January,
and in Jerusalem it altogether supplanted it from about 360 to
440, when Bishop Juvenal introduced the feast of the 2Sth of
December. The new feast was about the same time (440) finally
established in Alexandria. The quadragesima of Epiphany (i.e.
the feast of the presentation in the Temple, or hupapante) con-
tinued to be celebrated in Jerusalem on the i4th of February,
forty days after the 6th of January, until the reign of Justinian.
In most other places it had long before been put back to the
and of February to suit the new Christmas. Armenian historians
describe the riots, and display of armed force, without which
Justinian was not able in Jerusalem to transfer this feast from
the i4th to the 2nd of February.

The grounds on which the Church introduced so late as 350-440
a Christmas feast till then unknown, or, if known, precariously
linked with the baptism, seem in the main to have been the
following, (i) The transition from adult to infant baptism was
proceeding rapidly in the East, and in the West was well-nigh
completed. Its natural complement was a festal recognition of
the fact that the divine element was present in Christ from the
first, and was no new stage of spiritual promotion coeval only
with the descent of the Spirit upon him at baptism. The
general adoption of child baptism helped to extinguish the old
view that the divine life in Jesus dated from his baptism, a view
which led the Epiphany feast to be regarded as that of Jesus'
spiritual rebirth. This aspect of the feast was therefore forgotten,
and its importance in every way diminished by the new and rival
feast of Christmas. (2) The 4th century witnessed a rapid
diffusion of Marcionite, or, as it was now called, Manichaean
propaganda, the chief tenet of which was that Jesus either was
not born at all, was a mere phantasm, or anyhow did not take
flesh of the Virgin Mary. Against this view the new Christmas
was a protest, since it was peculiarly the feast of his birth in the
flesh, or as a man, and is constantly spoken of as such by the
fathers who witnessed its institution.

In Britain the 2Sth of December was a festival long before
the conversion to Christianity, for Bede (De temp. rat. ch. 13)
relates that " the ancient peoples of the Angli began the year on
the 25th of December when we now celebrate the birthday of
the Lord; and the very night which is now so holy to us, they
called in their tongue modranecht (modra niht), that is, the
mothers' night, by reason we suspect of the ceremonies which
in that night-long vigil they performed." With his usual
reticence about matters pagan or not orthodox, Bede abstains
from recording who the mothers were and what the ceremonies.
In 1644 the English puritans forbad any merriment or religious
services by act of Parliament, on the ground that it was a heathen
festival, and ordered it to be kept as a fast. Charles II. revived
the feast, but the Scots adhered to the Puritan view.

Outside Teutonic countries Christmas presents are unknown.
Their place is taken in Latin countries by the strenae, French
etrennes, given on the ist of January; this was in antiquity
a great holiday, wherefore until late in the 4th century the
Christians kept it as a day of fasting and gloom. The setting
up in Latin churches of a Christmas creche is said to have been
originated by St Francis.

AUTHORITIES. — K. A. H. Kellner, Heortologie (Freiburg im Br.,
1906), with Bibliography; Hospinianus, De festis Christianorum
(Genevae, 1574); Edw. Mart^ne, De Antiquis Ecclesiae Ritibus, iii.
31 (Bassani, 1788); J. C. W. Augusti, Christi. Archaologie, vols. i.
and v. (Leipzig, 1817-1831); A. J. Binterim, Denkwurdigkeiten,
v. pit. i. p. 528 (Mainz, 1825, &c.) ; Ernst Friedrich Wernsdorf, De
originibus Solemnium Natalis Christi (Wittenberg, 1757, and in J. E.
Volbeding, Thesaurus Commentationum, Lipsiae, 1847); Anton.
Bynaeus, De Natali Jesu Christi (Amsterdam, 1689) ; Hermann
Usener, Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen (Bonn, 1889); Nik.
Nilles, S.J., Kalendarium Manuals (Innsbruck, 1896); L. Duchesne,
Origines du culte Chretien (y ed., Paris, 1889). (F. C. C.)

CHRISTMAS ISLAND, a British possession under the govern-
ment of the Straits Settlements, situated in the eastern part
of the Indian Ocean (in 10° 25' S., 105° 42' E.), about 100 m.
S. of Java. The island is a quadrilateral with hollowed sides,
about 12 m. in greatest length and 9 in extreme breadth. It

is probably the only tropical island that had never been inhabited
by man before the European settlement. When the first settlers
arrived, in 1897, it was covered with a dense forest of great trees
and luxuriant under-shrubbery. The settlement in Flying Fish
Cove now numbers some 2 50 inhabitants, consisting of Europeans,
Sikhs, Malays and Chinese, by whom roads have been cut and
patches of cleared ground cultivated.

The island is the flat summit of a submarine mountain more
than 15,000 ft. high, the depth of the platform from which it
rises being about 14,000 ft., and its height above the sea being
upwards of 1000 ft. The submarine slopes are steep, and within
20 m. of the shore the depth of the sea reaches 2400 fathoms.
It consists of a central plateau descending to the water in three
terraces, each with its " tread " and " rise." The shore terrace
descends by a steep cliff to the sea, forming the " rise " of a
submarine " tread " in the form of fringing reef which surrounds
the island and is never uncovered, even at low water, except
in Flying Fish Cove, where the only landing-place exists. The
central plateau is a plain whose surface presents "rounded,
flat-topped hills and low ridges and reefs of limestone," with
narrow intervening valleys. On its northern aspect this plateau
has a raised rim having all the appearances of being once the
margin of an atoll. On these rounded hills occurs the deposit
of phosphate of lime which gives the island its commercial
value. The phosphatic deposit has doubtless been produced
by the long-continued action of a thick bed of sea-fowl dung,
which converted the carbonate of the underlying limestone into
phosphate. The flat summit is formed by a succession of lime-
stones— all deposited in shallow water — from the Eocene (or
Oligocene) up to recent deposits in the above-mentioned atoll
with islands on its reef. The geological sequence of events
appears to have been the following: — After the deposition of
the Eocene (or Oligocene) limestone — which reposes upon a floor
of basalts and trachytes — basalts and basic tuffs were ejected,
over which, during a period of very slow depression, orbitoidal
limestones of Miocene age — which seem to make up the great
mass of the island — were deposited; then elapsed a long period
of rest, during which the atoll condition existed and the guano
deposit was formed; from then down to the present time there
has succeeded a series of sea-level subsidences, resulting in the
formation of the terraces and the accummulation of the detritus
now seen on the first inland cliff, the old submarine slope of the
island. The occurrence of such a series of Tertiary deposits
appears to be unknown elsewhere. The whole series was evi-
dently deposited in shallow water on the summit of a submarine
volcano standing in its present isolation, and round which the
ocean floor has probably altered but a few hundred feet since the
Eocene age. Thus although the rocks of the southern coast
of Java in their general character and succession resemble those
of Christmas Island, there lies between them an abysmal trough
18,000 ft. in depth, which renders it scarcely possible that they
were deposited in a continuous area, for such an enormous
depression of the sea-floor could hardly have occurred since
Miocene times without involving also Christmas Island. One
of the main purposes of the exploration was to obtain light on
the question of the foundation of atolls.

The flora consists of 129 species of angiosperms, i Cycas,
22 ferns, and a few mosses, lichens and fungi, 17 of which are
endemic, while a considerable number — not specifically distinct —
form local varieties nearly all presenting Indo-Malayan affinities,
as do the single Cycas, the ferns and the cryptogams. As to its
fauna, the island contains 319 species of animals — 54 only being
vertebrates — 145 of which are endemic. A very remarkable
distributional fact in regard to them, and one not yet fully
explained, is that a large number show affinity with species in
the Austro-Malayan rather than in the Indo-Malayan, their
nearer, region. The ocean currents, the trade-winds blowing
from the Australian mainland, and north-westerly storms
from the Malayan islands, are no doubt responsible for the
introduction of many, but not all, of these Malayan and Austral-
asian species. The climate is healthy, the temperature varying
from 75° to 84° F. The prevailing wind is the S.E. trade, which

CHRISTODORUS— CHRIST'S HOSPITAL

295

blows the greater part of the year. The rainfall in the wet season
is heavy, but not excessive, and during the dry season the ground
is refreshed with occasional showers and heavy dews. Malarial
fever is not prevalent, and it is interesting to note that there
are no swamps or standing waters on the island.

It is not known when and by whom the island was discovered,
but under the name of Moni it appears on a Dutch chart of 1666.
It was first visited in 1688 by Dampier, who found it uninhabited.
In 1886 Captain Maclear of H.M.S. " Flying Fish," having
discovered an anchorage in a bay which he named Flying Fish
Cove, landed a party and made a small but interesting collection
of the flora and fauna. In the following year Captain Aldrich
on H.M.S. " Egeria " visited it, accompanied by Mr J. J. Lister,
F.R.S., who formed a larger biological and mineralogical collec-
tion. Among the rocks then obtained and submitted to Sir John
Murray for examination there were detected specimens of nearly
pure phosphate of lime, a discovery which eventually led, in
June 1888, to the annexation of the island to the British crown.
Soon afterwards a small settlement was established in Flying
Fish Cove by Mr G. Clunies Ross, the owner of the Keeling
Islands, which lie about 750 m. to the westward. In 1891
Mr Ross and Sir John Murray were granted a lease, but on the
further discovery of phosphatic deposits they disposed of their
rights in 1897 to a company. In the same year a thorough
scientific exploration was made, at the cost of Sir John Murray,
by Mr C. W. Andrews, of the British Museum.

See C. W. Andrews, A Monograph of Christmas Island (Indian
Ocean), (London, 1900).

CHRISTODORUS, of Coptos in Egypt, epic poet, flourished
during the reign of Anastasius I. (A.D. 491-518). According
to Suidas, he was the author of Harpta, accounts of the founda-
tion of various cities; AvSuuca., the mythical history of Lydia;
'laavpuca, the conquest of Isauria by Anastasius; three books
of epigrams; and many other works. In addition to two
epigrams (Anthol. Pal. vii. 697, 698) we possess a description
of eighty statues of gods, heroes and famous men and women in
the gymnasium of Zeuxippus at Constantinople. This k^peum,
consisting of 416 hexameters, forms the second book of the
Palatine Anthology. The writer's chief models are Homer
and Nonnus, whom he follows closely in the structure of his
hexameters. Opinions are divided as to the merits of the
work. Some critics regard it as of great importance for the
history of art and a model of description; others consider it
valueless, alike from the historical, mythological and archaeo-
logical points of view.

See F. Baumgarten, De Christodoro poeta Thebano (1881), and his
article in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencydopddie, iii. 2 (1899); W. Christ,
Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898).

CHRISTOPHER, SAINT (Christophorus, Christoferus), a saint
honoured in the Roman Catholic (25th of July) and Orthodox
Eastern (gth of May) Churches, the patron of ferrymen. Nothing
that is authentic is known about him. He appears to have been
originally a pagan and to have been born in Syria. He was
baptized by Babylas, bishop of Antioch; preached with much
success in Lycia; and was martyred about A.D. 250 during the
persecution under the emperor Decius.1 Round this small
nucleus of possibility, however, a vast mass of legendary matter
gradually collected. All accounts agree that he was of great
stature and singularly handsome, and that this helped him
not a little in his evangelistic work. But according to a story
reproduced in the New Uniat Anthology of Arcudius, and
mentioned in Basil's Monologue, Christopher was originally a
hideous man-eating ogre, with a dog's face, and only received
his human semblance, with his Christian name, at baptism.
Most of his astounding miracles are of the ordinary type. He
thrusts his staff into the ground; whereupon it sprouts into
a date palm, and thousands are converted. Courtesans sent to
seduce him are turned by his mere aspect into Christians and
martyrs. The Roman governor is confounded by his insensi-

1 Or Dagnus — perhaps to be identified with Maximinus Daza,
joint emperor (with Galerius) in the East 305-311, and sole emperor

\f- - v

bility to the most refined and ingenious tortures. He is roasted
over a slow fire and basted with boiling oil, but tells his tormentors
that by the grace of Jesus Christ he feels nothing. When at last,
in despair, they cut off his head, he had converted 48,000 people.

The more conspicuous of these legends are included in the
Mozarabic Breviary and Missal, and are given in the thirty-third
sermon of Peter Damien, but the best-known story is that which
is given in the Golden Legend of Jacopus de Voragine. According
to this, Christopher — or rather Reprobus, as he was then called —
was a giant of vast stature who was in search of a man stronger
than himself, whom he might serve. He left the service of the
king of Canaan because the king feared the devil, and that of the
devil because the devil feared the Cross. He was converted
by a hermit; but as he had neither the gift of fasting nor that
of prayer, he decided to devote himself to a work of charity,
and set himself to carry wayfarers over a bridgeless river. One
day a little child asked to be taken across, and Christopher took
him on his shoulder. When half way over the stream he staggered
under what seemed to him a crushing weight, but he reached
the other side and then upbraided the child for placing him in
peril. " Had I borne the whole world on my back," he said,
"it could not have weighed heavier than thou!" "Marvel
not!" the child replied, " for thou hast borne upon thy back
the world and him who created it! " It was this story that gave
Christopher his immense popularity throughout Western
Christendom.

See BoIIand. Acta Sanct. vi. 146; Guenebault, Diet, icono-
graphique des attributs des figures et des legendes des saints (Par,,
1850); Smith and Wace, Diet, of Christ. Btog. (London, .1877, &c.,
4 vols.) ; A. Sinemus, Die Legende vom h. Christophorus (Hanover,
1868); and other literature cited in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk.
iv. 60.

CHRISTOPHORUS, pope or anti-pope, elected in 903 against
Leo V., whom he threw into prison. In January 004 he was
treated in the same fashion by his competitor, Sergius III., who
had him strangled.

CHRISTOPOULOS, ATHANASIOS (1772-1847), Greek poet,
was born at Castoria in Macedonia. He studied at Buda and
Padua, and became teacher of the children of the Vlach prince
Mourousi. After the fall of that prince in 1811, Christopoulos
was employed by Prince Caradja, who had been appointed
hospodar of Moldavia and Walachia, in drawing up a code
of laws for that country. On the removal of Caradja, he retired
into private life and devoted himself to literature. He wrote
drinking songs and love ditties which are very popular among
the Greeks. He is also the author of a tragedy, of Politika
Par allela (a comparison of various systems of government), of
translations of Homer and Herodotus, and of some philological
works on the connexion between ancient and modern Greek.

His Hellenika Archaiologemata (Athens, 1853) contains an account
of his life.

CHRIST'S HOSPITAL (the " Blue-coat School "), a famous
English educational and charitable foundation. It was originally
one of three royal hospitals in the city of London, founded by
Edward VI., who is said to have been inspired by a sermon
of Bishop Ridley on charity. Christ's hospital was specially
devoted to fatherless and motherless children. The buildings
of the monastery of Grey Friars, Newgate Street, were appro-
priated to it; liberal public subscription added to the king's
grant endowed it richly; and the mayor, commonalty and
citizens of London were nominated its governors in its charter of
ISS3- At first Christ's hospital shared a common fund with the
two other hospitals of thefoundation(Bridewell and St Thomas's),
but the three soon became independent. Not long after its
opening Christ's was providing home and education (or, in the
case of the very young, nursing) for 400 children. The popular
name of the Blue-coat school is derived from the dress of the
boys — originally (almost from the time of the foundation) a blue
gown, with knee-breeches, yellow petticoat and stockings, neck-
bands and a blue cap. The petticoat and cap were given up in the
middle of the ipth century, and thereafter no head-covering was
worn. The buildings on the Newgate Street site underwent
reconstruction from time to time, and in 1902 were vacated by

296

CHRISTY— CHROMIUM

the. school, which was moved to extensive new buildings at
Horsham. The London buildings were subsequently taken
down. The school at Horsham is conducted on the ordinary
lines of a public school, and can accommodate over 800 boys.
It includes a preparatory school for boys, established in 1683
at Hertford, where the buildings have been greatly enlarged
for the use of the girls' school on the same foundation. This was
originally in Newgate Street, but was moved to Hertford in 1778.
In the boys' school the two highest classes retain their ancient
names of Grecians and Deputy Grecians. Children were formerly
admitted to the schools only on presentation. Admission is now
(i) by presentation of donation governors (i.e. the royal family,
and contributors of £500 or more to the funds), of the council
of almoners (which administers the endowments), or of certain
of the city companies; (2) by competition, on the nomination
of a donation governor (for boys only), or from public elementary
schools in London, certain city parishes and certain endowed
schools elsewhere. The main school is divided into two parts —
the Latin school, corresponding to the classical side in other
schools, and the mathematical school or modern side. Large
pension charities are administered by the governing body,
and part of the income of the hospital (about £60,000 annually)
is devoted to apprenticing boys and girls, to leaving exhibitions
from the school, &c.

CHRISTY, HENRT (1810-1865), English ethnologist, was born
at Kingston-on-Thames en the 26th of July 1810. He entered
his father's firm of hatters, in London, and later became a
director of the London Joint-Stock Bank. In 1850 he started on
a series of journeys, which interested him in ethnological studies.
Encouraged by what he saw at the Great Exhibition of 1851,
Christy devoted the rest of his life to perpetual travel and research,
making extensive collections illustrating the early history of man,
now in the British Museum. He travelled in Norway, Sweden,
Denmark, Mexico, British Columbia and other countries; but in
1858 came the opportunity which brought him fame. It was in
that year that the discoveries by Boucher de Perthes of flint-
implements in France and England were first held to have clearly
proved the great antiquity of man. Christy joined the Geological
Society, and in company with his friend Edouard Lartet explored
the caves in the valley of the Vezere, a tributary of the Dordogne
in the south of France. To his task Christy devoted money and
time ungrudgingly, and an account of the explorations appeared
in Complex rendus (Feb. 29th, 1864) and Transactions of the
Ethnological Society of London (June 2ist, 1864). He died,
however, on the 4th of May 1865, of inflammation of the lungs
supervening on a severe cold contracted during excavation work
at La Palisse, leaving a half-finished book, entitled Reliquiae
Aquitanicae, being contributions to the Archaeology and Palaeonto-
logy of Perigord and the adjacent provinces of Southern France;
this was issued in parts and completed at the expense of Christy's
executors, first by Lartet and, after his death in 1870, by Pro-
fessor Rupert Jones. By his will Christy bequeathed his magni-
ficent archaeological collection to the nation. In 1884 it found a
home in the British Museum. Christy took an earnest part in
many philanthropic movements of his time, especially identifying
himself with the efforts to relieve the sufferers from the Irish
famine of 1847.

CHROMATIC (Gr. xpianoiTtKas, coloured, from xp&na, colour),
a term meaning " coloured," chiefly used in science, particularly
in the expression " chromatic aberration " or " dispersion " (see
ABERRATION). In Greek music XPWMHTOCT) /UOWTIK^ was one of
three divisions — diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic — of the
tetrachord. Like tbe Latin color, xp&l*a was often used of
ornaments and embellishments, and particularly of the modifica-
tion of the three genera of the tetrachord. The chromatic, being
subject to three such modifications, was regarded as particularly
"coloured." To the Greeks chromatic music was sweet and
plaintive. From a supposed resemblance to the notes of the
chromatic tetrachord, the term is applied to a succession of notes
outside the diatonic scale, and marked by accidentals. A
" chromatic scale " is thus a series of semi-tones, and is commonly
written with sharps in ascending and flats descending. The most

correct method is to write such accidentals as do not involve a
change of key.

CHROMITE, a member of the spinel group of minerals; an
oxide of chromium and ferrous iron, FeCr2O4. It is also known
as chromic iron or as chrome-iron-ore, and is the chief commercial
source of chromium and its compounds. It crystallizes in
regular octahedra, but is usually found as grains or as granular to
compact masses. In its iron-black colour with submetallic lustre
and absence of cleavage it resembles magnetite (magnetic iron-
ore) in appearance, but differs from this in being only slightly if at
all magnetic and in the brown colour of its powder. The hardness
is sJ; specific gravity 4-5. The theoretical formula FeCr204
corresponds with chromic oxide (Cr2Oj) 68%, and ferrous oxide
32%; the ferrous oxide is, however, usually partly replaced by
magnesia, and the chromic oxide by alumina and ferric oxide, so
that there may be a gradual passage to picotite or chromespinel.
Much of the material mined as ore does not contain more than
40 to 50% of chromic oxide. In the form of isolated grains the
mineral is a characteristic constituent of ultrabasic igneous rocks,
namely the peridotites and the serpentines which have resulted
from their alteration. It is also found under similar conditions
in meteoric stones and irons. Often these rocks enclose large
segregated masses of granular chromite. The earliest worked
deposits were those in the serpentine of the Bare Hills near
Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A.; it was also formerly extensively
mined in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, and is now mined in
California, as well as in Turkey, the Urals, Dun Mountain near
Nelson in New Zealand, and Unst in the Shetlands.

Chrome-iron-ore is largely used in the preparation of chroraium
compounds for use as pigments (chrome-yellow, &c.) and in
calico-printing; it is also used in the manufacture of chrome-
steel. (L. J. S.)

CHROMIUM (symbol Cr. atomic weight 52-1), one of the
metallic chemical elements, the name being derived from the fine
colour (Gr. xpWMa) of its compounds. It is a member of the sixth
group in the periodic classification of the elements, being included
in the natural family of elements containing molybdenum,
tungsten and uranium. The element is not found in the free state
in nature, nor to any large extent in combination, occurring
chiefly as chrome-ironstone, Cr2O3-FeO, and occasionally being
found as crocoisite, PbCrO4, chrome-ochre, Cr2O3, and chrome-
garnet, CaOCr2Cv3SiO2, while it is also the cause of the colour in
serpentine, chrome-mica and the emerald. It was first investi-
gated in 1789 by L. N. Vauquelin and Macquart, and in 1797 by
Vauquelin, who found that the lead in crocoisite was in combina-
tion with an acid, which he recognized as the oxide of a new metal.

The metal can be obtained by various processes. Thus Sainte
Claire Deville prepared it as a very hard substance of steel-grey
colour, capable of taking a high polish, by strong ignition of
chromic oxide and sugar charcoal in a lime crucible. F. Wohler
reduced the sesquioxide by zinc, and obtained a shining green
powder of specific gravity 6-81, which tarnished in air and
dissolved in hydrochloric acid and warm dilute sulphuric acid,
but was unacted upon by concentrated nitric acid. H. Moissan
(Comptes rendus, 1893, 116, p. 349; 1894, 119, p. 185) reduces the
sesquioxide with carbon, in an electric furnace; the product so
obtained (which contains carbon) is then strongly heated with
lime, whereby most of the carbon is removed as calcium carbide,
and the remainder by heating the purified product in a crucible
lined with the double oxide of calcium and chromium. An easier
process is that of H. Goldschmidt (Annalen, 1898, 301, p. 19)
in which the oxide is reduced by metallic aluminium ; and if care is
taken to have excess of the sesquioxide of chromium present, the
metal is obtained quite free from aluminium. The metal as
obtained in this process is lustrous and takes a polish, does not
melt in the oxyhydrogen flame, but liquefies in the electric arc,
and is not affected by air at ordinary temperatures. Chromium
as prepared by the Goldschmidt process is in a passive condition
as regards dilute sulphuric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid at
ordinary temperatures; but by heating the metal with the acid it
passes into the active condition, the same effect being produced
by heating the inactive form with a solution of an alkaline halide

CHROMIUM

297

W. Hittorf thinks that two allotropic forms of chromium exist
(Zeit.ftirphys.Chem.,i8()8,2S,p.'j2g; 1899,30^.481; 1900,
34, p. 385), namely active and inactive chromium; while W,
Ostwald (ibid., 1900, 35, pp. 33, 204) has observed that on
dissolving chromium in dilute acids, the rate of solution as
measured by the evolution of gas is not continuous but periodic
It is largely made as ferro-chrome, an alloy containing about
60-70% of chromium, by reducing chromite in the electric
furnace or by aluminium.

Chromium and its salts may be detected by the fact that
they give a deep green bead when heated with borax, or that
on fusion with sodium carbonate and nitre, a yellow mass of
an alkaline chromate is obtained, which, on solution in water
and acidification with acetic acid, gives a bright yellow precipitate
on the addition of soluble lead salts. Sodium and potassium
hydroxide solutions precipitate green chromium hydroxide
from solutions of chromic salts; the precipitate is soluble in
excess of the cold alkali, but is completely thrown down on
boiling the solution. Chromic acid and its salts, the chromates
and bichromates, can be detected by the violet coloration which
they give on addition of hydrogen peroxide to their dilute acid
solution, or by the fact that on distillation with concentrated
sulphuric acid and an alkaline chloride, the red vapours of
chromium oxychloride are produced. The yellow colour of
normal chromates changes to red on the addition of an acid,
but goes back again to yellow on making the solution alkaline.
Normal chromates on the addition of silver nitrate give a red
precipitate of silver chromate, easily soluble in ammonia, and
with barium chloride a yellow precipitate of barium chromate,
insoluble in acetic acid. Reducing agents, such as sulphurous
acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, convert the chromates into
chromic salts. Chromium in the form of its salts may be
estimated quantitatively by precipitation from boiling solutions
with a slight excess of ammonia, and boiling until the free
ammonia is nearly all expelled. The precipitate obtained is
filtered, well washed with hot water, dried and then ignited until
the weight is constant. In the form of a chromate, it may be
determined by precipitation, in acetic acid solution, with lead
acetate; the lead chromate precipitate collected on a tared
filter paper, well washed, dried at 100° C. and weighed; or the
chromate may be reduced by means of sulphur dioxide to the
conditionof a chromic salt, the excess of sulphur dioxide expelled

> boiling, and the estimation carried out as above.
Fhe atomic weight of chromium has been determined by
S. G. Rawson, by the conversion of pure ammonium bichromate
into the trioxide (Journal ofChem. Soc., 1899, 55, p. 213), the mean
value obtained being 52-06; and also by C. Meinecke, who
estimated the amount of silver, chromium and oxygen in silver
chromate, the amount of oxygen in potassium bichromate, and
the amount of oxygen and chromium in ammonium bichromate
(Ann., 1891, 261, p. 339), the mean value obtained being 51-99.

romium forms three series of compounds, namely the chromous
ts corresponding to CrO, chromous oxide, chromic salts, corre-
ending to Cr2Os, chromium sesquioxide, and the chromates
corresponding to CrOs, chromium trioxide or chromic anhydride.
Chromium sesquioxide is a basic oxide, although like alumina it acts
as an acid-forming oxide towards strong bases, forming salts called
chromites. Various other oxides of chromium, intermediate in
composition between the sesquioxide and trioxide, have been
described, namely chromium dioxide, Cr2Oj-CrOa, and the oxide
CrO,-2Cr2O,.

Chromous oxide, CrO, is unknown in the free state, but in the
hydrated condition as CrO-H2O or Cr(OH)2 it may be prepared by
precipitating chromous chloride by a solution of potassium hy-
droxide in air-free water. The precipitate so obtained is a brown
amorphous solid which readily oxidizes on exposure, and is decom-
posed^ by heat with liberation of hydrogen and formation of the
sesquioxide. The sesquioxide, Cr2O8, occurs native, and can be
irtificially obtained in several different ways, e.g., by igniting the
:orresponding hydroxide, or chromium trioxide, or ammonium
>ichromate, or by passing the vapours of chromium oxychloride
nrough a red-hot tube, or by ignition of mercurous chromate. In
he amorphous state it is a dull green, almost infusible powder, but
;s obtained from chromium oxychloride it is deposited in the form of
lark green hexagonal crystals of specific gravity 5-2. After ignition it
iccomes almost insoluble in acids, and on fusion with silicates it colours
green ; consequently it is used as a pigment for colouring glass

and china. By the fusion of potassium bichromate with boric acid,
and extraction of the melt with water, a residue is left which pos-
sesses a fine green colour, and is used as a pigment under the name
of Guignet's green. In composition it approximates to CriOj-HjO,
but it always contains more or less boron trioxide. Several forms
of hydrated chromium sesquioxide are known ; thus on precipitation
of a chromic salt, free from alkali, by ammonia, alight blue precipitate
is formed, which after drying over sulphuric acid, has the compo-
sition Cr2O,-7H2O, and this after being heated to 200° C. in a current
of hydrogen leaves a residue of composition CrO-OH or Cr2Oj-H»O
which occurs naturally as chrome ochre. Other hydrated oxides
such as Cr2Os;2H2O have also been described. Chromium trioxide,
CrOa, is obtained by adding concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold
saturated solution of potassium bichromate, when it separates in
long red needles; the mother liquor is drained off and the crystals
are washed with concentrated nitric acid, the excess of which is
removed by means of a current of dry air. It is readily soluble in
water, melts at 193° C.,_and is decomposed at a higher temperature
into chromium sesquioxide and oxygen; it is a very powerful oxid-
izing agent, acting violently on alcohol, converting it into acetalde-
hyde, and in glacial acetic acid solution converting naphthalene and
anthracene into the corresponding quinones. Heated with concen-
trated hydrochloric acid it liberates chlorine, and with sulphuric acid
jt liberates oxygen. Gaseous ammonia passed over the oxide reduces
it to the sesquioxide with formation of nitrogen and water. Dia,
solved in hydrochloric acid at -20°, it yields with solutions of the
alkaline chlorides compounds of the type MCl-CrOCls, pointing to
pentavalent chromium. For salts of this acid-forming oxide and for
perchromic acid see BICHROMATES.

_Thechromitesmay be looked upon as salts of chromium sesquioxide
with other basic oxides, the most important being chromite (g.v.).

Chromous chloride, CrCl2, is prepared by reducing chromic chloride
in hydrogen; it forms white silky needles, which dissolve in water
giving a deep blue solution, which rapidly absorbs oxygen, forming
basic ^chromic salts, and acts as a very strong reducing agent. The
bromide and iodide are formed in a similar manner by heating the
metal in gaseous hydrobromic or hydriodic acids.

Chromous sulphate, CrSO«-7H2O, isomorphous with ferrous sul-
phate, results on dissolving the metal in dilute sulphuric acid or,
better, by dissolving chromous acetate in dilute sulphuric acid,
when it separates in blue crystals on cooling the solution. On
pouring a solution of chromous chloride into a saturated solution of
sodium acetate, a red crystalline precipitate of chromous acetate is
produced; this is much more permanent in air than the other
chromous salts and consequently can be used for their preparation.
Chromic salts are of a blue or violet colour, and apparently the
chloride and bromide exist in a green and violet form.

Chromic chloride, CrClj, is obtained in the anhydrous form by
igniting a mixture of the sesquioxide and carbon in a current of dry
chlorine; it forms violet laminae almost insoluble in water, but
dissolves rapidly in presence of a trace of chromous chloride; this
actio_n has been regarded as a catalytic action, it being assumed that
the insoluble chromic chloride is first reduced by the chromous
chloride to the chromous condition and the original chromous
chloride converted into soluble chromic chloride, the newly formed
chromous chloride then reacting with the insoluble chromic chloride.
Solutions of chromic chloride in presence of excess of acid are green
in colour. According to A. Werner, four hydrated chromium
chlorides exist, namely the green and violet salts, CrCl,-6HsO a
hydrate, CrCl,-10H2OandoneCrCls-4H2O. The violet form gives a
purple solution, and all its chlorine is precipitated by silver nitrate,
the aqueous solution containing four ions, probably Cr(OH»), and
three chlorine ions. The green salt appears to dissociate in aqueous
solution into two ions, namely CrCl2(OH2)4 and one chlorine ion,
since practically only one-third of the chlorine is precipitated by
silver nitrate solution at o° C. Two of the six water molecules are
easily removed in a desiccator, and the salt formed, CrClf4H2O,
resembles the original salt in properties, only one-third of the
:hlorine being precipitated by silver nitrate. In accordance with
liis theory of the constitution of salts Werner formulates the hexa-
hydrate as CrCl2-(OH2),-CI-2H2O.

Chromic bromide, CrBra, is prepared in the anhydrous form by the
same method as the chloride, and resembles it in its properties.
The iodide is unknown.

The fluoride, CrF8, results on passing hydrofluoric acid over the
icated chloride, and sublimes in needles. The hydrated fluoride,
-rFa-9H2O, obtained by adding ammonium fluoride to cold chromic
sulphate solution, is sparingly soluble in water, and is decomposed
by heat.

Oxyhalogen derivatives of chromium are known, the oxychloride,
CrO2Cl2, resulting on heating potassium bichromate and common
ialt _with concentrated sulphuric acid. It distils over as a dark red
iquid of boiling point 117" C., and is to be regarded as the acid
chloride corresponding to chromic acid, CrOj(OH)2. It dissolves
odine and absorbs chlorine, and is decomposed by water with for-
mation of chromic and hydrochloric acids; it takes fire in contact
with sulphur, ammonia, alcohol, &c., and explodes in contact with
phosphorus; it also acts as a powerful oxidizing agent. Heated in
a closed tube at 180° C. it loses chlorine and leaves a black residue of
"richromyl chloride, CriOeCl2, which deliquesces on exposure to air.

298

CHROMOSPHERE— CHRONICLE

Analogous bromine and iodine compounds are unknown, since
bromides and iodides on heating with potassium bichromate and
concentrated sulphuric acid give free bromine or free iodine.

The oxyfluoride, CrOjFt, is obtained in a similar manner to the
oxychloride by using fluorspar in place of common salt. It may be
condensed to a dark red liquid which is decomposed by moist air
into chromic acid and chromic fluoride.

The semi-acid chloride, CrOs-Cl-OH, chlorochromic acid, is only
known in the form of its salts, the chlorochromates.

Potassium chlorochromate, CrOj-Cl-OK, is produced when potas-
sium bichromate is heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid and
a little water, or from chromium oxychloride and saturated potassium
chloride solution, when it separates as a red crystalline salt. By
suspending it in ether and passing ammonia, potassium amido-
chromate, CrOz-NHj-OK, is obtained; on evaporating the ether
solution, after it has stood for 24 hours, red prisms of the amido-
chromate separate; it is slowly decomposed by boiling water, and
also by nitrous acid, with liberation of nitrogen.

Chromic sulphide, CrjSs, results on heating chromium and sulphur
or on strongly heating the trioxide i^a current of sulphuretted
hydrogen ; it forms a dark green crystalline powder, and on ignition
gives the sesquioxide.

Chromic sulphate, Cr2(SO4)t, is prepared by mixing the hydroxide
with concentrated sulphuric acid and allowing the mixture to stand,
a green solution is first formed which gradually changes to blue, and
deposits violet-blue crystals, which are purified by dissolying in
water and then precipitating with alcohol. It is soluble in cold
water, giving a violet solution, which turns green on boiling. If the
violet solution is allowed to evaporate slowly at ordinary tempera-
tures the sulphate crystallizes out as Cr2(SO4)3-15H2O, but the green
solution on evaporation leaves only an amorphous mass. Investi-
gation has shown that the change is due to the splitting off of sul-
phuric acid during the process, and that green-coloured chrom-
sulphuric acids are formed thus —

(violet) (green)

since, on adding barium chloride to the green solution, only one-third
of the total sulphuric acid is precipitated as barium sulphate, whence
it follows that only one-third of the original SC>4 ions are present
in the green solution. The green salt in aqueous solution, on stand-
ing, gradually passes back to the violet form. Several other com-
plex chrom-sulphuric acids are known, e.g.

[Crj(SO4)4]H,; [Cr2(SO4)6]H4; [Cr2(SO4)6]H«

(see A. Recoura, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1895 (7), 4, p. 505.)
Chromic sulphate combines with the sulphates of the alkali metals
to form double sulphates, which correspond to the alums. Chrome
alum, K2SO4-Cr2(SO4)»-24H!O, is best prepared by passing sulphur
dioxide through a solution of potassium bichromate containing the
calculated quantity of sulphuric acid,

On evaporating the solution dark purple octahedra of the alum
are obtained. It is easily soluble in warm water, the solution being
of a dull blue tint, and is used in calico-printing, dyeing and tanning.
Chromium ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2Sp4'Cr2(SO4V24H2O, results
on mixing equivalent quantities of chromic sulphate and ammonium
sulphate in aqueous solution and allowing the mixture to crystallize.
It forms red octahedra and is less soluble in water than the corre-
sponding potassium compound. The salt CrClSO4-8H2O has been
described. By passing ammonia over heated chromic chloride, the
nitride, CrN, is formed as a brownish powder. By the action of
concentrated sulphuric acid it is transformed into chromium am-
monium sulphate.

Thenitrate,Cr(NO»)j'9H2p,crystallizes in purple prismsandresults
on dissolving the hydroxide in nitric acid, its solution turns green on
boiling. A phosphide, PCr, is known ; it burns in oxygen forming the
phosphate. By adding sodium phosphate to an excess of chrome
alum the violet phosphate, CrPCVBHjO, is precipitated ; on heating
to 100° C. it loses water and turns green. A green precipitate,
perhaps CrPCh-SHjO, is obtained on adding an excess of sodium
phosphate to chromic chloride solution.

Carbides of chromium are known ; when the metal is heated in an
electric furnace with excess of carbon, crystalline, C2Crs, is formed ;
this scratches quartz and topaz, and the crystals are very resistant
to the action of acids; CCn has also been described (H. Moissan,
Comptes rendus, 1894, JI9. P- ^S).

Cyanogen compounds of chromium, analogous to those of
iron, have been prepared ; thus potassium chromocyanide,
K4Cr(CN)«-2H2O, is formed from potassium cyanide and chrompus
acetate; on exposure to air it is converted into the chrornicyanide,
KjCr(CN)6, which can also be prepared by adding chromic acetate
solution to boiling potassium cyanide solution. Chromic thiocyanate,
Cr(SCN)», an amorphous deliquescent mass, is formed by dissolving
the hydroxide in tniocyanic acid and drying over sulphuric acid.
The double thiocyanate, Cr(SCN),-3KCNS-4H?O, is also known.

Chromium salts readily _combine with ammonia to form complex
salts in which the ammonia molecule is in direct combination with
the chromium atom. In many of these salts one finds that the
elements of water are frequently found in combination with the

metal, and further, that the ammonia molecule may be replaced by
such other molecular groups as — NOi, &c. Of the types studied
the following may be mentioned: the diammine chromium thio-
cyanates, MFCr(NH»)2-(SCN)4], the chloraquotetrammine chromic
salts, R1![Cr(NHj)4-H2O-Cl], the aquopentammine or roseo-chromium
salts, R'j[Cr(NHi)5'H2O],thechlorpentanimine or purpureo-chromium
salts, R'2[Cr(NHi)i-Cl], the nitrito pentammine or xanthochromium
salts, R1t[NOV(NH»)fCr], the luteo or hexammine chromium salts,
R1»[(NHj)cCr], and the rhodochromium salts: where R'= a mono-
valent acid radical and M = a monovalent basic radical. For the
preparation and properties of these salts and a discussion on their
constitution the papers of S. F. Jorgensen and of A. Werner in the
Zeitschrift fitr anorganische Chemie from 1892 onwards should be
consulted.

P. Pfeiffer (Berichte, 1904, 37, p. 4255) has shown that chromium
salts of the type [Cr{C2H4(NH2)2[2X2]X exist in two stereo-isomeric
forms, namely, the cis- and trans- forms, the dithiocyan-diethylene-
diamine-chrpmium salts being the trans- salts. Their configuration
was determined by their relationship to their oxalo-derivatives;
the cis-dichloro chloride, [CrC2H4(NH2)2Cl2]Cl-HsO, compound with
potassium oxalate gave a carmine red crystalline complex salt
[Cr{C2H4(NH2)2)C204][CrC2H,(NH2)2-(C20,)s]lJH20, while from the
trans-chloride a red complex salt is obtained containing the unaltered
trans-dichloro group [CrC2H4(NH2)2-Cl2].

CHROMOSPHERE (from Gr. xpw/uo, colour, and afalpa., a
sphere), in astronomy, the red-coloured envelope of the sun,
outside of the photosphere. It can be seen with the eye at the
beginning or ending of a total eclipse of the sun, and with a
suitable spectroscope at any time under favourable conditions,
(See SUN and ECLIPSE.)

CHRONICLE (from Gr. xpoww, time). The historical works
written in the middle ages are variously designated by the
terms " histories," " annals," or " chronicles "; it is difficult,
however, to give an exact definition of each of these terms, since
they do not correspond to determinate classes of writings.
The definitions proposed by A. Giry (in La Grande Encyclopedic),
by Ch. V. Langlois (in the Manuel de bibliographic historique),
and by E. Bernheim (in the Lehrbuch der historischen Methode), are
manifestly insufficient. Perhaps the most reasonable is that
propounded by H. F. Delaborde at the Ecole des Charles, that
chronicles are accounts of a universal character, while annals
relate either to a locality, or to a religious community, or even
to a whole people, but without attempting to treat of all periods
or all peoples. The primitive type, he says, was furnished by
Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote (c. 303) a chronicle in Greek,
which was soon translated into Latin and frequently recopied
throughout the middle ages; in the form of synoptic and
synchronistic tables it embraced the history of the world, both
Jewish and Christian, since the Creation. This ingenious opinion,
however, is only partially exact, for it is certain that the medieval
authors or scribes were not conscious of any well-marked distinc-
tion between annals and chronicles; indeed, they often apparently
employed the terms indiscriminately.

Whether or not a distinction can be made, chronicles and
annals (q.v.) have points of great similarity. Chronicles are
accounts generally of an impersonal character, and often anony-
mous, composed in varying proportions of passages reproduc
textually from sources which the chronicler is seldom at pa
to indicate, and of personal recollections the veracity of whic
remains to be determined. Some of them are written with
little intelligence and spirit that one is led to regard the wor;
of composition as a piece of drudgery imposed on the clergy and
monks by their superiors. To distinguish what is original fron
what is borrowed, to separate fact from falsehood, and to estah
lish the value of each piece of evidence, are in such circumstanc
a difficult undertaking, and one which has exercised the sagacit)
of scholars, especially since the lyth century. The work, mor
over, is immense, by reason of the enormous number of medie
chronicles, both Christian and Mahommedan.

The Christian chronicles were first written in the two lear
languages, Greek and Latin. At an early stage we have pr
of the employment of national languages, the most famou
instances being found at the two extremities of Europe,
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (q.v.), the most ancient form of which
goes back to the loth century, and the so-called Chronicle
Nestor, in Palaeo-Slavonic, written in the nth and 1 2th centurie

CHRONICLES

299

Position
tad date.

In the I3th and uth centuries the number of chronicles written
in the vulgar tongue continued to increase, at least in continental
Europe, which far outpaced England in this respect. From the
I5th century, with the revived study of Greek and Roman
literature, the traditional form of chronicles, as well as of annals,
tended to disappear and to be replaced by another and more
scientific form, based on the models of antiquity — that of the
historical composition combining skilful arrangement with
elegance of literary style. The transition, however, was very
gradual, and it was not until the iyth century that the traditional
form became practically extinct.

See E. Bernheim, Lehrbuch der historischcn Methods (4th ed.,
1903); H. Bloch, " Geschichte der deutschen Geschichtsschreibung
im Mittelalter " in the Hcmdbuch of G. von Below and F. Meinecke
(Munich, 1903 seq.); Max Jansen, " Historiographie und Quellen
der deutschen Geschichte bis 1500," in Alois Meister's Grundris
(Leipzig, 1906); and the Introduction (1904) to A. Molinier's Les
Sources de I'histoire de France. (C. B.*)

CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF, two Old Testament books of the
Bible. The name is derived from Chronicon, first suggested by
Jerome as a rendering of the title which they bear in
the Hebrew Canon, viz. Events of the Times. The full
Hebrew title would be Book of Events of the Times, and
this again appears to have been a designation commonly applied
to special histories in the more definite shape — Events of the Times
tf King David, or the like (i Chron. xxvii. 24; Esth. x. 2, &c.).
The Greek translators divided the long book into two, and
adopted the title ! lopaAenro/jeca, Things omitted [scil. in the other
historical books].

The book of Chronicles begins with Adam and ends abruptly
in the middle of Cyrus's decree of restoration, which reappears
complete at the beginning of Ezra. A closer examination of those
parts of Ezra and Nehemiah which are not extracted from earlier
documents or original memoirs leads to the conclusion that
Chronicles- Ezra-Nehemiah was originally one work, displaying
throughout the peculiarities of language and thought of a single
editor, who, however, cannot be Ezra himself as tradition would
have it. Thus the fragmentary close of 2 Chronicles marks the
disruption of a previously-existing continuity, — due, presumably,
to the fact that in the gradual compilation of the Canon the
necessity for incorporating in the Holy Writings an account of
the establishment of the post-Exile theocracy was felt, before it
was thought desirable to supplement Samuel and Kings by adding
a second history of the period before the Exile. Hence Chronicles
is the last book of the Hebrew Bibfe, following the book of Ezra-
Nehemiah, which properly is nothing else than the sequel of
Chronicles.

Of the authorship of Chronicles we know only what can be
determined by internal evidence. The style of the language, and
also the position of the book in the Jewish Canon, stamp the book
as one of the latest in the Old Testament, but lead to no exact
determination of the date.1 In i Chron. xxix. 7, which refers to
the time of David, a sum of money is reckoned by darics, which
certainly implies that the author wrote after this Persian coin
had been long current in Judaea. In i Chron. iii. 19 sqq. the
descendants of Zerubbabel seem to be reckoned to six generations
(the Septuagint reads it so as to give as many as eleven genera-
tions), and this agrees with the suggestion that Hattush (verse 22),
who belongs to the fourth generation from Zerubbabel, was a
contemporary of Ezra (Ezra viii. 2). Thus the compiler lived at
least two generations after Ezra. With this it accords that in
Nehemiah five generations of high priests are enumerated from
Joshua (xii. 10 seq.), and that the last name is that of Jaddua,
who, according to Josephus, was a contemporary of Alexander
the Great (333 B.C.) . That the compiler wrote after the fall of the
Persian monarchy has been argued by Ewald and others from the
use of the title king of Persia (2 Chron. xxxvi. 23), and from the
reference made in Neh. xii. 22 to Darius III. (336-332 B.C.). A
date some time after 332 B.C. is now accepted by most modern
critics. See further EZRA AND NEHEMIAH.

What seems to be certain and important for a right estimate of

1 See the lists in Driver, Lit. of Old Test. pp. 502 sqq. ; and the
exhaustive summary by Fr. Brown in Hastings' Diet. Bible, i. 289 sqq.

the book is that the writer lived a considerable time after Ezra,
and stood entirely under the influence of the religious institu-
tions of the new theocracy. This standpoint determined the
nature of his interest in the early history of his people.
The true importance of Hebrew history had always
centred in the fact that this petty nation was the people work.
of Yahweh, the spiritual God. The tragic interest
which distinguishes the annals of Israel from the forgotten
history of Moab or Damascus lies wholly in that long contest
which finally vindicated the reality of spiritual things and the
supremacy of Yahweh's purpose, in the political ruin of the
nation which was the faithless depository of these sacred truths.
After the return from the Exile it was impossible to write the
history of Israel's fortunes otherwise than in a spirit of religious
pragmatism. But within the limits of the religious conception of
the plan and purpose of the Hebrew history more than one point
of view might be taken up. The book of Kings looks upon the
history in the spirit of the prophets — in that spirit which is still
echoed by Zech. i. 5 seq., but which had become extinct before the
Chronicler wrote. The New Jerusalem of Ezra was organized as a
municipality and a church, not as a nation. The centre of religious
life was no longer the living prophetic word but the ordinances of
the Pentateuch and the liturgical service of the sanctuary.
The religious vocation of Israel was no longer national but
ecclesiastical or municipal, and the historical continuity of the
nation was vividly realized only within the walls of Jerusalem
and the' courts of the Temple, in the solemn assembly and stately
ceremonial of a feast day. These influences naturally operated
most strongly on those who were officially attached to the
sanctuary. To a Levite, even more than to ether Jews, the
history of Israel meant above all things the history of Jerusalem,
of the Temple, and of the Temple ordinances. Now the writer of
Chronicles betrays on every page his essentially Levitical habit
of mind. It even seems possible from a close attention to his
descriptions of sacred ordinances to conclude that his special
interests are those of a common Levite rather than of a priest,
and that of all Levitical functions he is most partial to those of
the singers, a member of whose guild he may have been. From
the standpoint of the post-exilic age, the older delineation of the
history of Israel, especially in the books of Samuel and Kings,
could not but appear to be deficient in some directions, while
in other respects its narrative seemed superfluous or open to
misunderstanding, as for example by recording, and that without
condemnation, things inconsistent with the later post-exilic law.
The history of the ordinances of worship holds a very small place
in the older record. Jerusalem and the Temple have not that
central place in the book of Kings which they occupied in the
minds of the Jewish community after the Exile. Large sections
of the old history are devoted to the religion and politics of the
ten tribes, which are altogether unintelligible and uninteresting
when measured by a strictly Levitical standard; and in general
the whole problems and struggles of the prophetic period turn on
points which had ceased to be cardinal in the life of the New
Jerusalem, which was no longer called to decide between the
claims of the Word of Yahweh and the exigencies of political
affairs and social customs, and which could not comprehend that
men absorbed in deeper spiritual contests had no leisure for the
niceties of Levitical legislation. Thus there seemed to be room
for a new history, which should confine itself to matters still
interesting to the theocracy of Zion, keeping Jerusalem and the
Temple in the foreground, and developing the divine pragmatism
of the history, not so much with reference to the prophetic word
as to the fixed legislation of the Pentateuch, so that the whole
narrative might be made to teach that the glory of Israel lies in
the observance of the divine law and ritual.

For the sake of systematic completeness the book begins with
Adam, as is the custom with later Oriental writers. But there
was nothing to add to the Pentateuch, and the period content*.
from Moses to David contained little that served the
purpose. The early history is therefore contracted into a series of
tribal and priestly genealogies, which were doubtless by no means
the least interesting part of the work at a time when every

CHRONICLES

Sources.

Israelite was concerned to prove the purity of his Hebrew
descent (cp. Ezra ii. 59, 62). Commencing abruptly (after some
Benjamite genealogies) with the death of Saul, the history
becomes fuller and runs parallel with the books of Samuel and
Kings. The limitations of the compiler's interest in past times
appear in the omission, among other particulars, of David's reign
in Hebron, of the disorders in his family and the revolt of Absalom,
of the circumstances of Solomon's accession, and of many
details as to the wisdom and splendour of that sovereign, as well
as of his fall into idolatry. In the later history the ten tribes are
quite neglected (" Yahweh is not with Israel," 2 Chron. xxv. 7),
and political affairs in Judah receive attention, not in proportion
to their intrinsic importance, but according as they serve to
exemplify God's help to the obedient and His chastisement of the
rebellious. That the compiler is always unwilling to speak of the
misfortunes of good rulers is cot necessarily to be ascribed to a
deliberate suppression of truth, but shows that the book was
throughout composed not in purely historical interests, but with a
view to inculcating a single practical lesson. The more important
additions to the older narrative consist partly of statistical lists
(i Chron. xii.), partly of full details on points connected with the
history of the sanctuary and the great feasts or the archaeology of
the Levitical ministry (i Chron. xiii., xv., xvi., xxii.-xxix.; 2
Chron. xxix.-xxxi., &c.), and partly of narratives of victories and
defeats, of sins and punishments, of obedience and its reward,
which could be made to point a plain religious lesson in favour of
faithful observance of the law (2 Chron. xiii., xiv. 9 sqq.; xx.,
xxi. ii sqq., &c.). The minor variations of Chronicles from the
books of Samuel and Kings are analogous in principle to the
larger additions and omissions, so that the whole work has a
consistent and well-marked character, presenting the history in
quite a different perspective from that of the old narrative.

The chronicler makes frequent reference to earlier histories
which he cites by a great variety of names. That the names
" Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah," " Book of
the Kings of Judah and Israel," " Book of the Kings of
Israel," and " Affairs of the Kings of Israel " (2 Chron. xxxiii. 18) ,
refer to a single work is not disputed. Under one or other title
this book is cited some ten times. Whether it is identical with
the Midrash1 of the book of Kings (2 Chron. xxiv. 27) is not
certain. That the work so often cited is not the Biblical book of
the same name is manifest from what is said of its contents. It
must have been quite an extensive work, for among other things
it contained genealogical statistics (i Chron. ix. i), and it in-
corporated certain older prophetic writings — in particular, the
debarlm (" words " or " history ") of Jehu the son of Hanani
(2 Chron. xx. 34) and possibly the vision of Isaiah (2 Chron.
xxxii. 32). Where the chronicler does not cite this compre-
hensive work at the close of a king's reign he generally refers to
some special authority which bears the name of a prophet or seer
(2 Chron. ix. 29; xii. 15, &c.). But the book of the Kings and a
special prophetic writing are not cited for the same reign. It is
therefore probable that in other cases than those of Isaiah and
Jehu the writings of, or rather, about the prophets which are
cited in Chronicles were known only as parts of the great " book
of the Kings." Even the genealogical lists may have been
derived from that work (i Chron. ix. i), though for these other
materials may have been accessible.

The two chief sources of the canonical book of Kings were
entitled Annals (" events of the times ") of the Kings of Israel and
Jitdah respectively (see KINGS). That the lost source of the
Chronicles was not independent of these works appears probable
both from the nature of the case and from the close and often
verbal parallelism between many sections of the two Biblical
narratives. But while the canonical book of Kings refers to
separate sources for the northern and southern kingdoms, the
source of Chronicles was a history of the two kingdoms com-
bined, and so, no doubt, was a more recent work which in
great measure was doubtless based upon older annals. Yet it

_'R.y. "commentary," properly, an edifying religious work, a
didactic or homiletic exposition. A distinct tendency to Midrash
is found even here and there in the earlier books.

contained also matter not derived from these works, for it is
pretty clear from 2 Kings xxi. 17 that the Annals of the Kings oj
Judah gave no account of Manasseh's repentance, which, accord-
ing to 2 Chron. xxxiii. 18, 19, was narrated in the great book of
the Kings of Israel. It was the opinion of Bertheau, Keil and
others, that the parallelisms of Chronicles with Samuel and Kings
are sufficiently explained by the ultimate common source from
which both narratives drew. But most critics hold that the
chronicler also drew directly from the canonical books of Samuel
and Kings as he apparently did from the Pentateuch. This
opinion is not improbable, as the earlier books of the Old Testa-
ment cannot have been unknown in his age; and the critical
analysis of the canonical book of Kings is advanced enough to
enable us to say that in some of the parallel passages the chronicler
uses words which were not written in the annals but by one of
the compilers of Kings himself. In particular, Chronicles agrees
with Kings in those short notes of the moral character of indi-
vidual monarchs which can hardly be ascribed to an earlier hand
than that of the redactor of the latter book.2

For the criticism of the book it is important to institute a
careful comparison of Chronicles with the parallel narratives in
Samuel-Kings^ It is found that in the cases where
Chronicles directly contradicts the earlier books there
are few in which an impartial historical judgment will
decide in favour of the later account, and in any point that
touches difference of usage between its time and that of the old
monarchy it is of no authority. The characteristic feature of the
post-exilic age was the re-shaping of older tradition in the interest
of parenetic and practical purposes, and for this object a certain
freedom of literary form was always allowed to ancient historians.
The typical speeches in Chronicles are of little value for the
periods to which they relate, and where they are inconsistent
with the evidence from earlier writings or contain inherent im-
probabilities are scarcely of historical worth. According to the
ordinary laws of research, the book, being written at a time long
posterior to the events it records, can have only a secondary
value, although that is no reason why here and there valuable
material should not have been preserved. But the general
picture which it gives of life under the old monarchy cannot have
the same value for us as the records of the book of Kings. On the
other hand, it is of distinct value for the history of its time, and
presents a clear picture of the spirit of the age. The -" ecclesiasti-
cal chronicle of Jerusalem," as Reuss has aptly called it, repre-
sents the culminating point (as far -as the O. T. Canon is con-
cerned) of that theory of which examples recur in Judges, Samuel
and Kings, and this treatment of history in accordance with
religious or ethical doctrines finds its continuation in the didactic
aims which characterize the later non-canonical writings (cf.
JUBILEES; MIDRASH).

The most prominent examples of disagreement with earlier
sources may be briefly noticed. Thus, it would appear that the
book has confused Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin (2 Chron. xxxvi. 5-8)
and has statements which directly conflict with 2 Sam. xxi. 19
(i Chron. xx. 5 ; see GOLIATH), and i Kings ix. 10 seq. (2 Chron. viii.
2); it has changed Hezekiah's submission (2 Kings xviii.) into a
brave resistance (2 Chron. xxxii. 1-8) and ignored the humiliating
payment of tribute by this king and by Joash (2 Kings xii. 18;
2 Chron. xxiv. 23 sqq.).4 That Satan, and not Yahweh incited

1 The problem of the sources is one of considerable intricacy and
cannot be discussed here ; the introduction to the commentaries of
Benzinger and Kittel (see Bibliography below) should be consulted.
The questions depend partly upon the view taken of the origin and
structure of the book of Kings (g.».) and partly upon the results of
historical criticism.

* " A careful comparison of Chronicles with Samuel and Kings is
a striking object lesson in ancient historical composition. It is an
almost indispensable introduction to the criticism of the Pentateuch
and the older historical works" (W. H. Bennett, Chronides,p.2O seq.).

4 But xxxii. 1-8 may preserve a tradition of the account of the
city's wonderful deliverance mentioned in Kings (see HEZEKIAH),
and the details of the invasion of Judah in the time of Joash differ
essentially from those in the earlier source. Even 2 Chron. viii. 2
cannot be regarded as a deliberate alteration since the writer does
not appear to be quoting from I Kings ix. 10 sqq. (the two passages
should be carefully compared), and his view of Solomon's greatness
is already supported by allusions in the earlier but extremely
composite sources in Kings (see SOLOMON).

CHRONOGRAPH

301

David to number Israel (i Chron. xxi.; 2 Sam. xxiv. i) accords
with later theological development.

A particular tendency to arrange history according to a mechanical
rule appears in the constant endeavour to show that recompense
and retribution followed immediately on good or bad conduct, and
especially on obedience or disobedience to prophetic advice. Thus,
the invasion of Shishak (see REHOBOAM) becomes a typical romance
(2 Chron. xii.) ; the illness of Asa is preceded by a denunciation for
relying upon Syria, and the chronology is changed to bring the fault
near the punishment (2 Chron. xv. seq.). The ships which Jehosha-
phat made were wrecked at Ezipn-geber because he had allied him-
self with Ahaziah of Israel despite prophetic warning (2 Chron. xx.
35 sqq.: i Kings xxii. 48; cf. similarly the addition in 2 Chron.
xix. 1-3), and the later writer supposes that the " Tarshish ships "
(large vessels such as were used in trading with Spain — cf. " India-
men ") built in the Red Sea were intended for the Mediterranean
trade (cf. 2 Chron. ix. 21 with i Kings x. 22). The Edomite revolt
under Jehoram of Judah becomes the penalty for the king's apostasy
(2 Chron. xxi. 10-20; 2 Kings viii. 22). Ahaziah was slain because
of his friendship with Jehoram (2 Chron. xxii. 7). The Aramaean
invasion in the time of Joash of Judah was a punishment for the
murder of Jehoiada's son (2 Chron. xxiv.; 2 Kings xii.). Amaziah,
af ter defeating Edom (2 Chron. xxv., esp. verses 19-21 ; see 2 Kings xiv.
10 seq.), worshipped strange gods, for which he was defeated by Joash
of Israel, and subsequently met with his death (2 Chron. xxv. 27;
2 Kings xiv. 19). Uzziah's leprosy is attributed to a ritual fault
(2 Chron. xxvi. 4 seq., 16 sqq. ; cf. 2 Kings xv. 3-5 ; see UZZIAH). The
defeat and death of the good king Josiah came through disobedi-
ence to the Divine will (2 Chron. xxxv. 21 seq.; see 2 Kings xxiii.
26 sqq.).

In addition to such supplementary information, another tendency
of the chronicler is the alteration of narratives that do not agree
with the later doctrines of the uniformity of religious institutions
before and after the exile. Thus, the reformation of Josiah has been
thrust back from his eighteenth to his twelfth year (when he was
nineteen years old) apparently because it was felt that so good a king
would not have tolerated the abuses of the land for so long a period,1
but the result of this is to leave an interval of ten years between his
conversion and the subsequent act of repentance (2 Chron. xxxiv.
3-6; 2 Kings xxii. seq.). References to Judaean idolatry are omitted
(I Kings xiv. 22-24; see 2 Chron. xii. 14; 2 Kings xviii. 4; 2 Chron.
xxxi. i) or abbreviated (2 Kings xxiii. 1-20; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 29-33) ;
and if the earlier detailed accounts of Judaean heathenism were
repulsive, so the tragic account of the fate of Jerusalem was a
painful subject upon which the chronicler's age did not care to
dwell (contrast 2 Kings xxiv. 8-xxv. with the brief 2 Chron. xxxvi.
9-21). At an age when the high places were regarded as idolatrous
it was considered only natural that the good kings should not have
tolerated them. So 2 Chron. xiv. 5, xvii. 6 (from unknown sources)
contradict I Kings xv. 14, xxii. 43 (that Asa and Jehoshaphat did
not demolish the high places), whereas xv. 16-18, xx. 31-34, are
quoted from the book of Kings and give the older view The example
is an illustration of the simple methods of early compilers. Further,
it is assumed that the high place at Gibeon was a legitimate sanctuary
(2 Chron. i. 3-6; i Kings jii. 2-4; I Chron. xxi. 28-30; 2 Sam. xxiv.) ;
that the ark was borne not by priests (i Kings viii. 3) but by Levites
(2 Chron. v. 4), in accordance with post-exilic usage; and that the
Levites, and not the foreign bodyguard of the temple, helped to place
Joash on the throne (2 Chron. xxiii.).2 Conversely i Chron. xv.
12 seq. explains xiii. 10 (2 Sam. vi. 7) on the view that Uzza was not
a Levite, hence the catastrophe.

Throughout it is assumed that the Levitical organization had
been in existence from the days of David, to whom its foundation
is ascribed. In connexion with the installation of the ark consider-
able space is devoted to the arrangements for the maintenance of
the temple-service, upon which the earlier books are silent, and
elaborate notices of the part played by the Levites and singers give
expression to a view of the history of the monarchy which the book
of Kings does not share.3 Along with the exceptional interest taken
in Levitical and priestly lists should be noticed the characteristic
preference for genealogies. Particular prominence is given to the
tribe and kings of Judah (i Chron. ii.-iv.), and to the priests and
Levites (i Chron. vi., xv. sq., xxiii.-xxv. ; with ix. 1-34 cf. Neh. xi.).
The historical value of these lists is very unequal; a careful study
of the names often proves the lateness of the source, although
an appreciation of the principles of genealogies sometimes reveals
important historical information; see CALEB, GENEALOGY, JUDAH.
But the Levitical system as it appears in its most complete form in

1 But that this was not the invention of the chronicler appears
(ssible from Jer. xxv. 3. Similarly ,*Hezekiah's reforms are dated

in his first year (2 Chron. xxix. 3), against all probability; see

HEZEKIAH (end).

* 2 Chron. xxiii. is an excellent specimen of the redaction to which
der narratives were submitted; cf. also 2 Chron. xxiv. 5 seq.
! Kings xi. 4 seq.), xxxiv. 9-14 (2 Kings xxii.), xxxv. 1-19 (2 Kings
riii. 21-23).
1 Passages in the books of Samuel and Kings which might appear

to point to the contrary require careful examination; they prove

to be glosses or interpolations, or are relatively late as a whole.

Chronicles is the result of the development of earlier schemes, of
which some traces are still preserved in Chronicles itself and in
Ezra-Nehemiah. (See further LEVITES.)

The tendency of numbers to grow is one which must always be
kept in view — cf. I Chron. xviii. 4, xix. 18 (2 Sam. viii. 4 (but see
LXX.j, x. 1 8), i Chron. xxi. 5, 25 (2 Sam. xxiv. 9, 24) ; consequently
little importance can be attached to details which appear to be
exaggerated (i Chron. y. 21, xii., xxii. 14: 2 Chron. xiii. 3, 17), and
are found to be quite in accordance with similar peculiarities else-
where (Num. xxxi. 32 seq.; Judg. xx. 2, 21, 25).

But when allowance is made for all the above tendencies of
the late post-exilic age, there remains a certain amount of
additional matter in Chronicles which may have been
derived from relatively old sources. These items are
of purely political or personal nature and contain
several details which taken by themselves have every appear-
ance of genuineness. Where there can be no suspicion of such
" tendency " as has been noticed above there is less ground
for scepticism, and it must be remembered that the earlier books
contain only a portion of the material to which the compilers
had access. Hence it may well happen that the details which
unfortunately cannot be checked were ultimately derived from
sources as reputable as those in the books of Samuel, Kings,
&c. As examples may be cited Rehoboam's buildings, &c.
(2 Chron. xi. 5-12, 18 sqq.); Jeroboam's attack upon Abijah
(2 Chron. xiii., cf. i Kings xv. 7); the invasion of Zerah in Asa's
reign (2 Chron. xiv.; see ASA) ; Jehoshaphat's wars and judicial
measures (2 Chron. xvii. xx. ; see i Kings xxii. 45) ; Jehoram's
family (2 Chron. xxi. 2-4); relations between Jehoiada and
Joash (2 Chron. xxiv. 3, 15 sqq.); conflicts between Ephraim
and Judah (2 Chron. xxv. 6-13); wars of Uzziah and Jotham
(2 Chron. xxvi. seq.); events in the reign of Ahaz (2 Chron.
xxviii. 8-15, 1 8 seq.); reforms of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. sqq.,
cf. Jer. xxvi. 19); Manasseh's captivity, repentance and buildings
(2 Chron. xxxiii. 10-20; see 2 Kings xxi. and MANASSEH); the
death of Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv. 20-25). In addition to this
reference may be made to such tantalizing statements as those
in i Chron. ii. 23 (R.V.).iv. 30-41, v. 10, 18-22, vii. 21 seq., viii. 13,
xii. 15, examples of the kind of tradition, national and private,
upon which writers could draw. Although in their present
form the additional narratives are in the chronicler's style, it is
not necessary to deny an older traditional element which may
have been preserved in sources now lost to us.4
' BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Robertson Smith's article in the gth ed. of the
Ency. Brit, was modified by his later views in Old Test, in the Jewish
Church'', pp. 140-148. Recent literature js summarized by S. R.
Driver in his revision of Smith's article in Ency. Bib. and in his
Lit. of Old Test., and by F. Brown in Hastings' Diet. Bib. (a very
comprehensive article). Many parts of the book offer a very hard
task to the expositor, especially the genealogies, where to other
troubles are added the extreme corruption and many variations of
the proper names in the versions; on these see the articles in the
Ency. Bib. Valuable contributions to the exegesis of the book will
be found in Wellhausen's Prolegomena (Eng. trans.), pp. 171-227;
Benzinger in Marti's Hand-Kommentar (1901); Kittef in Sacred
Books of the Old Test. (1895), History of the Hebrews, ii. 224 sqq.
(1896), and in Nowack's Hand-Kommentar (1902). W. H. Bennett
in Expositor's Bible (1894), W. E. Barnes in Cambridge Bible (1899),
and Harvey-Jellie in the Century Bible (1906), are helpful. Among
more recent investigations are those of Howorth, Proc. Sec. of Bibl.
Archael. xxvii. 267-278 (Chronicles a late translation from the
Aramaic). (W. R. S.; S. A. C.)

CHRONOGRAPH from Gr. \pkvas, time, and •ypd^tiv, to write).
Instruments whereby periods of time are measured and recorded
are commonly called chronographs, but it would be more correct
to give the name to the records produced. Instruments such as
" stop watches " (see WATCH), by means of which the time
between events is shown on a dial, are also called chronographs;
they were originally nghtly called chronoscopes (truajrtiv, to see).

4 The view that the chronicler invented such narratives is in-
conceivable, and in the present stage of historical criticism is as
unsound as an implicit reliance upon those sources in the earlier
books, which in their turn are _ of ten long posterior to the events
they record. Although Graf, in a critical and exhaustive study
(Geschichtlichen Biicher des A.T., Leipzig, 1866), concluded that the
Chronicles have almost no value as a documentary source of the
ancient history, he subsequently admitted in private correspondence
with Bertheau that this statement was too strong (preface to
Bertheau's Commentary, 2nd ed., 1873).

302

CHRONOGRAPH

In the first experiments in ballistics by B. Robins, Count
Rumford and Charles Hutton, the velocity of a projectile was
found by means of the ballistic pendulum, in which the principle
of momentum is applied in finding the velocity of a projectile
(Principles of Gunnery, by Benjamin Robins, edited by Hutton,
1805, p. 84). It consisted of a pendulum of considerable weight,
which was displaced from its position of rest by the impact of
the bullet, the velocity of which was required. A modification
of the ballistic pendulum was also employed by W. E. Metford
(1824-1809) in his researches on different forms of rifling;
the bob was made in the form of a long cylinder, weighing about
140 II), suspended with its axis horizontal from four wires at
each end, all moving points being provided with knife edges.
The true length of suspension was deduced from observations
of the time of a complete small oscillation. The head of the
pendulum was furnished with a wooden block, which caught
the fragments of bullets fired at it, and its displacement was
recorded by a rod moved by the bob (The Book of the Rifle, by
the Hon. T. F. Fremantle, p. 336). An improved ballistic
pendulum in which the geometric method of suspension is
introduced has been used by A. Mullock, to determine the
resistance of the air to bullets having a velocity up to 4500 F/S.
(Proc. Roy. Soc., Nov. 1904). A ballistic pendulum, carried by a
geometric suspension from five points, has also been employed
by C. V. Boys in a research on the elasticity of golf balls, the
displacement of the bob being recorded on a sheet of smoked
glass.1 For further information on the dynamics of the subject
see Text Book of Gunnery, 1897, p. 101.

In nearly all forms of chronographs in which the ballistic
pendulum method is not used, the beginning and end of a period
of time is recorded by means of some kind of electrically con-
trolled mechanism; and in order that small fractions of a second
may be measured, tuning-forks are employed, giving any con-
venient number of vibrations per second, a light style or scribing
point, usually of aluminium, being attached to one of the legs
of the tuning-fork. A trace of the vibration is made on a surface
blackened with the deposit from the smoke of a lamp. Glazed
paper is often employed when the velocity of the surface is slow,
but when a high velocity of smoked surface is necessary, smoked
glass offers far the least resistance to the movement of the
scribing points. If the surface be cylindrical, thin sheet mica
attached to it, and smoked, gives excellent results, and offers
but little resistance to all the scribing points employed. The
period of vibration of tuning-forks is determined by direct or in-
direct comparison with the mean solar second, taken from a
standard clock, the rate of which is known from transit observa-
tions (" Recherches sur les vibrations d'un diapason etalon," R.
Koenig, Wied. Ann., 1880). In the celebrated ballistic experi-
ments of the Rev. F. Bashforth, the time markings were made
electrically from a standard clock, and fractions of a second
were estimated by interpolation. Regnault (Memoires de I'acad.
des sciences, t. xxxvii.) employed both a standard clock and a
tuning-fork in his determination of the velocity of sound. The
effect of temperature on tuning-forks has been determined by

'The velocity of the projectile is found thus. Let V be the
velocity of the bob, due to the impact of the projectile, v the velocity
of the projectile, h the height through which the bob is raised
vertically, then

If W be the weight of the bob, and w the weight of the projectile,
then

V, and t>=

If I be the true length of suspension, and C the length of the chord
of the arc of displacement of the bob after being struck, then

Also if T be the time of a complete small oscillation of the pendulum

2-irC

Lord Rayleigh and Professor H. McLeod (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1880,
26, p. 162), who found the coefficient to be o-oooi i per degree C.
between 9° C. and 27° C. The beginning and end of a time
period is marked on a moving surface in many ways. Usually
an electromagnetic stylus is employed, in which a scribing point
suddenly moves when the electric circuit is broken by a pro-
jectile. Another method is to arrange the terminals of the
secondary circuit of an induction coil, so that when the primary
circuit is opened a small spark punctures or marks a moving
surface (Helmholtz, Phil. Mag., 1853, p. 6). A photographic
plate or film, moving in a dark chamber, is also used to receive
markings produced by a beam of light interrupted by a small
screen attached to an electromagnetic stylus, or by the legs of a
tuning-fork, or by the mercury column of a capillary electro-
meter. In certain researches on the explosive wave of gases
the light given by the burning gases made the time trace on
a rapidly moving photographic film (H. B. Dixon, Phil. Trans.,
1003, 200, p. 323). In physiological chronography the stylus is
in many cases actuated directly by the piece of muscle to which
it is attached; when the muscle is stimulated its contraction
moves the stylus on the moving surface of the myograph
(M. Foster, Text Book of Physiology, 1879, p. 39).

Gun Chronographs. — Probably the earliest forms of chronographs,
not based on the ballistic pendulum method, are due to Colonel
Grobert, 1804, and Colonel Dabooz, 1818, both officers
of the French army. In the instrument by Grobert two . Orobert
large disks, attached to the same axle 13 ft. apart, were n"^,
rapidly rotated; the shot pierced each disk, the angle D">°«*
between two holes giving the time of flight of the ball, when the
angular velocity of the disks was known. In the instrument by
Colonel Dabooz a cord passing over two light pulleys, one close to
the gun, the other at a given distance from it, was stretched by a
weight at the gun end and by a heavy screen at the other end.
Behind this screen there was a fixed screen. The shot cut the cord
and liberated the screen, which was perforated during its fall. The
height of fall was measured by superposing the hole in the moving
screen upon that in the fixed one. This gave'the approximate
time _of flight of the shot over a given distance, and hence its
velocity.

In the early form of chronoscope invented by Sir C. Wheatstone in
1840 the period of time was measured by means of a species of clock,
driven by a weight; the dial pointer was started and
stopped by the action of an electromagnet which moved a
pawl engaging with a toothed wheel fixed on the axle to
which the dial pointer was attached. The instrument applied to the
determination of the velocity of shot is described thus by Wheat-
stone : — " A wooden ring embraced the mouth of the gun, and a wire
connected the opposite sides of the ring. At a proper distance the
target was erected, and so arranged that the least motion given to
it would establish a permanent contact between two metal points.
One of the extremities of the wire of the electromagnet (before
mentioned) was attached to one pole of a small battery; to the
other extremity of the electromagnet were attached two wires, one
of which communicated with the contact piece of the target, and
the other with one of the ends of the wire stretched across the
mouth of the gun ; from the other extremity of the voltaic battery
two wires were taken, one of which came to the contact piece of
the target, and the other to the opposite extremity of the wire
across the mouth of the gun. Before the firing of the gun a con-
tinuous circuit existed, including the gun wire; when the target
was struck the second circuit was completed; but during the
passage of the projectile both circuits were interrupted, and the
duration of this interruption was indicated by the chronoscope."

Professor Joseph Henry (Journal Franklin Inst., 1886) employed a
cylinder driven by clockwork, making ten revolutions per second.
The surface was divided into 100 equal parts, each equal to
•n^s second. The time marks were made by two galvano- Heniy.
meter needles, when successive screens were broken by a shot.
Henry also used an induction-coil spark to make the cylinder, the
primary of the coil being in circuit with a battery and screen. This
form of chronograph is in many respects similar to the instrument of
Konstantmoff, which was constructed by L. F. C. Breguet and has
been sometimes attributed to him (Comptes rendus, 1845). This
chronograph consisted of a cylinder I metre in circumference and
0-36 metre long, driven by clockwork, the rotation being regulated by
a governor provided with wings. A small carriage geared to the
wheelwork traversed its length, carrying electromagnetic signals.
1 he electric chronograph signal usually consists of a small armature
(furnished with a style which marks a moving surface) moving
in front of an electromagnet, the armature being suddenly pulled
oft the poles of the electromagnet by a spring when the circuit is
broken (Journal of Physiology, ix. 408). The signals in Breguet's
instrument were in a circuit, including the screens and batteries
>f a gun range. The measurement of time depended on the

Wheal-
Btoae,

CHRONOGRAPH

303

regularity of rotation of the cylinder, on which each mm. repre-
sented ToVa second.

In the chronograph of A. J. A. Navez (1848) the time period is
found by means of a pendulum held at a large angle from the vertical

by an electromagnet, which is in circuit with a screen on
Navez. tjw gun range when the shot cuts this screen the circuit
is broken and the pendulum liberated and set swinging. When the
next screen on the range is broken by the shot, the position of the
pendulum is recorded and the distance it has passed through measured
on a divided arc. From this the time of traversing the space between
the screens is deduced. By means of an instrument known as a
disjunctor the instrumental time-loss or latency of the chronograph

is determined. In Benton's chronograph (1859) two
Beaton. pendulums are liberated, in the same manner as in the
instrument of Navez, one on the cutting of the first screen, the other
on the cutting of the second. The difference between the swings
of the two pendulums gives the time period sought for. The dis-
junctor is also used in connexion with this instrument. In Vignotti's
chronograph (1857) again a pendulum is employed, furnished with a
metal point, which moves close to paper impregnated with ferro-
cyanide of potassium. The gun-range screens are included in the
primary circuits of induction coils; when these circuits are broken
a spark from the pointer marks the paper. From these marks the
time of traverse of the shot between the screens is determined.

In the Bashforth chronograph a platform, arranged to descend
slowly alongside of a vertical rotating cylinder, carries two markers,

controlled by electromagnets, which describe a double

spiral on the prepared surface of the cylinder. One
electromagnet is in circuit with a clock, and the marker actuated
by it marks seconds on the cylinder; the circuit of the other is
completed through a series of contact pieces attached to the screens
through which the shot passes in succession. On the gun range,
when the shot reaches the first screen, it breaks a weighted cotton
thread, which keeps a flexible wire in contact with a conductor.
When the thread is broken by a shot, the wire leaves the conductor
and almost immediately establishes the circuit through the next
screen, by engaging with a second contact, the time of the rupture
being recorded on the cylinder by the second marker. The velocity
with which the cylinder rotates is such that the distance between
successive clock marks indicating seconds is about 18 in.; hence the
marks corresponding with the severance of a thread can be allotted
their value in fractions of seconds with great accuracy. The times
when the shot passes successive screens being thus recorded on the
spiral described by the second marker, and the distance between
each screen being known, the velocity of the shot can be calculated.
The chronoscope invented by Sir Andrew Noble is so well adapted
to the measurement of very small intervals of time that it is usually
N . . employed to ascertain the velocity acquired by a shot at

different parts of the bore in moving from a state of rest
inside the gun. A series of " cutting plugs " is screwed into the sides
of the gun at measured intervals, and in each is inserted a loop of
wire which forms part of the primary circuit of an induction coil.
On the passage of a shot this wire is severed by means of a small knife
which projects into the bore and is actuated by the shot as it passes;
the circuit being thus broken, a spark passes between the terminals
of the secondary of the coil. There is a separate coil and circuit for
each plug. The recording arrangement consists of a series of disks,
one for each plug, mounted on one axle and rotating at a high angular
velocity. The edges of these disks are covered with a coating of
lamp-black, and the secondaries of the coils are caused to discharge
against them, so that a minute spot burnt in the lamp-black of each
disk indicates the moment of the cutting of the wire in the correspond-
ing plug. Hence measurement of the distance between two successive
spots gives the time occupied by the shot in moving over the portion
of the bore between two successive plugs. By the aid of a vernier,
readings are made to thousandths of an inch, and the peripheral
velocity of the disks being noo in. a second, the machine indicates
portions of time rather less than one-millionth of a second; it is,
in fact, practically correct to hundred-thousandths of a second (Phil.
Trans., 1875, pt. i.).

In the Le Boulenge chronograph (" Chronograph le Boulenge,"
par M. Breger, Commission de Gavre, Sept. 1880) two screens are
, used. The wire of the first forms part of the circuit of an

„ i electromagnet which, so long as it is energized, supports

*e' a vertical rod called the " chronometer." Hence when
the circuit is broken by the passage of a shot through the screen
this rod drops. The wire of the second screen conveys a current
through another electromagnet which supports a much shorter rod.
This " registrar," as it is called, when released by the shot severing
the wire of the second screen, falls on a disk which sets free a spring,
and causes a horizontal knife to.fly forward and nick a zinc tube
with which the chronometer rod is sheathed. Hence the long rod
will be falling for a certain time, while the shot is travelling between
the two screens, before the short rod is released ; and the longer the
shot takes to travel this distance, the farther the long rod falls, and
the higher up on it will be the nick made by the knife. A simple
calculation connects the distance through which the rod falls with
the time occupied by the shot in travelling over the distance between
the screens, and thus its velocity ascertained. The nick made by
the knife, if released while the chronometer rod is still suspended,

is the zero point. If both rods are released simultaneously, as is
done by breaking both circuits at once by means of a " disjunctor,"
a certain time is consumed by the short rod in reaching the disk,
setting free the spring and cutting a nick in the zinc; and during
this time the long rod is falling into a recess in the stand deep enough
to receive its full length. The instrument is so adjusted that the nick
thus made is 4'435 in. above the zero point, corresponding to 0-15
sec. This is the disjunctor reading, and requires to be frequently
corrected during experiments. The instrument was modified and
improved by Colonel H. C. Holden, F.R.S. For further information
respecting formulae relating to it see Text Book of Gunnery (189.7).

The electric chronograph of the late H. S. S. Watkin consists
of two long cylinders rotating on vertical axes, and between them a
cylindrical weight, having a pointed head, is free to fall. n/atUa
The weight is furnished with an insulated wire which
passes through it at right angles to its longest axis. When the
weight falls the ends of the insulated wire move very close to the
surfaces of the cylinders which form part of a secondary circuit of
an induction coil, the primary circuit of which is opened when a
screen is ruptured by a shot. A minute mark is made by the induced
spark on the snicked paper with which the cylinders are covered.
The time period between events is deduced from the space fallen
through by the weight, and by means of a scale, graduated for a given
distance between the screens, the velocity of a shot is at once found.
It may be noted that the method of release is such that the falling
weight is not subjected, after it has begun to fall, to a diminishing
magnetic field, which would be the case if it were directly supported
by an electromagnet. An iron rod when falling from an electro-
magnet, during a minute portion of its fall, is subject to a diminishing
force acting in the opposite sense to that of gravity, whereby its time
of fall is slightly changed.

Colonel Sebert (Extraits dtt memorial de I'artillerie de la marine)
devised a chronograph to indicate graphically the motion of recoil
of a cannon when fired. A pillar fixed to the ground at Seberi
the side of the gun-carriage supported a tuning-fork, the
vibration of which was maintained electrically. The fork was
provided with a tracing point attached to one of the prongs, and so
adjusted that it drew its path on a polished sheet of smoke-blackened
metal attached to the gun-carriage, which traversed past the tracing
point when the gun ran back. The fork used made 500 complete
vibrations per second. A central line was drawn through the curved
path of the tracing point, and every entire vibration cut the straight
line twice, the interval between each intersection equalling i-fa,
second. The diagram so produced gave the total time of the acceler-
ated motion of recoil of the gun, the maximum yelocity of recoil,
and the rate of acceleration of recoil from the beginning to the end
of the motion. By means of an instrument furnished with a micro-
scope and micrometers, the length and amplitude, and the angle at
which the curved line cut the_ central line, were measured. -At each
intersection (according to the inventor) the velocity could be deduced.
The motion at any intersection being compounded of the greatest
velocity of the fork, while passing through the midpoint of the
vibration and the yelocity of recoil, the tangent made by the curve
with the straight line represents the ratio of the velocity of the fork
to the velocity of recoil. If a be the amplitude of vibration, con-
sidered constant, v the vejocity of the fork at the midpoint of its
path, r the velocity of recoil, a the angle made by the tangent to the
curve with the straight line at the point of intersection, and / the line
of a complete vibration; then, v = 2ira/t; r=»/tan a.

F. Jervis-Smith's tram chronograph (Patents, 1894, l%97< I9°3)
was devised for measuring periods of time varying from about one-
fourth to one twenty-thousandth part of a second (Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1889, 45, p. 452; The Tram Chronograph, by
F. Jervis-Smith, F.R.S.). It consists of a metal girder
having a T-shaped end. This carries two parallel steel rails, the
edges of which lie in the same vertical plane. The girder, which is
slightly inclined to the horizontal plane, is geometrically supported,
being carried at its end, and at the extremities of the T-piece, on a
V-groove, trihedral hole and plane. A carriage or tram furnished
with three grooved wheels runs on the rails, and a slightly smoked
glass plate is attached to its vertical side. The tram in the original
instrument was propelled by a falling weight, but in an improved
form one or more spiral springs are employed. All time traces are
made immediately after the propelling force has ceased to act. The
tram is brought to rest by a gradually applied brake, consisting
of two crossed leather bands stretched by two springs; a projection
from the tram runs between the bands, and brings it to rest with
but little lateral pressure. When, for certain physiological experi-
ments, a low velocity of traverse is required, a heavy fly-wheel is
mounted on the tram and geared to its wheels. A pillar also mounted
geometrically, placed vertically in front of the carriage, carries the
electromagnet style or signals and tuning-fork which can be brought
into contact with the glass by means of a lever. Also styli are used
which depend for their action on the displacement of one or more
wires under tension or torsion carrying a current in a magnetic field,
the condition being such that no magnetic lag due to iron armatures
and cores exists. Two motions of a slide on the pillar, viz. of rotation
and translation, allow a number of observations to be made. The
traces are counted out on a sloping glass desk, and the time of
flight of a projectile between two or more screens is found. When

Jerrls-

Smith.

3°4

CHRONOGRAPH

very close readings are required, they are made by means of a
traversing geometric micrometer microscope. When the distance
between the screens is known, and also the time of flight, the mid-
point velocity is found by applying Bashforth's formula. When the
velocity of shot from a shot-gun has to be found, a thin wire stretched
across the muzzle takes the place of the first screen, and a thin sheet
of metal or cardboard carrying an electric contact, or a Branly
coherer, the conductivity of which is restored by means of an induced
current, takes the place of the second screen. The electric firing
circuit is provided with a safety key attached by a cord to the man
who loads the gun and prepares the electric fuse. The firing circuit
is closed by inserting the key in a switch at the rear of the gun,
thus preventing him from getting into the line of fire when the gun
is fired by the chronograph. The tram, when the instrument is
adjusted, has a practically constant velocity of traverse.

The polarizing photo-chronograph, designed and used by A. C.
Crehore and G. O. Squier -at the United States Artillery School
(Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng. vol. 14, and Journal
United States Artillery, 1895, 6, p. 271), depends for its
indications upon the rotation of a beam of light by a
magnetic field, produced by a solenoidal current which is opened
ana closed by the passage of the projectile. The general arrangement
is as follows: — A beam of light from an electric lamp traverses a
lens, then a Nicol prism, next a glass cylinder furnished with plane
glass ends and coiled with insulated wire, then an analyser and two
lenses, finally impinging on a photographic plate to which rotation
is given by an electric motor, the plane of rotation being perpen-
dicular to the direction of the beam of light. The same plate also
records the shadow of a pierced projection attached to a tuning-
fork, light from the electric lamp being diverted by a mirror for this
purpose. The solenoid used to produce a magnetic field across the
glass cylinder, which is filled with carbon bisulphide, is in circuit
with a dynamo, resistances, and the screens on the gun range. It is
a well-known phenomenon in physics that when, with the above-
mentioned combination of polarizing Nicol prism and analyser, the
light is shut off by rotating the analyser, it is instantly restored when
the carbon bisulphide is placed in a magnetic field. This phenomenon
is utilized in this instrument. The projectile, by cutting the wire
screens, causes the magnetic field to cease and light to pass. By
means of an automatic switch the projectile, after cutting a screen,
restores the electric circuit, so that successive records are registered.
After a record has been made it is read by means of a micrometer
microscope, the angle moved through by the photographic disk is
found, and hence the time period between two events. In the photo-
chronograph described in Untersuchungen tiber die Vibration des
Gewehrlaufs, by C. Cranz and K. R. Koch (Munich, 1899), also
note on the same, Nature, 61, p. 58, a sensitive plate moving in a
straight line receives the record of the movement of the barrels of
firearms when discharged. It was mainly used, to determine the
" angle or error of departure " in ballistics.

In a second chronograph by Watkin (" Chronographs and their
Application to Gun Ballistics," Proc. Roy. Inst., 1896), a metal drum,
Watkin. divided on its edge so that when a vernier is used a minute
of angle may be read, is rotated rapidly by a motor at a
practically uniform speed. The points of a row of steel-pointed
pins, screwed into a frame of ebonite, can be brought within ^ in.
of the surface of the drum. Each pin is a part of the secondary
circuit of an induction coil, the space between the pins and the drum
forming spark-gaps. The drum is rubbed over with a weak solution
of paraffin wax in benzol, which causes the markings produced by
the sparks to be well defined. The records are read by means of a
fine hair stretched along the drum and just clear of it, the dots
being located under the hair by means of a lens. The velocity of
rotation is found by obtaining spark marks, due to the primary
circuits of two induction coils being successively broken by a weight
falling and breaking the two electric circuits of the coils in succession
at a known distance apart. This chronograph has been used for
finding the velocity of projectiles after leaving the gun, and also for
finding the rate at which a shot traverses the bore. For the latter
purpose the shot successively cuts insulated wires fixed in plugs
screwed into the gun at known intervals; each wire forms a part
of the primary of an induction coil, and as each is cut a dot is made
on the rotating drum by the induced spark.

In the chronograph of Marcel Deprez, a cylinder for receiving
records is driven at a high velocity, 4 to 5 metres per second surface
Deprez. velocity. The velocity is determined by means of an.
electrically-driven tuning-fork, the traces being read by
means of a vernier gauge. A mercury speed indicator of the Rams-
bottom type enables the rotation to be continuously controlled
(A. Favarger, L'Electricite et ses applications a la chronomttrie).

Astronomical Chronographs. — The astronomical chronograph is
an instrument whereby an observer is enabled to register the time
Dent. °f transit of a star on a sheet of paper attached to a re-

volving cylinder. A metal cylinder covered with a sheet of
paper is rotated by clockwork controlled by a conical pendulum, or
by a centrifugal clock governor such as is used for driving a telescope.
By means of a screw longer than the cylinder, mounted parallel
with the axis of the cylinder and rotated by the clockwork, a carriage
is made to traverse close to the paper. In some instruments this
carriage is furnished with a metal point, and in others with a stylo-

graphic ink pen. The point or pen is made to touch the paper by an
electromagnet, the electric current of which is closed by the observer
at the transit instrument, and a mark is recorded on the revolving
cylinder. The movement of the same point or pen is also controlled
by a standard clock, so that at the end of each second a mark is
made. The cylinder makes one revolution per minute, and the
minute is indicated by the omission of the mark. In E. J. Dent's
form (Nature, 23, p. £9) continuous observations can be recorded for
6| hours. The conical pendulum used to govern the rotation of
the cylinder was the invention of Sir G. B. Airy. The lower end is
geared to a metal plate which sweeps through an annular trough
filled with glycerin and water. When the path of the pendulum
exceeds a certain aiameter it causes the plate to enter the liquid more
deeply, its motion being thereby checked ; also, when the pendulum
moves in a smaller circle the plate is lifted out of the liquid and the
resistance is diminished in the same proportion as the force. The
compensatory action is considerable; doubling the driving power
produces no perceptible difference in the time. To prevent the
injury of the conical pendulum and the wheel work by any sudden
check of the cylinder, a ratch-wheel connexion is placed between
the cylinder and the train of wheel work; this enables the pendulum
to run on until it gradually comes to rest. The pendulum, which
weighs about i81b, is compensated, and makes one revolution
in two seconds; it is suspended from a bracket by means of two
flexible steel springs placed at right angles to one another.

The observatory of Washburn, University of Wisconsin, is
furnished with a chronograph of the same type as that of Dent
(Annals Harvard Coll. Obs. vol. i. pt. ii. p. 34), but in this instrument
the rotation of the cylinder is controlled by a double conical pen-
dulum governor of peculiar construction. When the balls fly out
beyond a certain point, one of them engages with a hook attached
to a brass cylinder which embraces the vertical axle loosely. When
this mass is pulled aside the work done on it diminishes the speed of
the governor. The pendulum ball usually strikes the hook from 60
to 70 times per minute. Governors on this principle were adopted
by Alvan Clark for driving heliostats in the United States Transit of
Venus Expedition, 1874.

In the astronomical chronograph designed by Sir Howard Grubb
(Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., July 1888), the recording cylinders — two in
number — are driven by a weight acting on a train of wheel orubb.
work controlled by an astronomical telescope governor.
The peculiar feature of this instrument is that the axle is geared to
a shaft which communicates motion to the cylinders through a
mechanism whereby the speed of rotation is constantly corrected
by a standard clock. Should the rotation fall below the correct
speed it is automatically accelerated, and if its speed of rotation
rises above the correct one it is retarded. The accelerator and
retarder are thrown into action by electromagnets, controlled by a
" detector " mounted on the same shaft. The rather complicated
mechanism employed to effect the correction is described and fully
illustrated in the reference given. The cylinders are covered with
paper, but all the markings are made with a stylographic pen. The
marks indicating seconds are dots, but those made by the observer
are short lines. When an observation is about to be made the
observer first notes the hour and minute, and, by pressing a contact
key attached to a flexible cord at the transit instrument, marks
the paper with a letter in Morse telegraph characters, indicating
the hour and minute; he then waits till a micrometer wire cuts a
star and at the instant closes the circuit, so that the second and
fraction of a second are registered on the chronograph paper. When
a set of observations have been taken, the paper is removed from
the cylinder, and the same results are obtained by applying a
suitably divided rule to the marked paper, fractions of a second
being estimated by applying a piece of glass ruled with eleven
straight lines converging to a point. The ends of these lines on
the base of the triangle so formed are equidistant on one edge of
the glass, so that when the first and last lines are so placed as to
coincide with the beginning and end of the markings of a second,
that second is'divided into ten equal parts. The base of the triangle
is always kept parallel with the line of dots. The papers, after they
have been examined and the results registered, are kept for reference.
In the astronomical chronograph of Hipp, used in determining
longitudes, the movement cf a recording cylinder is regulated by
means of a toothed wheel, the last of a clockwork train, ...

controlled by a vibrating metal tongue; this important
feature is described in detail in Favarger's work cited above.

Acoustic Chronographs. — In the chronograph devised by H. V.
Regnault (Acad. des Sc., 1868) to determine the velocity of sound
propagated through a great length of pipe, a band of Relmauti.
paper 27 mm. wide was continuously unrolled from a
Dobbin by means of an electromagnetic engine. In its passage over a
pulley it passed over a smoky lamp flame, which covered it with a
thin deposit of carbon. It next passed over a cylinder in contact
with the style of a tuning-fork kept in vibration by electromagnets
placed on either side of its prongs, the current being interrupted by
the fork ; it was also in contact with an electric signal controlled by
a standard clock. Also an electromagnetic signal marked the
beginning and end of a time period. Thus three markings were
registered on the band, viz. the time of the pendulum, the vibrations
of the fork, and the marking of the signal due to the opening and

CHRONOLOGY

305

dosing of the current by electrical contacts attached to diaphragms
on which the sound wave acted. The contacts consisted of minute
hammers resting on metal points fixed to the centre of diaphragms
which closed the end of the experimental pipes. The signal marked
the instant at which a sound wave impinged on a diaphragm. The
markings on the paper band gave the period of time between two
events, and the number of vibrations of the tuning-fork per second
was estimated by means of markings due to the clock._ The sound
wave was usually originated by firing a pistol into the pipe furnished
with diaphragms and contact pieces.

In the chronographic use of the Morse telegraph instrument
(Stewart and Gee, Elementary Practical Phys. p. 234) a circuit is
. , arranged which includes a seconds' pendulum furnished

dPBrrv w a ^ne P'at'num w're below the bob, which sweeps
*"*' through a small mass of mercury forming a part of the
circuit. There is a Morse key for closing the circuit. A fast-running
Morse instrument and a battery are placed across this circuit as a
shunt. A succession of dots is made on the paper ribbon by the circuit
being closed by the pendulum, and the space between each adjacent
dot indicates a period of one second's duration. Also, when the key
is depressed, a mark is made on the paper. To measure a period of
time, the key is depressed at the beginning and end of the period,
causing two dots to be made on the ribbon; the interval between
these, when measured by the intervals due to the pendulum, gives the
length of the period in seconds, and also in fractions of a second, when
the seconds' interval is subdivided into convenient equal parts.
This apparatus has been used in determination of the velocity of
sound. In the break circuit arrangement of pendulum key and Morse
instrument the markings appear as breaks in a line which would other-
wise be continuous. This combination was employed by Professors
W. E. Ayrton and J. Perry in their determination of the acceleration
of gravity at Tokio. 1877-1878 (Proc. Phys. Soc. Land, 3, p. 268).

fn the tuning-fork ejectro-chronograph attributed to Hipp a
metal cylinder covered with smoked glazed paper is rotated uniformly

by clockwork, a tuning-fork armed with a metallic style

being so adjusted that it makes a clear fine line on the
smoked paper. The tuning-fork is placed in the secondary circuit
of an induction coil, so that when the primary circuit is broken an
induced spark removes a speck of black from the paper and leaves
a mark. The time period is deduced by counting the number of
vibrations and fractions of vibration of the tuning-fork as recorded
by a sinuous line on the cylinder. In later forms of this instrument
the cylinder advances as it rotates, and a spiral line is traced. To
obtain good results the spark must be very small, for when large
it often leaps laterally from the end of the style, and does not give
the true position of the style when the circuit is broken. The same
arrangement of tuning-fork and revolving cylinder, with the addition

of a standard clock, has been used by A. M. Mayer (Trans.

Nat. Acad. Set. U.S.A. vol. iii.) and others for calibrating
tuning-forks, and comparing their vibrations directly with the beats
of the pendulum of a standard clock the rate of which is known.
The pendulum marks and breaks the primary circuit by carrying a
small platinum wire through a small mercury meniscus. Better and
apparently certain contacts can be obtained from platinum contact-
pieces, brought together above the pendulum by means of a toothed
wheel on the scape-wheel arbor. Sparking at the contact points
is greatly reduced by placing a couple of lead plates in dilute sulphuric
acid as a shunt across the battery circuit.

For Physiological Purposes. — A. Pick's pendulum myograph or
muscle-trace recorder is described in Vierteljahrsschr. der naturforsch.
_. Ges. in Zurich, 1862, S. 307, and in Text-book of Physiology,

M. Foster, pp. 42, 45. It was used to obtain a record
of the contraction of a muscle when stimulated. In many respects
the instrument is similar to the electro-ballistic chronograph of
Navez. A long pendulum, consisting of a braced metal frame,
carries at its lower end a sheet of smoked glass. The pendulum
swings about an axis supported by a wall bracket. Previous to an
experiment, the pendulum is held on one side of its lowest position
by a spring catch ; when this is depressed it is free to swing. At the
end o: its swing it engages with another spring catch. In front of
the moving glass plate a tuning-fork is fixed, also a lever actuated
by the muscle to be ejectrically stimulated. When the pendulum
swings through its arc, it knocks over the contact key in the primary
circuit of an induction coil, the secondary of which is in connexion
with the muscle. The smoked plate receives the traces of the style
of the tuning-fork and of the lever attached to the muscle, and also
the trace of an electromagnetic signal which marks the instant at
which the primary circuit is broken. After the traces are made,
they are ruled through with radial lines, cutting the three traces,
and the time jntervals between different parts of the muscle curve
are measured in terms of the period of vibration of the tuning-fork,
as in other chronographs in which the tuning-fork is employed.

In the spring myograph of E. Du Bois Reymond (Munk's Physio-
logic des Menschen, p. 398) a smoked glass plate attached to a metal
DuBols r°d '? shot Pv * spiral spring along two guides with a
Keymoad. ^'ocity which is not uniform. The traces of a style

moved by the muscle under examination, and of a tuning-
fork, are recorded on the glass plate, the shooter during its traverse
knocking over one or more electric keys, which break the primary cir-
cuit of an induction coil, the induced current stimulating the muscle.

In the photo-electric chronograph devised by G. J. Burch, F.R.S.
(Journ. of Physiology, 1 8, p. 1 25 ; Electrician, 37,0. 436) , the rapid move-
ments of the column of mercury in a capillary electrometer
used in physiological research are recorded on a sensitive
plate moving at a uniform angular velocity. The trace of the vibrat-
ing prongs of a tuning-fork of known period is also recorded on the
plate, the light used being that of the electric arc. The images of
the meniscus of the mercury column and of the moving fork are
focused on the plate by a lens. Excellent results have been obtained
with this instrument.

An important development of a branch of chronography is due
to E. J. Marey (Cpmptes rendus, 7. aoflt 1882, and Le Mouvemenl, par
E. J. Marey, Paris, 1894), who employed a photographic „
plate for receiving successive pictures of moving objects,
at definite times, when investigating the movements of animals, birds,
fishes, insects, and also microscopic objects such as vorticellae. The
instrument in one_ of its forms consisted of a camera and lens. In
front of the sensitive plate and close to it a disk, pierced with radial
slits, revolved at a given angular velocity, and each time a slit
passed by the plate was exposed. But since, in the time of passage
of the space between the slits, the object had moved by a certain
amount across the field of view, a fresh impression was produced at
each exposure. The object, well illuminated by sunlight, moved in
front of a black background. Sinca the angular velocity of the disk
was known, and the number of slits, the time between the successive
positions of the object was also known.

Marey (La Methode graphique, pp. 133, 142, 456), by means of
pneumatic signals and a rotating cylinder covered with smoked
glazed paper, measured the time of the movements of the limbs of
animals. The instrument consists of a recording cylinder rotated
at a uniform angular velocity by clockwork controlled by a fan
governor, and pneumatic signal, constructed thus. One end of
a closed shallow cylinder, about 4 cm. dia., is furnished with a
stretched rubber membrane. A light lever, moving about an axis
near the edge of the cylinder, is attached to the centre of the mem-
brane by a short rod, its free end moving as the membrane is dis-
tended. The cylinder is connected by a flexible tube with a similar
cylinder and membrane, but without a lever, which is attached to
that part of the body of the animal the movement of which is under
investigation. The system is full of air, so that when the membrane
attached to the animal is compressed, the membrane which moves
the lever is distended and the lever moved. Its end, which
carries a scribing point, marks the smoked paper on the rotating
cylinder. The pneumatic signal is called by Marey " tambour I
levier."

References to Chronographic Methods: — (l) Chronographs used in
Physiology : Helmholtz, " On Methods of measuring very small
Portions of Time," Phil. Mag. (1853), 6: Id., Verhandlungen der
physikalisch-medicinischen Gesellschaft in Wurzburg (1872) ; Harless,
' Das Attwood'sche Myographion," Abhandlungen der k. bayerischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften (1862); Id., Ftul-Myographion auf-
gestellt in der Wiener Weltausstettung in der Abteilungfur das Unter-
richtswesen von Ungarn (Budapest, 1873); Hensen, Myographion
mit vibratorischer Bewegung," Arbeiten aus dem Kieler physiol.
Instit. (1868); Briicke, Sitzungsber. d Wien. Acad. (1877); PflOger,
" Myographion ohne Bewegung," Untersuchungenuber die Physiologic
des Electrotonus (1859); Pouillet, Compt. rend. (1844); I. Munk,
Physiologic des Menschen (for Pfliiger's cylinder governed by conical
pendulum); J. G. M'Kendrick, Life in Motion (1892) (for early
form of cylinder chronograph by Thomas Young) ; Stirling, Outlines
of Practical Physiology (for reaction-time chronographs of F. Galton
and Exner). (2) Chronographs used in gun work and for other
purposes: Sabine, Phil. Mag. (1876); Moisson, Notice sur la
chronpgraphie systeme Schultz (Paris, 1875); Paul la Cour, La Roue
phonique (Copenhagen. 1878) ; Mach, " Collected Papers on Chrono-
graphs," Nature, 42, p. 250; C. V. Boys, " Bullets photographed in
Flight," Nature, 47, p. 415; Pneumatic Tube Co., Paris, " Chrono-
graph," Nature, 9, p. 105; G. C. Foster, " Laboratory Chronograph,"
Nature, 13, p. 139; E. S. Holden, "Astronomical Chronograph,"
Nature, 26, p. 368; D'Arsonval, La Lumiere electrique (1887); Dunn,
" The Photo-retardograph," Journal United States Artillery, 8, p. 20;
E. J. Marey, La Methode graphique (for Deprez accelerpgraphe) ;
Werner Siemens, " Electric Spark Chronograph," Wied. Ann.
(1845)- 66. (F.J.J.-S.)

CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpoTOXo-yia, computation of time,
Xflbvos), the science which treats of time, its object being to
arrange and exhibit the various events which have occurred
in the history of the world in the order of their succession,
and to ascertain the intervals of time between them. The
term " chronology " is also used of the order in time itself, as
adopted, and of the system by which the order is fixed.

The preservation of any record, however rude, of the lapse of
time implies some knowledge of the celestial motions, by which
alone time can be accurately measured, and some advancement
in the arts of civilized life, which could be attained only by the
accumulated experience of many generations (see TIME). Before

306

CHRONOLOGY

the invention of letters the memory of past transactions could
not be preserved beyond a few years with any tolerable degree
of accuracy. Events which greatly affected the physical
condition of the human race, or were of a nature to make
a deep impression on the minds of the rude inhabitants of the
earth, might be vaguely transmitted through several ages
by traditional narrative; but intervals of time, expressed by
abstract numbers, and these constantly varying besides, would
soon escape the memory. The invention of the art of
writing afforded the means of substituting precise and per-
manent records for vague and evanescent tradition; but in the
infancy of the world, mankind had learned neither to estimate
accurately the duration of time, nor to refer passing events to
any fixed epoch.

For these reasons the attempt at an accurate chronology of
the early ages of the world is only of recent origin. After
political relations began to be established, the necessity of
preserving a register of passing seasons and years would soon
be felt, and the -practice of recording important transactions
must have grown up as a necessary consequence of social life.
But of these deliberate early records a very small portion only
has escaped the ravages of time and barbarism.

The earliest written annals of the Greeks, Etruscans and
Romans are irretrievably lost. The traditions of the Druids
perished with them. A Chinese emperor has the credit of burning
" the books " extant in his day (about 220 B.C.), and of burying
alive the scholars who were acquainted with them. And a
Spanish adventurer destroyed the picture records which were
found in the pueblo of Montezuma.

Of the more formal historical writings in which the first
ineffectual attempts were made in the direction of systematic
chronology we have no knowledge at first-hand. Of Hellanicus,
the Greek logographer, who appears to have lived through the
greater part of the sth century B.C., and who drew up a chrono-
logical list of the priestesses of Here at Argos; of Ephorus, who
lived in the 4th century B.C., and is distinguished as the first
Greek who attempted the composition of a universal history ;
and of Timaeus, who in the following century wrote an elaborate
history of Sicily, in which he set the example of using the
Olympiads as the basis of chronology, the works have perished
, and our meagre knowledge of their contents is derived only from
fragmentary citations in later writers. The same fate has
befallen the works of Berossus and Manetho, Eratosthenes and
Apollodorus. Berossus, a priest of Belus living at Babylon in
the 3rd century B.C., added to his historical account of Babylonia
a chronological list of its kings, which he claimed to have compiled
from genuine archives preserved in the temple. Manetho,
like-wise a priest, living at Sebennytus in Lower Egypt in the
3rd century B.C., wrote in Greek a history of Egypt, with an
account of its thirty dynasties of sovereigns, which he professed
to have drawn from genuine archives in the keeping of the
priests. Of these works fragments only, more or less copious
and accurate, have been preserved. Eratosthenes, who in the
latter half of the 2nd century B.C. was keeper of the famous
Alexandrian library, not only made himself a great name by
his important work on geography, but by his treatise entitled
Chronographia, one of the first attempts to establish an exact
scheme of general chronology, earned for himself the title of
" father of chronology." His method of procedure, however,
was usually conjectural; and guess-work, however careful,
acute and plausible, is still guess-work and not testimony.
Apollodorus, an Athenian who flourished in the middle of the
2nd century B.C., wrote a metrical chronicle of events, ranging
from the supposed period of the fall of Troy to his own day.
These writers were followed by other investigators and
systematizers in the same field, but their works are lost. Of the
principal later writers whose works are extant, and to whom
we owe what little knowledge we possess of the labours of their
predecessors, mention will be made hereafter.

The absence or incompleteness of authentic records, however,
is not the only source of obscurity and confusion in the chronology
of remote ages. There can be no exact computation of time or

placing of events without a fixed point or epoch from which the
reckoning takes its start. It was long before this was apprehended.
When it began to be seen, various epochs were selected by various
writers; and at first each small separate community had its
own epoch and method of time-reckoning. Thus in one city
the reckoning was by succession of kings, in another by archons
or annual magistrates, in a third by succession of priests. It
seems now surprising that vague counting by generations should
so long have prevailed and satisfied the wants of inquiring men,
and that so simple, precise and seemingly obvious a plan as
counting by years, the largest natural division of time, did not
occur to any investigator before Eratosthenes.

Precision, which was at first unattainable for want of an epoch,
was afterwards no less unattainable from the multiplicity, and
sometimes the variation, of epochs. But by a natural process
the mischief was gradually and partially remedied. The ex-
tension of intercourse between the various small groups or
societies of men, and still more their union in larger groups, made
a common epoch necessary, and led to the adoption of such a
starting point by each larger group. These leading epochs
continued in use for many centuries. The task of the chronologer
was thus simplified and reduced to a study -and comparison of
dates in a few leading systems.

The most important of these systems in what we call ancient
times were the Babylonian, the Greek and the Roman. The
Jews had no general era, properly so called. In the history
of Babylonia, the fixed point from which time was reckoned
was the era of Nabonassar, 747 B.C. Among the Greeks the
reckoning was by Olympiads, the point of departure being the
year in which Coroebus was victor in the Olympic Games, 776 B.C.
The Roman chronology started from the foundation of the city,
the year of which, however, was variously given by different
authors. The most generally adopted was that assigned by
Varro, 753 B.C. It is noteworthy how nearly these three great
epochs approach each other, — all lying near the middle of the
Sth century B.C. But it is to be remembered that the beginning
of an era and its adoption and use as such are not the same thing,
nor are they necessarily synchronous. Of the three ancient eras
above spoken of, the earliest is that of the Olympiads, next that
of the foundation of Rome, and the latest the era of Nabonassar.
But in order of adoption and actual usage the last is first. It is
believed to have been in use from the year of its origin. It is
not known when the Romans began to use their era. The
Olympiads were not in current use till about the middle of the
3rd century B.C., when Timaeus, as already mentioned, set the
example of reckoning by them.

Even after the adoption in Europe of the Christian era, a
great variety of methods of dating — national, provincial and
ecclesiastical — grew up and prevailed for a long time in different
countries, thus renewing in modern times the difficulties ex-
perienced in ancient times from diversities of reckoning. An
acquaintance with these various methods is indispensable to the
student of the charters, chronicles and legal instruments of the
middle ages.

In reckoning years from any fixed epoch in constant succession,
the number denoting the years is necessarily always on the
increase. But rude nations and illiterate people seldom attach
any definite idea to large numbers. Hence it has been a practice,
very extensively followed, to employ cycles or periods, consisting
of a moderate number of years, and to distinguish and reckon
the years by their number in the cycle. The Chinese and other
nations of Asia reckon, not only the years, but also the months
and days, by cycles of sixty. The Saros of the Chaldaeans, the
Olympiad of the Greeks, and the Roman Indiction are instances
of this mode of reckoning time. Several cycles were formerly
known in Europe; but most of them were invented for the
purpose of adjusting the solar and lunar divisions of time, and
were rather employed in the regulation of the calendar than
as chronological eras. They are frequently, however, of very
great use in fixing dates that have been otherwise imperfectly
expressed, and consequently form important elements of
chronology. (W. L. R. C.)

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307

Modern Results of Archaeological Research.

When Queen Victoria came to the English throne, 4004 B.C.
was still accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of
the world. Perhaps no single statement could more vividly
emphasize the change in the point of view from which scholars
regard the chronology of ancient history than the citation of
this indisputable fact. To-day, though Bibles are still printed
with the year 4004 B.C. in the margin of the first chapter of
Genesis, no scholar would pretend to regard this reference
seriously. On the contrary, the scholarship of to-day regards
the fifth millennium B.C. as well within the historical period for
such nations as the Egyptians and the Babylonians. It has
come to be fully accepted that when we use such a phrase as
" the age of the world " we are dealing with a period that must
be measured not in thousands but in millions of years; and that
to the age of man must be allotted a period some hundreds of
times as great as the five thousand and odd years allowed by the
old chronologists. This changed point of view, needless to say,
basnet been reached without ardent and even bitter controversy.
Yet the transformation is unequivocal; and the revised concep-
tioa no longer seems to connote the theological implications that
were at first ascribed to it. It has now become obvious that the
data afforded by the Hebrew writings should never have been
regarded as sufficiently accurate for the purpose of exact historical
computations: that, in short, no historian working along modern
scientific lines could well have made the mistake of supposing
that the genealogical lists of the Pentateuch afforded an adequate
chronology of world-history. But it should not be forgotten
that to many generations of close scholarship these genealogical
lists seemed to convey such knowledge in the most precise terms,
and that at so recent a date as, for example, the year in which
Queen Victoria came to the throne, it was nothing less than a
rank heresy to question the historical accuracy and finality of
chronologies which had no other source or foundation.

This changed point of view regarding the chronology of history
may without hesitation be ascribed to the influence of evidence
obtained in a single field of inquiry, the field, namely, of archaeo-
logy. No doubt the evidence as to the age of the earth and as
to the antiquity of man was gathered by a class of workers not
formally included in the ranks of the archaeologist: workers
commonly spoken of as palaeontologists, anthropologists,
ethnologists and the like. But the distinction scarcely covers a
real difference. The scope of the archaeologist's studies must
include every department of. the ancient history 'of man as
preserved in antiquities of whatever character, be they tumuli
along the Baltic, fossil skulls and graven bones from the caves
of France, the flint implements, pottery, and mummies of Egypt,
tablets and bas-reliefs from Mesopotamia, coins and sculptures
of Greece and Rome, or inscriptions, waxen tablets, parchment
rolls, and papyri of a relatively late period of classical antiquity.
If at one time the monuments of Greece and Rome claimed the
almost undisputed attention of the archaeologist, that time has
long since passed. For the most important historical records
that have come to us in recent decades we have to thank the
Orientalist, though the classical explorer has been by no means
idle. It will be sufficient here to point out in general terms the
import of the message of archaeological discovery in the Victorian
Era in its bearings upon the great problems of world-history.

A start was made through the efforts of the palaeontologists
and geologists, with only indirect or incidental aid from the
Chroo- archaeologists. The new movement began actively
oiogyof with James Hutton in the later years of the i8th
andeat century, and was forwarded by the studies of William
Smith in England and of Cuvier in France; but the
really efficient champion of the conception that the earth is very
old was Sir Charles Lyell, who published the first edition of his
epoch-making Principles of Geology only a few years before
Queen Victoria came to the throne. Lyell demonstrated to the
satisfaction, or — perhaps it should rather be said — to the dis-
satisfaction, of his contemporaries that the story of the geological
ages as recorded in the strata of the earth becomes intelligible

only when vast stretches of time are presupposed. Of course
the demonstration was not accepted at once. On the contrary,
the champions of the tradition that the earth was less than six
thousand years old held their ground most tenaciously, and the
earlier years of the Victorian vera were years of bitter controversy.
The result of the contest was never in doubt, however, for the
geological evidence, once it had been gathered, was unequivocal;
and by about the middle of the century it was pretty generally
admitted that the age of the earth must be measured by an utterly
different standard from that hitherto in vogue. This concession,
however, by no means implied a like change of view regarding
the age of man. A fresh volume of evidence required to be
gathered, and a new controversy to be waged, before the old
data for the creation of man could be abandoned. Lyell again
was in the forefront of the progressive movement, and his work
on The Antiquity of Man, published in 1863, gave currency for
the first time to the new opinions. The evidence upon which
these opinions were based had been gathered by such anthro-
pologists as Schmerling, Boucher de Perthes and others, and
it had to do chiefly with the finding of implements of human
construction associated with the remains of extinct animals in
the beds of caves, and with the recovery of similar antiquities
from alluvial deposits the great age of which was demonstrated
by their depth. Every item of the evidence was naturally
subjected to the closest scrutiny, but at last the conservatives
were forced reluctantly to confess themselves beaten. Their
traditional arguments were powerless before the array of data
marshalled by the new science of prehistoric archaeology. Look-
ing back even at the short remove of a single generation, it is
difficult to appreciate how revolutionary was the conception of
the antiquity of man thus inculcated. It rudely shocked the
traditional attitude of scholarship towards the history of our
race. It disturbed the most cherished traditions and the most
sacred themes. It seemed to threaten the very foundations of
religion itself. Yet the present generation accepts the antiquity
of man as a mere matter of fact. Here, as so often elsewhere,
the heresy of an elder day has come to seem almost an axiomatic
truth.

If we go back in imagination to the beginning of the Victorian
era and ask what was then known of the history of Ancient
Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, we find ourselves con-
fronted with a startling paucity of knowledge. The key to the
mysteries of Egyptian history had indeed been found, thanks
to the recent efforts of Thomas Young and Champollion, but the
deciphering of inscriptions had not yet progressed far enough
to give more than a vague inkling of what was to follow. It
remained, then, virtually true, as it had been for two thousand
years, that for all that we could learn of the history of the Old
Orient in pre-classical days, we must go solely to the pages of
the Bible and to a few classical authors, notably Herodotus and
Diodorus. A comparatively few pages summed up, in language
often vague and mystical, all that the modern world had been
permitted to remember of the history of the greatest nations of
antiquity. To these nations the classical writers had ascribed
a traditional importance, the glamour of which still lighted their
names, albeit revealing them in the vague twilight of tradition
rather than in the clear light of history. It would have been a
bold, not to say a reckless, dreamer who dared predict that any
future researches could restore to us the lost knowledge that had
been forgotten for more than two millenniums. .Yet the Victorian
era was scarcely ushered in before the work of rehabilitation
began, which was to lead to the most astounding discoveries
and to an altogether unprecedented extension of historical
knowledge. Early in the 'forties the Frenchman Botta, quickly
followed by Sir Henry Layard, began making excavations on the
site of ancient Nineveh, the name and fame of which were a
tradition having scarcely more than mythical status. The spade
of the discoverer soon showed that all the fabled glories of the
ancient Assyrian capital were founded on realities, and evidence
was afforded of a state of civilization and culture such as few
men supposed to have existed on the earth before the Golden Age
of Greece. Not merely were artistic sculptures and bas-reliefs

3o8

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found that demonstrated a high development of artistic genius,
but great libraries were soon revealed, — books consisting of
bricks of various sizes, or of cylinders of the same material,
inscribed while in the state of clay with curious characters
which became indelible when baking transformed the clay into
brick. No one was able to guess, even in the vaguest way, the
exact interpretation of these odd characters; but, on the other
hand, no one could doubt that they constituted a system of
writing, and that the piles of inscribed tablets were veritable
books. There were numerous sceptics, however, who did not
hesitate to assert that the import of the message so obviously
locked in these curious inscriptions must for ever remain an
absolute mystery. Here, it was said, were inscriptions written
in an unknown character and in a language that for at least two
thousand years had been absolutely forgotten. In such circum-
stances nothing less than a miracle could enable human ingenuity
to fathom the secret. Yet the feat pronounced impossible by
mid-century scepticism was accomplished by contemporary
scholarship, amidst the clamour of opposition and incredulity.
Its success contains at once a warning to those doubters who are
always crying out that we have reached the limitations of
knowledge, and an encouragement and stimulus to would-be
explorers of new intellectual realms.

In a few words the manner of the discovery was this. It
appears at a glance that the Assyrian written character consists
of groups of horizontal, vertical or oblique strokes. The
characters thus composed, though so simple as to their basal
twit, are appallingly complex in their elaboration. The Assyrians
with all their culture, never attained the stage of analysis which
demonstrates that only a few fundamental sounds are involved
in human speech, and hence that it is possible to express all the
niceties of utterance with an alphabet of little more than a score
of letters. Halting just short of this analysis, the Assyrian
ascribed syllabic values to the characters of his script, and hence,
instead of finding twenty odd characters sufficient, he required
about five hundred. There was a further complication in that
each one of these characters had at least two different phonetic
values; and there were other intricacies of usage which, had they
been foreknown by inquirers in the middle of the ipth century,
might well have made the problem of decipherment seem an
utterly hopeless one. Fortunately it chanced that another
people, the Persians, had adopted the Assyrian wedge-shaped
stroke as the foundation of a written character, but making that
analysis of which the Assyrians had fallen short, had borrowed
only so many characters as were necessary to represent the
alphabetical sounds. This made the problem of deciphering
Persian inscriptions a relatively easy one. In point of fact this
problem had been partially solved in the early days of the igth
century, thanks to the sagacious guesses of the German philo-
logist Grotefend. Working with some inscriptions from Perse-
polis which were found to contain references to Darius and
Xerxes, Grotefend had established the phonetic values of certain
of the Persian characters, and his successors were perfecting
the discovery just about the time when the new Assyrian finds
were made. It chanced that there existed on the polished
surface of a cliff at Behistun in western Persia a tri-lingual
inscription which, according to Diodorus, had been made by
Queen Semiramis of Nineveh, but which, as is now known, was
.really the work of King Darius. One of the languages of this
inscription was Persian; another, as it now appeared, was
Assyrian, the language of the newly discovered books from the
libraries of Nineveh. There was reason to suppose that the
inscriptions were identical in meaning; and fortunately it
proved, when the inscriptions were made accessible to investiga-
tion through the efforts of Sir Henry Rawlinson, that the Persian
inscription contained a large number of proper names. It was
well known that proper names are usually transcribed from one
language into another with a tolerably close retention of their
original sounds. For example, the Greek names Ptolemaios
and Kleopatra became a part of the Egyptian language and
appeared regularly in Egyptian inscriptions after Alexander's
general became king of Egypt. Similarly, the Greek names

Kyros, Dareios anAXerxes were as close an imitationaspracticable
of the native names of these Persian monarchs. Assuming,
then, that the proper names found in the Persian portion of the
Behistun inscription occurred also in the Assyrian portion,
retaining virtually the same sound in each, a clue to the phonetic
values of a large number of the Assyrian characters was obviously
at hand. Phonetic values known, Assyrian was found to be a
Semitic language cognate to Hebrew.

These clues were followed up by a considerable number of
investigators, with Sir Henry Rawlinson in the van. Thanks
to their efforts, the new science of Assyriology came into being,
and before long the message of the Assyrian books had ceased to
be an enigma. Of course this work was not accomplished in a
day or in a year, but, considering the difficulties to be overcome,
it was carried forward with marvellous expedition. In 1857 the
new scholarship was put to a famous test, in which the challenge
thrown down by Sir George Cornewall Lewis and Ernest Renan
was met by Rawlinson, Hincks, Oppert and Fox Talbot in a
conclusive manner. The sceptics had declared that the new
science of Assyriology was itself a myth: that the investigators,
self -deceived, had in reality only invented a language and read
into the Assyrian inscriptions something utterly alien to the
minds of the Assyrians themselves. But when a committee of
the Royal Asiatic Society, with George Grote at its head, decided
that the translations of an Assyrian text made independently
by the scholars just named were at once perfectly intelligible
and closely in accord with one another, scepticism was silenced,
and the new science was admitted to have made good its claims.

Naturally the early investigators did not fathom all the
niceties of the language, and the work of grammatical investiga-
tion has gone on continuously under the auspices of a constantly
growing band of workers. Doubtless much still remains to be
done; but the essential thing, from the present standpoint,
is that a sufficient knowledge of the Assyrian language has been
acquired to ensure trustworthy translations of the cuneiform
texts. Meanwhile, the material found by Botta and Layard,
and other successors, in the ruins of Nineveh, has been constantly
augmented through the efforts of companies of other investigators,
and not merely Assyrian, but much earlier Babylonian and
Chaldaean texts in the greatest profusion have been brought to
the various museums of Europe and America. The study of
these different inscriptions has utterly revolutionized our
knowledge of Oriental history. Many of the documents are
strictly historical in their character, giving full and accurate
contemporary accounts of events that occurred some thousands of
years ago. Exact dates are fixed for long series of events that
previously were quite unknown. Monarchs whose very names
had been forgotten are restored to history, and the records of their
deeds inscribed under their very eyes are before us, — contem-
porary documents such as neither Greece nor Rome could boast,
nor any other nation, with the single exception of Egypt, until
strictly modern times. There are, no doubt, gaps in the record;
there are long periods for which the chronology is still uncertain.
Naturally there is an increasing vagueness as one recedes farther
into the past, and for the earlier history of Chaldaea there is great
uncertainty. Nevertheless, the Assyriologist speaks with a good
deal of confidence of dates as remote as 3800 B.C.,the time ascribed
to King Sargon, who was once regarded as a mythical person,
but is now known to have been an actual monarch. Indeed,
there are tablets in the British Museum labelled 4500 B.C. ; and
later researches, particularly those of the expedition of the
University of Pennsylvania at Nippur, have brought us evidence
which, interpreted with the aid of estimates as to the average rate
of accumulation of dust deposits, leads to the inference that a
high state of civilization had been attained in Mesopotamia at
least 9000 years ago.

While the Assyriologists have been making these astonishing
revelations, the Egyptologists have not been behindhand.
Such scholars as Lepsius, Brugsch, de Roug6, Lenormant, Birch,
Mariette, Maspero and Erman have perfected the studies of
Young and Champollion; while at the same time these and a
considerable company of other explorers, most notable of whom

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309

are Gardner Wilkinson and Professor Flinders Petrie, have
brought to light a vast accumulation of new material, much
of which has the highest importance from the standpoint of the
historian. Lists of kings found on the temple wall at Abydos,
in the fragments of the Turin papyrus and elsewhere, have
cleared up many doubtful points in the lists of Manetho, and
at the same time, as Professor Petrie has pointed out, have proved
to us how true a historian that much-discussed writer was.
Manetho, it will be recalled, was the Egyptian who wrote the
history of Egypt in Greek in the time of the Ptolemies. His work
in the original unfortunately perished, and all that we know
of it we learn through excerpts made by a few later classical
writers. These fragments have until recently, however, given
us our only clue to the earlier periods of Egyptian history.
Until corroboration was found in the Egyptian inscriptions
themselves, not only were Manetho's lists in doubt, but scepticism
had been carried to the point of denying that Manetho himself
had ever existed. This is only one of many cases where the
investigations of the archaeologist have proved not iconoclastic
but reconstructive, tending to restore confidence in classical
traditions which the scientific historians of the age of Niebuhr
and George Cornewall Lewis regarded with scepticism.

As to the exact dates of early Egyptian history there is rather
more of vagueness than for the corresponding periods of Mesopo-
tamia. Indeed, approximate accuracy is not attained until we are
within sixteen hundred years of our own era; but the sequence
of events of a period preceding this by two thousand years is
well established, and the recent discoveries of Professor Petrie
carry back the record to a period which cannot well be less than
five thousand, perhaps not less than six thousand years B.C.
Both from Egypt and Mesopotamia, then, the records of the
archaeologist have brought us evidence of the existence of a
highly developed civilization for a period exceeding by hundreds,
perhaps by thousands, of years the term which had hitherto
been considered the full period of man's existence.

We may note at once how these new figures disturb the histori-
cal balance. If our forerunners of eight or nine thousand
years ago were in a noonday glare of civilization, where shall we
look for the much-talked-of " dawnings of history " ? By this
new standard the Romans seem our contemporaries in latter-day
civilization; the " Golden Age " of Greece is but of yesterday;
the pyramid-builders are only relatively remote. The men who
built the temple of Bel at Nippur, in the year (say) 5000 B.C.,
must have felt themselves at a pinnacle of civilization and culture.
As Professor Mahaffy has suggested, the era of the Pyramids
may have been the veritable autumn of civilization. Where,
then, must we look for its springtime ? The answer to that
question must come, if it come at all, from what we now speak
of as prehistoric archaeology; the monuments from Memphis
and Nippur and Nineveh, covering a mere ten thousand years or
so, are the records of recent history.

The efforts of the students of Oriental archaeology have been
constantly stimulated by the fact that their studies brought
Anhae- them more or less within the field of Bible history.
ologyand A fair proportion of the workers who have delved so
enthusiastically in the fields of Egyptian and Assyrian
history. exploration would never have taken up the work at all
but for the hope that their investigations might substantiate
the Hebrew records. For a long time this hope proved illusory,
and in the case of Egyptian archaeology the results have proved
disappointing even up to the very present. Considering the
important part played by the Egyptian sojourn of the Hebrews,
as narrated in the Scriptures, it was certainly not an over-
enthusiastic prediction that the Egyptian monuments when fully
investigated would divulge important references to Joseph,
to Moses, and to the all-important incidents of the Exodus; but
half a century of expectant attention in this direction has led
only to disappointment. It would be rash, considering the
buried treasures that may yet await the future explorer, to assert
that such records as those in question can never come to light.
But, considering the fulness of the contemporary Egyptian
records of the XlXth dynasty that are already known, it becomes

increasingly doubtful whether the Hebrews in Egypt played so
important a part in history, when viewed from the Egyptian
standpoint, as their own records had seemed to imply. As the
forgotten history of Oriental antiquity has been restored to us,
it has come to be understood that, politically speaking, the
Hebrews were a relatively insignificant people, whose chief
importance from the standpoint of material history was derived
from the geographical accident that made them a sort of buffer
between the greater nations about them. Only once, and for
a brief period, hi the reigns of David and Solomon did the
Hebrews rise to anything like an equal plane of political import-
ance with their immediate neighbours. What gave them a
seeming importance in the eyes of posterity was the fact that
the true history of the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Arabians
and Hittites had been well-nigh forgotten. The various litera-
tures of these nations were locked from view for more than two
thousand years, while the literature of Israel had not merely
been preserved, but had come to be regarded as inspired and
sacred among all the cultured nations of the Western world.
Now that the lost literatures have been restored to us, the status
of the Hebrew writings could not fail to be disturbed. Their very
isolation had in some measure accounted for their seeming
importance.

All true historical perspective is based upon comparison, and
where only a single account has been preserved of any event or
of any period of history, it is extremely difficult to judge that
account with historical accuracy. An illustration of this truth
is furnished in profane history by the account which Thucydides
has given us of the Peloponnesian War. For most of the period
in question Thucydides is the only source; and despite the in-
herent merits of a great writer, it can hardly be doubted that
the tribute of almost unqualified praise that successive genera-
tions of scholars have paid to Thucydides must have been in
some measure qualified if, for example, a Spartan account of the
Peloponnesian War had been preserved to us. Professor Mahaffy
has pointed out that many other events in Greek history are
viewed by us in somewhat perverted perspective because the great
writers of Greece were Athenians rather than Spartans or Thebans.
Even in so important a matter as the great conflict between
Persia and Greece it has been suggested more than once that we
should be able to gain a much truer view were Persian as well as
Greek accounts accessible.

Not many years ago it would have been accounted a heresy to
suggest that the historical books of the Old Testament had
conveyed to our minds estimates of Oriental history that suffered
from this same defect; but to-day no one who is competent to
speak with authority pretends to doubt that such is really the
fact. Even conservative students of the Bible urge that its
historical passages must be viewed precisely in the light of any
other historical writings of antiquity; and the fact that the
oldest Hebrew manuscript dates only from the 8th century A.D.,
and therefore of necessity brings to us the message of antiquity
through the fallible medium of many generations of copyists, is
far more clearly kept in mind than it formerly was. Every
belief of mankind is in the last analysis amenable to reason, and
finds its origin in evidence that can appeal to the arbitrament of
common sense. This evidence may in certain cases consist
chiefly of the fact that generations of our predecessors have taken
a certain view regarding a certain question; indeed most of our
cherished beliefs have this foundation. But when such is the
case, mankind has never failed in the long run to vindicate its
claim to rationality by showing a readiness to give up the old
belief whenever tangible evidence of its fallaciousness was
forthcoming. The case of the historical books of the Old Testa-
ment furnishes no exception. These had been sacred to almost a
hundred generations of men, and it was difficult for the eye of
faith to see them as other than absolutely infallible documents.
Yet the very eagerness with which the champions of the Hebrew
records searched for archaeological proofs of their validity was a
tacit confession that even the most unwavering faith was not
beyond the reach of external evidence. True, the believer sought
corroboration with full faith that he would find it; but the very

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fact that he could think such external corroboration valuable
implied, however little he may have realized it, the subconscious
concession that he must accept external evidence at its full
value, even should it prove contradictory. If, then, an Egyptian
inscription of the XlXth dynasty had come to hand in which the
names of Joseph and Moses, and the deeds of the Israelites as a
subject people who finally escaped from bondage by crossing the
Red Sea, were recorded in hieroglyphic characters, such a
monument would have been hailed with enthusiastic delight by
every champion of the Pentateuch, and a wave of supreme
satisfaction would have passed over all Christendom. It is not
too much, then, to say that failure to find such a monument has
caused deep disappointment to Bible scholars everywhere. It
does not follow that faith in the Bible record is shaken, although
in some quarters there has been a pronounced tendency to regard
the history of the Egyptian sojourn as mythical; yet it cannot be
denied that Egyptian records, corroborating at least some phases
of the Bible story, would have been a most welcome addition to
•ur knowledge. Some recent finds have, indeed, seemed to make
inferential reference to the Hebrews, and the marvellous collec-
tion of letters of the XVIIIth dynasty found at Tel el-Amarna —
letters to which we shall refer later — have the utmost importance
as proving a possible early date for the Mosaic accounts. But
such inferences as these are but a vague return for the labour
expended, and an almost cruelly inadequate response to seemingly
well-founded expectations.

When we turn to the field of Babylonian and Assyrian archaeo-
logy, however, the case is very different. Here we have docu-
ments in abundance that deal specifically with events more or less
referred to in the Bible. The records of kings whose names
hitherto were known to us only through Bible references have
been found in the ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, and personages
hitherto but shadowy now step forth as clearly into the light of
kistory as an Alexander or a Caesar. Moreover, the newly
discovered treasures deal with the beliefs of the people as well as
with their history proper. The story of the books now spoken of
as the " Creation " and " Deluge" tablets of the Assyrians, in the
British Museum, which were discovered in the ruins of Nineveh
by Layard and by George Smith, has been familiar to every one
for a good many years. The acute interest which they excited
when George Smith deciphered their contents in i872has to some
extent abated, but this is only because scholars are now pretty
generally agreed as to their bearing on the corresponding parts of
Genesis. The particular tablets in question date only from about
the 7th century B.C., but it is agreed among Assyriologists that
they are copies of older texts current in Babylonia for many
centuries before, and it is obvious that the compilers of Genesis
had access to the Babylonian stories. In a word, the Hebrew
Genesis shows unequivocal evidence of Babylonian origin, but, in
the words of Professor Sayce, it is but " a paraphrase and not a
translation." However disconcerting such a revelation as this
would have been to the theologians of an elder day, the Bible
scholars of our own generation are able to regard it with entire
composure.

From the standpoint of the historian even greater interest
attaches to the records of the Assyrian and Babylonian kings
when compared with the historical books of the Old Testament.
For some centuries the inhabitants of Palestine were subject to
periodical attacks from the warlike inhabitants of Mesopotamia,
as even the most casual reader of the Bible is aware. When it
became known that the accounts of these invasions formed a part
of the records preserved in the Assyrian libraries, historian and
theologian alike waited with breathless interest for the exact
revelations in store; and this time expectation was not dis-
appointed. As, one after another, the various tablets and
cylinders and annalistic tablets have been translated, it has
become increasingly clear that here are almost inexhaustible
fountains of knowledge, and that sooner or later it may be
possible to check the Hebrew accounts of the most important
periods of their history with contemporaneous accounts written
from another point of view. It is true that the cases are not very
numerous where precisely the same event is described from

opposite points of view, but, speaking in general terms rather than
of specific incidents, we are already able to subject considerable
portions of history to this test. The records of Shalmaneserll.,
Tiglath-Pileser III. and Sennacherib, kings of Assyria, of
Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, and of Cyrus, king of Persia,
all contain direct references to Hebrew history. An obelisk of
Shalmaneser II. contains explicit reference to the tribute of
Jehu of Samaria, and graphically depicts the Hebrew captives.
Tiglath-Pileser III., a usurper who came to the throne of Assyria
in 745 B.C., and whose earlier name of Pul proved a source of
confusion to the later Hebrew writers, left records that have
served to clear up the puzzling chronology of a considerable
period of the history of Samaria. Most interesting of all, perhaps,
are the annals of Sennacherib, the destruction of whose hosts by
the angel of God is so strikingly depicted in the Book of Kings.
The court historian of Sennacherib naturally does not dwell upon
this event, but he does tell of an invasion and conquest of Palestine.
The Hebrew account of the death of Sennacherib is corroborated
by a Babylonian inscription. Here, however, there is an interest-
ing qualification. The account in the Book of Kings is so phrased
that one might naturally infer from it that Sennacherib was
assassinated by his sons immediately after his return from the
disastrous campaign in Palestine; but in point of fact, as it now
appears, the Assyrian king survived that campaign by twenty
years. One cannot avoid the suspicion that in this instance the
Hebrew chronicler purposely phrased his account to convey the
impression that Sennacherib's tragic end was but the slightly
delayed culmination of the punishment inflicted for his attack
upon the " chosen people." On the other hand, the ambiguity
may be quite unintentional, for the Hebrew writers were
notoriously lacking in the true historical sense, which shovs
itself in a full appreciation of the value of chronology.

One of tha most striking instances of the way in which mistakes
of chronology may lead to the perversion of historical records is
shown in the Book of Daniel in connexion with the familiar
account of the capture of Babylon by Cyrus. Within the past
generation records of Cyrus have been brought to light, as well as
records of the conquered Babylonian king himself, which show
that the Hebrew writers of the later day had a peculiarly befogged
impression of a great historical event — their misconception being
shared, it may be added, by the Greek historian Herodotus.
When the annalistic tablet of Cyrus was translated, it was made
to appear, to the consternation of Bible scholars, that the city of
Babylon had capitulated to the Persian — or more properly to the
Elamite — conqueror without a struggle. It appeared, further,
that the king ruling in Babylon at the time of the capitulation
was named not Belshazzar, but Nabonidos. This king, as appears
from his own records, had a son named Belshazzar, who com-
manded Babylonian armies in outlying provinces, but who never
came to the throne. Nothing could well be more disconcerting
than such a revelation as this. It is held, however, that the
startling discrepancies are not so difficult to explain as may
appear at first sight. The explanation is found, so the Assyrio-
logist assures us, in the fact that both Hebrew and Greek
historians, writing at a considerable interval after the events, and
apparently lacking authentic sources, confused the peaceful
occupation of Babylon by Cyrus with its siege and capture by a
successor to that monarch, Darius Hystaspes. As to the con-
fusion of Babylonian names — in which, by the way, the Hebrew
and Greek authors do not agree — it is explained that the general,
Belshazzar, was perhaps more directly known in Palestine than
his father the king. But the vagueness of the Hebrew knowledge
is further shown by the fact that Belshazzar, alleged king, is
announced as the son of Nebuchadrezzar (misspelled Nebuchad-
nezzar in the Hebrew writings), while the three kings that reigned
after Nebuchadrezzar, and before Nabonidos usurped the throne,
are quite overlooked.

Our present concern with the archaeological evidence thus
briefly outlined, and with much more of the kind, may be summed
up in the question: What in general terms is the inference to
be drawn by the world-historian from the Assyrian records in
their bearings upon the Hebrew writings ? At first sight this

CHRONOLOGY

might seem an extremely difficult question to answer. Indeed,
to answer it to the satisfaction of all concerned might well be
pronounced impossible. Yet it would seem as if a candid and
impartial historian could not well be greatly in doubt in the
matter. On the one hand, the general agreement everywhere
between the Hebrew accounts and contemporaneous records
from Mesopotamia proves beyond cavil that, broadly speaking,
the Bible accounts are historically true, and were written by
persons who in the main had access to contemporaneous docu-
ments. On the other hand, the discrepancies as to details, the
confusion as to exact chronology, the manifest prejudice and
partizanship, and the obvious limitations of knowledge make it
clear that the writers partook in full measure of the shortcomings
of other historians, and that their work must be adjudged by
ordinary historical standards. As much as this is perhaps
conceded by most, if not all, schools of Bible criticism of to-day.
Professor Sayce, one of tie most distinguished of modern
Assyriologists, writing as an opponent of the purely destructive
" Higher Criticism," demands no more than that the Book of
Genesis " shall take rank by the side of the other monuments of
the past as the record of events which have actually happened
and been handed on by credible men "; that it shall, in short,
be admitted to be " a collection of ancient documents which have
all the value of contemporaneous testimony," but which being
in themselves " wrecks of vast literatures which extended over
the Oriental world from a remote epoch," cannot be understood
aright " except in the light of the contemporaneous literature
of which they form a portion." From the point of view implied
by such words as these, it is only necessary to recall the mental
attitude of our grandfathers to appreciate in some measure
the revolution in thought that has been wrought in this field
within the last half-century, largely through the instrumentality
of Oriental archaeology.

We have seen that the general trend of Oriental archaeology
has been reconstructive rather than iconoclastic. Equally true
Archae- ^ tnis °f recent classical archaeology. Here no such
oiogyaad revolution has been effected as that which virtually
classical created anew the history of Oriental antiquity; yet
bbtoiy. tne beings of tne new knowledge are similar in kind
if different in degree. The world had never quite forgotten the
history of the primitive Greeks as it had forgotten the Mesopo-
tamians, the Himyaritic nations and the Hittites; but it
remembered their deeds only in the form of poetical myths and
traditions. These traditions, finding their clearest1 delineation
in the lines of Homer, had been subjected to the analysis of the
critical historians of the early decades of the igth century, and
their authenticity had come to be more than doubted. The
philological analysis of Wolf and his successors had raised doubts
as to the very existence of Homer, and at one time the main
current of scholarly opinion had set strongly in the direction of
the belief that the Iliad and the Odyssey were in reality but
latter-day collections of divers recitals that had been handed
down by word of mouth from one generation to another of bards
through ages of illiteracy. It was strenuously contended that
the case could not well be otherwise, inasmuch as the art of
writing must have been quite unknown in Greece until after
the alleged age of the traditional Homer, whose date had been
variously estimated at from 1000 to 800 B.C. by less sceptical
generations. It had come to be a current belief that the Iliad
was first committed to writing in the age of Peisistratus. A
prominent controversialist, F. A. Paley, even went so far as to
doubt whether a single written copy of the Iliad existed in Greece
at the time of the Peloponnesian War. The doubts thus cast
upon the age when the Homeric poems first assumed the fixed
form of writing were closely associated with the universal
scepticism as to the historical accuracy of any traditions whatever
regarding the early history of Greece. Cautious historians had
come to regard the so-called " Heroic Age " as a prehistoric
period regarding which nothing definite was known, or in all
probability could be known. It was ably argued by Sir George
Cornewall Lewis, in connexion with his inquiries into early Roman
history, that a verbal tradition is not transmitted from one

generation to another in anything like an authentic form for a
longer period than about a century. If, then, the art of writing
was unknown in Greece before, let us say, the 6th century B.C.,
it would be useless to expect that any events of Grecian history
prior to about the ?th century B.C. could have been transmitted
to posterity with any degree of historical accuracy.

Notwithstanding the allurements of the subject, such con-
servative historians as Grote were disposed to regard the problems
of early Grecian history as inscrutable, and to content themselves
with the recital of traditions without attempting to establish
their relationship with actual facts. It remained for the more
robust faith of a Schliemann to show that such scepticism was
all too faint-hearted, by proving that at such sites as Tiryns,
Mycenae and Hissarlik evidences of a very early period of Greek
civilization awaited the spade of the excavator. Thanks to the
enthusiasm of Schliemann and his successors, we can now
substitute for the mythical " Age of Heroes " a historical
" Mycenaean Age " of Greece, and give tangible proof of its
relatively high state of civilization. Schliemann may or may not
have been correct in identifying one of the seven cities that he
unearthed at Hissarlik as the fabled Troy itself, but at least his
efforts sufficed to give verisimilitude to the Homeric story.
With the lessons of recent Oriental archaeology in mind, few
will be sceptical enough to doubt that some such contest as that
described in the Iliad actually occurred. And now, thanks to
the efforts of a large company of workers, notably Dr Arthur
Evans and his associates in Cretan exploration, we are coming
to speak with some confidence not merely of a .Mycenaean but
of a pre-Mycenaean Age.

As yet we see these periods somewhat darkly. The illuminative
witness of written records is in the main denied us here. Some
most archaic inscriptions have been indeed found by the explorers
in Crete, but these for the present serve scarcely any other
purpose than to prove the antiquity of the art of writing among
a people who were closely in touch with the inhabitants of
Hellas proper. Most unfortunately for posterity, the Greeks
wrote mainly on perishable materials, and hence the chief records
even of their later civilization have vanished. The only fragments
of Greek manuscripts antedating the Christian era that have
been preserved to us have been found in Egypt, where a hospitable
climate granted them a term of existence not to be hoped for
elsewhere. No fragment of these papyri, indeed, carries us
further back than the age of the Ptolemies; but the Greek
inscriptions on the statues of Rameses II. at Abu-Simbel, in
Nubia, give conclusive proof that the art of writing was widely
disseminated among the Greeks at least three centuries before
the age of Alexander. This carries us back towards the traditional
age of Homer.

The Cretan inscriptions belong to a far older epoch, and are
written in two non-Grecian scripts of undetermined affinities.
Here, then, is direct evidence that the Aegean peoples of the
Mycenaean Age knew how to write, and it is no longer necessary
to assume that the verses of the Iliad were dependent on mere
verbal transmission for any such period as has been supposed.

But even were direct evidence of the knowledge of the art of
writing in Greece of the early day altogether lacking, none but
the hardiest sceptic could doubt, in the light of recent archaeo-
logical discoveries elsewhere, that the inhabitants of ancient
Hellas of the " Homeric Age " must have shared with their
contemporaries the capacity to record their thought in written
words. We have seen that Oriental archaeology has in recent
generations revolutionized our conceptions of the antiquity
of civilization. We have seen that written documents have been
preserved in Mesopotamia to which such a date as 4500 B.C. may
be ascribed with a good deal of confidence; and that from the
third millennium B.C. a flood of contemporary literary records
comes to us both from Egypt and Mesopotamia. But until
recently it had been supposed that Hellas was shut out entirely
from this Oriental culture. Historians have found it hard to
dispel the idea that civilization in Greece was a very late develop-
ment, and that the culture of the age of Solon sprang, in fact,
suddenly into existence, as it seems to do in the records of the

312

CHRONOLOGY

historian. But the excavations that have given us a knowledge
of the Mycenaean Age have proved conclusively, not alone that
civilization existed in Greece in an early day, but that this
civilization was closely linked with the civilization of Egypt.
Not only have antiquities been found in Crete that point to
Egyptian inspiration, but quite recently Professor Petrie has
found at Tel el-Amarna Mycenaean pottery. The latter find has
a peculiar significance, since the date of the Tel el-Amarna
collection is definitely fixed between the years 140x3 and 1370 B.C.

It is demonstrated, then, that as early as the beginning of
the I4th century B.C. the Mycenaean civilization was in touch
with the ancient civilization of Egypt. One must not infer
from this, however, that the two civilizations met on anything
like an equality. Indeed, in the wonderful Tel-el-Amarna
collection there is a suggestive absence of literary documents
from the Aegean that demands a word of notice. The Tel el-
Amarna collection, it will be recalled, consists of the royal
archives of King Amenophis IV. of the XVIIIth Egyptian
dynasty, who in the latter years of his reign chose to be known
as Akhenaton, " the glory of the solar disk." This monarch
had retired from Thebes and established his court on the site
now known as Tel el-Amarna, where he founded the city which
existed only during the brief period of thirty years ending with
the death of the monarch about 1370 B.C. The date of the
documents found in the royal library is, therefore, fixed within
very narrow limits. The documents in question consist chiefly
of letters, and constitute one of the most important of archaeo-
logical finds. These letters came to the king from almost every
part of western Asia, including Palestine and Phoenicia, Baby-
lonia and Asia Minor. Strangely enough, all the letters are
written in the Babylonian character, and most of them are in
the Babylonian language. They afford, therefore, most striking
evidence of a widespread diffusion of Babylonian culture.
Incidentally they prove, to the utter confusion of a certain school
of Bible critics, that the art of writing was familiarly known in
Canaan, and that Egypt and western Asia were in full literary
connexion with one another, long before the time of the Exodus.
Hence all the elaborate arguments based on the supposition that
Moses probably could not write fall to the ground. On the other
hand, the absence of letters from Mycenae among the tablets
of Tel el-Amarna must be regarded as at least suggestive.
Seemingly the widespread Babylonian culture had not reached
the Aegean peoples; yet these peoples cannot have been wholly
ignorant of things with which commercial intercourse brought
them in contact. The point is of no very great significance,
however, since no one has pretended that the Western civilization
compared with the Eastern in point of antiquity; and in any
event, no amount of negative evidence weighs a grain in the
balance against the positive evidence of the Cretan inscriptions.

The researches of the archaeologist are, in short, tending to
reconstruct the primitive classical history; and here, as in the
Orient, it is evident that historians of the earlier day were
constantly blinded by a misconception as to the antiquity of
civilization. Such a fruitage as that of Greek culture of the age
of Pericles does not come to maturity without a long period of
preparation. Here, as elsewhere, the laws of evolution hold,
permitting no sudden stupendous leaps. But it required the
arduous labours of the archaeologist to prove a proposition that,
once proven, seems self-evident. CH. S. Wi.)

Eras and Periods.

In the article Calendar (q.v.), that part of chronology is treated
which relates to the measurement of time, and the principal
methods are explained that have been employed, or are still in
use, for adjusting the lunar months of the solar year, as well as
the intercalations necessary for regulating the civil year according
to the celestial motions. But it is necessary to notice here the
different Eras and Periods that have been employed by historians,
and by the different nations of the world, in recording the succes-
sion of time and events, to fix the epochs at which the eras
respectively commenced, to ascertain the form and the initial
day of the year made use of, and to establish their correspondence

with the years of the Christian era. These elements will enable
us to convert, by a simple arithmetical operation, any historical
date, of which the chronological characters are given according to
any era whatever, into the corresponding date in the Christian era.

Julian Period. — Although the Julian period (the invention
of Joseph Scaliger, in 1582) is not, properly speaking, a chrono-
logical era, yet, on account of its affording considerable facilities
in the comparison of different eras with one another, and in
marking without ambiguity the years before Christ, it is very
generally employed by chronologers. It consists of 7980 Julian
years; and the first year of the Christian era corresponded with
the year 4714 of the Julian period.

Olympiads. — The Olympic games, so famous in Greek history,
were celebrated once every four years, between the new and full
moon first following the summer solstice, on the small plain
named Olympia in Elis, which was bounded on one side by the
river Alpheus, on another by the small tributary stream the
Cladeus, and on the other two sides by mountains. The games
lasted five days. Their origin, lost in the dimness of remote
antiquity, was invested by priestly legends with a sacred char-
acter. They were said to have been instituted by the Idaean
Heracles, to commemorate his victory over his four brothers in
a foot-race. According to a tradition, possibly more authentic,
they were re-established by Iphitus, king of Elis, in concert with
the Spartan Lycurgus and Cleosthenes of Pisa. The practice was
long afterwards adopted of designating the Olympiad, or period
of four years, by the name of the victor in the contests of the
stadium, and of inscribing his name in the gymnasium of
Olympia. The first who received this honour was Coroebus,
The games in which Coroebus was victor, and which form the
principal epoch of Greek history, were celebrated about the time
of the summer solstice 776 years before the common era of the
Incarnation, in the 3938th year of the Julian period, and twenty-
three years, according to the account of Varro, before the
foundation of Rome.

Before the introduction of the Metonic cycle, the Olympic
year began sometimes with the full moon which followed, at
other times with that which preceded the summer solstice, because
the year sometimes contained 384 days instead of 354. But
subsequently to its adoption, the year always commenced with
the eleventh day of the moon which followed the solstice. In
order to avoid troublesome computations, which it would be
necessary to recommence for every year, and of which the results
differ only by a few days, chronologers generally regard the ist
of July as the commencement of the Olympic year. Some
authors, however, among whom are Eusebius, Jerome and
the historian Socrates, place its commencement at the ist of
September; these, however, appear to have confounded the
Olympic year with the civil year of the Greeks, or the era of the
Seleucidae.

It is material to observe, that as the Olympic years and periods
begin with the 1st of July, the first six months of a year of our era
correspond to one Olympic year, and the last six months to another.
Thus, when it is said that the first year of the Incarnation corre-
sponds to the first of the 195th Olympiad, we are to understand that
it is only with respect to the last six months of that year that the
correspondence takes place. The first six months belonged to the
fourth year of the I94th Olympiad. In referring dates expressed
by Olympiads to our era, or the contrary, we must therefore dis-
tinguish two cases.

ist. When the event in question happened between the ist of
January and the ist of the following July, the sum of the Olympic
year and of the year before Christ is always equal to 776. The year
of the era,_ therefore, will be found by subtracting the number of
the Olympic year from 776. For example, Varro refers the founda-
tion of Rome to the 2 ist of April of the third year of the sixth
Olympiad, and it is required to find the year before our era. Since
five Olympic periods have elapsed, the third year of the sixth
Olympiad is 5X4+3=23; therefore, subtracting 23 from 776,
we have 753, which is the year before Christ to which the foundation
of Rome is referred by Varro.

2nd. When the event took place between the summer solstice and
the ist of January following, the sum of the Olympic year and of the
year before Christ is equal to 777. The difference, therefore, between
777 and the year in one of the dates will give the year in the other
date. Thus, the moon was eclipsed on the 27th of August, a little
before midnight, in the year 413 before our era; and it is required

CHRONOLOGY

to find the corresponding year in the Olympic era. Subtract 413
from 777, the remainder is 364; and 364 divided by four gives 01
without a remainder; consequently the eclipse happened in the
fourth year of the ninety-first Olympiad, which is the date to which
it is referred by Thucydides.

If the year is after Christ, and the event took place in one of the
first six months of the Olympic year, that is to say, between July
and January, we must subtract 776 from the number of the Olympic
year to find the corresponding year of our era ; but if it took place
in one of the last six months of the Olympic year, or between January
and July, we must deduct 777. The computation by Olympiads
seldom occurs in historical records after the middle of the 5th
century of our era.

The names of the months were different in the different Grecian
states. The Attic months, of which we possess the most certain
knowledge, were named as follows: —

Hecatombaeon. Gamelion.

Metageitnion. Anthesterion.

Boedromion. Elaphebolion.

Pyanepsion. Munychion.

Maemacterion. Thargelion.

Poseideon. Scirophorion.

Era of the Foundation of Rome. — After the Olympiads, the
era most frequently met with in ancient history is that of the
foundation of Rome, which is the chronological epoch adopted
by all the Roman historians. There are various opinions respect-
ing the year of the foundation of Rome, (i) Fabius Pictor places
it in the latter half of the first year of the eighth Olympiad,
which corresponds with the 3967th of the Julian period, and with
the year 747 B.C. (2) Polybius places it in the second year of the
seventh Olympiad, corresponding with 3964 of the Julian period,
and 750 B.C. (3) M. Porcius Cato places it in the first year of
the seventh Olympiad, that is, in 3963 of the Julian period, and

751 B.C. (4) Verrius Flaccus places it in the fourth year of the
sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3962 of the Julian period, and

752 B.C. (5) Terentius Varro places it in the third year of the
sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, and
7 53 B .C. A knowledge of these different computations isnecessary,
in order to reconcile the Roman historians with one another,
and even any one writer with himself. Livy in general adheres
to the epoch of Cato, though he sometimes follows that of Fabius
Pictor. Cicero follows the account of Varro, which is also in
general adopted by Pliny. Dionysius of Halicarnassus follows
Cato. Modern chronologers for the most part adopt the account
of Varro, which is supported by a passage in Censorinus, where it
is stated that the 99ist year of Rome commenced with the
festival of the Palilia, in the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus.
Now this consulship corresponded with the 238th year of our
era; therefore, deducting 238 from 991, we have 753 to denote
the year before Christ. The Palilia commenced on the 2ist of
April; and ah1 the accounts agree in regarding that day es the
epoch of the foundation of Rome.

The Romans employed two sorts of years, the civil year, which
was used in the transaction of public and private affairs, and the
consular year, according to which the annals of their history have
been composed. The civil year commenced with the calends of
January, but this did not hold a fixed place in the solar year till the
time of Julius Caesar(see CALENDAR). The installation of the consuls
regulated the commencement of the consular year. The initial
day of the consulate was never fixed, at least before the 7th century
of Rome, but varied with the different accidents which in times of
political commotion so frequently occurred to accelerate or retard
the elections. Hence it happens that a consular year, generally
speaking, comprehends a part not only of two Julian years, but
also of two civil years. The consulate is the date employed by the
Latin historians generally, and by many of the Greeks, down to the
6th century of our era.

In the era of Rome the commencement of the year is placed at the
2ist of April: an event therefore which happened in the months
of January, February, March, or during the first twenty days of
April, in the year (for example) 500 of Rome, belongs to the civil
year 501. Before the time of the Decemvirs, however, February was
the last month of the year. Many authors confound the year of
Rome with the civil year, supposing them both to begin on the 1st
of January. Others again confound both the year of Rome and the
civil year with the Julian year, which in fact became the civil year
after the regulation of the calendar by Julius Caesar. Through a
like want of attention, many writers also, particularly among the
moderns, have confounded the Julian and Olympic years, by making
an entire Julian year correspond to an entire Olympic year, as if
both had commenced at the same epoch. Much attention to these
particulars is required in the comparison of ancient dates.

The Christian Era. — The Christian or vulgar era, called also
the era of the Incarnation, is now almost universally employed
in Christian countries, and is even used by some Eastern nations.
Its epoch or beginning is the ist of January in the fourth year
of the lo.jth Olympiad, the 753rd from the foundation of Rome,
and the 47i4th of the Julian period. This epoch was introduced
in Italy in the 6th century, by Dionysius the Little, a Roman
abbot, and began to be used in Gaul in the 8th, though it
was not generally followed in that country till a century later.
From extant charters it is known to have been in use in England
before the close of the 8th century. Before its adoption the usual
practice in Latin countries was to distinguish the years by their
number in the cycle of Indiction.

In the Christian era the years are simply distinguished by the
cardinal numbers; those before Christ being marked B.C. (Before
Christ), or A.C. (Ante Christum), and those after Christ A.D.
(Anno Domini). This method of reckoning tune is more con-
venient than those which employ cycles or periods of any length
whatever; but it still fails to satisfy in the simplest manner
possible all the conditions that are necessary for registering the
succession of events. For, since the commencement of the era
is placed at an intermediate period of history, we are compelled
to resort to a double manner of reckoning, backward as well
as forward. Some ambiguity is also occasioned by the want
of uniformity in the method of numbering the preceding years.
Astronomers denote the year which preceded the first of our era
by o, and the year previous to that by i B.C.; but chronologers,
in conformity with common notions, call the year preceding the
era i B.C., the previous year 2 B.C., and so on. By reckoning
in this manner, there is an interruption in the regular succession
of the numbers; and in the years preceding the era, the leap
years, instead of falling on the fourth, eighth, twelfth, &c., fall,
or ought to fall, on the first, fifth, ninth, &c.

In the chronicles of the middle ages much uncertainty fre-
quently arises respecting dates on account of the different epochs
assumed for the beginning of the Christian year. Dionysius,
the author of the era, adopted the day of the Annunciation,
or the 25th of March, which preceded the birth of Christ by nine
months, as the commencement of the first year of the era. This
epoch therefore precedes that of the vulgar era by nine months
and seven days. This manner of dating was followed in some
of the Italian states, and continued to be used at Pisa even down
to the year 1745. It was also adopted in some of the Papal
bulls; and there are proofs of its having been employed in France
about the middle of the nth century. Some chroniclers, who
adhere to the day of the Annunciation as the commencement of
the year, reckon from the 25th of March following our epoch,
as the Florentines in the loth century. Gregory of Tours, and
some writers of the 6th and 7th centuries, make the year begin
sometimes with the ist of March, and sometimes with the ist of
January. In France, under the third race of kings, it was usual
to begin the year with Easter; and this practice continued at
least till the middle of the i6th century, for an edict was issued
by Charles IX. in the month of January 1663, ordaining that the
beginning of the year should thenceforth be considered as taking
place on the ist of January. An instance is given, in L'Art de
v£rifier les dates, of a date in which the year is reckoned from
the 1 8th of March; but it is probable that this refers to the
astronomical year, and that the i8th of March was taken for
the day of the vernal equinox. In Germany, about the nth
century, it was usual to begin the year at Christmas; and this
practice also prevailed at Milan, Rome and other Italian cities,
in the i3th, i4th and isth centuries.

In England, the practice of placing the beginning of the year
at Christmas was introduced in the yth century, and traces
of it are found even in the I3th. Gervase of Canterbury, who
lived in the I3th century, mentions that almost all writers of his
country agreed in regarding Christmas day as the first of the year,
because it forms, as it were, the term at which the sun finishes
and recommences his annual course. In the I2th century,
however, the custom of beginning the civil year with the day of
the Annunciation, or the' 25th of March, began to prevail, and

3M-

CHRONOLOGY

continued to be generally followed from that time till the re-
formation of the calendar in 175*. The historical year has
always been reckoned by English authors to begin with the ist
of January. The liturgic year of the Church of England com-
mences with the first Sunday of Advent.

A knowledge of the different epochs which have been chosen
for the commencement of the year in different countries is
indispensably necessary to the right interpretation of ancient
chronicles, charters and other documents in which the dates
often appear contradictory. We may cite an example or two.
It is well known that Charles the Great was crowned emperor
at Rome on Christmas day in the year 800, and that he died in
the year 814, according to our present manner of reckoning.
But in the annals of Metz and Moissac, the coronation is stated
to have taken place in the year Soi, and his death in 813. In
the first case the annalist supposes the year to begin with Christ-
mas, and accordingly reckons the 25th of December and all the
following days of that month to belong to 801, whereas in the
common reckoning they would be referred to the year 800.
In the second case the year has been supposed to begin with the
2$th of March, or perhaps with Easter; consequently the first
three months of the year 814, reckoning from the ist of January,
would be referred to the end of the year 813. The English
Revolution is popularly called the Revolution of 1688. Had
the year then begun, as it now does, with the ist of January, it
would have been the revolution of 1689, William and Mary
being received as king and queen in February in the year 1689;
but at that time the year was considered in England as beginning
on the 25th of March. Another circumstance to which it is
often necessary to pay attention in the comparison of dates,
is the alteration of style which took place on the adoption of the
Gregorian Calendar (see CALENDAR).

Era of Ike Creation of the World. — As the Greek and Roman
methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan
rites and observances which the Christians held in abhorrence,
the latter began at an early period to imitate the Jews in reckon-
ing their years from the supposed period of the creation of the
world. Various computations were made at different times, from
Biblical sources, as to the age of the world; and Des Vignoles, in
the preface to his Chronology of Sacred History, asserts that he
collected upwards of two hundred different calculations, the
shortest of which reckons only 3483 years between the creation of
the world and the commencement of the vulgar era and the
longest 6984. The so-called era of the creation of the world is
therefore a purely conventional and arbitrary epoch; practically,
it means the year 4004 B.C., — this being the date which, under the
sanction of Archbishop Usher's opinion, won its way, among its
hundreds of competitors, into general acceptance.

Jewish Year and Eras. — Before the departure of the Israelites
from Egypt their year commenced at the autumnal equinox; but
in order to solemnize the memory of their deliverance, the month
of Nisan or Abib, in which that event took place, and which falls
about the time of the vernal equinox, was afterwards regarded as
the beginning of the ecclesiastical or legal year. In civil affairs,
and in the regulation of the jubilees and sabbatical years, the
Jews still adhere to the ancient year, which begins with the month
Tisri, about the time of the autumnal equinox.

After their dispersion the Jews were constrained to have
recourse to the astronomical rules and cycles of the more en-
lightened heathen, in order that their religious festivals might be
observed on the same days in all the countries through which
they were scattered. For this purpose they adopted a cycle of
eighty-four years, which is mentioned by several of the ancient
fathers of the church, and which the early Christians borrowed
from them for the regulation of Easter. This cycle seems to be
neither more nor less than the Calippic period of seventy-six
years, with the addition of a Greek octaeteris, or period of eight
years, in order to disguise its true source, and give it an appear-
ance of originality. In fact, the period of Calippus containing
27>759 days, and the octaeteris 2922 days, the sum, which is
30,681, is exactly the number of days in eighty-four Julian years.
But the addition was very far from being an improvement on the

work of Calippus; for instead of a difference of only five hours
and fifty-three minutes between the places of the sun and moon,
which was the whole error of the Calippic period, this difference,
in the period of eighty-four years, amounted to one day, six hours
and forty-one minutes. Buccherius places the beginning of this
cycle in the year 162 B.C.; Prideaux in the year 291 B.C. Accord-
ing to the account of Prideaux, the fifth cycle must have begun in
the year 46 of our era; and it was in this year, according to St
Prosperus, that the Christians began to employ the Jewish cycle
of eighty-four years, which they followed, though not uniformly,
for the regulation of Easter, till the time of the Council of Nice.

Soon after the Nicene council, the Jews, in imitation of the
Christians, abandoned the cycle of eighty-four years, and
adopted that of Meton, by which their lunisolar year is regulated
at the present day. This improvement was first proposed by
Rabbi Samuel, rector of the Jewish school of Sora hi Mesopotamia,
and was finally accomplished in the year 360 of our era by Rabbi
Hillel, who introduced that form of the year which the Jews at
present follow, and which, they say, is to endure till the coming of
the Messiah.

Till the i5th century the Jews usually followed the era of the
Seleucidae or of Contracts. Since that time they have generally
employed a mundane era, and dated from the 'creation of the
world, which, according to their computation, took place 3760
years and about three months before the beginning of our era.
No rule can be given for determining with certainty the day on
which any given Jewish year begins without entering into the
minutiae of their irregular and complicated calendar.

Era of Constantinople. — This era, which is still used hi the
Greek Church, and was followed by the Russians till the time of
Peter the Great, dates from the creation of the world. The
Incarnation falls in the year 5509, and corresponds, as in our era,
with the fourth year of the i94th Olympiad. The civil year
commences with the ist of September; the ecclesiastical year
sometimes with the 2ist of March, sometimes with the ist of
April. It is not certain whether the year was considered at
Constantinople as beginning with September before the separa-
tion of the Eastern and Western empires.

At the commencement of our era there had elapsed 5508 years
and four months of the era of Constantinople. Hence the first
eight months of the Christian year i coincide with the Con-
stantinopolitan year 5509, while the last four months belong to
the year 5510. In order, therefore, to find the year of Christ
corresponding to any given year in the era of Constantinople, we
have the following rule: If the event took place between the ist
of January and the end of August subtract 5508 from the given
year; but if it happened between the ist of September and the
end of the year, subtract 5509.

Era of Alexandria. — The chronological computation of Julius
Africanus was adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, who
accordingly reckoned 5500 years from the creation of Adam to
the birth of Christ. But in reducing Alexandrian dates to the
common era it must be observed that Julius Africanus placed
the epoch of the Incarnation three years earlier than it is placed hi
the usual reckoning, so that the initial day of the Christian era
fell in the year 5503 of the Alexandrian era. This correspondence,
however, continued only from the introduction of the era till the
accession of Diocletian, when an alteration was made by dropping
ten years in the Alexandrian account. Diocletian ascended the
imperial throne in the year of Christ 284. According to the
Alexandrian computation, this was the year 5787 of the world,
and 287 of the Incarnation; but on this occasion ten years were
omitted, and that year was thenceforth called the year 5777 of the
world, and 277 of the Incarnation. There are, consequently, two
distinct eras of Alexandria, the one being used before and the
other after the accession of Diocletian. It is not known for what
reason the alteration was made; but it is conjectured that it was
for the purpose of causing a newrevolution of the cycle of nineteen
years (which was introduced into the ecclesiastical computation
about this time by Anatolius, bishop of Hierapolis) to begin with
the firsf year of the reign of Diocletian. In fact, 5777 being
divided by 19 leaves i for the year of the cycle. The Alexandrian

CHRONOLOGY

era continued to be followed by the Copts in the isth century,
and is said to be still used in Abyssinia.

Dates expressed according to this era are reduced to the
common era by subtracting 5502, up to the Alexandrian year
5786 inclusive, and after that year by subtracting 5492; but if
the date belongs to one of the four last months of the Christian
year, we must subtract 5503 till the year 5786, and 5493 after
that year.

Mundane Era of Antioch. — The chronological reckoning of
Julius Africanus formed also the basis of the era of Antioch,
which was adopted by the Christians of Syria, at the instance
of Panodorus, an Egyptian monk, who flourished about the
beginning of the 4th century. Panodorus struck off ten years
from the account of Julius Africanus with regard to the years of
the world, and he placed the Incarnation three years later,
referring it to the fourth year of the I94th Olympiad, as in the
common era. Hence the era of Antioch differed from the original
'era of Alexandria by ten years; but after the alteration of the
latter at the accession of Diocletian, the two eras coincided. In
reckoning from the Incarnation, however, there is a difference
of seven years, that epoch being placed, in the reformed era of
Alexandria, seven years later than in the mundane era of Antioch
or in the Christian era.

As the Syrian year began in autumn, the year of Christ
corresponding to any year in the mundane era of Antioch is
found by subtracting 5492 or 5493 according as the event falls
between January and September or from September to January.

Era of Nabonassar. — This era is famous in astronomy, having
been generally followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It is
believed to have been in use from the very time of its origin;
for the observations of eclipses which were collected in Chaldaea
by Callisthenes, the general of Alexander, and transmitted by
him to Aristotle, were for the greater part referred to the beginning
of the reign of Nabonassar, founder of the kingdom of the
Babylonians. It is the basis of the famous Canon of kings, also
called Mathematical Canon, preserved to us in the works of
Ptolemy, which, before the astonishing discoveries at Nineveh,
was the sole authentic monument of Assyrian and Babylonian
history known to us. The epoch from which it is reckoned is
precisely determined by numerous celestial phenomena recorded
by Ptolemy, and corresponds to Wednesday at mid-day, the
26th of February of the year 747 before Christ. The year was
in all respects the same as the ancient Egyptian year. On
account of the difference in the length of the Julian and Baby-
lonian years, the conversion of dates according to the era of
Nabonassar into years before Christ is attended with considerable
trouble. The surest way is to follow a comparative table.
Frequently the year cannot be fixed with certainty, unless we
know also the month and the day.

The Greeks of Alexandria formerly employed the era of
Nabonassar, with a year of 365 days; but soon after the reforma-
tion of the calendar of Julius Caesar, they adopted, like other
Roman provincials, the Julian intercalation. At this time the
first of Thoth had receded to the 2gth of August. In the year
136 of our era, the first of Thoth in the ancient Egyptian year
corresponded with the 2oth of July, between which and the
29th of August there are forty days. The adoption of the Julian
year must therefore have taken place about 160 years before
the year 136 of our era (the difference between the Egyptian
and Julian years being one day in four years), that is to say,
about the year 25 B.C. In fact, the first of Thoth corresponded
with the zgth of August in the Julian calendar, in the years 25,
24, 23 and 22 B.C.

Era of the Seleucidae, or Macedonian Era. — The era of the
Seleucidae dates from the time of the occupation of Babylon
by Seleucus Nicator, 311 years before Christ, in the year of Rome
442, and twelve years after the death of Alexander the Great.
It was adopted not only in the monarchy of the Seleucidae but
in general in all the Greek countries bordering on the Levant,
was followed by the Jews till the isth century, and is said to
be used by some Arabians even at the present day. By the
Jews it was called the Era of Contracts, because the Syrian

governors compelled them to make use of it in civil contracts;
the writers of the books of Maccabees call it the Era of Kings.
But notwithstanding its general prevalence in the East for
many centuries, authors using it differ much with regard to
their manner of expressing dates, in consequence of the different
epochs adopted for the beginning of the year. Among the
Syrian Greeks the year began with the month Elul, which
corresponds to our September. The Nestorians and Jacobites
at the present day suppose it to begin with the following month,
or October. The author of the first book of Maccabees makes
the era commence with the month Nisan, or April; and the
author of the second book with the first Tishrin, or October.
Albategni, a celebrated Arabian astronomer, dates from the
ist of October. Some of the Arabian writers, as Alfergani,
date from the ist of September. At Tyre the year was counted
from the igth of our October, at Gaza from the 28th of the same
month, and at Damascus from the vernal equinox. These dis-
crepancies render it extremely difficult to determine the exact
correspondence of Macedonian dates with those of other eras;
and the difficulty is rendered still greater by the want of uni-
formity in respect of the length of the year. Some authors who
follow the Macedonian era, use the Egyptian or vague year of
365 days; Albategni adopts the Julian year of 365$ days.

According to the computation most generally followed, the
year 31 2 of the era of the Seleucidae began on the ist of September
in the Julian year preceding the first of our era. Hence, to reduce
a Macedonian date to the common era, subtract 311 years and
four months.

The names of the, Syrian and Macedonian
correspondence with the Roman months, are as

Syrian.

Elul.

Tishrin I.

Tishrin II.

Canun I.

Canun II.

Sabat.

Adar.

Nisan.

Ayar.

Haziran.

Tamus.

Ab.

Macedonian.
Gorpiaeus.
Hyperberetaeus.
Dius.
Apellaeus.
Audynaeus.
Peritius.
Dystrus.
Xanthicus.
Artemisius.
Daesius.
Panemus.
Lous.

months, and their
follows : —
English.
September.
October.
November.
December.
January.
February.
March.
April.
May.

June,
uly.
August.

Era of Alexander. — Some of the Greek historians have assumed
as a chronological epoch the death of Alexander the Great, in
the year 325 B.C. The form of the year is the same as in the
preceding era. This era has not been much followed; but it
requires to be noticed in order that it may not be confounded
with the era of the Seleucidae.

Era of Tyre. — The era of Tyre is reckoned from the igth of
October, or the beginning of the Macedonian month Hyper-
beretaeus, in the year 126 B.C. In order, therefore, to reduce
it to the common era, subtract 125; and when the date is B.C.,
subtract it from 126. Dates expressed according to this era
occur only on a few medals, and in the acts of certain councils.

Caesarean Era of Antioch. — This era was established to com-
memorate the victory obtained by Julius Caesar on the plains
of Pharsalia, on the gth of August in the year 48 B.C., and the
7o6th of Rome. The Syrians computed it from their month
Tishrin I.; but the Greeks threw it back to the month Gorpiaeus
of the preceding year. Hence there is a difference of eleven
months between the epochs assumed by the Syrians and the
Greeks. According to the computation of the Greeks, the 49th
year of the Caesarean era began in the autumn of the year
preceding the commencement of the Christian era; and, accord-
ing to the Syrians, the 49th year began in the autumn of the
first year of the Incarnation. It is followed by Evagrius in his
Ecclesiastical History.

Julian Era. — The Julian era begins with the ist of January,
forty-five years B.C. It was designed to commemorate the
reformation of the Roman calendar by Julius Caesar.

Era of Spain, or of the Caesars. — The conquest of Spain by
Augustus, which was completed in the thirty-ninth year B.C.,
gave r,ise to this era, which began with the first day of the following

CHRONOLOGY

year, and was long used in Spain and Portugal, and generally
in all the Roman provinces subdued by the Visigoths, both in
Africa and the South of France. Several of the councils of
Carthage, and also that of Aries, are dated according to this era.
After the 9th century it became usual to join with it in public
acts the year of the Incarnation. It was followed in Catalonia
till the year 1 180, in the kingdom of Aragon till 1350, in Valencia
till 1358, and in Castile till 1382. In Portugal it is said to have
been in use so late as the year 1415, or 1422, though it would
seem that after the establishment of the Portuguese monarchy,
no other era was used in the public acts of that country than that
of the Incarnation. As the era of Spain began with the ist'of
January, and the months and days of the year are those of the
Julian calendar, any date is reduced to the common era by
subtracting thirty-eight from the number of the year.

Era of Actium, and Era of Augustus. — This era was established
to commemorate the battle of Actium, which was fought on the
3rd of September, in the year 31 B.C., and in the isth of the Julian
era. By the Romans the era of Actium was considered as
beginning on the ist of January of the i6th of the Julian era,
which is the 3Oth B.C. The Egyptians, who used this era till the
time of Diocletian, dated its commencement from the beginning
of their month Thoth, or the 2gth of August; and the Eastern
Greeks from the 2nd of September. By the latter it was also
called the era of Antioch, and it continued to be used till the
9th century. It must not be confounded with the Caesarean
era of Antioch, which began seventeen years earlier. Many of the
medals struck by the city of Antioch- in honour of Augustus are
dated according to this era.

Besides the era of Actium, there was also an Augustan era,
which began four years later, or 27 B.C., the year in which
Augustus prevailed on the senate and people of Rome to decree
him the title of Augustus, and to confirm him in the supreme
power of the empire.

Era of Diocletian, or Era of Martyrs. — It has been already
stated that the Alexandrians, at the accession of the emperor
Diocletian, made an alteration in their mundane era, by striking
off ten years from their reckoning. At the same time they estab-
lished a new era, which is still followed by the Abyssinians and
Copts. It begins with the 29th of August (the first day of the
Egyptian year) of the year 284 of our era, which was the first of
the reign of Diocletian. The denomination of Era of Martyrs,
subsequently given to it in commemoration of the persecution
of the Christians, would seem to imply that its commencement
ought to be referred to the year 303 of our era, for it was in that
year that Diocletian issued his famous edict; but the practice
of dating from the accession of Diocletian has prevailed. The
ancient Egyptian year consisted of 365 days; but after the
introduction of the Julian calendar, the astronomers of Alexandria
adopted an intercalary year, and added six additional days
instead of five to the end of the last month of every fourth year.
The year thus became exactly similar to the Julian year. The
Egyptian intercalary year, however, does not correspond to the
Julian leap year, but is the year immediately preceding; and
the intercalation takes place at the end of the year, or on the 29th
of August. Hence the first three years of the Egyptian inter-
calary period begin on the 29th of our August, and the fourth
begins on the 3oth of that month. Before the end of that year
the Julian intercalation takes place, and the beginning of the
following Egyptian year is restored to the 2gth of August.
Hence to reduce a date according to this era to our own reckoning,
it is necessary, for common years, to add 283 years and 240 days;
but if the date belongs to the first three months of the year
following the intercalation, or, which is the same thing, if in the
third year of the Julian cycle it falls between the 3Oth of August
and the end of the year, we must add 283 years and 241 days.
The Ethiopians do not reckon the years from the beginning of
the era in a consecutive series, but employ a period of 532 years,
after the expiration of which they again begin with i . This is the
Dionysian or Great Paschal Period, and is formed by the multi-
plication of the numbers 28 and 19, that is, of the solar and lunar
cycles, into each other.

The following are the names of the Ethiopian or Abyssinian
months, with the days on which they begin in the Julian calendar,
or old style : —

29th August. Magabit

28th September^ Miazia .

28th October. Gimbot .

27th November. Sene.

27th December. Hamle .

26th January. Nahasse

Mascaram

Tikraith

Hadar

Tacsam

Tir .

Yacatit

25th February.
27th March.
26th April.
26th May.
25th June.
25th July.

The additional or epagomenal days begin on the 24th of August.
In intercalary years the first seven months commence one day later.
The Egyptian months, followed by the modern Copts, agree with
the above in every respect excepting the names.

Indiction. — The cycle of Indiction was very generally followed
in the Roman empire for some centuries before the adoption
of the Christian era. Three Indictions may be distinguished;
but they differ only in regard to the commencement of the year.

1. The Constantinopolilan Indiction, like the Greek year,
commenced with the month of September. This was followed
in the Eastern empire, and in some instances also in France.

2. The Imperial or Constantinian Indiction is so called because
its establishment is attributed to Constantine. This was also
called the Caesarean Indiclion. It begins on the 24th of Sep-
tember. It is not infrequently met with in the ancient chronicles
of France and England.

3. The Roman or Pontifical Indiction began on the 2£th of
December or ist of January, according as the Christian year
was held to begin on the one or other of these days. It is often
employed in papal bulls, especially after the time of Gregory VII.,
and traces of its use are found in early French authors.

Era of the Armenians. — The epoch of the Armenian era is
that of the council of Tiben, in which the Armenians consum-
mated their schism from the Greek Church by condemning the
acts of the council of Chalcedon; and it corresponds to Tuesday,
the 9th of July of the year 552 of the Incarnation. In their
civil affairs the Armenians follow the ancient vague year of the
Egyptians; but their ecclesiastical year, which begins on the
nth of August, is regulated in the same manner as the Julian
year, every fourth year consisting of 366 days, so that Easter
and the other festivals are retained at the same place in the
seasons as well as in the civil year. The Armenians also make
use of the mundane era of Constantinople, and sometimes conjoin
both methods of computation in the same documents. In their
correspondence and transactions with Europeans, they generally
follow the era of the Incarnation, and adopt the Julian year.

To reduce the civil dates of the Armenians to the Christian era,
proceed as follows. Since the epoch is the 9th of July, there were
176 days from the beginning of the Armenian era to the end of
the year 552 of our era; and since 552 was a leap year, the year
553 began a Julian . intercalary period. Multiply, therefore,
the number of Armenian years elapsed by 365 ; add the number
of days from the commencement of the current year to the
given date; subtract 176 from the sum, and the remainder will
be the number of days from the ist of January 553 to the given
date. This number of days being reduced to Julian years, add
the result to 552, and the sum gives the day in the Julian year,
or old style.

In the ecclesiastical reckoning the year begins on the nth of
August. To reduce a date expressed in this reckoning to the
Julian date, add 551 years, and the days elapsed from the ist of
January to the loth of August, both inclusive, of the year 552 —
that is to say (since 532 is a leap year), 223 days. In leap years
one day must be subtracted if the date falls between the ist of
March and loth of August.

The following are the Armenian ecclesiastical months with their
correspondence with those of the Julian calendar: —

I. Navazardi begins nth August.

2. Hori

3. Sahmi .

4. DreThari

5. Kagoths

6. Aracz .

7. Maleei .

8. Arcki .
9- Angi

loth September,
loth October.

9th November.

9th December.

8th January.

7th February.

9th March.

8th April.

CHRONOLOGY

10. Mariri 8th May.

11. Marcacz 7th Tune.

12. Herodiez . ... 7th July.

To complete the year five complementary days are added in
common years, and six in leap years.

The Mahommedan Era, or Era of the Hegira. — The era in use
among the Turks, Arabs and other Mahommedan nations is
that of the Hegira or Hejra, the flight of the prophet from Mecca
to Medina, 622 A.D. Its commencement, however, does not, as
is sometimes stated, coincide with the very day of the flight,
but precedes it by sixty-eight days. The prophet, after leaving
Mecca, to escape the pursuit of his enemies, the Koreishites, hid
himself with his friend Abubekr in a cave near Mecca, and there
lay for three days. The departure from the cave and setting out
on the way to Medina is assigned to the ninth day of the third
month, Rabia I. — corresponding to the 22nd of September of
the year 622 A.D. The era begins from the first day of the month
of Muharram preceding the flight, or first day of that Arabian
year which coincides with Friday, July 16, 622 A.D. It is
necessary to remember that by astronomers and by some
historians the era is assigned to the preceding day, July 15.
It is stated by D'Herbelot that the era of the Hegira was in-
stituted by Omar, the second caliph, in imitation of the Christian
era of the martyrs.

Era of Yazdegerd, or Persian or Jelalaean Era. — This era begins
with the elevation of Yazdegerd III. to the throne of Persia, on
the i6th of June in the year of our era 632. Till the year 1079
the Persian year resembled that of the ancient Egyptians, con-
sisting of 365 days without intercalation; but at that time the
Persian calendar was reformed by Jelal ud-Dln Malik Shah,
sultan of Khorasan, and a method of intercalation adopted
which, though less convenient, is considerably more accurate
than the Julian. The intercalary period is 33 years, — one day
being added to the common year seven times successively at the
end of four years, and the eighth intercalation being deferred till
the end of the fifth year. This era was at one period universally
adopted in Persia, and it still continues to be followed by the
Parsees of India. The months consist of thirty days each, and
each day is distinguished by a different name. According to
Alfergani, the names of the Persian months are as follows: —
Afrudin-meh. Merded-meh. Adar-meh.

Ardisascht-meh. Schaharir-meh. Di-meh.

Cardi-meh. Mahar-meh. Behen-meh.

Tir-meh. Aben-meh. Affirer-meh.

The five additional days (in intercalary years six) are named
Musteraca.

As it does not appear that the above-mentioned rule of inter-
calation was ever regularly followed, it is impossible to assign
exactly the days on which the different years begin. In some
provinces of India the Parsees begin the year with September,
in others they begin it with October. We have stated that the
era began with the i6th June 632. But the vague year, which
was followed till 1079, anticipated the Julian year by one day
every four years. In 447 years the anticipation would amount to
about 112 days, and the beginning of the year would in conse-
quence be thrown back to near the beginning of the Julian year
632. To the year of the Persian era, therefore, add 631, and the
sum will be the year of our era in which the Persian year begins.
Chinese Chronology. — From the time of the emperor Yao,
upwards of 2000 years B.C., the Chinese had two different years,—
a civil year, which was regulated by the moon, and an astro-
nomical year, which was solar. The civil year consisted in
general of twelvemonths or lunations, but occasionally a thir-
teenth was added in order to preserve its correspondence with
the solar year. Even at that early period the solar or astro-
nomical year consisted of 365^ days, like our Julian year; and
it was arranged in the same manner, a day being intercalated
every fourth year.

According to the missionary Gaubil, the Chinese divided the
day into 100 ke, each ke into 100 minutes, and each minute into
100 seconds. This practice continued to prevail till the i?th
century, when, at the instance of the Jesuit Scb.aH, president of
the tribunal of mathematics, they adopted the European method

of dividing the day into twenty-four hours, each hour into sixty
minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds. The civil day
begins at midnight and ends at the midnight following.

Since the accession of the emperors of the Han dynasty,
206 B.C., the civil year of the Chinese has begun with the first day
of that moon in the course of which the sun enters into the sign
of the zodiac which corresponds with our sign Pisces. From the
same period also they have employed, in the adjustment of
their solar and lunar years, a period of nineteen years, twelve
of which are common, containing twelve lunations each, and the
remaining seven intercalary, containing thirteen lunations. It
is not, however, precisely known how they distributed their
months of thirty and twenty-nine days, or, as they termed them,
great and small moons. This, with other matters appertaining
to the calendar, was probably left to be regulated from time to
time by the mathematical tribunal.

The Chinese divide the time of a complete revolution of the
sun with regard to the solstitial points into twelve equal portions,
each corresponding to thirty days, ten hours, thirty minutes.
Each of these periods, which is denominated a tele", is subdivided
into two equal portions called chung-ki and tsie-ki, the chung-ki
denoting the first half of the tsil, and the tsie-ki the latter half.
Though the tseS are thus strictly portions of solar time, yet what
is remarkable, though not peculiar to China, they give their name
to the lunar months, each month or lunation having the name of
the chung-ki or sign at which the sun arrives during that month.
As the tsee is longer than a synodic revolution of the moon, the
sun cannot arrive twice at a chung-ki during the. same lunation;
and as there are only twelve Is'ee, the year can contain only
twelve months having different names. It must happen some-
times that in the course of a lunation the sun enters into no new
sign; in this case the month is intercalary, and is called by the
same name as the preceding month.

For chronological purposes, the Chinese, in common with some
other nations of the east of Asia, employ cycles of sixty, by means of
which they reckon their days, moons and years. The days are
distributed in the calendar into cycles of sixty, in the same manner
as ours are distributed into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of
the cycle has a particular name, and as it is a usual practice, in
mentioning dates, to give the name of the day along with that of
the moon and the year, this arrangement affords great facilities in
verifying the epochs of Chinese chronology. The order of the days
in the cycle is never interrupted by any intercalation that may be
necessary for adjusting the months or years. The moons of the civil
year are also distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty ; and
as the intercalary moons are not reckoned, for the reason before
stated, namely, that during one of these lunations the sun enters
into no new sign, there are only twelve regular moons in a year,
so that the cycle is renewed every five years. Thus the first moon of
the year 1873 being the first of a new cycle, the first moon of every
sixth year, reckoned backwards or forwards from that date, as 1868,
1863, &c., or 1877, 1882, &c., also begins a new lunar cycle of sixty
moons. In regard to the years, the arrangement is exactly the same.
Each has a distinct number or name which marks its place in the
cycle, and as this is generally given in referring to dates, along with the
sther chronological characters of the year, the ambiguity which arises
from following a fluctuating or uncertain epoch is entirely obviated.

The cycle of sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles or series of
:haracters, one of ten and the other of twelve, which are joined
together so as to afford sixty different combinations. The names of
the characters in the cycle often, which are called celestial signs, are —
I. Kea; 2. Yih; 3. Ping; 4. Ting; 5. Woo;
6. Ke; 7. Kang; 8. Sin; 9. Jin; 10. Kwei;
and in the series of 12, denominated terrestrial signs,

I. Tsze; 2. Chow; 3. Yin; 4. Maou; 5. Shin; 6. Sze;
7. Woo; 8. We; 9. Shin; 10. Yew; n. Seuh; 12. Hae.'

The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the sexagenary
cycle is formed by combining the first words in each of the above
series; the second is formed by combining the second of each series,
and so on to the tenth. For the next year the first word of the first
series is combined with the eleventh of the second, then the second
of the first series with the twelfth of the second, after this the third
of the first series with the first of the second, and so on till the sixtieth
combination, when the last of the first series concurs with the last
of the second. Thus Kea-tsze is the name of the first year, Yih-
Chow that of the second, Kea-seuh that of the eleventh, Yih-hae
that of the twelfth, Ping-tsze that of the thirteenth, and so on. The
order of proceeding is obvious.

In the Chinese history translated into the Tatar dialect by order
>f the emperor K'ang-hi, who died in 1721, the characters of the cycle
begin to appear at the year 2357 B.C. From this it has been inferred

3i8

CHRUDIM— CHRYSANTHEMUM

that the Chinese empire was established previous to that epoch;
but it is obviously so easy to extend the cycles backwards indefinitely,
that the inference can have very little weight. The characters given
to that year 2357 B.C. are Kea-shin, which denote the 4ist of the
cycle. We must, therefore, suppose the cycle to have begun 2397
B c or forty years before the reign of Yao. This is the epoch
assumed by the authors of L'Art At verifier Its dates. The mathe-
matical tribunal has, however, from time immemorial counted the
first year of the first cycle from the eighty-first of Yao, that is
to say, from the year 2277 B.C.

Since the year 163 B.C. the Chinese writers have adopted the
practice of dating the year from the accession of the reigning emperor.
An emperor, on succeeding to the throne, gives a name to the years
of his reign. He ordains, for example, that they shall be called Ta-te.
In consequence of this edict, the following year is called the first of
Ta-te, and the succeeding years the second, third, fourth, &c., of
Ta-te, and so on, till it pleases the same emperor or his successor to
ordain that the years shall be called by some other appellation.
The periods thus formed are called by the Chinese Nien-hao. Accord-
ing to this method of dating the years a new era commences with
every reign ; and the year corresponding to a Chinese date can only
be found when we have before us a catalogue of the Nien-hao, with
their relation to the years of our era.

For Hindu Chronology, see the article under that heading.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — In addition to the early Greek writings already
named, there are the forty books (some fifteen only extant in their
entirety) of universal history compiled (about 8 B.C.) by Diodorus
Siculus, and arranged in the form of annals; the Pentabiblos of
Julius Africanus (about 220-230 A.D.) ; the treatise of Censorinus
entitled De die natali, written 238 A.D.; the Chronicon, in two
books, of Eusebius Pamphili, bishop of Caesarea (about 325 A.D.),
distinguished as the first book of a purely chronological character
which has come down to us; and three important works forming
parts of the Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, namely, the
Chronographia of Georgius Syncellus (800 A.D.), the Chronographia
of Johannes Malalas (9th century), and the Chronicon Paschale.

Among works on Chronology, the following, which are arranged
in the order of their publication, have an historical interest, as leading
up to the epoch of modern research : —

1583. De Emendations Temporum, by Joseph Scaliger, in which
were laid the foundations of chronological science.

1603. Opus Chronologicum, by Sethus Calvisius.

1627. De Doclrina Temporum, by Petavius (Denis Petau), with
its continuation published in 1630, and an abridgment entitled
Rationarium Temporum, in 1633-1634.

1650. Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti, by Archbishop Ussher,
whose dates have by some means gained a place in the authorized
version of the Bible.

1651. Regia Epitome Historiae Sacrae et Profanae, by Philippe
Labile, of which a French version was also published.

1669. Institutionum Chronologicarum libri duo, by Bishop
Beveridge.

1672. Chronicus Canon Aegyptiacus, Ebraicus, et Graecus, by Sir
John Marsham.

1687. L'AntiquiU des temps retablie et defendue, by Paul Pezron,
with its Defense, 1691.

1701. De Veteribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cyclis, by Henry
Dodwell.

1728. The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms amended, by Sir
Isaac Newton, remarkable as an attempt to construct a system on
new bases, independent of the Greek chronologers.

1738. Chronologie de I'histoire sainte, by Alphonse des Vignolles.

1744. Tablettes chronologiques de I'histoire universelle, by N.
Lenglet-Dufresnoy.

1750. The first edition in one vol. 4to of L'Art de verifier les
dates, which in its third edition (1818-1831) appeared in 38 vols.
8vo, a colossal monument of the learning and labours of various
members of the Benedictine Congregation of Saint-Maur.

1752. Chronological Antiquities, by John Jackson.

1754. Chronology and History of the World, by John Blair; new
«dition, much enlarged (1857).

1784. A System of Chronology, by Playfair.

1799. Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums, by
A. H. L. Heeren.

1803. Handbuch der alien Geschichte, Geographie, und Chronologie,
by G. G. Bredow, with his Historische Tabellen.

1809-1814. New Analysis of Chronology, by William Hales.

1819. Annales Veterum "Regnorum, by C. G. Zumpt.

1821. Tableaux historigues, chronologiques, et geographiques, by
Buret de Longchamps.

1824-1834. Fasti Hellenici, and 1845-1850, Fasti Romani, by H.
Fynes Clinton. Epitomes of these elaborate works were published,
1851-1853.

1825-1826. Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chrono-
logie, by Christian Ludwig Ideler ; and his Lehrbuch der Chronologie,
(1831).

1833. The Chronology of History, by Sir Harris Nicolas.

1852. Fasti Temporis Catholici, by Edward Greswell; and by
the same author (1854), Origines Kalendariae Italicae; and 1862,
Origines Kalendariae Hellenicae.

More modern works are the Encyclopaedia of Chronology, by B. B.
Woodward and W. L. R. Gates (1872); and J. C. Macdonald's
Chronologies and Calendars (1897). But see the separate historical
articles in this work. (W. L. R. C.)

CHRUDIM, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E.S.E. of
Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,017, mostly Czech. It has an
important horse market, besides manufactures of sugar, spirits,
beer, soda-water and agricultural machinery. There are also
steam corn-mills and saw-milk. Chrudim is mentioned as the
castle of a gaugraf as early as 993 . The new to wn was founded by
Ottokar II., who settled many Germans in it and gave it many
privileges. After 1421 Chrudim was held by the Hussites, and
though Ferdinand I. confiscated most of the town property, it
prospered greatly till the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War.
In 1625 the greater part of its Hussite inhabitants left the town,
which suffered much later on from the Swedes. Chrudim was the
birthplace of Joseph Ressel (1793-1857), honoured in Austria as
the inventor of the screw propeller.

CHRYSANTHEMUM1 (Chrysanthemum si-nense; nat. ord.
Compositae), one of the most popular of autumn flowers. It is a
native of China, whence it was introduced to Europe. The first
chrysanthemum in England was grown at Kew in 1790, whither
it had been sent by Mr Cels, a French gardener. It was not,
however, till 1825 that the first chrysanthemum exhibition took
place in England. The small-flowered pompons, and the gro-
tesque-flowered Japanese sorts, are of comparatively recent date,
the former having originated from the Chusan daisy, a variety
introduced by Mr Fortune in 1846, and the latter having also been
introduced by the same traveller about 1862. The Japanese kinds
are unquestionably the most popular for decorative purposes as
well as for exhibition. They afford a wide choice in colour, form,
habit and times of flowering. The incurved Chinese kinds are
severely neat-looking flowers in many shades of colour. The
anemone-flowered kinds have long outer or ray petals, the interior
or disk petals being short and tubular. These are to be had in
many pleasing colours. The pompon kinds are small flowered, the
petals being short. The plants are mostly dwarf in habit. In
the single varieties the outer or ray florets alone are large and
attractively coloured.

Plants for the Border. — As a border plant out of doors the chrysan-
themum is of the easiest culture. It is an exceptionally good town
plant. By a judicious selection of varieties, flowers may be produced
in abundance and in considerable variety from August to the end of
November, and in favourable seasons well on towards Christmas.
Since 1890 when the English market was flooded with French raised
varieties of exceptional merit, the border chrysanthemum has taken
first place among hardy autumn flowering plants. Most of the
varieties then introduced have been superseded by many excellent
kinds raised in Britain.

Propagation. — The old English method of dividing the plants
in March or early April may be followed where better means of
propagation are not practicable. Many of the best border varieties
are shy in producing new growths (suckers) from the rootstock,
and are in consequence not amenable to this method. It is better
to raise the plants from cuttings. This may be begun in January for
the early flowering sorts, the late kinds being propagated during
February and March. They will root quite well in a cold frame, if
protected during frosty weather by litter or other similar material.
If the frame can be heated at will so as to maintain a fairly even
temperature of from 40° to 50° Fah., roots will be made more quickly
and with more certainty. A still better method is to improvise a
frame near the glass in a greenhouse, where the temperature is not
raised above 50° by artificial heat. This has the advantage of being
accessible in all weathers. The bottom of the frame is covered with
sifted coal ashes or coco-nut fibre, on which the shallow boxes or
pots used in propagating are placed. These are well drained with
broken crocks, the bottoms of the boxes being drilled to allow water
to pass out quickly. The soil should consist of about equal parts of
fibrous loam and leaf-mould, half a part of coarse silver-sand, and
about a quart of vegetable ash from the garden refuse heap to each
bushel o_f the compost. The whole should be passed through a
quarter inch sieve and thoroughly mixed. The coarse leaf-mould,
&c., from the sieve should be spread thinly over the drainage, and
the boxes or pots filled almost to the rims with the compost, and

1 The Gr. xpv<riv6fiMv (xpvobs, gold, and &v6tiu>v, flower) was the
herbalists' name for C. segetum, the " corn marigold," with its
yellow bloom, and was transferred by Linnaeus to the genus, being
commonly restricted now to the species C. sinense.

CHRYSANTHIUS— CHRYSIPPUS

3*9

covered, if possible, with a thin layer of silver-sand. It should be
pressed firmly, watered with a fine rose, and allowed to drain for an
hour. The cuttings should then be dibbled into the boxes in rows,
just clear, the soil being gently pressed around each. Short stout
shoots which arise directly from the rootstock make the best cuttings.
In their absence cuttings from the stems are used. The ideal length
for a cutting is about 2j in. Cut the stem squarely with a sharp knife
just below a joint, and remove the lower leaves. Insert as soon as
possible and water with a fine rose to settle the soil around them.
The soil is not allowed to become dry. The cuttings should be
looked over daily, decayed leaves removed, and surplus moisture,
condensed on the glass, wiped away. Ventilate gradually as rooting
takes place, and, when well rooted, transfer singly into pots about
3 in. in diameter, using as compost a mixture of two parts loam,
one part leaf-mould, half a part coarse silver-sand, and a gallon of
vegetable ash to every bushel of the compost. Return to the
frames and keep close for a few days to allow the little plants to
recover from the check occasioned by the potting. Ventilation
should be gradually increased until the plants are able to bear full
exposure during favourable weather, without showing signs of
distress by flagging. They should be carefully protected at all
times from cold cutting winds. In April, should the weather be
favourable, the plants may be transferred to the borders, especially
should the positions happen to be sheltered. If this is not practicable,
another shift will be necessary, this time into pots about 5 in. in
diameter. The soil should be similar to that advised for the previous
potting, enriched with half a part of horse manure that has been
thoroughly sweetened by exposure. Plant out during May. All
borders intended for chrysanthemums should be well dug and
manured. The strong growing kinds should be planted about 3 ft.
apart, the smaller kinds being allowed a little less room.

In the summer, water in dry weather, syringe in the evenings
whenever practicable, and keep the borders free from weeds by
surface hoeings; stake and tie the plants as required, and pinch out
the tips of the shoots until they have become sufficiently bushy
by frequent branching. Pinching should not be practised later than
the end of June.

Pot Plants for Decoration. — A list of a few of the thousands of
varieties suitable for this purpose would be out of place here;
new varieties are being constantly introduced, for these the reader
is referred to trade catalogues.

The most important considerations for the beginner are (a) the
choice of colours ; (b) the types of flowers ; (c) the height and habits
of the varieties. Generally speaking, very tall varieties and those
of weak growth and delicate constitutions should be avoided. The
majority of the varieties listed for exhibition purposes are also
suitable for decoration, especially the Japanese kinds. Propagation
and early culture are substantially as for border plants.

As soon as the s-in. pots are filled with roots, no time should be
lost in giving them the final shift. Eight-in. pots are large enough
for the general stock, but very strong growers may be given a larger
size. The soil, prepared a fortnight in advance, should consist of
four parts fibrous loam, one part leaf-mould, one part horse manure
prepared as advised above, half a part coarse silver-sand, half a part
of vegetable ash, and a quart of bone-meal or a sprinkling of basic
slag to every bushel of the mixture. Mix thoroughly and turn over
at intervals of three or four days. Pot firmly, working the soil well
around the roots with a lath. The main stake for the support ot
the plant should now be given; other and smaller stakes may later
be necessary when the plants are grown in a bushy form, but their
number should not be overdone. The stakes should be as tew as
possible consistent with the safety of the shoots, which should
be looped up loosely and neatly. The plants should be placed in their
summer quarters directly after potting. Stand them in rows in a
sunny situation, the pots clear of one another, sufficient room being
allowed between the rows for the cultivator to move freely among
them. The main stakes are tied to rough trellis made by straining
wire in two rows about 2 ft. apart between upright poles driven
into the ground. Coarse coal ashes or coke breeze are the best
materials to stand the pots on, there being little risk of worms
working through into the pots. The plants, which are required to
produce as many flowers as possible, should have their tips pinched
out at frequent intervals, from the end of March or beginning of
April to the last week in June, for the main season kinds; and about
the middle of July for the later kinds.

Towards the end of July the plants will need feeding at the roots
with weak liquid manure, varied occasionally by a very slight
dusting of soluble chemical manure such as guano. The soil should
be moderately moist when manure is given. In order that the flowers
may be of good form, all lateral flower buds should be removed as
soon _ as they are large enough to handle, leaving only the bud
terminating each shoot. Towards the end of September — earlier
should the weather prove wet and cold — remove the plants to well-
ventilated greenhouses where they are intended to flower. Feeding
should be continued until the flowers are nearly half open, when it
may be gradually reduced. The large mop-headed blooms seen at
exhibitions in November are grown in the way described, but only
one or two shoots are allowed to develop on a plant, each shoot
eventually having only one bloom.

The chrysanthemum is subject to the attack of black aphis and

green-fly. These pests may be destroyed, out of doors, by syringing1
with quassia and soft soap solutions, by dusting the affected parts
with tobacco-powder, and indoors also by fumigating. Mildew
generally appears after the plants are housed. It may be destroyed
by dusting the leaves attacked with sublimed sulphur. Rust is a
fungoid disease of recent years. It is best checked by syringing
the plants with liver of sulphur (l oz. to 3 gallons of water) occasion-
ally, a few weeks before taking the plants into the greenhouse.
Earwigs and slugs must be trapped and destroyed.

Flowers for Exhibition. — Flowers of exhibition standard must be
as broad and as deep as the various varieties are capable of pro-
ducing; they must be irreproachable in colour. They must also
exhibit the form peculiar to the variety when at its best, very few
kinds being precisely alike in this respect. New varieties are in-
troduced in large numbers annually, some of which supplant the
older kinds. The cultivator must therefore study the peculiarities
of several new kinds each year if he would be a successful ex-
hibitor.

For lists of varieties, &c. see the catalogues of chrysanthemum
growers, the gardening Press, and the excellent cultural pamphlets
which are published from time to time.

CHRYSANTHIUS, a Greek philosopher of the 4th century A.D.,
of the school of lamblichus. He was one of the favourite pupils of
Aedesius, and devoted himself mainly to the mystical side of
Neoplatonism (g.v.). The emperor Julian (q.v.) went to him by
the advice of Aedesius, and subsequently invited him to come to
court, and assist in the projected resuscitation of Hellenism. But
Chrysanthius declined on the strength of unfavourable omens, as
he said, but probably because he realized that the scheme was
unlikely to bear fruit. For the same reason he abstained from
drastic religious reforms in his capacity as high-priest of Lydia.
As a result of his moderation, he remained high-priest till his
death, venerated alike by Christians and pagans. His wife
Melite, who was associated with him in the priestly office, was a
kinswoman of Eunapius the biographer.

CHRYSELEPHANTINE (Gr. xpwr6s, gold, and iAitfos, ivory),
the architectural term given to statues which were built up on a
wooden core, with ivory representing the flesh and gold the
drapery. The two most celebrated examples are those by
Pheidias of the statue of Athena in the Parthenon and of Zeus in
the temple at Olympia.

CHRYSENE Ci8H12, a hydrocarbon occurring in the high
boiling fraction of the coal tar distillate. It is produced in small
quantity in the distillation of amber, on passing the vapour of
phenyl-naphthyl-methane through a red-hot tube, on heating
indene, or by passing the mixed vapours of coumarone and
naphthalene through a red-hot tube. It crystallizes in plates or
octahedra (from benzene), which exhibit a violet fluorescence,
and melt at 250° C. Chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution
oxidizes it to chrysoquinone Ci8H10O2, which when distilled with
lead oxide gives chrysoketone CnHioO. When chrysene is fused
with alkalis, chrysenic acid, Ci7Hi2O3, is produced, which on
heating gives /3-phenyl-naphthalene. On heating chrysene
with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus to 260° C., the hydro-
derivatives CisHzs and CigH^ are produced. It gives characteristic
addition products with picric acid and dinitroanthraquinone.
Impure chrysene is of a yellow colour; hence its name (xpfwws,
golden yellow).

CHRYSIPPUS (c. 280-206 B.C.), Greek philosopher, the third
great leader of the Stoics. A native of Soli in Cilicia (Diog.
Laert. vii. 179), he was robbed of his property and came to
Athens, where he studied possibly under Zeno, certainly under
Cleanthes. It is said also that he became a pupil of Arcesilaus
and Lacydes, heads of the Middle Academy. This impartiality
in his early studies is the key of his philosophic work, the
dominant characteristic of which is comprehensiveness rather
than originality. He took the doctrines of Zeno and Cleanthes
and crystallized them into a definite system; he further defended
them against the attacks of the Academy. His polemic skill
earned for him the title of the " Column of the Portico."
Diogenes Laertius says, " If the gods use dialectic, they can use
none other than that of Chrysippus "; tl /ii) yap fjv Xptonrros,
oiiK &v %v Sroa (" Without Chrysippus, there had been
no Porch "). He excelled in logic, the theory of knowledge,
ethics and physics. His relations with Cleanthes, contempor-
aneously criticized by Antipater, are considered under STOICS.

320

CHRYSOBERYL— CHRYSOPRASE

He is said to have composed seven hundred and fifty treatises,
fragments alone of which survive. Their style, we are told, was
unpolished and arid in the extreme, while the argument was
lucid and impartial.

See G. H. Haftedorn, Moralia Chrysippea (1685), Ethica Chrysippi
(1715); J- F- Richter, De Chrystppo Stoico fastuoso (1738); F.
Baguet, De Chrysippi vita doctrina et reliquiis 1,1822); C. Petersen,
Philosophiae Chrysippeae fundamenta (1827); A. Gercke, "Chry-
sippea" in Janrbiicher fur Philologie, suppl. vol. xiv. (1885); R.
Nicolai, Delogicis Chrysippi libris (1859) ; Christos Aronis, Xplwrros
•ypawiaruti? (1885); R. Hirzel, Untersuchungen zw Ciceros philo-
sophischen Schriften, ii. (1882); L. Stein, Die Psychologie der Stoa
(1886); A. B. Krische, Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der alien
Philosophic (1840); J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. i. 149.

CHRYSOBERYL, a yellow or green gem-stone, remarkable for
its hardness, being exceeded in this respect only by the diamond
and corundum. The name suggests that it was formerly regarded
as a golden variety of beryl; and it is notable that though differ-
ing widely from beryl it yet bears some relationship to it inasmuch
as it contains the element beryllium. In chrysoberyl, however,
the beryllium exists as an alumina te, having the formula BeAl2O4,
orBeO-AljOj. The analysis of a specimen of Brazilian chrysoberyl
gave alumina 78-10, beryllia 17-94, and ferric oxide 4-88%.
The typical yellow colour of the stone inclines in many cases to
pale green, occasionally passing into shades of dark green and
brown. The iron usually present in the mineral seems responsible
for the green colour. Chrysoberyl is often mistaken by its colour
for chrysolite (q.v.), and has indeed been termed Oriental
chrysolite. In its crystalline forms it bears some relationship to
chrysolite, both crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, but it
is a much harder and a denser mineral. As the two stones are apt
to be confounded, it may be convenient to contrast their chief
characters: —

Chrysoberyl. Chrysolite.

Hardness 8-5 6-5 to 7

Specific Gravity . . . 3-65 to 3-75 3-34 to 3-37
Chemical Composition . . BeAljOi. MgjSiO*.

Chrysoberyl is not infrequently cloudy, opalescent and
chatoyant, and is then known as " cymophane " (Gr. /cDjua, a
" cloud "). The cloudiness is referable to the presence of
multitudes of microscopic cavities. Some of the cymophane,
when cut with a convex surface, forms the most valuable kind of
cat's-eye (see CAT'S-EYE). A remarkable dichroic variety of
chrysoberyl is known as alexandrite (q.v.).

Most chrysoberyl comes from Brazil, chiefly from the district of
Minas Novas in the state of Minas Geraes, where it occurs as
small water-worn pebbles. The cymophane is mostly from the
gem-gravels of Ceylon. Chrysoberyl is known as a constituent of
certain kinds of granite, pegmatite and gneiss. In the United
States it occurs at Haddam, Conn.; Greenfield Centre, near
Saratoga Springs, N.Y.; and in Manhattan island. It is known
also in the province of Quebec, Canada, and has been found near
Gwelo in Rhodesia. (F. W. R.*)

CHRYSOCOLLA, a hydrous copper silicate occurring as a
decomposition product of copper ores. It is never found as
crystals, but always as encrusting and botryoidal masses with a
microcrystalline structure. It is green or bluish-green in colour,
and often has the appearance of opal or enamel, being translucent
and having a conchoidal fracture with vitreous lustre; some-
times it is earthy in texture. Not being a definite crystallized
substance, it varies widely in chemical composition, the copper
oxide (CuO), for example, varying in different analyses from
17 to 67%; the formula is usually given as CuSiO3+2H2O.
The hardness (2-4) and specific gravity (2-0-2-8) are also variable.
It has recently been suggested that the material may really be a
mixture of more than one hydrous copper silicate, since differences
in the microcrystalline structure of the different concentric
layers of which the masses are built up may be detected.
Various impurities (silica, &c.) are also commonly present, and
several varieties have been distinguished by special names:
thus dillenburgite, from Dillenburg in Nassau, contains copper
carbonate; demidoffite and cyanochalcite contain copper
phosphate; and pilarite contains alumina (perhaps as allophane).
The mineral occurs in the upper parts of veins of copper ores,

and has resulted from their alteration by the action of waters
containing silica in solution. Pseudomorphs of chrysocolla after
various copper minerals (e.g. cuprite) are not uncommon. It is
found in most copper mines.

The name chrysocolla (from xpvaas, gold, and <c6XXa, glue)
was applied by Theophrastus and other ancient writers to
materials used in soldering gold, one of which, from the island
of Cyprus, may have been identical with the mineral now known
by this name. Borax, which is used for this purpose, has also
been called chrysocolla.

A mineral known as pitchy copper-ore (Ger. Kupferpechen),
and of some importance as an ore of copper, is usually classed as a
variety of chrysocolla containing much admixed limonite. It is
dark brown to black in colour, with a dull to glassy or resinous
lustre, and resembles pitch in appearance. In thin sections it is
translucent and optically isotropic, and recent examinations
seem to prove that it is a homogeneous mineral and not a
mechanical mixture of chrysocolla and limonite. (L. J. S.)

CHRYSOLITE, a transparent variety of olivine, used as a
gem-stone and often called peridot. The name chrysolite,
meaning " golden stone " (xpvtros and Xi0os), has been applied
to various yellowish gems, notably to topaz, to some kinds of
beryl and to chrysoberyl. The true chrysolite of the modern
mineralogist is a magnesium silicate, referable to the species
olivine. It is appropriate to call the lighter coloured stones
inclining to yellow chrysolite, and the darker green stones
peridot. Certain kinds of topaz, from the Schneckenstein in
Saxony, are known as Saxon chrysolite; while moldavite,
a substance much like a green obsidian, is sometimes called
water chrysolite or pseudo-chrysolite.

See CHRYSOBERYL; OLIVINE; PERIDOT.

CHRYSOLORAS, MANUEL [or EMMANUEL] (c. 1355-1415),
one of the pioneers in spreading Greek literature in the West,
was born at Constantinople of a distinguished family, which
had removed with Constantino the Great to Byzantium. He
was a pupil of Gemistus (q.v.). In 1393 he was sent to Italy by
the emperor Manuel Palaeologus to implore the aid of the
Christian princes against the Turks. He returned to Constanti-
nople, but at the invitation of the magistrates of Florence he
became about 1395 professor of the Greek language in that city,
where he taught three years. He became famous as a translator
of Homer and Plato. Having visited Milan and Pa via, and resided
for several years at Venice, he went to Rome upon the invitation
of Bruni Leonardo, who had been his pupil, and was then secretary
to Gregory XII. In 1408 he was sent to Paris on an important
mission from the emperor Manuel Palaeologus. In 1413 he went
to Germany on an embassy to the emperor Sigismund, the
object of which was to fix a place for the assembling of a general
council. It was decided that the meeting should take place at
Constance; and Chrysoloras was on his way thither, having
been chosen to represent the Greek Church, when he died suddenly
on the isth of April 1415. Only two of his works have been
printed, his Erolemata (published at Venice in 1484), which was
the first Greek grammar in use in the 'West, and Epistolae III.
de comparatione veleris et novae Romae.

JOHN CHRYSOLORAS, a relative of the above (variously described
as his nephew, brother or son), who, like him, had studied and
taught at Constantinople, and had then gone to Italy, shared
Manuel's reputation as one of those who spread the influence
of Greek letters in the West. His daughter married Filelfo (q.v.).

CHRYSOPRASE (Gr. \pvate, gold, and irpdaav, leek), a name
applied by modern mineralogists to an apple-green variety of
chalcedony or hornstone, used as an ornamental stone. The
colour is due to the presence of nickel, probably in the form of a
hydrous silicate. By exposure to a moderate heat, or to strong
light, the chrysoprase becomes paler, or even colourless, but it
may regain its colour by absorption of moisture. Chrysoprase
is a mineral of rather limited distribution. Most of it comes
from the neighbourhood of Frankenstein in Silesia, where it
occurs in association with altered serpentine. It is found to a
limited extent at Revdinsk, near Ekaterinburg, in the Urals;
and it occurs also in India. It is known, too, at several localities

CHRYSOSTOM

321

in North America, notably at Nickel Mount, Douglas county,
Oregon, where it occurs in nickeliferous serpentine.

The chrysoprase of the moderns is certainly not the cltryso-
prasius of Pliny, or the xPVff°"rPaffos °f Greek writers. The
ancient stone was not improbably our chrysoberyl, and it is
doubtful whether the modern chrysoprase was known until a
comparatively late period. The chrysoprase of Kosemiitz, near
Frankenstein in Silesia, was discovered in 1740, and used by
Frederick the Great in the decoration of the palace of Sans
Souci at Potsdam. But at a much earlier date the Silesian
chrysoprase was used for mural decoration at the Wenzel chapel
at Prague. Chrysoprase was a favourite stone in England at
the beginning of the igth century, being set round with small
brilliants and used for brooches and rings. At the present time
it is said to be regarded by some as a " lucky stone." Much
commercial chrysoprase is chalcedony artificially stained by
impregnation with a green salt of nickel. (F. W. R.*)

CHRYSOSTOM. St John Chrysostom (Xpwr6oTO/«>s, golden-
mouthed), the most famous of the Greek Fathers, was born of
a noble family at Antioch, the capital of Syria, about A.D. 345
or 347. At the school of Libanius the sophist he gave early
indications of his mental powers, and would have been the
successor of his heathen master, had he not been stolen away,
to use the expression of his teacher, to a life of piety (like
Augustine, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Theodoret) by the
influence of his pious mother Anthusa. After his baptism (about
370) by Meletius, the bishop of Antioch, he gave up all his
forensic prospects, and buried himself in an adjacent desert,
where for nearly ten years he spent a life of ascetic self-denial
and theological study, to which he was introduced by Diodorus,
bishop of Tarsus, a famous scholar of the Antiochene type.
Illness, however, compelled him to return to the world; and the
authority of Meletius gained his services to the church. He was
ordained deacon in his thirty-fifth year (381), and afterwards
presbyter (386) at Antioch. On the death of Nectarius he was
appointed archbishop of Constantinople by Eutropius, the
favourite minister of the emperor Arcadius. He had, ten years
before this, only escaped promotion to the episcopate by a very
questionable stratagem — which, however, he defends in his
instructive and eloquent treatise De Sacerdotio. As a presbyter,
he won high reputation by his preaching at Antioch, more especi-
ally by his homilies on The Statues, a course of sermons delivered
when the citizens were justly alarmed at the prospect of severe
measures being taken against them by the emperor Theodosius,
whose statues had been demolished in a riot.

On the archiepiscopal throne Chrysostom still persevered in
the practice of monastic simplicity. The ample revenues which
his predecessors had consumed in pomp and luxury he diligently
applied to the establishment of hospitals; and the multitudes
who were supported by his charity preferred the eloquent
discourses of their benefactor to the amusements of the theatre
or of the circus. His homilies, which are still preserved, furnish
ample apology for the partiality of the people, exhibiting the
free command of a pure and copious vocabulary, an inexhaustible
fund of metaphors and similitudes, giving variety and grace to
the most familiar topics, with an almost dramatic exposure of
the folly and turpitude of vice, and a deep moral earnestness.
His zeal as a bishop and eloquence as a preacher, however,
gained him enemies both in the church and at the court. The
ecclesiastics who were parted at his command from the lay-
sisters (whom they kept ostensibly as servants), the thirteen
bishops whom he deposed for simony and licentiousness at a
single visitation, the idle monks who thronged the avenues to
the court and found themselves the public object of his scorn — all
conspired against the powerful author of their wrongs. Their
resentment was inflamed by a powerful party, embracing the
magistrates, the ministers, the favourite eunuchs, the ladies
of the court, and Eudoxia the empress herself, against whom the
preacher thundered daily from the pulpit of St Sophia. A
favourable pretext for gratifying their revenge was discovered
in the shelter which Chrysostom had given to four Nitrian monks,
known as the tall brothers, who had come to Constantinople on

VI. II

being excommunicated by their bishop, Theophilus of Alexandria,
a man who had long circulated in the East the charge of Origenism
against Chrysostom. By Theophilus's instrumentality a synod
was called to try or rather to condemn the archbishop; but
fearing the violence of the mob in the metropolis, who idolized
him for the fearlessness with which he exposed the vices of their
superiors, it held its sessions at the imperial estate named " The
Oak " (Synodus ad quercum), near Chalcedon, where Rufinus
had erected a stately church and monastery. A bishop and a
deacon were sent to accuse the archbishop, and presented to him
a list of charges, in which pride, inhospitality and Origenism
were brought forward to procure the votes of those who hated
him for his austerity, or were prejudiced against him as a sus-
pected heretic. Four successive summonses were signified to
Chrysostom, but he indignantly refused to appear until four of
his notorious enemies were removed from the council. Without
entering into any examination of the charges brought before
them, the synod condemned him on the ground of contumacy,
and, hinting that his audacity merited the punishment of treason,
called on the emperor to ratify and enforce their decision. He
was immediately arrested and hurried to Nicaea in Lithynia.

As soon as the news of his banishment spread through the
city, the astonishment of the people was quickly exchanged for
a spirit of irresistible fury, which was increased by the occurrence
of an earthquake. In crowds they besieged the palace, and had
already begun to take vengeance on the foreign monks and
sailors who had come from Chalcedon to the metropolis, when, at
the entreaty of Eudoxia, the emperor consented tt> his recall.
His return was graced with all the pomp of a triumphal entry,
but in two months after he was again in exile. His fiery zeal
could not blind him to the vices of the court, and heedless of
personal danger he thundered against the profane honours that
were addressed almost within the precincts of St Sophia to the
statue of the empress. The haughty spirit of Eudoxia was
inflamed by the report of a discourse commencing with the
words — " Herodias is again furious; Herodias again dances;
she once more demands the head of John "; and though the
report was false, it sealed the doom of the archbishop. A new
council was summoned, more numerous and more subservient
to the wishes of Theophilus; and troops of barbarians were
quartered in the city to overawe the people. Without examining
it, the council confirmed the former sentence, and, in accordance
with canon 12 of the Synod of Antioch (341), pronounced his
deposition for having resumed his functions without their
permission.

He was hurried away to the desolate town of Cucusus (Cocysus) ,
among the ridges of Mount Taurus, with a secret hope, perhaps,
that he might be a victim to the Isaurians on the march, or to
the more implacable fury of the monks. He arrived at his
destination in safety; and the sympathies of the people, which
had roused them to fire the cathedral and senate-house on the
day of his exile, followed him to his obscure retreat. His influence
also became more powerfully felt in the metropolis than before.
In his solitude he had ample leisure for forming schemes of
missionary enterprise among Persians and Goths, and by his
correspondence with the different churches he at once baffled
his enemies and gave greater energy to his friends. This roused
the emperor to visit him with a severer punishment, though
Innocent I. of Rome and the emperor Honorius recognized his
orthodoxy and besought his return. An order was despatched
for his removal to the extreme desert of Pityus; and his guards
so faithfully obeyed their instructions that, before he reached
the sea-coast of the Euxine, he expired at Comana in Pontus,
in the year 407. His exile gave rise to a schism in the church, and
the Johannists (as they were called) did not return to communion
with the archbishop of Constantinople till the relics of the saint
were, 30 years after, brought back to the Eastern metropolis with
great pomp and the emperor publicly implored forgiveness
from Heaven for the guilt of his ancestors. The festival of St
Chrysostom is kept in the Greek Church on the i3th of
November, and in the Latin Church on the 27th of January.

•In his general teaching Chrysostom elevates the ascetic

322

CHUB— CHUDE

element in religion, and in his homilies he inculcates the need of
personal acquaintance with the Scriptures, and denounces
ignorance of them as the source of all heresy. If on one or two
points, as, for instance, the invocation of saints, some germs of
subsequent Roman teaching may be discovered, there is a want
of anything like the doctrine of indulgences or of compulsory
private confession. Moreover, in writing to Innocent, bishop of
Rome, he addresses him as a brother metropolitan, and sends the
same letter to Venerius, bishop of Milan, and Chromatius, bishop
of Aquileia. His correspondence breathes a most Christian spirit,
especially in its tone of charity towards his persecutors. In
exegesis he is a pure Antiochene, basing his expositions upon
thorough grammatical study, and proceeding from a knowledge
of the original circumstances of composition to a forceful and
practical application to the needs of his day and of all time.
With his exegetical skill (he was inferior in pure dogma to Theo-
dore of Mopsuestia) he united a wide sympathy and a marvellous
power of oratory.

The voluminous works of Chrysostom fall into three groups.
To the days of his early desert life is probably to be assigned the
treatise On Priesthood, a book full of wise counsel. To the years
of his presbyterate and episcopate belong the great mass of
homilies and commentaries, among which those On the Statues,
and on Matthew, Romans and Corinthians, stand out pre-
eminently. His letters belong to the last years, the time of
exile, and with his other works are valuable sources for the history
of his time.

The manuscripts are very numerous, and many of them are of
great antiquity, as are the Syriac and other translations. The
best edition is that of Bernard de Montfaucon in 13 vols. fol. (1718-
1738), reproduced with some improvements by Migne (Patrol.
Grace, xlvii.-lxiv.) ; but this edition is greatly indebted to the one
issued more than a century earlier (1612) by Sir Henry Savile,
provost of Eton College, from a press established at Eton by himself,
which Hallam (Lit. of Europe, iii. 10, n) calls " the first work of
learning, on a great scale, published in England." F. Field admir-
ably edited 5. Matthew (Cambridge, 1839) and Epistles of S. Paul
(Oxford, 1849-1855). J. A. Bengel's edition of De Sacerdolio (1725)
has been often reprinted (e.g. Leipzig, 1887).

As authorities for the life, the most valuable are the ecclesiastical
histories of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret; and amongst the
moderns, Erasmus, Cave, Lardner and Tillemont, with the church
history of Neander, and his monograph on the Life and Times of
Chrysostom, translated by J. C. Stapleton. More recent are the
lives by W. R. W. Stephens (London, 1871), R. W. Bush (London,
1885) and A. Peuch (Paris, 1891). F. W. Farrar's romance Gathering
Clouds gives a good picture of the man and his times. For mono-
graphs on special points such as Chrysostom's theological position
and his preaching, see the very full bibliography in E. Preuschen's
article in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyk. iv. ; also A. Harnack, Hist-
of Dogma, iii. and iv. Some of the commentaries and homilies are
translated in the Oxford Library of the Fathers.

CHUB (Leuciscus cephalus), a fish of the Cyprinid family,
belonging to the same genus as the roach and dace. It is one of
the largest of its family, attaining a length of 2 ft. and a weight
of 5 to 7 Ib. It does not avoid running waters, and is fond of
insects, taking the fly readily, but its flesh, like that of the other
Leucisci, is tasteless and full of bones. It is common in Great
Britain and the continent of Europe. In America the name
of " chub " is given to some other members of the family, and
commonly to the horned dace (Semnotilus atromaculatus) ;
well-known varieties are the river chub (Hybopsis kenluckiensis)
and Columbia river chub (Mylochilus caurinus).

CHUBB, CHARLES (d. 1845), English locksmith, started a
hardware business at Winchester, subsequently removing to
Portsea. Here he improved on the "detector" lock (q.v.),
originally patented in 1818 by his brother, Jeremiah Chubb.
He soon moved to London and then to Wolverhampton, where
he employed two hundred hands. In 1835 he patented a process
intended to render safes (q.v.) burglar-procf and fireproof, and
subsequently established a large safe-factory in London. He
died on the i6th of May 1845, and was succeeded in the business
by his son, John Chubb (1816-1872), who patented various
improvements in the products of the firm and largely increased
its output. The factories were combined under one roof in a
model plant, and the business grew to enormous proportions.

After John Chubb 's death the business was converted into a
limited company under the management of his three sons.

CHUBB, THOMAS (1679-1746), English deist, the son of a
maltster, was born at East Harnham, near Salisbury, on the 29th
of September 1679. The death of his father (1688) cut short his
education, and in 1694 he was apprenticed to a glove-maker in
Salisbury, but subsequently entered the employment of a tallow-
chandler. He picked up a fair knowledge of mathematics and
geography, but theology was his favourite study. His habit of
committing his thoughts to writing gave him a clear and
fluent style. He made his first appearance as an author in the
Arian controversy. A dispute having arisen about Whiston's
Argument in favour of the supremacy of the one God and Father,
he wrote an essay, The Supremacy of the Father Asserted, which
Whiston pronounced worthy of publication, and it was printed
in 1715. A number of tracts followed, which were collected in
1730. For several years Chubb lived in the house of Sir Joseph
Jekyll, master of the rolls, in what capacity it is not known;
there are stories of his having waited at table as a servant out of
livery. His love of independence drew him back to Salisbury,
where by the kindness of friends he was enabled to devote the
rest of his days to his studies. He died on the 8th of February
1746. Chubb is interesting mainly as showing that the ration-
alism of the intellectual classes had taken considerable hold upon
the popular mind. Though he acquired little renown in England
he was regarded by Voltaire and others as among the most
logical of the deist school (see DEISM). His principal works are
A Discourse Concerning Reason (1731), The True Gospel of Jesus
Christ (1739), and Posthumous Works, 2 vols. (1748), the last
containing " The Author's Farewell to his Readers."

CHUBUT, a territory of the southern Argentine Republic,
part of what was formerly called Patagonia, bounded N. by
Rio Negro, S. by Santa Cruz, E. by the Atlantic and W. by Chile.
Pop. (1895) 3748; (1904, estimate) 9060; area, 93,427 sq. m.
Except for the valleys in the Andean foothills, which are fertile
and well forested, and the land along the banks of the Chubut
river, which flows entirely across the territory from the Andes
to the Atlantic, the country is a barren waste, covered with
pebbles and scanty clumps of dwarfed vegetation, with occasional
shallow saline lakes. The larger rivers are the Chubut and the
Senguerr, the latter flowing into Lake Colhuapi. There are a
number of large lakes among the Andean foothills, the best
known of which are Fontana, La Plata and General Paz, and,
in the interior, Colhuapi or Colhue and Musters, the latter named
after the English naval officer who traversed Patagonia in 1870.
Petroleum was found at Comodoro Rivadavia, in the S. part of
the territory, toward the close of 1907, at a depth of 1768 ft.
Chubut is known chiefly by the Welsh colony near the mouth
of the Chubut river. The chief town of the Welsh, Rawson, is
the capital of the territory, and Port Madryn on Bahia Nueva is
its best port. Other colonies have been founded in the fertile
valleys of the Andean foothills, but their growth is greatly
impeded by lack of transportation facilities. (See further

PAfAGONIA.)

CHUDE, a tribal name used in both a special and a general
sense, (i) It was the name given by the Russians to certain
Esthonian tribes with whom they came in contact as they spread
gradually over their present empire. It would seem that the
northern Chudes are the Vepsas, of whom about 21,000 are said
to live near Lake Onega and in the northern parts of the govern-
ment of Novgorod, and that the southern Chudes are the Votes
who occupy about thirty parishes in north-west Ingria. (2) As
the Russians advanced eastwards they extended the name to
various tribes whom they considered to be like the Esthonians,
and in popular use it has come to be applied to any ancient non-
Russian people in Siberia, at least as far east as the Altai. In
particular, ancient mines, tumuli and the metal work often found
in them are commonly known as Chudish. Some investigators
have used the word in a more restricted sense of Permian anti-
quities and their builders, but it seems to be a popular expression
not corresponding to any historical or scientific division of
mankind.

CHUGUYEV— CHUNAR

323

CHUGUYEV, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov,
25 m. E.S.E. of the town of Kharkov, on the right bank of the
northern Donets. It is a place of some strategic importance,
and had in 1897 a population of 11,877.

CHUKCHI, CHANKTUS (" Men ") or TUSKI (" Brothers " or
"Confederates"), a Mongoloid people inhabiting the north-
easternmost portion of Siberia on the shores of the Arctic Ocean
and Bering Sea. They are settled in small groups along the
Arctic coast between the Bering Straits and the Kolyma river,
or wander as far inland as the Anadyr basin. Though their
territory embraces some 300,000 odd sq. m., the most trust-
worthy estimates put their numbers at but a few thousands.
They were first carefully studied by the members of the Nor-
denskjold expedition (1878-79), who describe them as tall, lean,
with somewhat irregular features — hence de Quatrefages classes
them as " Allophylian Whites." The accounts of their physical
characteristics are somewhat confused owing to the presence of
the true Eskimo in the Chukchi domain. The typical Chukchi
is round-headed, and thus distinct from the long-headed Eskimo,
with broad, flat features and high cheek-bones. The nose is
often so buried between the puffed cheeks that a ruler might be
laid across the face without touching it. The lips are thick, and
the brow low. The hair is coarse, lank and black. The general
muscular development is good, though usually the body is stunted.
It has been suggested that they emigrated from the south,
possibly from the Amur basin. In their arctic homes they long
carried on war with the Ongkilon (Ang-kali) aborigines, gradually
merging with the survivors and also mixing both with the
Kusmen Koryaks (q.v.) and the Chuklukmuit Eskimo settled
on the Asiatic side of Bering Strait. Their racial characteristics
make them an ethnological link between the Mongols of central
Asia and the Indians of America. Some authorities affiliate them
to the Eskimo because they are believed to speak an Eskimo
dialect. But this is merely a trade jargon, a hotchpotch of
Eskimo, Chukchi, Koryak, English and even Hawaiian. The true
Chukchi language, of which Nordenskjold collected a thousand
words, is distinct from Eskimo and akin to Koryak, and Nordens-
kjold sums the problem up with the remark — " this race settled
on the primeval route between the Old and New World bears an
unmistakable stamp of the Mongols of Asia and the Eskimo and
Indians of America."

The Chukchi are divided into the " Fishing Chukchi," who
have settled homes on the coast, and the " Reindeer Chukchi,"
who are nomads. The latter breed reindeer (herds of more than
10,000 are not uncommon), live on the flesh and milk, and are
generally fairly prosperous; while the fishing folk are very poor,
begging from their richer kinsfolk hides to make tents and
clothes. The Chukchi were formerly warlike and vigorously
resisted the Russians, but to-day they are the most peaceable of
folks, amiable in their manners, affectionate in family life and
good-humoured. But this gentleness does not prevent them from
killing off the old and infirm. They believe in a future life, but
only for those who die a violent death. Thus it is regarded as
an act of filial piety for a son to kill his parent or a nephew his
uncle. This tribal custom is known as kamitok; and of it Mr
Harry de Windt writes (Through the Gold Fields of Alaska to
Bering Strait, 1898), " The doomed one takes a lively interest in
the proceedings, and often assists in the preparation for his own
death. The execution is always preceded by a feast, where seal
and walrus meat are greedily devoured, and whisky consumed
till all are intoxicated. A spontaneous burst of singing and the
muffled roll of walrus-hide drums then herald the fatal moment.
At a given signal a ring is formed by the relations and friends, the
entire settlement looking on from the background. The exe-
cutioner (usually the victim's son or brother) then steps forward,
and placing his right foot behind the back of the condemned,
slowly strangles him to death with a walrus thong. A kamitok
took place during the latter part of our stay." The Chukchi are
nominally Christians, but sacrifice animals to the spirits of the
rivers and mountains, and also practise Shamanism. In personal
habits the people are indescribably filthy. They are polygamous,
but the women are treated kindly. The children are specially

petted, and are so wrapped up to protect them from the cold that
they have been described as resembling huge balls crossed by a
bar, their arms having to remain outstretched owing to the bulk
of their wrappings. Chukchi women are often tattooed with two
black-blue convex lines running from the eye to the chin. Since
their adoption of Christianity the men sometimes have a Latin
cross tattooed on their chins. The Chukchi burn their dead or
expose them on platforms to be devoured by ravens.

See Harry de Windt, Through the Gold Fields of Alaska to Bering
Strait (1898); Dittmar, " Ober die Koriaken u. ihnen nahe ver-
wandten Tchouktchen," in Bui. Acad. Sc. (St Petersburg), xii. p. 99;
Hooper, Ten Months among l]ie Tents of the Tuski; W. H. Dall,
Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. i. (1877).

CHULALONGKORN, PHRA PARAMINDR MAHA (1853-
1910), king of Siam, eldest son of King Maha Mongkut, was born
on the zist of September 1853. His full signature, used in all
important state documents, consists of twenty-seven names, but
it is by the first four that he is usually known. Educated in his
childhood by English teachers, he acquired a good knowledge of
the English language and of Western culture. But his surround-
ings were purely oriental, and his boyhood was spent, according
to custom, in a Buddhist monastery. He succeeded to the
throne on the death of his father, ist October 1868, and was
crowned on the nth of November following, a ceremony
marked by the innovation of permitting the presence of Euro-
peans. Until his majority in 1873 the government was carried
on by a regent, the young king retiring to a Buddhist monastery,
and later making a tour through India and the Dutch East
Indies, an undertaking until then without precedent among the
potentates of eastern Asia. He had no sooner taken the reins of
power than he gave evidence of his recognition of the importance
of modem culture by abolishing slavery in Siam. He simplified
court etiquette, no longer demanding, for example, that his
subjects should approach him on hands and knees. Still more
important, in view of the numerous races and creeds included
among his subjects, was the proclamation of liberty of conscience.
This was followed by the erection of schools and hospitals, the
construction of roads and railways, and the further development
of the army and fleet which his father had initiated. To him
Siam is indebted for its standard coinage, its postal and telegraph
service, and for the policing, sanitation and electric-lighting of
Bangkok. Several of his sons, including the crown prince, were
educated in England, and in the summer of 1897 he himself
visited England, arriving at Portsmouth in his yacht on the 2gth
of July. On the 4th of August he was received by Queen Victoria
at Osborne. After a tour in Great Britain he proceeded to
Berlin, Brussels, and the Hague and Paris. (See also SIAM.)

CHUMBI VALLEY, a valley connecting Tibet (q.v.) with the
frontier of British India. Lying on the southern slopes of the
Himalayas at an altitude of about 9500 ft. above the sea, the
valley is wedged in between Bhutan and Sikkim, and does not
belong geographically but only politically to Tibet. This was the
route by which the British mission of 1904 advanced. Before the
date of that expedition the valley had acquired a reputation for
beauty and fertility, which was subsequently found to be only
comparative in relation to the barrenness of the rest of the
Tibetan frontier. The summer months, though not hot, are
relaxing and enervating.

CHUNAR, or CHUNARGHUR, a town and ancient fortress of
India, in the district of Mirzapur, in the United Provinces,
situated on the south bank of the Ganges. Pop. (1901) 9926.
The fort occupies a conspicuous site on the summit of an abrupt
rock which commands the river. It was at one time a place of
great strength, and still contains a magazine, and is fortified with
batteries. In the old citadel on the height, the remains of a
Hindu palace with some interesting carvings indicate the former
importance of the place. The town, which consists of one or two
straggling streets, contains a handsome English church. Chunar
is first mentioned in the i6th century, when in possession of Sing
Joanpore. In 1530 it became the residence of Shere Shah the
Afghan, and forty-five years later was recovered by the emperor
Akbar after sustaining a siege of six months. It fell into the

CHUNCHO— CHURCH, G. E.

hands of the English under General Carnac in 1763 after a
prolonged resistance which caused considerable loss to the
assailants. A treaty with the nawab of Oudh was signed
here by Warren Hastings on behalf of the East India Company
in September 1781.

CHUNCHO, a tribe of South American Indians, living in the
forests east of Cuzco, central Peru. They are a fierce and savage
people who have preserved their independence. They are said to
be akin to their neighbours the Antis. They dwell in communal
houses, and live chiefly by huating. Chuncho has also been used
to describe one of three aboriginal stocks of Peru, the others being
Quichua and Aymara.

CH'UNGK'ING, a city in the province of Szech'uen, China,
on the left bank of the Yangtsze, at its point of junction with
the Kialing, in 29° 33' N., and 107° 2' E. It is surrounded by a
crenelated stone wall, which is 5 m. in circumference and is
pierced by nine gates. It is the commercial centre for the trade,
not only of Szech'uen, but of all south-western China. The one
highway between Szech'uen and the eastern provinces is the
Yangtsze river route, as owing to the mountainous nature of
the intervening country land transit is almost impracticable.
The import trade brought up by large junks from Ich'ang, and
consisting of cotton cloth, yarn, metals and foreign manufactures,
centres here, and is distributed by a class of smaller vessels up
the various rivers of the provinces. Native produce, such as
yellow silk, white wax, hides, rhubarb, musk and opium, is here
collected and repacked for conveyance to Hankow, Shanghai
or other parts of the empire. The city was opened to foreign
trade by convention with the British government in 1891, with
the proviso, however, that foreign steamers should not be at
liberty to trade there until Chinese-owned steamers had succeeded
in ascending the river. This restriction was abolished by the
Japanese treaty of 1895, which declared Ch'ungk'ing open on
the same terms as other ports. After that date the problem of
steam navigation on the section of the river between Ich'ang
and Ch'ungk'ing occupied attention. By 1907 a small steamer
had been navigated up the rapids, but it remained a question
how far steam navigation could be made a practical success.
The trade was carried on by native craft, hauled up against the
strength of the current in the worst places by a line of trackers
on the bank. The great rise in the river during the summer
months, at Ch'ungk'ing ordinarily 70 ft. and occasionally as
much as 96 ft., added to the difficulties. The population of
Ch'ungk'ing, including the city of Kiangpei on the opposite
bank of the Kialing river, is about 300,000. The foreign residents
are very few. In 1898 the value of the trade passing through
the maritime customs was £2,614,000, and in 1904 £4,214,568, of
which imports counted for £2,644,777 and exports for £1,569,791.

CHUPATTY, an Anglo-Indian term for an unleavened cake
of bread. The word represents the Hindustani chapati, and is
applied to the usual form of native bread, the staple food of
upper India. The chupatty is generally made of coarse wheaten
flour, patted flat with the hand, and baked upon a griddle. In
the troubled times that preceded the mutiny of 1857 chupatties
were circulated from village to village throughout India,
apparently as a token of discontent.

CHUPRIYA (sometimes written Tiupriia; Croatian Cuprya),
the capital of the Morava department of Servia, on the railway
from Belgrade to Nish, and on the right bank of the Morava,
which is navigable up to this point by small sailing-vessels.
Pop. (1900) about 6000. Some of the finest Servian cattle are
bred in the neighbouring lowlands, and the town has a consider-
able trade in plums and other farm-produce. A light railway,
leading to several important collieries, runs for 13 m. through
the beech-forests and mountains on the east. Cloth is woven
at Parachin, 5 m. S.; and Yagodina, 8 m. W. by N., is an im-
portant market town. Among the foothills of the Golubinye
Range, 7 m. E.N.E., is the 14th-century Ravanitsa monastery,
with a ruined fort and an old church — their walls and frescoes
pitted by Turkish bullets. There is a legend that here the
Servian tsar Lazar (1374-1389) was visited by an angel, who
bade him choose between an earthly and a heavenly crown. In

accordance with his choice, Lazar fell fighting at Kossovo, and
was buried at Ravanitsa; his body being afterwards transferred,
through fear of the Turks, to another Ravanitsa, in eastern
Slavonia. His crucifix is treasured among the monastic archives,
which also contain a charter signed by Peter the Great of Russia
(1672-1725). Manasia (Manasiya), the still more celebrated
foundation of Stephen, the son and successor of Lazar, lies 12 m.
N. of Ravanitsa. Built in a cleft among the hills which line the
river Resava, an affluent of the Morava, this monastery is enclosed
in a fortress, whose square towers, and curtain without loopholes
or battlements, remain largely intact. Within the curtain stand
the monastic buildings, a large garden and a cruciform chapel,
with many curious old stone carvings, half hidden beneath
whitewash. Numerous gifts from the Russian court, such as
gospels lettered in gold and silver relief, or jewelled crucifixes, are
preserved on the spot; but the valuable library was removed,
in the 1 5th century, to Mount Athos.

CHUQUISACA, a department of S.E. Bolivia, bounded N.
by Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, E. by Santa Cmz and Brazil,
S. by Tarija, and W. by Potosi. It lies partly upon the eastern
plateau of Bolivia and partly upon the great plains of the upper
La Plata basin; area, 26,418 sq. m. The Pilcomayo, a large
tributary of the Paraguay, crosses N.W. to S.E. the western part
of the department. The climate of the lowlands is hot, humid
and unhealthy, but that of the plateau is salubrious, though
subject to greater extremes in temperature and rainfall. The
seasons are sharply divided into wet and dry, the eastern plains
becoming great lagoons during the wet season, and parched
deserts during the dry. The mineral resources are important,
but are less developed than those of Potosi and Oruro. Grazing
is the principal industry of the plains, and cattle, sheep, goats
and llamas are raised and cereals grown in the fertile valleys of
the plateau. Three rough highways connect the department
with its neighbours on the N. and W., and pack animals are the
common means of transporting merchandise. The population
was estimated at 204,434 in 1900, and is largely composed of
Indians and mestizos. The plateau Indians are generally Aymaras.
but on the eastern plains there are considerable settlements of
partly civilized Chiriguanos, of Guarani origin. The depart-
ment is divided into four provinces, the greater part of the
lowlands being unsettled and without effective political
organization. Its principal towns are Sucr6, Camargo, Padilla
and Yotala.

CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900), American
landscape painter, was born at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 4th
of May 1826. He was a pupil of Thomas Cole at CatskilJ, New
York, where his first pictures were painted. Developing unusual
technical dexterity, Church from the beginning sought for his
themes such marvels of nature as Niagara Falls, the Andes, and
tropical forests — he visited South America in 1853 and 1857, —
volcanoes in eruption, and icebergs, the beauties of which he
portrayed with great skill in the management of light, colour, and
the phenomena of rainbow, mist and sunset, rendering these
plausible and effective. In their time these paintings awoke the
wildest admiration and sold for extravagant prices, collectors in
the United States and in Europe eagerly seeking them, though
their vogue has now passed away. In 1849 Church was made a
member of the National Academy of Design. His " Great Fall at
Niagara " (1857) is in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington,
D.C., and a large " Twilight " is in the Walters Gallery, Baltimore,
Maryland. Among his other canvases are " Andes of Ecuador "
(1855), "Heart of the Andes" (1859), "Cotopaxi" (1862),
" Jerusalem " (1870), and " Morning in the Tropics " (1877).
He died on the 7th of April 1900, at his house on the Hudson
river above New York City, where he had lived and worked for
many years. He was the most prominent member of the so-
called " Hudson River School " of American artists.

CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835-1910), American geographer,
was born in New Bedford, Massachusetts, on the 7th of December
1835. He was educated as a civil engineer, and was early
engaged on the Hoosac Tunnel. In 1858 he joined an exploring
expedition to South America. During the American Civil War he

CHURCH, SIR R.— CHURCH, R. W.

325

served (1862-1863) in the Army of the Potomac, rising to the
command of a brigade and the rank of colonel; and in 1866-1867
he was war correspondent of the New York Herald in Mexico.
He explored the Amazon (1868-1879), and gradually became the
leading authority on that region of South America, being
appointed United States commissioner to report on Ecuador in
1880, and visiting Costa Rica in 1895 to report on its debt and
railways. He wrote extensively on South and Central American
geography, and became a vice-president of the Royal Geographical
Society (London), and in 1898 president of the geographical
section of the British Association.

CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784-1873), British military officer
and general in the Greek army, was the son of a Quaker, Matthew
Church of Cork. He was born in 1784, and at the age of sixteen
ran away from home and enlisted in the army. For this violation
of its principles he was disowned by the Society of Friends, but
his father bought him a commission, dated the 3rd of July 1800,
in the I3th (Somersetshire) Light Infantry. He served in the
demonstration against Ferrol, and in the expedition to Egypt
under Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1 801 . After the expulsion of the
French from Egypt he returned home, but came back to the
Mediterranean in 1805 among the troops sent to defend the
island of Sicily. He accompanied the expedition which landed in
Calabria, and fought a successful battle against the French at
Maida on the 6th of July 1806. Church was present on this
occasion as captain of a recently raised company of Corsican
Rangers. His zeal attracted the notice of his superiors, and he
had begun to show his capacity for managing and drilling foreign
levies. His Corsicans formed part of the garrison of Capri from
October 1806 till the island was taken by an expedition directed
against it by Murat, in September 1808, at the very beginning of
his reign as king of Naples. Church, who had distinguished
himself in the defence, returned to Malta after the capitulation.

In the summer of 1809 he sailed with the expedition sent to
occupy the Ionian Islands. Here he increased the reputation he
had already gained by forming a Greek regiment in English pay.
It included many of the men who were afterwards among the
leaders of the Greeks in the War of Independence. Church
commanded this regiment at the taking of Santa Maura, on which
occasion his left arm was shattered by a bullet. During his slow
recovery he travelled in northern Greece, and Macedonia, and to
Constantinople. In the years of the fall of Napoleon (1813 and
1814) he was present as English military representative with the
Austrian troops until the campaign which terminated in the
expulsion of Murat from Naples. He drew up a report on the
Ionian Islands for the congress of Vienna, in which he argued in
support, not only of the retention of the islands under the
British flag, but of the permanent occupation by Great Britain of
Parga and of other formerly Venetian coast towns on the main-
land, then in the possession of Ali Pasha of lannina. The peace
and the disbanding of his Greek regiment left him without
employment, though his reputation was high at the war office, and
his services were recognized by the grant of a companionship of
the Bath. In 1817 he entered the service of King Ferdinand of
Naples as lieutenant-general, with a commission to suppress the
brigandage then rampant in Apulia. Ample powers were given
him, and he attained a full measure of success. In 1820 he was
appointed governor of Palermo and commander-in-chief of the
troops in Sicily. The revolution which broke out in that year
led to the termination of his services in Naples. He escaped from
violence in Sicily with some difficulty. At Naples he was im-
prisoned and put on his trial by the government, but was
acquitted and released in January 1821; and King George IV. con-
ferred on him a knight commandership of the Hanoverian order.

The rising of the Greeks against the Turks, which began at this
time, had his full sympathy from the first. But for some years he
had to act only as the friend of the insurgents in England. In
1827 he took the honourable but unfortunate step of accepting
the commandership-in-chief of the Greek army. At the point of
anarchy and indiscipline to which they had now fallen, the
Greeks could no longer form an efficient army, and could look for
salvation only to foreign intervention. Sir Richard Church, who

landed in March, was sworn " archistrategos " on the isth of
April 1827. But he could not secure loyal co-operation or
obedience. The rout of his army in an attempt to relieve the
acropolis of Athens, then besieged by the Turks, proved that it
was incapable of conducting regular operations. The acropolis
capitulated, and Sir Richard turned to partisan warfare in
western Greece. Here his activity had beneficial results, for it
led to a rectification in 1832, in a sense favourable to Greece, of
the frontier drawn by the powers in 1830 (see his Observations
on an Eligible Line of Frontier for Greece, London, 1830). Church
had, however, surrendered his commission, as a protest against
the unfriendly government of Capo d'Istria, on the 2sth of August
1829. He lived for the rest of his life in Greece, was created
general of the army in 1854, and died at Athens on the 3Oth of
March 1873. Sir Richard Church married in 1826 Elizabeth
Augusta Wilmot-Horton, who survived him till 1878.

See Sir Richard Church, by Stanley Lane Poole (London, 1890);
Sir Richard Church in Italy and Greece, by E. M. Church (Edinburgh,
1895), based on family papers (an Italian version, Brigantaggio e
societa seerete nelle Puglie, 1817-1828, executed under the direction
of Carlo Lacaita, appeared at Florence in 1899). The MS. Corre-
spondence and Papers of Sir Richard Church, in 29 vols., now in
the British Museum (Add. MSS. 36543-36571), contain invaluable
material for the history of the War of Greek Independence, in-
cluding a narrative of the war during Church's tenure of the
command, which corrects many errors in the published accounts and
successfully vindicates Church's reputation against the strictures of
Finlay, Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, and other historians of the war
(see Cam. Mod. Hist. x. p. 804). (D. H.)

CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815-1890), English divine,
son of John Dearman Church, brother of Sir Richard Church (q.v.) ,
a merchant, was born at Lisbon on the 25th of April 1815,
his early years being mostly spent at Florence. After his
father's death in 1828 he was sent to a school of a pronounced
evangelical type at Redlands, Bristol, and went in 1833 to
Wadham College, Oxford, then an evangelical college. He took
first-class honours in 1836, and in 1838 was elected fellow of
Oriel. One of his contemporaries, Richard Mitchell, commenting
on this election, said: " There is such a moral beauty about
Church that they could not help taking him." He was appointed
tutor of Oriel in 1839, and was ordained the same year. He was
an intimate friend of J. H. Newman at this period, and closely
allied to the Tractarian party. In 1841 No. 90 of Tracts for the
Times appeared, and Church resigned his tutorship. In 1844-
1845 he was junior proctor, and in that capacity, in concert with
his senior colleague, vetoed a proposal to censure Tract 90 publicly.
In 1846 Church, with others, started The Guardian newspaper,
and he was an early contributor to The Saturday Review. In
1850 he became engaged to Miss H. F. Bennett, of a Somerset-
shire family, a niece of George Moberly, bishop of Salisbury.
After again holding the tutorship of Oriel, he accepted in 1852
the small living of Whatley in Somersetshire, near Frome, and
was married in the following year. He was a diligent parish
priest and a serious student, and contributed largely to current
literature. In 1869 he refused a canonry at Worcester, but in
1871 he accepted, most reluctantly (calling it " a sacrifice en
pure perte ") , the deanery of St Paul's, to which he was nominated
by W. E. Gladstone.

His task as dean was a complicated one. It was (i) the restora-
tion of the cathedral; (2) the adjustment of the question of the
cathedral revenues with the Ecclesiastical Commissioners; (3)
the reorganization of a conservative cathedral staff with
anomalous vested rights. He described the intention of his
appointment to be " that St Paul's should waken up from its
long slumber." The first year that he spent at St Paul's was,
writes one of his friends, one of " misery " for a man who loved
study and quiet and the country, and hated official pomp
and financial business and ceremonious appearances. But he
performed his difficult and uncongenial task with almost in-
credible success, and is said never to have made an enemy or a
mistake. The dean was distinguished for uniting in a singular
degree the virtues of austerity and sympathy. He was pre-
eminently endowed with the faculty of judgment, characterized
by Canon Scott Holland as the gift of " high and fine and sane

326

CHURCH

and robust decision." Though of unimpressive stature, he had
a strong magnetic influence over all brought into contact with
him, and though of a naturally gentle temperament, he never
hesitated to express censure if he was convinced it was deserved.
In the pulpit the voice of the dean was deliberately monotonous,
and he employed no adventitious gesture. He may be described
as a High Churchman, but of an essentially rational type, and
with an enthusiasm for religious liberty that made it impossible
for him to sympathize with any unbalanced or inconsiderate
demands for deference to authority. He said of the Church of
England that there was " no more glorious church in Christen-
dom than this inconsistent English Church." The dean often
meditated resigning his office, though his reputation as an
ecclesiastical statesman stood so high that he was regarded in
1882 as a possible successor to Archbishop Tait. But his health
and mode of life made it out of the question. In 1888 his only
son died; his own health declined, and he appeared for the last
time in public at the funeral of Canon Liddon in 1890, dying on
9th December .1890, at Dover. He was buried at Whatley.

The dean's chief published works are a Life of St Anselm
(1870), the lives of Spenser ( 1879) and Bacon(i 884) inMacmillan's
" Men of Letters " series, an Essay on Dante (1878), The Oxford
Movement (1891), together with many other volumes of essays
and sermons. A collection of his journalistic articles was
published in 1897 as Occasional Papers. In these writings he
exhibits a great grasp of principles, an accurate mastery of detail,
and the same fusion of intelligent sympathy and dispassionate
judgment that appeared in his handling of business. His style
is lucid, and has the charm of austerity. He stated that he had
never studied style per se, but that he had acquired it by the
exercise of translation from classical languages; that he watched
against the temptation of using unreal and fine words; that he
employed care in his choice of verbs rather than in his use of
adjectives; and that he fought against self-indulgence in writing
just as he did in daily life. His sermons have the same quality
of self-restraint. His private letters are fresh and simple, and
contain many unaffected epigrams; in writing of religious
subjects he resolutely avoided dogmatism without ever sacrificing
precision. The dean was a man of genius, whose moral stainless-
ness and instinctive fire were indicated rather than revealed
by his writings.

See Life and Letters of Dean Church, by his daughter, M. C. Church
(1895); memoir by H. C. Beeching in Diet. Nat. Biog.; and D. C.
Lathbury, Dean Church (1907). (A. C. BE.)

CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr.
KvpiaKov [oSifM], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many
Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms —
Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov,
Bulg. cerkova, Czech cirkev, Finn, kirkko, &c.), a word originally
applied to the building used for Christian worship, and subse-
quently extended to the Christian community (ecclesia) itself.
Similarly the Greek word ecclesia (aocXTjata), " assembly," was
very early transferred from the community to the building, and
is used in both senses, especially in the modern Romance and
Celtic languages (e.g. Fr. eglise, Welsh eghtrys, &c.).

(i) Church Architecture. — From the strictly architectural
point of view the subject of church building, including the
development of the various styles and the essential features of
the construction and arrangement of churches, is dealt with
elsewhere (see ARCHITECTURE; ABBEY; BASILICA). It is, how-
ever, impossible to understand the development of church
architecture without realizing its intimate connexion with that of
the doctrine, organization and ritual of the Christian Church as a
religious community, and a brief sketch of this connexion may be
given here by way of introduction to the more technical treatment
of the subject. In general it may be said of church architecture,
more truly than of any other, that artistically it is " frozen
music." It is true that at all times churches have been put to
secular uses; in periods of unrest, as among the Nestorian
Christians now, they were sometimes built to serve at need as
fortresses; their towers were used for beacons, their naves for
meetings on secular affairs. But as a rule, and especially in the

great periods of church architecture, their builders were un-
trammelled by any utilitarian considerations; they built for the
glory of God, for their own glory perhaps, in honour of the saints;
and their work, where it survives, is (as it were) a petrification of
their beliefs and ideals. This is, of course, more true of the
middle ages than of the times that preceded and followed them;
the Church under the Roman empire hardly as yet realized the
possibilities of " sermons in stones," and took over, with little
change, the model of the secular and religious buildings of pagan
Rome; the Renaissance, essentially a neo-pagan movement,
introduced disturbing factors from outside, and, though develop-
ing a style very characteristic of the age that produced it,
started that archaeological movement which has tended in
modern times to substitute mere imitations of old models for any
attempt to express in church architecture the religious spirit of
the age.

The earliest type of Christian Church, out of which the others
developed, was the basilica. The Church, emerging in the 4th
century into imperial favour, and established as part of the
organization of the Roman empire, simply adopted that type of
secular official building which she found convenient for her
purposes. The clergy, now Roman officials, vested in the robes
of the civil dignitaries (see VESTMENTS), took their seats in the
apse of the basilica where the magistrates were wont to sit, in
front of them the holy table, facing the congregation. The
cancelli, the lattice or bar, which in the civil tribunal had divided
the court from the litigants and the public, now served to separate
clergy and laity. This arrangement still survives in some of the
ancient churches of Rome; it has been revived in many
Protestant places of worship. It symbolized principally an
official distinction; but with the theocratizing of the empire in
the East and its decay in the West the accentuation of the mystic
powers of the clergy led to a more complete separation from the
laity, a tendency which left its mark on the arrangements of the
churches. In the East the cancelli, under the influence possibly
of the ritual of the Jewish temple, developed into the iconostasis,
the screen of holy pictures, behind the closed doors of which the
supreme act of the eucharistic mystery is hidden from the lay
people. In the West the high altar was moved to the east end
(the presbyterium) with a space before it for the assisting deacons
and subdeacons (the chancel proper) railed off as a spot peculiarly
holy (now usually called the sanctuary); between this and the
nave, where the laity were, was the choir, with seats for the
clergy on either side. The whole of this space (sanctuary and
choir) came to be known as the " chancel." This was divided
from the nave, sometimes by an arch forming part of the structure
of the building, sometimes by a screen, or by steps, sometimes by
all three (see CHANCEL). The division of churches into chancel
and nave, the outcome of the sacramental and sacerdotal spirit of
the Catholic Church, may be taken as generally typical of church
construction in the medieval West, though there were exceptions,
e.g. the round churches of the Templars. There were, however,
further changes, the result partly of doctrinal developments,
partly of that passion for symbolism which by the I3th century
had completed the evolution of the Catholic ritual. Transepts
were added, to give to the ground-plan of the building the
figure of the cross. The insistence on the unique efficacy of the
sacrifice of the altar led to the multiplication of masses, and so of
altars, which were placed in the transepts or aisles or in chapels,
dedicated to the saints whose relics they enshrined. The chief of
these subsidiary chapels, that of the Blessed Virgin (or Lady
chapel), behind the high altar, was often of large size. Finally,
for the convenience of processions, the nave and chancel aisles
were carried round behind the high altar as ambulatories.

The Romanesque churches, still reminiscent of antique models,
had preserved all the simplicity of the ancient basilicas with
much more than their grandeur; but the taste for religious
symbolism which culminated in the I3th century, and the
imaginative genius of the northern peoples, transformed them
into the marvellous dreams in stone of the " Gothic " period.
Churches now became, in form and decoration, epitomes of the
Christian scheme of salvation as the middle ages understood it.

CHURCH

327

In the plan of the buildings and their decoration everything still
remained subordinate to the high altar; but though on this and
its surroundings ornament was most lavishly expended, the
churches — wherever wealth permitted — were covered within and
without with sculpture or painting: scenes from the Old and
New Testaments, from the lives of saints, even from every-day
life; figures of the Almighty, of Christ, of the Virgin Mother, of
apostles, saints, confessors; pictures of the joys of heaven and
the torments of hell; and outside, grimacing from every angle,
demons and goblins, amusing enough to us but terrible to the age
that set them there, visible embodiments of the evil spirits driven
from within the sacred building by the efficacy of the holy rites.

In considering the origins of medieval churches, moreover, it
must be borne in mind that as a general rule their builders were
not actuated by the motives usual in modern times, at least
among Protestants. The size of churches was not determined
by the needs of population but by the piety and wealth of the
founders; and the same applies to their number. Often they
were founded as acts of propitiation of the Almighty or of the
saints, and the greater their size and splendour the more effective
they were held to be for their purpose. Local rivalry, too,
played a large part, one wealthy abbey building " against "
another, much in the same way as modern business houses
endeavour to outshine each other in the magnificence of their
buildings. Of all the mixed motives that went to the evolution
of church architecture in the middle ages, this rivalry in ostenta-
tion was probably the most fertile in the creation of new forms.
A volume might be written on the economic effects of this locking
up of vast capital in unproductive buildings. In Catholic
countries (notably in Ireland) great churches are still built out
of the savings of a poverty-stricken peasantry; and from this
point of view the destruction of churches in the i6th century
was probably a benefit to the world. This, however, is a con-
sideration altogether alien to the Christian spirit, the aspiration
of which is to lay up treasures not on earth but in heaven.

The Reformation was a fateful epoch in the history of church
architecture. The substitution of the Bible for the Mass destroyed
the raison d'etre of churches as the middle ages had made them.
Pictures and stories, carved or painted, seemed no longer
necessary now that the open Bible was in the hands of the common
people; they had been too often prostituted, moreover, to
idolatrous uses, — and " idolatry " was the worst of blasphemies
to the re-discoverers of the Old Testament. Save in some parts
of Germany, where the influence of Luther saved the churches
from wreck, an iconoclastic wave spread over the greater part
of Western Europe, wherever the "new religion" prevailed;
everywhere churches were cleared of images and reduced to the
state of those described by William Harrison in his Description
of England (1570), only the " pictures in glass " being suffered
in some cases to survive for a while " by reason of the extreme
cost of replacing them." The structures of the churches, however,
remained; and these, even in countries which departed furthest
from the Catholic system, served in some measure to keep its
tradition alive. Protestantism has, indeed, produced a distinctive
church architecture, i.e. the conventicle type, favoured more
especially by the so-called " Free Churches." Its distinctive
features are pulpit and auditorium, and it is symbolical of the
complete equality of ministers and congregation. In general,
however, Protestant builders have been content to preserve or
to adapt the traditional models. It would be interesting in this
connexion to trace the reverse effect of church architecture upon
church doctrine. In England, for instance, the chancels were
for the most part disused after the Reformation (see Harrison,
op. cit.), but presently they came into use again, and on the
Catholic revival in the Church of England in the ipth century
it is certain that the medieval churches exercised an influence
by giving a sense of fitness, which might otherwise have been
lacking, to the restoration of medieval ritual. A similar tendency
has of late years been displayed in the Established Church of
Scotland.

Churches, as the outcome of the organization of the Catholic
Church, are divided into classes as " cathedral," " conventual "

and " collegiate," " parochial " and " district " churches. It
must be noted, however, that the term cathedral (?.».), ecclesi-
astically applicable to any church which happens to be a bishop's
see, architecturally connotes a certain size and dignity, and is
sometimes applied to churches which have never been, or have
long ceased to be, bishop's seats. (W. A. P.)

(2) The Religious Community. — In the sense of Christian
community (ecclesia) the word " Church " is applied in a narrow
sense to any one of the numerous separate organizations into
which Christendom is divided (e.g. Roman Catholic Church,
Orthodox Eastern Church, Church of England, Evangelical
[Lutheran] Church) — these are dealt with under their several
headings — and in a comprehensive sense (with which we are now
concerned) to the general body of all those " who profess and
call themselves Christians." Religion, according to the old
definition, is the bond which binds the soul of man to God.1
It begins as the relation of a tribe to its God. Personal religious
conviction grows out of the tribal (corporate) religious bond.
But the social instinct is strong. Men owning the same religious
convictions will naturally draw together into some sort of associa-
tion. Using the word religion to cover all the imperfect ways
in which men have felt after God, we note that in every cast-
men have found the need alike of a teacher and of fellowship.
Thus the idea of a church as " the pillar and ground of the truth "
(i Tim. iii. 15) corresponds to some of the primary needs of man.
Even at Stonehenge, the oldest relic of prehistoric religion in
England, where we picture in imagination the worship of the
rising sun, nature worship degraded to a horrible depth by human
sacrifice, we find struggling for expression the idea- of a corporate
religious life. From all the lower levels where superstition and
cruelty reign, from the depths of fear inspired by fetichism, we
look on to the higher level of Judaism as the progressive religion
of the old world. This does not mean that we shut our eyes to
the ideals of Greek philosophers, with whom morality was
constantly outgrowing religion. " The vision of an ideal state
which the master-mind of Plato contemplated, but thought too
good ever to become true in actual realization, is full of aspirations
which the Christian Church claims to satisfy. The problems of
the relations of the life of the State and the life of the individual,
which Aristotle ever suggests and never solves, are problems
with which the Christian Church has at least attempted to
deal."2

From the beginning of the history of the Jewish race the idea
that the world is a kingdom under the rule of God began to find
expression. The conception of Israel as " a kingdom of priests
and an holy nation " (Exod. xix. 6) bore witness to it. The idea
of kingship from the first was that of a ruler representing God.
As time went on and even the dynasty of David failed in the
persons of unworthy representatives to maintain this ideal, both
psalmists and prophets taught the people to look beyond the
earthly kingdom to the spiritual kingdom of which it was a type.
But even Isaiah tended to think of the spiritual life and worship
of the nation as a department of political organization only,
controlled by the king and his princes. It was reserved for
Jeremiah, in the darkest days of his life, to build up the ideal of a
spiritual society which should weld Israel together, to proclaim a
new covenant (xxxi. 31-34) which Jehovah would make with
Israel when representatives of the previously exiled ten tribes
should return with the exiles of Judah. This prophecy is
instinct with the growing sense of the personal responsibility of
individual men brought into communion with God. The
religion of Israel from this time of the captivity ceased to be a
merely national religion connected with particular forms of
sacrifice in a particular land. The synagogues which traced their
origin to the time of Ezekiel, when the sacrificial cultus was
impossible, extended this ideal yet further. During the centuries
preceding the birth of Christ there grew up an apocalyptic
literature which regarded as a primary truth the conception of a

1 Lactantius, Inst. Div. iy. 28 " Vinculo pietatis obstricti, Deo
religati sumus unde ipsa religio nomen accepit." The etymology may
be wrong, but this is the popular sense of the word.

2 Darwell Stone, The Christian Church, p. 1 8.

CHURCH

kingdom of righteousness ruled over by a present God. The
preaching of John the Baptist was thus in sympathy with the
ideals of his generation, though the sternness of the repentance
which he set forth as the necessary preparation for entrance into
the new kingdom of heaven, which was to be made visible on
earth, was not less repugnant to the men of his day than of later
times. Christ's own teaching and that of his disciples began with
the proclamation of the kingdom of God (or of heaven) (Luke iv.
43, viii. i, ix. 2; Matt. x. 7)., That he intended it to find
outward expression in a visible society appears from the careful
way in which he trained the apostles to become leaders hereafter,
crowning that work by the institution of the sacraments of
baptism and the Eucharist. " It was not from accident or for
convenience that Christ formed a society." 1 His parables even
more than his sermons reveal the principles of his endeavour.
But he seldom used the word ecclesia, church, which became the
universal designation of his society.

All the more emphatic is Christ's use of the term ecclesia upon
the distinct advance in faith made by the apostles when St Peter
as their spokesman confessed him to be " the Christ, the Son of
the living God " (Matt. xvi. 16). Instantly came the reply, " I
say unto thee, that thou art Petros (rockman), and on this Pelra
(rock) I will build my ecclesia (church) ; and the gates of Hades
shall not prevail against it." On the rock of a human character,
ennobled by faith in his divine Sonship, he could raise the church
of the future, which should be at the same time continuous with
the old, new in spiritual power, one in worship and in work.

To the Jew the word ecclesia as used in the Septuagint suggested
the assembly of the congregation of Israel. To a Greek it
suggested the assembly of freeborn citizens in a city state.
Without ceasing to be the congregation of Jehovah, it would
claim for itself all the hopes of an ideal state over which Greek
philosophers had sighed in vain.

Opinions differ upon the question whether the apostles were
chosen as representatives of the ecclesia to be founded (Hort) or
as men fitted to become its duly authorized teachers and leaders
from the beginning (Stone). But as Mr Stone well puts it, " It
would not be a necessary inference (from Dr Hort's opinion] that
there ought to be no ministry in the Christian Church."2

At first the church was limited to the Christian believers in the
city of Jerusalem, then by persecution their company was broken
up, and, since those who were scattered went everywhere
preaching the word, the conception was enlarged to include all
" of the way " (Acts ix. 2) in the Holy Land. A new epoch
began from the return of St Paul and St Barnabas to Antioch
after their first missionary journey, when they called together the
church and narrated theif experiences, and told how " God had
opened to the Gentiles the door of faith "(Actsxiv. 27). Hitherto
the term Church had been " ideally conterminous " with the
Jewish Church. Now it was to contain members who had never
in any sense belonged to the Jewish Church. Thus the way was
opened for new developments and for illimitable extension.
St Paul, in his address to the elders at Ephesus (Acts xx. 28),
adapted the words of Ps. Ixxiv. 2, " Remember thy congregation,
which thou hast purchased of old," claiming for the Christian
ecclesia the title of God's ancient ecclesia. But he never, how-
ever fiercely opposed by Judaizers, set a new ecclesia of Christ in
opposition to the old. We wait, however, for the Epistles of his
captivity at Rome to find the full meaning of the idea of the
church dawning uoon his imagination. " Here at least, for the
first time in the Acts and Epistles, we have the ecclesia spoken of
in the sense of the one universal ecclesia, and it comes more from
the theological than from the historical side; i.e. less from the
actual circumstances of the actual Christian communities than
from a development of thoughts respecting the place and office of
the Son of God: his headship was felt to involve the unity of all
those who were united to him."3 Similar development of the
idea of the one ecclesia as including all members of all local

1 Ecce Homo, ed. 5, p. 87. Cf. the interesting comparison between
Socrates and Christ.

2 Op. cit. p. 262.

* Hort, The Christian Ecclesia, p. 148.

ecclesiae does not lead St Paul to regard membership of the
universal church as invisible.

But the mere history of the word ecclesia does not exhaust the
subject. We must take into account not only the idea of the
visible actual church, but also the ideal pictured by St Paul in the
metaphors of the Body (Rom. xii. 5), the Temple (i Cor. iii.
10-15) and the Bride of Christ (2 Cor. xi. 2). The actual church
is always falling short of its profession; but its successive reforma-
tions witness to the strength of its longing after the beauty of
holiness.

Membership in the actual church is acquired through baptism
" in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost "
(Matt, xxviii. 19). The references in the New Testament to
baptism " in the name of Jesus " (or the Lord Jesus) (Acts ii.
38, viii. 16, x. 48, xix. 5; Rom. vi. 3; Gal. iii. 27), which are
by some critics taken to refer to a primitive Christological
baptismal formula, seem to refer to the confession made by the
baptized, or to the new relationship into which they are brought
as " members of Christ."4 Candidates for baptism were exhorted
to prepare for it by repentance and faith (Acts ii. 38). The
laying on of hands (Heb. vi. 2), in the rite called in later times
confirmation, followed baptism (Acts viii. 17). In the modern
Greek Church it is administered by priests with oil which has
been consecrated by the bishop, in the Roman Church by the
bishop himself. Such use of the chrism can be traced from the
2nd century. The Anglican Church retains only the Biblical
symbolism of " the blessing of the hand." Presbyterians and
other Protestant churches have abandoned the use, except the
Lutherans. We need not here trace the history of Christian
worship, in daily services (Acts ii. 46), or on the Lord's Day
(Acts xx. 7), meeting for the Lord's Supper (i Cor. xi. 17-34), or
for mutual edification in prayer, praise and prophecy (i Cor. xiv.).
These things represent the ideal of Christendom. In the words of
an eminent Roman Catholic scholar, Monsignor Duchesne,
" Faith unites, theology often separates." It must be our task to
summarize the leading ideas of the church in which all Christians
are agreed.

(a) The first is certainly fellowship with Christ and with the
brethren. The early Christians earnestly believed that their
life was " hidden with Christ in God " (Col. iii. 3), and found in
their union with Christ the lasting and strongest motive of love
to the brethren. Such fellowship is attributed by St Paul
pre-eminently to the work of the Holy Spirit (2 Cor. xiii. 14).
Its strength is shown in England in the growing readiness of the
different religious bodies to co-operate in movements for the puri-
fying of public morality and for the better observance of Sunday.

(b) The second is unity. We have seen how St. Paul was led
on to grasp the conception of one church universal manifested
in all the local churches. Its unity is not purely accidental in
that individuals have been forced to act together under pressure
of chance circumstances. Nor is the ideal of unity adopted
simply because experience teaches that " union is strength."
Nor is it even based on the philosophical conception ot the
incompleteness of the individual life. As Dr Sanday finely
says, " If the church is in something more than mere metaphor
the Body of Christ, if there is circulating through it a continual
flow and return of spiritual forces, derived directly from him, if
the Spirit which animates the Body is one, then the Body itself
also must be in essence one. It has its centre not on earth but in
heavenly places, where Christ sitteth at the right hand of God."5

(c) Thirdly, there is no question that the Lord intended the
one fellowship of his saints to be a vi-sible fellowship. The idea
of an invisible church has only commended itself in dark hours
when men despaired of unity even as an ideal. The view of
Zwingli and Calvin in the i6th century was not by any means
acceptable to other reformers. Luther distinguished between
the Spiritual Church, which he identified with the Communion
of Saints, and the Corporeal Church, the outward marks of which
are Baptism, Sacrament and Gospel. But he regarded them

4 For a full defence of the authenticity of Matt, xxviii. 19, see
Riggenbach, Der trinitarische Taufbefehl (Gutersloh, 1903).
6 The Conception of Priesthood, p. 13.

CHURCH ARMY

329

as different aspects of the same ohurch, and Melanchthon was
even more explicit.' As the saint purified in heaven is he who
struggled with his sins on earth, so is the church triumphant one
with the church militant. In Dr Lindsay's words, " it is one of
the privileges of faith, when strengthened by hope and by love,
to see the glorious ideal in the somewhat poor material reality.
It was thus that St Paul saw the universal Church of Christ
made visible in the Christian community of Corinth."2

But it is at this point that we come to the dividing line which
has been drawn by different conceptions of catholicity. Dr
Lindsay goes on to argue that all insistence on the principle of
historical continuity, whether urged by members of the Anglican
or the Roman Catholic Church, as upholders of episcopacy, is a
deliberate return to the principle of Judaism, which declared
that no one who was outside the circle of the " circumcised,"
no matter how strong his faith nor how the fruits of the Spirit
were manifest in his life and deeds, could plead " the security
of the Divine Covenant." Without entering into controversy
it must suffice to point out that, from the point of view of all
episcopal churches, the ministry of the bishops succeeding the
ministry of the apostles, however it came to pass, was for fifteen
centuries accepted as the pledge of unity. This principle, how-
ever, of continuity in ministry, belongs to a different department
of Christian thought from the sacrament of baptism, which really
corresponds to the Jewish rites of admission to the covenant.
And it has been an established principle of the undivided church
since the 3rd century, the bishop of Rome in this case upholding
against St Cyprian the view which subsequent generations have
ratified as Catholic truth, that baptism by whomsoever admin-
istered is valid if water is used with the right words. From this
point, alas, divergence begins.

(d) The fourth element is authority. Probably all Christians
can agree in the statement that the Christian democracy is also
a theocracy, that Christ is the source of all authority. There
are three passages in the Gospel which claim notice: (i.) the
promise to St Peter ( Matt. xvi. 1 8 f ) , as spokesman for the apostles,
of the key of the household of God, of power to admit and exclude;
(ii.) the promise (Matt, xviii. 1 5-20) probably given to the Twelve,
regarding offences against the peace of the society, advocating
exclusion only when brotherly appeals had failed; (iii.) the
commission of the whole ecclesia or of the Christian ministry
(John xx. 22, 23). Again the root difference between the
Presbyterian and Episcopalian conceptions of the church comes
to light. Is the authority of the church manifested in the
decisions which a local church arrives at by a majority of votes,
or in the decisions of apostles and prophets after taking counsel,
of the episcopate in later times, ratified by common consent of
Christendom? As has been well said, " the church is primarily
a witness — the strength of its authority lies in the many sides
from which the witness comes." It witnesses to the Divine
Life of Christ as a power of the present and of the future as of
the past, ministered in the Word and sacraments.

(e) The church is a sacerdotal society. St Paul delighted to
represent it as the " ideal Israel," and St John echoes the thought
in the words of praise (Rev. i. 5, 6), " Unto him that hath loved
us ... and made us to be a kingdom, and priests unto his
God and Father." This idea of the priesthood of the whole
church has three elements — the divine element, the human
element and self-sacrifice. The promise that Christians should
be temples of the living God has been fulfilled. As Dr Milligan
has said very well, " It is not only in things to which we commonly
confine the word miracle that the Divine appears. It may ap-
pear not less in the whole tone and spirit of the Church's life,
in the varied Christian virtues of her members, in the general
character of their Christian work, and in the grace received by
them in the Christian sacraments. When that life is exhibited,
as it ought to be, in its distinctively heavenly character, it bears
witness to the presence of a power in Christian men which no
mere recollection of a past example, however heroic or beautiful,

1 The Conception of Priesthood, p. 29.

•Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries,
p. 17.

can supply. The difficulties of exhibiting and maintaining it
are probably far greater now than they were in the apostolic age;
and as nothing but a present divine support can enable us to
overcome these, so, when they are overcome, a testimony is given
to the fact that God is with us."'

But this life is to be a human life still, to be in touch with all
that is noble and of good report in art and literature, keenly
interested in all the discoveries of science, active in all movements
of social progress. It cannot, however, be denied that to live
such a life, divine in its powers and human in its sympathies,
demands daily and hourly self-sacrifice. As the author of the
Imitation of Christ put it long ago, " There is no living in love
without pain." The thought of self-sacrifice has been emphasized
from the earliest times in the liturgies. By a true instinct the
early Christian writers called widows and orphans the altar of
God on which the sacrifices of almsgiving are offered up.4 Such
works of charity, however, represent only one of the channels
by which self-sacrifice is ministered, to which all prayers and
thanksgiving and instruction of psalms, prophecy and preaching
contribute. Thus in the Eucharist the offering of the church is
made one with the offering of the Great High Priest.6

All this represents an ideal. It suggests in a modern form
the perpetual paradox of the Christian life: we are what we are
to be. The church is the divine society in which all other religious
associations are eventually to find their home. The prayer,
" Thy kingdom come," embraces all spiritual forces which make
for righteousness. They were acknowledged in Christ's words,
" He that is not against you is for you " (Luke ix. 50). But
the divisions of Christendom testify to the harm done by undue
insistence on the claims of the individual to gain scope to extend
the kingdom in his own way. As in a choir all the resources ol
an individual voice are used to strengthen the general effect, so
must the individual lose his life that he may find it, witnessing
by his share in the common service of the church to the ultimate
unity of knowledge and harmony of truth.

For the various conceptions of the church as an organized body
see CHURCH HISTORY, sec. 3, and the articles on the various
churches. (A. E. B.)

CHURCH ARMY, an English religious organization, founded
in 1882 by the Rev. Wilson Carlile (afterwards prebendary of
St Paul's) , who banded together in an orderly army of " soldiers "
a«d " officers " a few working men and women, whom he and
others trained to act as " Church of England evangelists "
among the outcasts and criminals of the Westminster slums.
Previous experience had convinced him that the moral condition
of the lowest classes of the people called for new and aggressive
action on the part of the Church, and that this work was most
effectively done by laymen and women of the same class as those
whom it was desired to touch. " Evangelistic zeal with Church
order " is the principle of the Church Army, and it is essentially a
working men's and women's mission to working people. As the
work grew, a training institution for evangelists was started in
Oxford, but soon moved (1886) to London, where, in Bryanston
Street near the Marble Arch, the headquarters of the army are
now established. Working men are trained as evangelists, and
working women as mission sisters, and are supplied to the clergy.
The men evangelists have to pass an examination by the arch-
deacon of Middlesex, and are then (since 1896) admitted by the
bishop of London as " lay evangelists in the Church " ; the
mission sisters must likewise pass an examination by the diocesan
inspector of schools. All Church Army workers (of whom there
are over 1800 of one kind and another) are entirely under the
control of the incumbent of the parish to which they are sent.
They never go to a parish unless invited, nor stay when asked to
go by the parish priest. Officers and sisters are paid a limited
sum for their services either by the vicar or by voluntary local
contributions. Church Army mission and colportage vans
circulate throughout the country parishes, if desired, with

3 The Ascension, p. 254.

4 Polycarp, Phil. 4; cf. Tertullian, Ad Uxor. i. 7.

' This teaching is not confined to Episcopalian writers. It has
been finely expressed from the Presbyterian standpoint by Dr
Milligan, op. cit. p. 265 ff. ; cf. Lindsay, p. 37.

330

CHURCH CONGRESS— CHURCH HISTORY

itinerant evangelists, who hold simple missions, without charge,
and distribute literature. Each van missioner has a clerical
" adviser." Missions are also held in prisons and workhouses, at
the invitation of the authorities. In 1888 (before the similar work
of the Salvation Army was inaugurated) the Church Army
established labour homes in London and elsewhere, with the
object of giving a " fresh start in life " to the outcast and destitute.
These homes deal with the outcast and destitute in a plain,
straightforward way. They demand that the persons should
show a desire for amendment; they subject them to firm
discipline, and give them hard work; they give them decent
clothes, and strive to win them to a Christian life. The- inmates
earn their board and lodging by piece-work, for which they are
paid at the current trade rates, while by a gradually lessening
scale of work and pay they are stimulated to obtain situations
for themselves and given time to seek for them. There are about
1 20 homes in London and the provinces, and 56 % of the inmates
are found to make these the successful beginning of an honest
self-supporting life. The Church Army has lodging homes,
employment bureaus, cheap food depots, old clothes department,
dispensary and a number of other social works. Every winter
employment is found for a great number of the unemployed in
special depots, among them being the King's Labour Tents and
the Queen's Labour Relief Depots. There is also an extensive
emigration system, under which many hundreds (3000 in 1906) of
carefully tested men and families, of good character, chiefly of
the unemployed class, are placed in permanent employment in
Canada through the agency of the local clergy. The whole of the
work is done in loyal subordination to the diocesan and parochial
organization of the Church of England.
See Edgar Rowans, Wilson Carlile and the Church Army.

CHURCH CONGRESS, an annual meeting of members of the
Church of England, lay and clerical, to discuss matters religious,
moral or social, in which the church is interested. It has no
legislative authority, and there is no voting on the questions
discussed. The first congress was held in 1861 in the hall of
King's College, Cambridge, and was the outcome of the revival of
convocation in 1852. The congress is under the presidency of the
bishop in whose diocese it happens to be held. Recent places of
meeting are Brighton (1901), Northampton (1902), Bristol (1903),
Liverpool (1904), Weymouth (1905), Barrow-in-Furness (1906),
Great Yarmouth (1907), Manchester (1908), Swansea (1909").
The meetings of the congress have been mainly remarkable as
illustrating the wide divergences of opinion and practice in the
Church of England, no less than the broad spirit of tolerance which
has made this possible and honourably differentiates these
meetings from so many ecclesiastical assemblies of the past. The
congress of 1908 was especially distinguished, not only for the
expression of diametrically opposed views on such questions as
the sacrifice of the mass or the " higher criticism," but for the
very large proportion of time given to the discussion of the
attitude of the Church towards Socialism and kindred subjects.

CHURCH HISTORY. The sketch given below of the evolution
of the Christian Church (see CHURCH) may well be prefaced by a
Church summary of the history of the great Church historians,
historians, concerning whom fuller details are given in separate
articles. Hegesippus wrote in the 2nd century a
collection of memoirs containing accounts of the early days of
the church, only fragments of which are extant. The first real
church history was written by Eusebius of Caesarea in the early
part of the 4th century. His work was continued in the 5th
century by Philostorgius, Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and
in later centuries by Theodorus Lector, Evagrius, Theophanes
and others. In the I4th century Nicephorus Callisti undertook a
complete church history which covers in its extant form the first
six centuries. In the West Eusebius' History was translated into
Latin by Rufinus, and continued down to the end of the 4th
century. Augustine's City of God, published in 426, was an
apologetic, not an historical work, but it had great influence in
our field, for in it he undertook to answer the common heathen
accusation that the growing misfortunes of the empire were due to
the prevalence of Christianity and the forsaking of the gods of

Rome. It was to sustain Augustine's thesis that Orosius pro-
duced in 417 his Hisloriarum libri seplem, which remained the
standard text-book on world history during the middle ages.
About the same time Sulpicius Severus wrote his Historia Sacra,
covering both biblical and Christian history. In the 6th century
Cassiodorus had a translation made of the histories of Socrates,
Sozomen and Theodoret, which were woven into one continuous
narrative and brought down to 5 18. The work was known as the
Historia Ecclesiastica Tripartita, and constituted during the
middle ages the principal text-book of church history in the West.
Before writing his history Eusebius produced a world chronicle
which was based upon a similar work by Julius Africanus and is
now extant only in part. It was continued by Jerome, and
became the basis of the model for many similar works of the 5th
and following centuries by Prosper, Idatius, Marcellinus Comes,
Victor Tununensis and others. Local histories containing more
or less ecclesiastical material were written in the 6th and following
centuries by Jordanes (History of the Goths), Gregory of Tours
(History of the Franks), Isidore of Seville (History of the Goths,
Vandals and Suevi), Bede (Ecclesiastical History of England),
Paulus Diaconus (History of the Lombards), and others. Of the
many historians of the middle ages, besides the authors of
biographies, chronicles, cloister annals, &c., may be mentioned
Haymo, Anastasius, Adam of Bremen, Ordericus Vitalis, Honorius
of Autun, Otto of Freising, Vincent of Beauvais and Antoninus of
Florence.

The Protestant reformation resulted in a new development
of historical writing. Polemic interest led a number of Lutheran
scholars of the i6th century to publish the Magdeburg Centuries
( 1 5 59 ff . ) , in which they undertook to show the primitive character
of the Protestant faith in contrast with the alleged corruptions of
Roman Catholicism. In this design they were followed by many
other writers. The opposite thesis was maintained by Baronius
(Annales Ecclesiastici, 1588 ff.), whose work was continued
by a number of Roman Catholic scholars. Other notable Roman
Catholic historians of the I7th and i8th centuries were Natalis
Alexander, Bossuet, Tillemont, Fleury, Dupin and Ceillier.

Church history began to be written in a genuinely scientific
spirit only in the i8th century under the leadership of Mosheim,
who is commonly called the father of modern church history.
With wide learning and keen critical insight he wrote a number
of historical works of which the most important is his Instituliones
Hist. Eccles. (1755; best English trans, by Murdock). He was
followed by many disciples, among them Schroeckh (Chrislliche
Kirchengeschichte, 1772 fif. in 45 vols.). Other notable names
of the 1 8th century are Semler, Spittler, Henke and Planck.

The new historical spirit of the igth century did much for
church history. Among the greatest works produced were those
of J. C. L. Gieseler (Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, 1824 ff.,
best Eng. tr. revised and edited by H. B. Smith), exceedingly
objective in character and still valuable, particularly on account
of its copious citations from the sources; Neander (Allgemeine
Geschichte der christlichen Religion und Kirche, 1825 ff., Eng. tr.
by Torrey), who wrote in a sympathetic spirit and with special
stress upon the religious side of the subject, and has been followed
by many disciples, for instance, Hagenbach, Schaff and Herzog;
and Baur (Das Christenthum und die chrislliche Kirche, 1853
ff.), the most brilliant of all, whose many historical works were
dominated by the principles of the Hegelian philosophy and
evinced both the merits and defects of that school. Baur has
had tremendous influence, even though many of his positions
have been generally discredited. The problems particularly
of the primitive history were first brought into clear light by
him, and all subsequent work upon the subject must acknowledge
its indebtedness to him.

A new era was opened by the publication in 1857 of the second
edition of Ritschl's Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche, in
which he broke away from the Tubingen school and introduced
new points of view that have revolutionized the interpretation
of the early church. Of recent works the most important are
the Kirchengeschichte of Carl Miiller (1892 ff.) and that of W.
Moller (1889 ff., second edition by von Schuberth, 1898 ff.,

CHURCH HISTORY

Church.

greatly enlarged and improved), the translation of the latter
(1892 ff.) being the most useful text-book in English. Of modern
Roman Catholic works may be mentioned those by J. A. Mohler,
T. B. Alzog, F. X. Kraus, Cardinal Joseph von Hergenrother
and C. J. von Hefele (edited by Knopfler.)

In addition to these general works on church history should
be named the histories of doctrine by Harnack, Loofs, Seeberg
and Fisher; and on the early Church the works on the apostolic
age by Weizsacker (1886, English translation 1894), McGiffert
(1897), and Bartlet (1899); Renan's Hisloire des origines du
christianisme (1867 ff., in 7 vols., translated in part); Pfleiderer's
Urchristenthum (1887); S. Cheetham's History of the Christian
Church during the first Six Centuries (1894); Wernle's Anfange
unserer Religion (1901; Eng. tr. 1902 ff.); Rainy's Ancient
Catholic Church (1902); Knopf's N achapostolisches Zeitalter
(1905); Duchesne's Hisloire ancienne de l'£glise (vol. i.,
1906). (A. C. McG.)

In the following account of the historical evolution of the
History Church, the subject will be treated in three sections: —
of the (A) The ancient Church to the beginning of the pontifi-
cate of Gregory the Great (A.D. 590); (B) The Church
in the middle ages; (C) The modern Church.

A. THE ANCIENT CHURCH

i. Origin and Growth. — The crucifixion of Jesus Christ resulted
in the scattering of his followers, but within a short time they
became convinced that he had risen from the dead, and would
soon return to set up the expected Messianic kingdom, and so
to accomplish the true work of the Messiah (cf. Acts i. 6 ff.).
They were thus enabled to retain the belief in his Messiahship
which his death had threatened to destroy permanently. This
belief laid upon them the responsibility of bringing as many of
their countrymen as possible, to recognize him as Messiah, and
to prepare themselves by repentance and righteousness for the
coming kingdom (cf. Acts ii. 21, 38, iii. 19 sq.). It was with
the sense of this responsibility that they gathered again in
Jerusalem, the political and religious metropolis of Judaism.
In Jerusalem the new movement had its centre, and the church
established there is rightly known as the mother church of
Christendom. The life of the early Jewish disciples, so far as
we are able to judge from our meagre sources, was very much
the same as that of their fellows. They continued faithful to
the established synagogue and temple worship (cf. Acts iii. i),
and did not think of founding a new sect, or of separating from
the household of Israel (cf. Acts x. 14, xv. 5, xxi. 21 sq.).
There is no evidence that their religious or ethical ideals differed
in any marked degree from those of the more serious-minded
among their countrymen, for the emphasis which they laid upon
the need of righteousness was not at all uncommon. In their
belief, however, in the Messiahship of Jesus, and their consequent
assurance of the speedy establishment by him of the Messianic
kingdom, they stood alone. The first need of the hour, therefore,
was to show that Jesus was the promised Messiah in spite of his
crucifixion, a need that was met chiefly by testimony to the
resurrection, which became the burden of the message of the
early disciples to their fellow-countrymen (cf. Acts ii. 24 ff.,
iii. 15 ff., v. 31). It was this need which led also to the develop-
ment of Messianic prophecy and the ultimate interpretation of
the Jewish Bible as a Christian book (see BIBLE). The second
need of the hour was to bring the nation to repentance and
righteousness in order that the kingdom might come (cf. Acts
iii. 19). The specific gospel of Jesus, the gospel of divine father-
hood and human brotherhood, received no attention in the
earliest days, so far as our sources enable us to judge.

Meanwhile the new movement spread quite naturally beyond
the confines of Palestine and found adherents among the Jews of
the dispersion, and at an early day among the Gentiles as well.
Many of the latter had already come under the influence of
Judaism, and were more or less completely in sympathy with
Jewish religious principles. Among the Christians who did most
to spread the gospel in the Gentile world was the apostle Paul,
•whose conversion was the greatest event in the history of the early

Church. In his hands Christianity became a new religion, fitted
to meet the needs of all the world, and freed entirely of the local
and national meaning which had hitherto attached to it. Accord-
ing to the early disciples Jesus was the Jewish Messiah, and had
significance only in relation to the expected Messianic kingdom.
To establish that kingdom was his one great aim. For the
Gentiles he had no message except as they might become members
of the family of Israel, assuming the responsibilities and enjoying
the privileges of proselytes. But Paul saw in Jesus much more
than the Jewish Messiah. He saw in Christ the divine Spirit, who
had come down from heaven to transform the lives of men, all of
whom are sinners. Thus Jesus had the same significance for one
man as for another, and Christianity was meant as much for
Gentiles as for Jews. The kingdom of which the early disciples
were talking was interpreted by Paul as righteousness and peace
and joy in the Holy Ghost (Rom. xiv. 17), a new principle of
living, not a Jewish state. But Paul taught also, on the basis of a
religious experience and of a distinct theory of redemption (see
McGiffert's Apostolic Age, ch. iii.), that the Christian is freed
from the obligation to observe the Jewish law. He thus did away
with the fundamental distinction between Jews and Gentiles.
The transformed spiritual life of the believer expresses itself not in
the observance of the Jewish law, but in love, purity and peace.
This precipitated a very serious conflict, of which we learn some-
thing from the Epistle to the Galatians and the Book of Acts
(xv. and xxii.). Other fundamental principles of Paul's failed of
comprehension and acceptance, but the belief finally prevailed
that the observance of Jewish law and custom was unnecessary,
and that in the Christian Church there is no distinction between
the circumcised and the uncircumtised. Those Jewish Christians
who refused to go with the rest of the Church in this matter lived
their separate life, and were regarded as an heretical sect known
as the Ebionites.

It was Christianity in its universal form which won its great
victories, and finally became permanently established in the
Roman world. The appeal which it made to that world was
many-sided. It was a time of moral reformation, when men were
awaking to the need of better and purer living. To all who felt
this need Christianity offered high moral ideals, and a tremendous
moral enthusiasm, in its devotion to a beloved leader, in its
emphasis upon the ethical possibilities of the meanest, and in its
faith in a future life of blessedness for the righteous. It was a
time of great religious interest, when old cults were being revived
and new ones were finding acceptance on all sides. Christianity,
with its one God, and its promise of redemption and a blessed
immortality based upon divine revelation, met as no other
contemporary faith did the awakening religious needs. It was a
time also of great social unrest. With its principle of Christian
brotherhood, its emphasis upon the equality of all believers in
the sight of God, and its preaching of a new social order to be set
up at the return of Christ, it appealed strongly to multitudes,
particularly of the poorer classes. That it won a permanent
success, and finally took possession of the Roman world, was due
to its combination of appeals. No one thing about it commended
it to all, and to no one thing alone did it owe its victory, but to
the fact that it met a greater variety of needs and met them more
satisfactorily than any other movement of the age. Contributing
also to the growth of the Church was the zeal of its converts, the
great majority of whom regarded themselves as missionaries and
did what they could to extend the new faith. Christianity was
essentially a proselytizing religion, not content to appeal simply
to one class or race of people, and to be one among many faiths,
but believing in the falsity or insufficiency of all others and eager
to convert the whole world. Moreover, the feeling of unity
which bound Christians everywhere together and made of them
one compact whole, and which found expression before many
generations had passed in a strong organization, did much for the
spread of the Church. Identifying himself with the Christian
circle from the 2nd century on, a man became a member of a
society existing in all quarters of the empire, every part conscious
of its oneness with the larger whole and all compactly organized
to do the common work. The growth of the Church during the

332

CHURCH HISTORY

earlier centuries was chiefly in the middle and lower classes, but
it was not solely there. No large number of the aristocracy were
reached, but in learned and philosophical circles many were won,
attracted both by Christianity's evident ethical power and by its
philosophical character (cf. the Apologists of the 2nd century).
That it could seem at once a simple way of living for the common
man and a profound philosophy of the universe for the speculative
thinker meant much for its success.1

But it did not win its victory without a struggle. Superstition,
misunderstanding and hatred caused the Christians trouble for
many generations, and governmental repression they had to
suffer occasionally, as a result of popular disturbances. No
systematic effort was made by the imperial authorities to put an
end to the movement until the reign of Decius (250-251), whose
policy of suppression was followed by Diocletian (303 ff.) and
continued for some years after his abdication. In spite of all
opposition the Church steadily grew, until in 311 the emperor
Galerius upon his death-bed granted toleration (see Eusebius,
H.E. x.4, and Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum, 34), and in
313 the emperors Constantine and Licinius published the edict of
Milan, proclaiming the principle of complete religious liberty, and
making Christianity a legal religion in the full sense (see Eusebius
x. 5, and Lactantius 48. Seeck, Zeitschrifl fur Kirchengeschichte,
xii. 381 sq., has attempted to show that the edict of Milan had no
significance, but without success).

Constantine, recognizing the growing strength of the Church
and wishing to enlist the loyal support of the Christians, treated
them with increasing favour, and finally was baptized upon his
death-bed (337). Under his successors, except during the brief
reign of Julian (361-363), when the effort was made to reinstate
paganism in its former place of supremacy, the Church received
growing support, until, under Theodosius the Great (379-395),
orthodox Christianity, which stood upon the platform adopted at
Nicaea in 325, was finally established as the sole official religion of
the state, and heathen worship was put under the ban. The union
between Church and State thus constituted continued unbrokenin
the East throughout the middle ages. The division of the Empire
resulted finally in the divisionof the Church, which was practically
complete by the end of the 6th century, but was made official and
final only in 1054, and the Eastern and Western halves, the Greek
Catholic and the Roman Catholic Churches, went each its separate
way. (See Theodosian Code, book 16, for the various imperial
edicts relating to the Church, and for fuller particulars touching
the relation between Church and Empire see the articles CON-
STANTINE; GRATIAN; THEODOSIUS; JUSTINIAN.)

For a long time after the establishment of Christianity as the
state religion, paganism continued strong, especially in the
country districts, and in some parts of the world had more
adherents than Christianity, but at length the latter became, at
any rate nominally, the faith of the whole Roman world. Mean-
while already before the beginning of the 3rd century it went
beyond the confines of the Empire in Asia, and by the end of our
period was strong in Armenia, Persia, Arabia and even farther
east. It reached the barbarians on the northern and western
borders at an early day, and the Goths were already Christians of
the Arian type before the great migrations of the 4th century
began. Other barbarians became Christian, some in their own
homes beyond the confines of the Empire, some within the Empire
itself, so that when the hegemony of the West passed from the
Romans to the barbarians the Church lived on. Thenceforth for
centuries it was not only the chief religious, but also the chief
civilizing, force at work in the Occident. Losing with the dissolu-
tion of the Western Empire its position as the state church, it
became itself a new empire, the heir of the glory and dignity of
Rome, and the greatest influence making for the peace and unity
of the western world.

2. The Christian Life. — The most notable thing about the life of

1 Upon the spread of the Church during the early centuries see
especially Harnack's Mission und Ausbreiiung des Christenthums in
den ersten drei Jahrhunderten. An interesting parallel to the spread
of Christianity in the Roman empire is afforded by the contem-
porary Mithraism. See Cumont's Les Mysteres de Mithra (IQOO),
Eng. tr. The Mysteries of Mithra (1903).

the early Christians was their vivid sense of being a people of God,
called and set apart. The Christian Church in their thought was a
divine, not a human, institution. It was founded and controlled
by God, and even the world was created for its sake (cf. the
Shepherd of Hermas, Vis. ii. 4, and 2 Clement 14). This con-
ception, which came over from Judaism, controlled all the life of
the early Christians both individual and social. They regarded
themselves as separate from the rest of the world and bound
together by peculiar ties. Their citizenship was in heaven, not on
earth (cf. Phil. iii. 20, and the epistle to Diognetus, c. 5), and the
principles and laws by which they strove to govern themselves
were from above. The present world was but temporary, and
their true life was in the future. Christ was soon to return, and
the employments and labours and pleasures of this age were of
small concern. Some went so far as to give up their accustomed
vocations, and with such Paul had to expostulate in his epistles to
the Thessalonians. A more or less ascetic mode of life was also
natural under the circumstances. Not necessarily that the
present world was evil, but that it was temporary and of small
worth, and that a Christian's heart should be set on higher things.
The belief that the Church was a supernatural institution found
expression in the Jewish notion of the presence and power of the
Holy Spirit. It was believed among the Jews that the Messianic
age would be the age of the Spirit in a marked degree, and this
belief passed over into the Christian Church and controlled its
thought and life for some generations. The Holy Spirit was
supposed to be manifest in various striking ways, in prophecy,
speaking with tongues and miracle working. In this idea Paul
also shared, but he carried the matter farther than most of his
contemporaries and saw in the Spirit the abiding power and
ground of the Christian life. Not simply in extraordinary
phenomena, but also in the everyday life of Christians, the Holy
Spirit was present, and all the Christian graces were the fruits
(cf. Gal. v. 22). A result of this belief was to give their lives a
peculiarly enthusiastic or inspirational character. Theirs were
not the everyday experiences of ordinary men, but of men lifted
out of themselves and transported into a higher sphere. With
the passing of time the early enthusiasm waned, the expectation
of the immediate return of Christ was widely given up, the
conviction of the Spirit's presence became less vivid, and the
conflict with heresy in the 2nd century led to the substitution of
official control for the original freedom (see below). The late 2nd
century movement known as Montanism was in essence a revolt
against this growing secularization of the Church, but the move-
ment failed, and the development against which it protested was
only hastened. The Church as an institution now looked forward
to a long life upon earth and adjusted itself to the new situation,
taking on largely the forms and customs of the world in which it
lived. This did not mean that the Church ceased to regard itself
as a supernatural institution, but only that its supernatural
character was shown in a different way. A Christian was still
dependent upon divine aid for salvation, and his life was still
supernatural at least in theory. Indeed, the early conviction of
the essential difference between the life of this world and that of
the next lived on, and, as the Church became increasingly a world-
institution, found vent in monasticism, which was simply the
effort to put into more consistent practice the other-worldly life,
and to make more thoroughgoing work of the saving of one's
soul. Contributing to the same result was the emphasis upon the
necessity of personal purity or holiness, which Paul's contrast
between flesh and spirit had promoted, and which early took the
supreme place given by Christ to love and service. The growing
difficulty of realizing the ascetic ideal in the midst of the world,
and within the world-church, inevitably drove multitudes of those
who took their religion seriously to retire from society and to
seek salvation and the higher life, either in solitude, or in company
with kindred spirits.

There were Christian monks as early as the 3rd century, and
before the end of the 4th monasticism (q.v.) was an established
institution both in East and West. The monks and nuns
were looked upon as the most consistent Christians, and were
honoured accordingly. Those who did not adopt the monastic life

CHURCH HISTORY

333

endeavoured on a lower plane and in a less perfect way to realize
the common ideal, and by means of penance to atone for the
deficiencies in their performance. The existence of monasticism
made it possible at once to hold up a high moral standard before
the world and to permit the ordinary Christian to be content with
something lower. With the growth of clerical sacerdotalism the
higher standard was demanded also of the clergy, and the
principle came to be generally recognized that they should live
the monastic life so far as was consistent with their active duties
in the world. The chief manifestation of this was clerical celi-
bacy, which had become widespread already in the 4th century.
Among the laity, on the other hand, the ideal of holiness found
realization in the observance of the ordinary principles of
morality recognized by the world at large, in attendance upon
the means of grace provided by the Church, in fasting at stated
intervals, in eschewing various popular employments and amuse-
ments, and in almsgiving and prayer. Christ's principle of love
was widely interpreted to mean chiefly love for the Christian
brotherhood, and within that circle the virtues of hospitality,
charity and helpfulness were widely exercised; and if the
salvation of his own soul was regarded as the most important
affair of every man, the service of the brethren was recognized as
an imperative Christian duty. The fulfilling of that duty was one
of the most beautiful features of the life of the early Church, and
it did perhaps more than anything else to make the Christian
circle attractive.

3. Worship.— The primitive belief in the immediate presence of
the Spirit affected the religious services of the Church. They were
regarded in early days as occasions for the free exercise of spiritual
gifts. As a consequence the completest liberty was accorded to
all Christians to take such part as they chose, it being assumed
that they did so only under the Spirit's prompting. But the
result of this freedom was confusion and discord, as is indicated
by Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (see chapters xi., xiv.).
This led to the erection of safeguards, which should prevent the
continuance of the unseemly conditions (on Paul's action in
the matter, see McGiffert's Apostolic Age, p. 523). Particular
Christians were designated to take charge of the services, and
orders of worship were framed out of which grew ultimately
elaborate liturgies (see LITURGY). The Lord's Supper first took
on a more stereotyped character, and prayers to be used in
connexion with it are found already in the Didache (chapters ix.
and x.). The development cannot here be traced in detail.
It may simply be said that the general tendency was on the one
hand toward the elaboration and growing magnificence of the
services, especially after the Church had become a state institu-
tion and had taken the place of the older pagan cults, and on the
other hand toward the increasing solemnity and mystery of
certain parts, particularly the eucharist, the sacred character of
which was such as to make it sacrilegious to admit to it the
unholy, that is, outsiders or Christians under discipline (cf.
Didache, ix.) . It was, in fact, from the Lord's table that offending
disciples were first excluded. Out of this grew up in the 3rd or
4th century what is known as the arcani discipline, or secret
discipline of the Church, involving the concealment from the
uninitiated and unholy of the more sacred parts of the Christian
cult, such as baptism and the eucharist, with their various
accompaniments, including the Creed and the Lord's Prayer.
The same interest led to the division of the services into two
general parts, which became known ultimately as the missa
catechumenorum and the missa fidelium, — that is, the more public
service of prayer, praise and preaching open to all, including the
catechumens or candidates for Church membership, and the
private service for the administration of the eucharist, open
only to full members of the Church in good and regular standing.
Meanwhile, as the general service tended to grow more elaborate,
the missa fidelium tended to take on the character of the
current Greek mysteries (see EUCHARIST; Hatch, Influence
of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church, 1890;
Anrich, Das antike Mysterienwesen in seinem Einfluss auf
das Christentum, 1894; Wobbermin, Religionsgeschichtliche
Studien zur Frage der Beeinflussung des U rchristentums durch

das antike Mysterienwesen, 1896). Many of the terms in common
use in them were employed in connexion with the Christian rites,
and many of the conceptions, particularly that of sharing in
immortality by communion with deity, became an essential
part of Christian doctrine. Thus the early idea of the services,
as occasions for mutual edification through the interchange of
spiritual gifts, gave way in course of time to the theory that they
consisted of sacred and mysterious rites by means of which
communion with God is promoted. The emphasis accordingly
came to be laid increasingly upon the formal side of worship, and
a value was given to the ceremonies as such, and their proper
and correct performance by duly qualified persons, i.e. ordained
priests, was made the all-important thing.

4. The Church and the Sacraments. — According to Paul, man
is flesh and so subject to death. Only as he becomes a spiritual
being through mystical union with Christ can he escape death
and enjoy eternal life in the spiritual realm. In the Epistle to
the Ephesians the Christian Church is spoken of as the body of
Christ (iv. 12 ff., v. 30); and Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, early
in the 2nd century, combined the two ideas of union with Christ,
as the necessary condition of salvation, and of the Church as the
body of Christ, teaching that no one could be saved unless he
were a member of the Church (cf . his Epistle to the Ephesians 4,

5, 15; Trail. 7; Phil. 3, 8; Smyr. 8; Magn. 2, 7). Traces of the
same idea are found in Irenaeus (cf. Adv. Haer. iii. 24, I, iv.
26, 2), but it is first clearly set forth by Cyprian, and receives
from him its classical expression in the famous sentence " Salus
extra ecclesiam non est" (Ep. 73, 21; cf. also Ep. 4, 4; 74,7; and
De unilate ecclesiae, 6: " habere non potest Deum patrem qui
ecclesiam non habet matrem "). The Church thus became the
sole ark of salvation, outside of which no one could be saved.

Intimately connected with the idea of the Church as an ark
of salvation are the sacraments or means of grace. Already as
early as the 2nd century the rite of baptism had come to be
thought of as the sacrament of regeneration, by means of which
a new divine nature is born within a man (cf. Irenaeus, Adv.
Haer. i. 21, i, iii. 17, i; and his newly discovered Demonstration
of the Apostolic Teaching, chap. 3), and the eucharist as the
sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, feeding upon which
one is endowed with immortality (cf. Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. iv.
18, 5, v. 2, 2). In the early days the Church was thought of as
a community of saints, all of whose members were holy, and as
a consequence discipline was strict, and offenders excluded from
the Church were commonly not readmitted to membership but
left to the mercy of God. The idea thus became general that
baptism, which had been almost from the beginning the rite of
entrance into the Church, and which was regarded as securing
the forgiveness of all pre-baptismal sins, should be given but once
to any individual. Meanwhile, however, discipline grew less
strict (cf. the Shepherd of Hermas, Vis. v. 3; M. iv. 7; Sim. viii.

6, ix. 19, 26, &c.) ; until finally, under the influence of the idea
of the Church as the sole ark of salvation, it became the custom
to readmit all penitent offenders on condition that they did
adequate penance. Thus there grew up the sacrament of penance,
which secured for those already baptized the forgiveness of
post-baptismal sins. This sacrament, unlike baptism, might be
continually repeated (see PENANCE). In connexion with the
sacraments grew up also the theory of clerical sacerdotalism.
Ignatius had denied the validity of a eucharist administered
independently of the bishop, and the principle finally established
itself that the sacraments, with an exception in cases of emergency
in favour of baptism, could be performed only by men regularly
ordained and so endowed with the requisite divine grace for
their due administration (cf. Tertullian, De Exhort, cast. 7; De
Bapl. 7, 17; De Praescriptione Haer. 41; and Cyprian, Ep. 67.
For the later influence of the Donatist controversy upon the
sacramental development see DONATISTS). Thus the clergy as
distinguished from the laity became true priests, and the latter
were made wholly dependent upon the former for sacramental
grace, without which there is ordinarily no salvation (sec ORDER,
HOLY).

5. Christian Doctrine. — Two tendencies appeared in the thought

334

CHURCH HISTORY

of the primitive Church, the one to regard Christianity as a law
given by God for the government of men's lives, with the promise
of a blessed immortality as a reward for its observance; the
other to view it as a means by which the corrupt and morta!
nature of man is transformed, so that he becomes a spiritual
and holy being. The latter tendency appeared first in Paul
afterwards in the Gospel and First Epistle of John, in Ignatius
of Antioch and in the Gnostics. The former found expression
in most of our New Testament writings, in all of the apostolic
fathers except Ignatius, and in the Apologists of the 2nd century.
The two tendencies were not always mutually exclusive, but
the one or the other was predominant in every case. Towards
the end of the and century they were combined by Irenaeus,
bishop of Lyons. To him salvation bears a double aspect,
involving both release from the control of the devil and the
transformation of man's nature by the indwelling of the Divine.
Only he is saved who on the one hand is forgiven at baptism and
so released from the power of Satan, and then goes on to live in
obedience to the divine law; and on the other hand receives in
baptism the germ of a new spiritual nature and is progressively
transformed by feeding upon the body and blood of the divine
Christ in the eucharist. This double conception of salvation
and of the means thereto was handed down to the Church of
subsequent generations and became fundamental in its thought.
Christianity is at once a revealed law which a man must keep,
and by keeping which he earns salvation, and a supernatural
power whereby his nature is transformed and the divine quality
of immortality imparted to it. From both points of view
Christianity is a supernatural system without which salvation is
impossible, and in the Christian Church it is preserved and
mediated to the world.

The twofold conception referred to had its influence also upon
thought about Christ. The effect of the legal view of Christianity
was to make Christ an agent of God in the revelation of the
divine will and truth, and so a subordinate being between God
and the world, the Logos of current Greek thought. The effect
of the mystical conception was to identify Christ with God in
order that by his incarnation the divine nature might be brought
into union with humanity and the latter be transformed. In this
case too a combination was effected, the idea of Christ as the
incarnation of the Logos or Son of God being retained and yet
his deity being preserved by the assertion of the deity of the
Logos. The recognition of Christ as the incarnation of the Logos
was practically universal before the close of the 3rd century,
but his deity was still widely denied, and the Arian controversy
which distracted the Church of the 4th century concerned the
latter question. At the council of Nicaea in 325 the deity of
Christ received official sanction and was given formulation in
the original Nicene Creed. Controversy continued for some
time, but finally the Nicene decision was recognized both in
East and West as the only orthodox faith. The deity of the Son
was believed to carry with it that of the Spirit, who was associated
with Father and Son in the baptismal formula and in the
current symbols, and so the victory of the Nicene Christology
meant the recognition of the doctrine of the Trinity as a part of
the orthodox faith (see especially the writings of the Cappadocian
fathers of the late 4th century, Gregory of Nyssa, Basil and
Gregory Nazianzen).

The assertion of the deity of the Son incarnate in Christ raised
another problem which constituted the subject of dispute in
the Christological controversies of the 4th and following centuries.
What is the relation of the divine and human natures in Christ?
At the council of Chalcedon in 451 it was declared that in the
person of Christ are united two complete natures, divine and
human, which retain after the union all their properties unchanged.
This was supplemented at the third council of Constantinople
in 680 by the statement that each of the natures contains a will,
so that Christ possesses two wills. The Western Church accepted
the decisions of Nicaea, Chalcedon and Constantinople, and so
the doctrines of the Trinity and of the two natures in Christ
were handed down as orthodox dogma in West as well as
East.

Meanwhile in the Western Church the subject of sin and grace,
and the relation of divine and human activity in salvation,
received especial attention; and finally, at the second council of
Orange in 529, after both Pelagianism and semi-Pelagianism had
been repudiated, a moderate form of Augustinianism was adopted,
involving the theory that every man as a result of the fall is in
such a condition that he can take no steps in the direction of
salvation until he has been renewed by the divine grace given in
baptism, and that he cannot continue in the good thus begun
except by the constant assistance of that grace, which is mediated
only by the Catholic Church. This decision was confirmed by
Pope Boniface II.. and became the accepted doctrine in the
Western Church of the middle ages. In the East, Augustine's
predestinationism had little influence, but East and West were
one in their belief that human nature had been corrupted by the
fall, and that salvation therefore is possible only to one who has
received divine grace through the sacraments. Agreeing as they
did in this fundamental theory, all differences were of mino;
concern.

In general it may be said that the traditional theology of the
Churchtookits material fromvarious sources — Hebrew, Christian,
Oriental, Greek and Roman. The forms in which it found
expression were principally those of Greek philosophy on the one
hand and of Roman law on the other (see CHRISTIANITY).

6. Organization. — The origin and early development of
ecclesiastical organization are involved in obscurity. Owing to
the once prevalent desire of the adherents of one or another
polity to find support in primitive precept or practice, the ques-
tion has assumed a prominence out of proportion to its' real im-
portance, and the few and scattered references in early Christian
writings have been made the basis for various elaborate theories.

In the earliest days the Church was regarded as a divine
institution, ruled not by men but by the Holy Spirit. At the
same time it was believed that the Spirit imparted different gifts
to different believers, and each gift fitted its recipient for the
performance of some service, being intended not for his own good
but for the good of his brethren (cf. i Cor. xii.; Eph. iv. n).
The chief of these was the gift of teaching, that is, of understand-
ing and interpreting to others the will and truth of God.
Those who were endowed more largely than their fellows with
this gift were commonly known as apostles, prophets and
teachers (cf. Acts xiii. i; i Cor. xii. 28; Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5,
iv. ii ; Didache, xi.). The apostles were travelling missionaries
or evangelists. There were many of them in the primitive
Church, and only gradually did the term come to be applied
exclusively to the twelve and Paul. There is no sign that the
apostles, whether the twelve or others, held any official position
in the Church. That they had a large measure of authority of
course goes without saying, but it depended always upon their
brethren's recognition of their possession of the divine gift of
apostleship, and the right of Churches or individuals to test their
claims and to refuse to listen to them if they did not vindicate
their divine call was everywhere recognized. Witness, for instance,
Paul's reference to false apostles in 2 Cor. xi. 13, and his efforts to
establish his own apostolic character to the satisfaction of the
Corinthians and Galatians (i Cor. ix. i ff.; 2 Cor. x. 13; Gal. i.
8 ff.); witness the reference in Rev. ii. 2 to the fact that the
Church at Ephesus had tried certain men who claimed to be
apostles and had found them false, and also the directions given
in the Didache for testing the character of those who travelled
about as apostles. The passage in the Didache is especially
significant: " Concerning the apostles and prophets, so do ye
according to the ordinance of the gospel. Let every apostle
when he cometh to you be received as the Lord. But he shall not
abide more than a single day, or if there be need a second likewise.
But if he abide three days he is a false prophet. And when the
apostle departeth let him receive nothing save bread until he
findeth shelter. But if he ask money he is a false prophet " (ch.
xi.). It is clear that a man who is to be treated in this way by the
congregation is not an official ruler over it.

Between the apostles, prophets and teachers no hard-and-fast
ines can be drawn. The apostles were commonly missionary

CHURCH HISTORY

335

prophets, called permanently or temporarily to the special work
of evangelization (cf. Acts xiii. i; Did. xi.), while the teachers
seem to have been distinguished both from apostles and prophets
by the fact that their spiritual endowment was less strikingly
supernatural. The indefiniteness of the boundaries between the
three classes, and the free interchange of names, show how far
they were from being definite offices or orders within the Church.
Apostleship, prophecy and teaching were only functions, whose
frequent or regular exercise by one or another, under the inspira-
tion of the Spirit, led his brethern to call him an apostle, prophet
or teacher.

But at an early day we find regular officers in this and that
local Church, and early in the 2nd century the three permanent
offices of bishop, presbyter and deacon existed at any rate in Asia
Minor (cf. the Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch). Their rise was
due principally to the necessity of administering the charities of
the Church, putting an end to disorder and confusion in the
religious services, and disciplining offenders. It was naturally to
the apostles, prophets and teachers, its most spiritual men, that
the Church looked first for direction and control in all these
matters. But such men were not always at hand, or sometimes
they were absorbed in other duties. Thus the need of sub-
stitutes began to be felt here and there, and as a consequence
regular offices within the local Churches gradually made their
appearance, sometimes simply recognized as charged with
responsibilities which they had already voluntarily assumed
(cf.i. Cor. xvi. 15), sometimes appointed by an apostle or prophet
or other specially inspired man (cf. Acts xiv. 23; Titus i. 5; I
Clement 44), sometimes formally chosen by the congregation
itself (cf. Acts vi., Did. xi.). These men naturally acquired more
and more as time passed the control and leadership of the Church
in all its activities, and out of what was in the beginning more or
less informal and temporary grew fixed and permanent offices,
the incumbents of which were recognized as having a right to rule
over the Church, a right which once given could not lawfully be
taken away unless they were unfaithful to their trust. Not
continued endowment by the Spirit, but the possession of an
ecclesiastical office now became the basis of authority. The
earliest expression of this genuinely official principle is found in
Clement's Epistle to the Corinthians, ch. xliv. Upon these
officers devolved ultimately not only the disciplinary, financial
and liturgical duties referred to, but also the still higher function
of instructing their fellow-Christians in God's will and truth, and
so they became the substitutes of the apostles, prophets and
teachers in all respects (cf. i Tim. iii. 2, v. 17; Titus i. 9; Did.
15; i Clement 44; Justin's first Apology, 67).

Whether in the earliest days there was a single officer at the
head of a congregation, or a plurality of officers of equal
authority, it is impossible to say with assurance. The few
references which we have look in the latter direction (cf., for
instance, Acts vi.; Phil. i. i; i Clement 42, 44; Did. 14), but we
are not justified in asserting that they represent the universal
custom. The earliest distinct evidence of the organization of
Churches under a single head is found in the Epistles of Ignatius
of Antioch, which date from the latter part of the reign of
Trajan (c. 1 1 6) . Ignatius bears witness to the presence in various
Churches of Asia Minor of a single bishop in control, with whom
are associated as his subordinates a number of elders and deacons.
This form of organization ultimately became universal, and
already before the end of the 2nd century it was established in
all the parts of Christendom with which we are acquainted,
though in Egypt it seems to have been the exception rather than
the rule, and even as late as the middle of the 3rd century many
churches there were governed by a plurality of officers instead
of by a single head (see Harnack, Mission und Ausbreitung des
Chrislenthums, pp. 337 seq.). Where there were one bishop and a
number of presbyters and deacons in a church, the presbyters
constituted the bishop's council, and the deacons his assistants
in the management of the finances and charities and in the
conduct of the services. (Upon the minor orders which arose
in the 3rd and following centuries, and became ultimately a
training school for the higher clergy, see Harnack, Texte und

Unlersuchungen, ii. 5; English translation under the title of
Sources of the Apostolic Canons, 1895.)

Meanwhile the rise and rapid spread of Gnosticism produced
a great crisis in the Church of the 2nd century, and profoundly
affected the ecclesiastical organization. The views of the
Gnostics, and of Marcion as well, seemed to the majority of
Christians destructive of the gospel, and it was widely felt that
they were too dangerous to be tolerated. The original dependence
upon the Spirit for light and guidance was inadequate. The
men in question claimed to be Christians and to enjoy divine
illumination as truly as anybody, and so other safeguards
appeared necessary. It was in the effort to find such safeguards
that steps were taken which finally resulted in the institution
known as the Catholic Church. The first of these steps was the
recognition of the teaching of the apostles (that is, of the twelve
and Paul) as the exclusive standard of Christian truth. This
found expression in the formulation of an apostolic scripture
canon, our New Testament, and of an apostolic rule of faith, of
which the old Roman symbol, the original of our present Apostles'
Creed, is one of the earliest examples. Over against the claims
of the Gnostics that they had apostolic authority, either oral or
written, for their preaching, were set these two standards, by
which alone the apostolic character of any doctrine was to be
tested (cf. Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. i. 10, iii. 3, 4; and Tertullian,
De Prescription Haer. passim). But these standards proved
inadequate to the emergency, for it was possible, especially by
the use of the allegorical method, to interpret them in more than
one way, and their apostolic origin and authority were not
everywhere admitted. In view of this difficulty, it was claimed
that the apostles had appointed the bishops as their successors,
and that the latter were in possession of special divine grace
enabling them to transmit and to interpret without error the
teaching of the apostles committed to them. This is the famous
theory known as " apostolic succession." The idea of the
apostolic appointment of church officers is as old as Clement
of Rome (see i Clement 44), but the use of the theory to guarantee
the apostolic character of episcopal teaching was due to the
exigencies of the Gnostic conflict. Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. iii.
3 ff., iv. 26, iv. 33, v. 20), Tertullian (De prescription, 32),
and Hippolytus (Philosophumena, bk. i., preface) are our earliest
witnesses to it, and Cyprian sets it forth clearly in his epistles
(e.g. Ep. 33, 43, 59,66, 69). The Church was thus in possession not
only of authoritative apostolic doctrine, but also of a permanent
apostolic office, to which alone belonged the right to determine
what that doctrine is. The combination of this idea with that
of clerical sacerdotalism completed the Catholic theory of the
Church and the clergy. Saving grace is recognized as apostolic
grace, and the bishops as successors of the apostles become its
sole transmitters. Bishops are therefore necessary to the very
being of the Church, which without them is without the saving
grace for the giving of which the Church exists (cf. Cyprian, Ep.
33, " ecclesia super episcopos constituitur " ; 66, " ecclesia in
episcopo " ; also Ep. 59, and De unitate cedes. 17).

These bishops were originally not diocesan but congregational,
that is, each church, however small, had its own bishop. This is
the organization testified to by Ignatius, and Cyprian's insistence
upon the bishop as necessary to the very existence of the Church
seems to imply the same thing. Congregational episcopacy was
the rule for a number of generations. But after the middle of
the 3rd century diocesan episcopacy began to make its appear-
ance here and there, and became common in the 4th century
under the influence of the general tendency toward centralization,
the increasing power of city bishops, and the growing dignity of
the episcopate (cf. canon 6 of the council of Sardica, and canon
57 of the council of Laodicea; and see Harnack, Mission und
Ausbreitung, pp. 319 seq.). This enlargement of the bishop's
parish and multiplication of the chuches under his care led to a
change in the functions of the presbyterate. So long as each
church had its own bishop the presbyters constituted simply
his council, but with the growth of diocesan episcopacy it became
the custom to put each congregation under the care of a particular
presbyter, who performed within it most of the pastoral duties

336

CHURCH HISTORY

formerly discharged by the bishop himself. The presbyters,
however, were not independent officers. They Were only
representatives of the bishop, and the churches over which they
were set were all a part of his parish, so that the Cyprianic
principle, that the bishop is necessary to the very being of the
Church, held good of diocesan as well as of congregational
episcopacy. The bishop alone possessed the right to ordain;
through him alone could be derived the requisite clerical grace;
and so the clergy like the laity were completely dependent upon
him.

The growth of the diocesan principle promoted the unity of the
churches gathered under a common head. But unity was carried
much further than this, and finally resulted in at least a nominal
consolidation of all the churches of Christendom into one whole.
The belief in the unity of the entire Church had existed from the
beginning. Though made up of widely scattered congregations,
it was thought of as one body of Christ, one people of God. This
ideal unity found expression in many ways. Intercommunica-
tion between the various Christian communities was very active.
Christians upon a journey were always sure of a warm welcome
and hospitable entertainment from their fellow-disciples.
Messengers and letters were sent freely from one church to
another. Missionaries and evangelists went continually from
place to place. Documents of various kinds, including gospels
and apostolic epistles, circulated widely. Thus in various ways
the feeling of unity found expression, and the development of
widely separated parts of Christendom conformed more or less
closely to a common type. It was due to agencies such as these
that the scattered churches did not go each its own way and
become ultimately separate and diverse institutions. But this
general unity became official, and expressed itself in organization,
only with the rise of the conciliar and metropolitan systems.
Already before the end of the 2nd century local synods were held
in Asia Minor to deal with Montanism, and in the 3rd century
provincial synods became common, and by the council of Nicaea
(canon 5) it was decreed that they should be held twice every year
in every province. Larger synods representing the churches of a
number of contiguous provinces also met frequently; for instance,
in the early 4th century at Elvira, Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea and
Arlei, the last representing the entire Western world. Such
gatherings were especially common during the great doctrinal
controversies of the 4th century. In 325 the first general or
ecumenical council, representing theoretically the entire Christian
Church, was held at Nicaea. Other councils of the first period
now recognized as ecumenical by the Church both East and West
are Constantinople I. (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451),
Constantinople II. (553). All these were called by the emperor,
and to their decisions he gave the force of law. Thus the
character of the Church as a state institution voiced itself in
them. (See COUNCIL.)

The theory referred to above, that the bishops are successors of
the apostles, and as such the authoritative conservators and
interpreters of apostolic truth, involves of course the solidarity of
the episcopate, and the assumption that all bishops are in
complete harmony and bear witness to the same body of doctrine.
This assumption, however, was not always sustained by the facts.
Serious disagreements even on important matters developed
frequently. As a result the ecumenical council came into
existence especially for the purpose of settling disputed questions
of doctrine, and giving to the collective episcopate the opportunity
to express its voice in a final and official way. At the council of
Nicaea, and at the ecumenical councils which followed, the idea
of an infallible episcopate giving authoritative and permanent
utterance to apostolic and therefore divine truth, found clear
expression, and has been handed down as a part of the faith of the
Catholic Church both East and West. The infallibility of the
episcopate guarantees the infallibility of a general council in
which not the laity and not the clergy in general, but the bishops
as successors of the apostles, speak officially and collectively.

Another organized expression of the unity of the Church was
found in the metropolitan system, or the grouping of the churches
of a province under a single head, who was usually the bishop of

the capital city, and was known as the metropolitan bishop.
The Church thus followed in its organization the political divisions
of the Empire (cf. for instance canon 12 of the council of Chalcedon,
which forbids more than one metropolitan see in a province; also
canon 17 of the same council: "And if any city has been or
shall hereafter be newly erected by imperial authority, let the
arrangement of ecclesiastical parishes follow the political and
municipal forms ")• These metropolitan bishops were common
in the East before the end of the 3rd century, and the general
existence of the organization was taken for granted by the council
of Nicaea (see canons 4, 6, 7). In the West, on the other hand, the
development was much slower.

Meanwhile the tendency which gave rise to the metropolitan
system resulted in the grouping together of the churches of a
number of contiguous provinces under the headship of the bishop
of the most important city of the district, as, for instance,
Antioch, Ephesus, Alexandria, Rome, Milan, Carthage, Aries.
In canon 6 of the council of Nicaea the jurisdiction of the bishops
of Alexandria, Rome and Antioch over a number of provinces is
recognized. At the council of Constantinople (381) the bishop of
Constantinople or New Rome was ranked next after the bishop
of Rome (canon 3), and at the council of Chalcedon (451) he was
given authority over the churches of the political dioceses of
Pontus, Asia and Thrace (canon 28). To the bishops of Rome,
Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria was added at the council
of Chalcedon (session 7) the bishop of Jerusalem, the mother
church of Christendom, and the bishops thus recognized as
possessing supreme jurisdiction were finally known as patriarchs.

Meanwhile the Roman episcopate developed into the papacy,
which claimed supremacy over the entire Christian Church, and
actually exercised it increasingly in the West from the sth century
on. This development was forwarded by Augustine, who in his
famous work De civitate Dei identified the Church with the
kingdom of God, and claimed that it was supreme over all the
nations of the earth, which make up the civitas terrena or earthly
state. Augustine's theory was ultimately accepted everywhere
in the West, and thus the Church of the middle ages was regarded
not only as the sole ark of salvation, but also as the ultimate
authority, moral, intellectual and political. Upon this doctrine
was built, not by Augustine himself but by others who came after
him, the structure of the papacy, the bishop of Rome being
finally recognized as the head under Christ of the civitas Dei, and
so the supreme organ of divine authority on earth (see PAPACY
and POPE).

Historical Sources of the First Period. — These are of the same
general character for Church history as for general history — on the
one hand monumental, on the other hand documentary- Among the
monuments are churches, catacombs, tombs and inscriptions of
various kinds, few antedating the 3rd century, and none adding
greatly to the knowledge gained from documentary sources (see
De Rossi, Roma sotteranea, 1864 ff., and its English abridgment
by Northcote and Brownlow, 1870; Andre Perate, L'Archeologie
chrelienne, 1892; W. Lowrie, Monuments of the Early Church, 1901,
with good bibliography). The documents comprise imperial edicts,
rescripts, &c., liturgies, acts of councils, decretals and letters of
bishops, references in contemporary heathen writings, and above all
the works of the Church Fathers. Written sources from the 1st and
2nd centuries are relatively few, comprising, in addition to some
scattered allusions by outsiders, the New Testament, the Apostolic
Fathers, the Greek Apologists, Clement of Alexandria, the old
Catholic Fathers (Irenaeus, Tertullian and Hippolytus) and a few
Gnostic fragments. For the 3rd, and especially the 4th and following
centuries, the writers are much more numerous; for instance, in the
East, Origen and his disciples, and later Eusebius of Caesarea,
Athanasius, Apollinaris, Basil and the two Gregories, Cyril of
Jerusalem, Epiphanius, Chrysostom, Ephraim the Syrian, Cyril
Alexandria, Pseudo-Dionysius; in the West, Novatian, Cyprian,
Commodian, Arnobius, Lactantius, Hilary, Ambrose, Rufinus,
Jerome, Augustine, Prosper, Leo the Great, Cassian, Vincent of
Lerins, Faustus, Gennadius, Ennodius, Avitus, Caesarius, Fulgentius
and many others.

There are many editions of the works of the Fathers in the original,
the most convenient, in spite of its defects, being that of J. P. Migne
(Patrologia Graeca, 166 vols., Paris, 1857 ff. ; Patrologia Latino,
221 vols., 1844 ff.). Of modern critical editions, besides those con-
tainmg the_ works of one or another individual, the best are the
Berlin edition of the early Greek Fathers (Die griechischen christ-
lichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte, 1897 ff.), and th

CHURCH HISTORY

337

Vienna edition of the Latin Fathers (Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasti-
corum Latinorum, 1867 ff.)i both of first-rate importance. There
is a convenient English translation of most of the writings of the
ante-Nicene Fathers by Roberts and Donaldson (Ante-Nicene
Christian Library, 25 vols., Edinburgh, 1868 ff., American reprint
in nine vols., 1886 ff.). A continuation of it, containing selected
works of the Nicene and post-Nicene period, was edited by Schaff
and others under the title A Select Library of Nicene and post-Nicene
Fathers (series I and 2; 28 vols., Buffalo and New York, 1886 ff.).
On early Christian literature, in addition to the works on Church
history, see especially the monumental Geschichte der altchristlichen
Litteralur bis Eusebius, by Harnack (1893 ff.). The brief Geschichte
der altchristlichen Litteralur in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, by
G. Kriiger (1895, English translation 1897) is a vary convenient
summary. Bardenhewer's Patrologie (1894) a"d his Geschichte der
altkirchlichen Litteratur (1902 ff.) should also be mentioned. See
also Smith and Wace's invaluable Dictionary of Christian Biography
(1877 ff.). (A.C.McG.)

B. THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES

The ancient Church was the church of the Roman empire.
It is true that from the 4th century onwards it expanded beyond
the borders of that empire to east and west, north and south;
but the infant churches which gradually arose in Persia and
Abyssinia, among some of the scattered Teutonic races, and
among the Celts of Ireland, were at first not co-operating factors
in the development of Christendom: they received without
giving in return. True historic life is only to be found within the
church of the Empire.

The middle ages came into being at the time when the political
structure of the world, based upon the conquests of Alexander
the Great and the achievements of Julius Caesar, began to
disintegrate. They were present when the believers in Mahomet
held sway in the Asiatic and African provinces which Alexander
had once brought under the intellectual influence of Hellenism ;
while the Lombards, the West Goths, the Franks and the Anglo-
Saxons had established kingdoms in Italy, Spain, Gaul and
Britain. The question is: what was the position of the Church
in this great change of circumstances, and what form did the
Church's development take from this time onwards? In
answering this question we must consider East and West separ-
ately; for their histories are no longer coincident, as they had
been in the time of the Roman dominion.

I. THE EAST, (a) The Orthodox Church. — Ancient and medieval
times were not separated by so deep a gulf in the East as in the
West; for in the East the Empire continued to exist, although
within narrow limits, until towards the end of the middle ages.
Constantinople only fell in 1453. Ecclesiastical Byzantinism is
therefore not a product of the middle ages: it is the outcome of
the development of the eastern half of the empire from the time of
Constantine the Great. Under Justinian I. all ils essential
features were already formed: imperial power extended equally
over State and Church; indeed, care for the preservation of
dogma and for the purity of the priesthood was the chief duty of
the ruler. To fulfil this duty was to serve the interests of both
State and people; for thus " a fine harmony is established, and
whatever good exists becomes the portion of the whole human
race." Since the emperor ruled the Church there was no longer
any question of independence for the bishops, least of all for the
patriarch in Constantinople; they were in every respect sub-
ordinate to the emperor.

The orthodoxy of the Eastern Church was also a result of the
Church's development after the time of Constantine. In the long
strife over dogma the old belief of the Greeks in the value of
knowledge had made itself felt, and this faith was not extinct in
the Eastern Church. There is no doubt that in the beginning of
the middle ages both general and theological education stood
higher among the Greeks than in more western countries. In the
West there were no learned men who could vie with Photius

I'.ca. 820-891) in range of knowledge and variety of scientific
ittainment. But the strife over dogma came to an end with the
rth century. After the termination of the monothelite con-
:roversy (638-680), creed and doctrines were complete; it was
mly necessary to preserve them intact. Theology, therefore,
low resolved itself into the collection and renroduction of the

teaching of ancient authorities. The great dogmatist of the
Eastern Church, John of Damascus (ca. 699-753), who stood on
the threshold of the middle ages, formulated clearly and precisely
his working principle: to put forward nothing of his own, but to
present the truth according to the authority of the Bible and of
the Fathers of the Church. Later teachers, Euthymius Zigadenus
(d. circa 1120), Nicetas Choniates (d. circa 1200), and others,
proceeded further on the same .lines; Euthymius, in particular,
often uses an excerpt Instead of giving his own exposition.

This attitude towards dogma did not mean that it was less
prized than during the period of strife. On the contrary, the
sacred formulae were revered because they were believed to
contain the determination of the highest truths: the knowledge
of God and of the mystery of salvation. Yet it is intelligible
that religious interest should have concerned itself more keenly
with the mystic rites of divine worship than with dogma. Here
was more than knowledge; here were representations of a mystic
sensuousness, solemn rites, which brought the faithful into
immediate contact with the Divine, and guaranteed to them the
reception of heavenly powers. What could be of more importance
than to be absorbed in this transcendental world? We may
gauge the energy with which the Greek intellect turned in this
direction if we call to mind that the controversy about dogma
was replaced by the con troversy about images. This raged in the
Eastern Church for more than a century (726-843), and only
sank to rest when the worship of images was unconditionally
conceded. In this connexion the image was not looked upon
merely as a symbol, but as the vehicle of the presence and power
of that which it represented: in the image the invisible becomes
operative in the visible world. Christ did not seem to be Christ
unless he were visibly represented. What an ancient teacher had
said with regard to the worship of Christ as the revelation of the
Eternal Father — " Honours paid to the earthly representative
are shared by the heavenly Archetype " — was now transferred to
the painted image: it appeared as an analogy to the Incarnation.
It was for this reason that the victory of image worship was
celebrated by the introduction of the festival of the Orthodox
Faith.

It is consistent with this circle of ideas that initiation into the
profound mysteries of the liturgy was regarded, together with the
preservation of dogma, as the most exalted function of theology.
A beginning had been made, in the sth century, by the neo-
platonic Christian who addressed his contemporaries under the
mask of Dionysius the Areopagite. He is the first of a series of
theological mystics which continued through every century of
the middle ages. Maximus Confessor, the heroic defender of
Dyotheletism (d. 662), Symeon, the New Theologian (d. circa
1040), Nicolaus Cabasilas (d. 1371), and Symeon, like Nicholas,
archbishop of Thessalonica (d. 1429), were the most conspicuous
representatives of this Oriental mysticism. They left all the
dogmas and institutions of the Church untouched; aspiring
above and beyond these, their aim was religious experience.

It is this striving after religious experience that gives to the
Oriental monachism of the middle ages its peculiar character.
In the sth and 6th centuries Egypt and Palestine had been the
classic lands of monks and monasteries. But when, in conse-
quence of the Arab invasion, the monasticism of those countries
was cut off from intercourse with the rest of Christendom, it
decayed. Constantinople and Mount Athos gained proportion-
ately in importance during the middle ages. At Constantinople
the monastery of Studium, founded about 460, attained to
supreme influence during the controversy about images. On
Mount Athos the first monastery was founded in the year 963,
and in 1045 the number of monastic foundations had reached 180.
In Greek monachism the old Hellenic ideal of the wise man who
has no wants (avr6.pKfia) was from the first fused with the
Christian conception of unreserved self-surrender to God as the
highest aim and the highest good. These ideas governed it in
medieval times also, and in this way monastic life received a
decided bent towards mysticism: the monks strove to realize
the heavenly life even upon earth, their highest aim being the
contemplation of God and of His ways. The teachings of

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CHURCH HISTORY

Symeon " the New Theologian " on these matters lived on in the
cloisters; it was taken up by the Hesychasts of the I4th century,
and developed into a peculiar theory as to the perception of the
Divine Light. In spite of all opposition their teaching was
finally justified by the Eastern Church (sixth synod of Constanti-
nople, 1351). And rightly so, for it was the old Greek piety
minted afresh.

The Eastern Church, then, throughout the middle ages,
remained true in every particular to her ancient character. It
cannot be said that she developed as did the Western Church
during this period, for she remained what she had been; but she
freely developed her original characteristics, consistently, in
every direction. This too is life, though of a different type from
that of the West.

That there was life in the Eastern Church is also proved by the
fact that the power of expansion was not denied her. Through
her agency an important bulwark for the Christian faith was
created in the new nations which had sprung into existence since
the beginning of the middle ages: the Bulgarians, the Servians,
and the multifarious peoples grouped under the name of Russians.
There is a vast difference in national character between these
young peoples and the successors of the Hellenes; and it is there-
fore all the more significant to find that both the Church and
religious sentiment should in their case have fully preserved the
Byzantine character. This proves once more the ancient capacity
of the Greeks for the assimilation of foreign elements.

There was yet another outcome of this stubborn persistency
of a peculiar type — the impossibility of continuing to share the
life of the Western Church. Neither in the East nor in the West
was a separation desired; but it was inevitable, since the lives
of East and West were moving in different directions. It was
the fall of Constantinople that first weakened the vital force
of the Eastern Church. May we hope that the events of modern
times are leading her towards a renaissance?

(b) The Nestorian and the Monophysite Churches. — Since the
time when the church of eastern Syria had decided, in opposition
to the church of the Empire, to cling to the ancient views of
Syrian theologians — therefore also to the teaching and person
of Nestorius — her relations were broken off with the church in
western Syria and in Greek and Latin countries; but the power
of Nestorian, or, as it was termed, Chaldaic Christianity, was
not thereby diminished. Separated from the West, it directed
its energies towards the East, and here its nearest neighbour
was the Persian church. The latter followed, almost without
opposition, the impulse received from Syria; from the rule of
the patriarch Babaeus (Syr. Bab-hai, 498-503) she may be
considered definitely Nestorian. A certain number, too, of
Arabic Christians, believers living on the west coast of India,
the so-called Christians of St Thomas, and finally those belonging
to places nearer the middle of Asia (Merv, Herat, Samarkand),
remained in communion with the Nestorian church. Thus there
survived in mid- Asia a widely-scattered remnant, which, although
out of touch with the ancient usages of Christian civilization,
yet in no way lacked higher culture. Nestorian philosophers
and medical practitioners became the teachers of the great
Arabian natural philosophers of the middle ages, and the latter
obtained their knowledge of Greek learning from Syriac trans-
lations of the works of Greek thinkers.

Political conditions at the beginning of the middle ages
favoured the Nestorian church, and the fact that the Arabs
had conquered Syria, Palestine and Egypt, made it possible
for her to exert an influence on the Christians in these countries.
Of still more importance was the brisk commercial intercourse
between central Asia and the countries of the Far East; for
this led the Nestorians into China. The inscription of Si-ngan-fu
(before 781) proves a surprisingly widespread extension of the
Christian faith in that country. That it also possessed adherents
in southern Siberia we gather from the inscriptions of Semiryet-
chensk, and in the beginning of the nth century it found its
way even into Mongolia. Nowhere were the nations Christian,
but the Christian faith was everywhere accepted by a not
insignificant minority. The foundation of the Mongolian empire

in the beginning of the I3th century did not disturb the position
of the Nestorian church; but the revival of the Mahommedan
power, which was coincident with the downfall of the Mongolian
empire, was pregnant with disaster for her. The greater part
of Nestorian Christendom was now swallowed up by Islam, so
that only remnants of this once extensive church have survived
until modern times.

The middle ages were far more disastrous for the Monophysites
than for the Nestorians; in their case there was no alternation
of rise and decline, and we have only a long period of gradual
exhaustion to chronicle. Egypt was the home of Monophysitism,
whence it extended also into Syria. It was due to the great
Jacob of Edessa (Jacob Baradaeus, d. 578) that it did not succumb
to the persecution by the power of the Orthodox Empire, and
out of gratitude to him the Monophysite Christians of Syria
called themselves Jacobites. The Arab conquest (after 635)
freed the Jacobite church entirely from the oppression of the
Orthodox, and thereby assured its continuance. The church,
however, never attained any greater development, but on the
contrary continued to lose adherents from century to century.
While Jacob of Edessa is said to have ordained some 100,000
priests and deacons for his fellow-believers, in the i6th century
the Jacobites of Syria were estimated at only 50,000 families.

The Monophysite church of Egypt had a like fate. At the
time of the separation of the churches the Greeks here had re-
mained faithful to Orthodoxy, the Copts to Monophysitism.
Here too the Arab conquest (641) put an end to the oppression
of the native Christians by the Greek minority; but this did not
afford the Coptic church any possibility of vigorous development.
It succumbed to the ceaseless alternation of tolerance and
persecution which characterized the Arab rule in Egypt, and
the mass of the Coptic people became unfaithful to the Church.
At the time of the conquest of the country by the Turks (1517)
the Coptic church seems already to have fallen to the low
condition in which the ipth century found it. Though at the
time of the Arab conquest the Copts were reckoned at six
millions, in 1820 the Coptic Christians numbered only about
one hundred thousand, and it is improbable that their number
can have been much greater at the close of the middle ages. Only
in Abyssinia the daughter church of the Coptic church succeeded
in keeping the whole people in the Christian faith. This fact,
however, is the sole outcome of the history of a thousand years;
a poor result, if measured by the standard of the rich history
of the Western world, yet large enough not to exclude the hope
of a new development.

II. THE WEST, (a) The Early Middle Ages. The Catholic
Church as influenced by the Foundation of the Teutonic Slates. —
While the Eastern Church was stereotyping those peculiar
characteristics which made her a thing apart, the Church of
the West was brought face to face with the greatest revolution
that Europe has ever experienced. At the end of the 6th century
all the provinces of the Empire had become independent king-
doms, in which conquerors of Germanic race formed the dominant
nationality. The remnants of the Empire showed an uncommonly
tough vitality. It is true that the Teutonic states succeeded
everywhere in establishing themselves; but only in England
and in the erstwhile Roman Germany did the Roman nationality
succumb to the Teutonic. In the other countries it not only
mantained itself, but was able to assimilate the ruling German
race; the Lombards, West Goths, Swabians, and even the
Franks in the greater part of Gaul became Romanized. Con-
sequently the position of the Christian Church was never seriously
affected. This is the great fact which stands out at the beginning
of the history of the Church in the middle ages. The continuity
of the political history of Europe was violently interrupted by
the Germanic invasion, but not that of the history of the Church.
For, in view of the facts above stated, it was of small significance"
that in Britain Christianity was driven back into the western
portion of the island still held by the Britons, and that in the
countries of the Rhine and Danube a few bishoprics disappeared.

This was of the less importance, as the Church immediately
made preparations to win back the lost territory. On the

CHURCH HISTORY

339

frontier line of ancient and medieval times stands the figure of
Gregory I., the incarnation as it were of the change that was
taking place: half Father of the Church, half medieval pope.
He it was who sent the monk Augustine to England, in order
to win over the Anglo-Saxons to the Christian faith. Augustine
was not the first preacher of the Gospel at Canterbury. A
Prankish bishop, Liudhard, had laboured there before his time;
but the mission of Augustine and his ordination as a bishop
were decisive in the conversion of the country and the estab-
lishment of the Anglo-Saxon church. On the continent
an extension of the Prankish supremacy towards the east had
already led to the advance of Christendom. Not only were the
bishoprics in the towns of the Rhine country re-established,
but as the Franks colonized the country on both sides of the
Main, they carried the Christian faith into the very heart of
Germany. Finally, the dependence of the Swabian and Bavarian
peoples on the Prankish empire paved the way for Christianity
in those provinces also. Celtic monks worked as missionaries
in this part of the country side by side with Franks. In England
it had not been possible to bring the old British and the young
Anglo-Saxon churches into friendly union; but in spite of this
the Celts did not abstain from working at the common tasks
of Christendom, and the continent has much to thank them for.
When the first century of the middle ages came to an end the
Church had not only reoccupied the former territory of the
Empire, she had already begun to overstep its limits.

In so doing she had remained as of old and had yet become
new. Creed and dogma, above all, remained unchanged. The
doctrinal decisions of the ancient Church remained the inde-
structible canon of belief, and what the theologians of the
ancient Church had taught was reverenced as beyond improve-
ment. The entire form of divine worship remained therefore
unaltered. Even where the Latin tongue was not understood
by the people, the Church preserved it in the Mass and in the
administration of the sacraments, in her exorcisms and in her
benedictions. Furthermore, the organization of ecclesiastical
offices remained unchanged: the division of the Church into
bishoprics and the grouping together of bishoprics into metro-
politan dioceses. Finally, the property and the whole social
status of the Church and of the hierarchy remained unchanged,
as did also the conviction that the perfection of the Christian
life was to be sought and found in the monastic profession.

Nevertheless, the new conditions did exercise the strongest
influence upon the character of the Church. The churches of
the Lombards, West Goths, Franks and Anglo-Saxons, all
counted themselves parts of the Catholic Church; but the
Catholic Church had altered its condition; it lacked the power
of organization, and split up into territorial churches. Under
the Empire the ecumenical council had been looked upon as
the highest representative organ of the Catholic Church; but
the earlier centuries of the middle ages witnessed the convocation
of no ecumenical councils. Under the Empire the bishop of
Rome had possessed in the Church an authority recognized and
protected by the State; respect for Rome and for the successor
of Saint Peter was not forgotten by the new territorial churches,
but it had altered in character; legal authority had become
merely moral authority; its wielder could exhort, warn, advise
but could not command.

On the other hand, the kings did command in the Church.

hey certainly claimed no authority over faith or doctrine, and
they too respected doctrinal law; but they succeeded in asserting
their rights to a practical share in the government of the Church.
The clergy and laity of a diocese together elected their bishop,
they had done before; but no one could become a bishop
gainst the will of the king, and the confirmation of their choice
rested with him. The bishops continued to meet in synods as
before, but the councils became territorial synods; they were
ailed together at irregular intervals by the king, and their
decisions obtained legal effect only by royal sanction.

In these circumstances the intrusion of Germanic elements
nto ecclesiastical law is easy to understand. This is most
dearly recognizable in the case of churches which arose alongside

the episcopal cathedrals. In the Empire all churches, and all
the property of the Church, were at the disposal of the bishops;
in Germanic countries, on the contrary, the territorial nobles
were looked upon as the owners of churches built upon their
lands, and these became " proprietary churches." The logical
consequence of this was that the territorial nobles claimed the
right of appointing clergy, and the enjoyment of the revenues
of these churches derived from the land (tithes). Even a certain
number of the monastic establishments came in this way into
the possession of the feudal landowners, who nominated abbots
and abbesses as they appointed the incumbents of their churches.

With these conditions, and with the diminution of the as-
cendancy of town over country that resulted from the Teutonic
conquests, is connected the rise of the parochial system in the
country. The parishes were further grouped together into rural
deaneries and archdeaconries. Thus the diocese, hitherto a
simple unit, became an elaborately articulated whole. The
bishopric of the middle ages bears the same name as that of the
ancient Church; but in many respects it has greatness that
is new.

This transformation of old institutions is the first great result
of Germanic influence in the Christian Church. It continues to
the present day in the universal survival of the parochial system.

In the middle ages the civilizing task of the Church was first
approached in England. This was the home of the Latin
Christian literature and theology of medieval times. Aldhelm
(d. 709) and the Venerable Bede (d. 735) were the first scholars
of the period. England was also the home of Winfrid Bonifatius
(d. 757). We are accustomed to look upon him -chiefly as a
missionary; but his completion of the conversion of the peoples
of central Germany (Thuringians and Hessians) and his share
in that of the Frisians, are the least part of his life-work. Of
more importance is the fact that, in co-operation with the bishops
of Rome, he carried out the organization of the church in Bavaria,
and began the reorganization of the Prankish church, which had
fallen into confusion and decay during the political disorders
of the last years of the Merovingians. It was Boniface, too,
who, with the aid of numerous English priests, monks and nuns,
introduced the literary culture of England into Germany.

Pippin (d. 768) and Charlemagne (d. 814) built on the founda-
tions laid by Winfrid. For the importance of Charlemagne's
work, from the point of view of the Church, consists also, not so
much in the fact that, by his conversion of the Saxons, the Avars
and the Wends in the eastern Alps, he substantially extended the
Church's dominions, as in his having led back the Prankish Church
to the fulfilment of her functions as a religious and civilizing
agent. This was the purpose of his ecclesiastical legislation.
The principal means to this end taken by him was the raising of
the status of the clergy. From the priests he demanded faithful-
ness in preaching and teaching, from the bishops the conscientious
government of their dioceses. The monasteries, too, learned
to serve the Church by becoming nurseries of literary and
theological culture. For the purpose of carrying out his ideas
Charlemagne gathered round him the best intellects of Europe.
None was more intimately associated with him than the Anglo-
Saxon Alcuin (d. 804); but he was only one among many.
Beside him are the Celts Josephus Scottus and Dungal, the
Lombards Paulinus and Paulus Diaconus, the West Goth
Theodulf and many Franks. Under their guidance theology
flourished in the Prankish empire. It was as little original as
that of Bede; for on the continent, too, scholars were content to
think what those of old had thought before them. But in so
doing they did not only repeat the old formulae; the ideas of the
men of old sprang into new life. This is shown by the searching
discussions to which the Adoptionist controversy gave rise. At
the same time, the controversy with the Eastern Church over the
adoration of images shows that the younger Western theology
felt itself equal, if not superior to the Greek. This was in fact the
case; for it knew how to treat the question, which divided the
Greeks, in a more dispassionate and practical manner than they.

The second generation of Prankish theologians did not lag
behind the first. Hrabanus of Fulda (who died archbishop of

340

CHURCH HISTORY

Mainz in 856) was in the range of his knowledge undoubtedly
Alcuin's superior. He was the first learned theologian produced
by Germany. His disciple, Abbot Walafrid Strabo of Reichenau
(d. 849), was the author of the Glossa Ordinaria, a work which
formed the foundation of biblical exposition throughout the
middle ages. France was still more richly provided with theo-
logians in the gth century: her most prominent names are
Hincmar, archbishop of Reims (d. 882), Bishop Prudentius of
Troyes (d. 861), the monks Servatus Lupus (d. 862), Radbert
Paschasius (d. circa 860), and Ratramnus (d. after 868) ; and the
last theologian who came into France from abroad, Johannes
Scotus Erigena (d. circa 880). The theological method of all
these was merely that of restatement. But the controversy
about predestination, which, in the 9th century, Hincmar and
Hrabanus fought out with the monk Gottschalk of Fulda, as well
as the discussions that arose from the definition of the doctrine of
transubstantiation of Radbert, enable us to gauge the intellectual
energy with which theological problems were once more being
handled.

Charlemagne followed his father's policy in carrying out his
ecclesiastical measures in close association with the bishops of
Rome. He renewed the donation of Pippin, and as Patrician he
took Rome under his protection. From Pope Adrian I. he
received the Dionyso-Hadriana, the Roman collection of material
bearing on the ancient ecclesiastical law. But the Teutonic
elements maintained their place in the law of the Prankish
Church; and this was not altered by the fact that, since Christmas
800, the king of the Franks and Lombards had borne the title of
Roman emperor. On the contrary, Rome itself was now for the
first time affected by the predominance of the new empire; for
Charlemagne converted the patriciate into effective sovereignty,
and the successor of St Peter became the chief metropolitan of
the Frankish empire.

There were, indeed, forces tending in the contrary direction;
and these were present in the Frankish empire. Evidence of this
is given by the canon law forgeries of the 9th century: the
capitula of Angelram, the Capitularies of Benedictus Levita (see
CAPITULARY), and the great collection of the Pseudo-Isidorian
Decretals. For the moment, however, this party met with no
success. Of more importance was the fact that at Rome the old
conditions, the old claims, and the old law were unforgotten.
Developing the ideas of Leo I., Gelasius I. and Gregory the
Great, Nicholas I. (858-867) drew a picture of the divine right
and unlimited power of the bishop of Rome, which anticipated
all that the greatest of his successors were, centuries later, actually
to effect. The time had not, however, yet come for the establish -
ment of the papal world-dominion. For, while the power of
Charlemagne's successors was decaying, the papacy itself became
involved in the confusion of the party strife of Italy and of the
city of Rome, and was plunged in consequence into such an abyss
of degradation (the so-called Pornocracy), that it was in danger of
forfeiting every shred of its moral authority over Christendom.

(b) Central Period of the Middle Ages. Dominance of the
Roman Spirit in the Church. — After the accession of the House of
Saxony (919) , the national ecclesiastical system, founded upon the
principles of Carolingian law, developed in Germany with fresh
energy. The union in 962 by Otto I. of the revived Empire with
the German kingship brought the latter into uninterrupted
contact with the papacy. The revelation of the antagonism
between the German conception of ecclesiastical affairs and
Roman views of ecclesiastical law was sooner or later inevitable.
This was most obvious in the matter of appointment to bishoprics.
At Rome canonical election was alone regarded as lawful; in
Germany, on the other hand, developments since the time of
Charlemagne had led to the actual appointment of bishops being
in the hands of the king, although the form of ecclesiastical
election was preserved. For the transference of a bishopric a
special legal form was evolved — that of investiture, the king
investing the bishop elect with the see by delivering to him the
ring and pastoral staff. No one found anything objectionable in
this; investiture with a bishopric was parallel with the appoint-
ment by a territorial proprietor to a patronal church.

The practice customary in Germany was finally transferred to
Rome itself. The desperate position of the papacy in the nth
century obliged Henry III. to intervene. When, on the 24th of
December 1046, after three rival popes had been set aside, he
nominated Suidgar, bishop of Bamberg, as bishop of Rome before
all the people in St Peter's, the papacy was bestowed in the same
way as a German bishopric; and what had occurred in this case
was to become the rule. By procuring the transference of the
patriciate from the Roman people to himself Henry assured his
influence over the appointment of the popes, and accordingly
also nominated the successors of Clement II.

His intervention saved the papacy. For the popes nominated
by him, Leo IX. in particular, were men of high character, who
exercised their office in a loftier spirit than their corrupt pre-
decessors. They placed themselves at the head of the movement
for ecclesiastical reform. But was it possible for the relation
between Empire and Papacy to remain what Henry III. had
made it?

The original sources of this reform movement lay far back,
in the time of the Carolingians. It has been pointed out how
Charlemagne pressed the monks into the service of his civilizing
aims. We admire this; but it is certain that he thereby alienated
monasticism from its original ideals. These, however, had far too
strong a hold upon the Roman world for a reaction against the
new tendency to be long avoided. This reaction began with the
reform of Benedict of Aniane (d. 821), the aim of which was to
bring the Benedictine order back to the principles of its original
rules. In the next century the reform movement acquired a
fresh centre in the Burgundian monastery of Cluny. The energy
of a succession of distinguished abbots and the disciples whom
they inspired succeeded in bringing about the victory of the
reforming ideas in the French monasteries; once more the rule
of St Benedict controlled the life of the monks. A large number
of the reformed monasteries attached themselves to the con-
gregation of Cluny, thus assuring the influence of reformed
monasticism upon the Church, and securing likewise its inde-
pendence of the diocesan bishops, since the abbot of Cluny was
subordinate of the pope alone. (See CLUNY; BENEDICTINES
and MONASTICISM.) At the same time that Cluny began to grow
into importance, other centres of the monastic reform movement
were established in Upper and Lower Lorraine; and before long
the activity of the Cluniac monks made itself felt in Italy. In
Germany Poppo of Stavelot (d. 1048) was a successful champion
of their ideas; in England Dunstan (d. 988 as archbishop of
Canterbury) worked independently, but on similar lines. Every-
where the object was the same: the supreme obligation of the
Rule, the renewal of discipline, and also the economic improve-
ment of the monasteries. The reform movement had originally
no connexion with ecclesiastical polities'; but that came later
when the leaders turned their attention to the abuses prevalent
among the clergy, to the conditions obtaining in the Church in
defiance of the ecclesiastical law. " Return to the canon law! "
was now the battle-cry. In the Cluniac circle was coined the
principle : Canonica auctoritas Dei lex est, canon law being taken
in the Pseudo-Isidorian sense. The programme of reform thus
included not only the extirpation of simony and Nicolaitism,
but also the freeing of the Church from the influence of the State,
the recovery of her absolute control over all her possessions,
the liberty of the Church and of the hierarchy.

As a result, the party of reform placed itself in opposition to
those ecclesiastical conditions which had arisen since the con-
version of the Teutonic peoples. It was, then, a fact pregnant
with the most momentous consequences that Leo IX. attached
himself to the party of reform. For, thanks to him and to the
men he gathered round him (Hildebrand, Humbert and others),
their principles were established in Rome, and the pope himself
became the leader of ecclesiastical reform. But the carrying
out of reforms led at once to dissensions with the civil power,
the starting-point being the attack upon simony.

Originally, in accordance with Acts viii. 18 et seq., simony
was held to be the purchase of ordination. In the 9th century
the interpretation was extended to include all acquisition of

CHURCH HISTORY

ecclesiastical offices or benefices for money or money's worth.
Since the landed proprietors disposed of churches and convents,
and the kings of bishoprics and abbeys, it became possible for
them too to commit the sin of simony; hence a final expansion,
in the nth century, of the meaning of the term. The Pseudo-
Isidorian idea being that all lay control over things ecclesiastical
is wrong, all transferences by laymen of ecclesiastical offices or
benefices, even though no money changed hands in the process,
were now classed as simony (Humbert, Adversus Simoniacos,
1057-1058). Thus the lord who handed over a living was a
simonist, and so too was the king who invested a bishop. On
this question the battle began. The Church at first refrained
from contesting the rights of the kndowners over their own
churches, and concentrated her attack upon investiture. In
1059 the new system of papal election introduced by Nicholas II.
ensured the occupation of the Holy See by a pope favourable to
the party of reform; and in 1078 Gregory VII. issued his pro-
hibition of lay investiture. In the years of conflict that followed
Gregory looked far beyond this point; he set his aim ever
higher; until, in the end, his idea was to concentrate all ecclesi-
astical power in the hands of the pope, and to raise the papacy
to the dominion of the world. Thus was to be realized the old
dream of Augustine : that of a Kingdom of God on earth under
the rule of the Church. But it was not given to Gregory to reach
this goal, and his successors had to return again to the strife
over investiture. The settlement of mi may be said to have
embodied the only solution of the great question that was right
in principle, since it pronounced in favour of a clear distinction
between the spiritual and temporal spheres. However, a solution
that was right in principle proved impossible in practice, and the
long struggle ended in a compromise by the Concordat of Worms
(1122). The essential part of this was that the Empire accepted
the canonical election of bishops, and allowed the metropolitan
to confer the sacred office by gift of ring and pastoral staff;
while the Church acknowledged that the bishop held his temporal .
rights from the Empire, and was therefore to be invested with
them by a touch from the royal sceptre. A similar solution was
arrived at in England. Henry I. also renounced his claim to
bestow ring and pastoral staff, but kept the right of induction
into the temporalities (1106-1107). In France the demands of
the Church were successful to the same degree as in England
and Germany, but without any conflict. Thus the Germanic
element in the law regarding appointment to bishoprics was
eliminated. Somewhat later it disappeared also in the case of
the churches of less importance, patronal rights over these being
substituted for the former absolute ownership. The pontificate
of Alexander III. (1150-1181) decided this.

Since the time of Charlemagne Germanic influence had pre-
ponderated in the West, as is shown in the expansion of the
Church no less than in matters of ecclesiastical law. The whole
progress of Christianity in Europe from the gth to the I2th
century was due — if we exclude Eastern Christendom — to the
Teutonic nations; neither the papacy nor the peoples of Latin
race were concerned in it. German priests and bishops carried
the Christian faith to the Czechs and the Moravians, laboured
among the Hungarians and the Poles, and won the wide district
between the Elbe and the Oder at once for Christianity and for
the German nation. Germany, too, was the starting-point for
the conversion of the Scandinavian countries, which was com-
pleted by English priests with the assistance of native princes.

But, even while the Teutonic peoples were thus taking the
lead, we can see the Latin races beginning to assert themselves.
The monastic reform movement was essentially Latin in origin ;
and even more significant was the fact that scholasticism, the
new theology, had its home in the Latin countries. Aristotelian
dialectics had always been taught in the schools; and reason as
well as authority had been appealed to as the foundation of
theology; but for the theologians of the gth and loth centuries,
whose method had been merely that of restatement, ratio and
aucloritas were in perfect accord. Then Berengar of Tours
(d. 1088) ventured to set up reason against authority: by reason
the truth must be decided. This involved the question of the

relation in theology of authority and reason, and of whether the
theological method is authoritative or rational. To these ques-
tions Berengar gave no answer; he was ruined by his opposition
to Radbert's doctrine of transubstantiation. The Lombard
Anselm (d. 1109), archbishop of Canterbury, was the first to deal
with the subject. He took as his starting-point the traditional
faith; but he was convinced that whoever has experience of the
truths of the faith would be able to understand them. In
accordance with this principle he pointed out the goal of theology
and the way to its attainment: the funjtion of theology is to
demonstrate dogmas sola rations.

It was a bold conception' — too bold for the medieval world, for
which faith was primarily the obligation to believe. It was easy,
therefore, to understand why Anselm's method did not become
the dominant one in theology. Not he, but the Frenchman
Abelard (d. 1142), was the creator of the scholastic method.
Abelard, too, started from tradition; but he discovered that the
statements of the various authorities are very often in the relation
of sic el non, yes and no. Upon this fact he based his pronounce-
ment as to the function of theology: it must employ the dialectic
method to reconcile the contradictions of tradition, and thus to
shape the doctrines of the faith in accordance with reason. By
teaching this method Abelard created the implements for the
erection of the great theological systems of the schoolmen of the
1 2th and i3th centuries: Peter Lombard (d. 1160), Alexander
of Hales (d. 1245), Albertus Magnus (d. 1280), and Thomas
Aquinas (d. 1275). They adventured a complete exposition of
Christian doctrine that should be altogether ecclesiastical and
at the same time altogether rational. In so doing they set to
work at the same time to complete the development of ecclesi-
astical dogma; the formulation of the Catholic doctrine of the
Sacraments was the work of scholasticism.

Canon law is the twin-sister of scholasticism. At the very
time when Peter Lombard was shaping his Sentences, the monk
Gratian of Bologna was making a new collection of laws. It was
not only significant that in the Concordia discordantium canonum
ecclesiastical laws, whether from authentic or forged sources,
were gathered together without regard to the existing civil law;
of even greater eventual importance was the fact that Gratian
taught that the contradictions of the canon law were to be
reconciled by the same method as that used by theology to
reconcile the discrepancies of doctrinal tradition. Thus Gratian
became the founder of the science of canon law, a science which,
like the scholastic theology, was entirely ecclesiastical and
entirely rational (see CANON LAW).

Like the new theology and the new science of law, the new
monasticism was also rooted in Latin soil. In the first of the
new orders, that of the Cistercians (iog8), the old monastic
ideal set forth in the Rule of Benedict of Nursia still prevailed;
but in the constitution and government of the order new ideas
were at work. In the Premonstratensian order, however,
founded in 1120 by Norbert of Xanten, a new conception of
the whole function of monachism was introduced: the duty
of the priest-monk is not only to work out his own salvation,
but, by preaching and cure of souls, to labour for others. This
was the dominant idea of the order of friars preachers founded
in 1216, on the basis of the Premonstratensian rule, by Dominic
of Osma (see DOMINIC, SAINT, and DOMINICANS). It was also
the basis of the order of friars minor (Franciscans, q.v.), founded
in 1 2 10. For the foundation of Francis of Assisi came into
existence as a society of itinerant preachers: no one was more
deeply convinced than Francis of the duty of working for others,
and his own mission was, as he said, to win souls. But with
this idea he fused another, namely, that it is the task of the monk
to imitate the humility and poverty of Jesus; and his order
thus became a mendicant order. From the earliest times the
monks had renounced all private property, and no individual
monk, but only the order to which he belonged, could acquire
possessions. For Francis this was not enough: he put " holy
poverty " in place of renunciation of private property, and
allowed neither monk nor monastery to have any possessions
whatever; for only thus is the following of Jesus complete. So

342

CHURCH HISTORY

mighty was the impression made by the poverty of the Minorites,
that the Dominicans promptly followed their example and
likewise became mendicant.

This alone would serve to indicate the remarkable deepening
of the religious life that had taken place in the Latin countries.
Its beginning may be traced as early as the nth century (Pietro
Damiani, q.v.), and in the i2th century the most influential
exponent of this new piety was Bernard (q.v.) of Clairvaux,
who taught men to find God by leading them to Christ. Con-
temporary with him were Hugh (q.v.) of St Victor and his pupil
Richard (q.v.) of St Victor, both monks of the abbey of St Victor
at Paris, the aim of whose teaching, based on that of the Pseudo-
Dionysius, was a mystical absorption of thought in the Godhead
and the surrender of self to the Eternal Love. Under the influence
of these ideas, in part purely Christian and in part neo-platonic,
piety gained in warmth and depth and became more personal;
and though at first it flourished in the monasteries, and in those
of the mendicant orders especially, it penetrated far beyond
them and influenced the laity everywhere.

The new piety did not set itself in opposition either to the
hierarchy or to the institutions of the Church, such as the
sacraments and the discipline of penance, nor did it reject those
foreign elements (asceticism, worship of saints and the like)
which had passed of old time into Christianity from the ancient
world. Its temper was not critical, but aggressively practical.
It led the Romance nations to battle for Christendom. In the
nth and i2th centuries the chivalry of Spain and southern
France took up the struggle with the Moors as a holy war. In
the autumn of 1096 the nobles of France and Italy, joined by
the Norman barons of England and Sicily, set out to wrest the
Holy Land from the unbelievers; and for more than a century
the cry, " Christ's land must be won for Christ," exercised an
unparalleled power in Western Christendom.

All this meant a mighty exaltation of the Church, which ruled
the minds of men as she had hardly ever done before. Nor was
it possible that the position of the bishop of Rome, the supreme
head of the Western Church, should remain unaffected by it.
Two of the most powerful of the German emperors, Frederick
I. and his son Henry VI., struggled to renew and to maintain the
imperial supremacy over the papacy. The close relations between
northern Italy and the Empire, and the union of the sovereignty
of southern Italy with the German crown, seemed to afford the
means for keeping Rome in subjection. But Frederick I. fought
a losing battle, and when at the peace of Venice (1177) he
recognized Alexander III. as pope, he relinquished the hope of
carrying out his Italian policy; while Henry VI. died at the
early age of thirty-two (1197), before his far-reaching schemes
had been realized.

The field was thus cleared for the full development of papal
power. This had greatly increased since the Concordat of
Worms, and reached its height under Innocent III. (1198-1216).
Innocent believed himself to be the representative of God, and
as such the supreme possessor of both spiritual and temporal
power. He therefore claimed in both spheres the supreme
administrative, legislative and judicial authority. Just as he
considered himself entitled to appoint to all ecclesiastical offices,
so also he invested the emperor with his empire and kings with
their kingdoms. Not only did he despatch his decretals to the
universities to form the basis of the teaching of the canon law
and of the decisions founded upon it, but he considered himself
empowered to annul civil laws. Thus he annulled the Great
Charter in 1215. Just as the Curia was the supreme court of
appeal in ecclesiastical causes, so also the pope threatened
disobedient princes with deposition, e.g. the emperor Otto IV.
in 1 2 10, and John of England in 1212.

The old institutions of the Catholic Church were transformed
to suit the new position of the pope. From 1123 onward there
had again been talk of general councils; but, unlike those of
earlier times, these were assemblies summoned by the pope,
who confirmed their resolutions. The canonical election of
bishops also continued to be discussed; but the old electors,
i.e. the clergy and laity of the dioceses, were deprived of the

right of election, this being now transferred exclusively to the
cathedral chapters. The bishops kept their old title, but they
described themselves accurately as " bishops by grace of the
apostolic see," for they administered their dioceses as pleni-
potentiaries of the pope; and as time went on even the Church's
criminal jurisdiction became more and more concentrated in
the hands of the pope (see INQUISITION).

The rule of the Church by the Roman bishop had thus become
a reality; but the papal claim to supreme temporal authority
proved impossible to maintain, although Innocent III. had
apparently enforced it. The long struggle against Frederick
II., carried on by Gregory IX. (1227-1241) and Innocent IV.
(1243-1254), did not result in victory; no papal sentence,
but only death itself, deprived the emperor of his dominions;
and when Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), who in the bull Unam
Sanctam (1302) gave the papal claims to universal dominion
their classical form, quarrelled with Philip IV. of France about
the extension of the royal power, he could not but perceive that
the national monarchy had become a force which it was impossible
for the papacy to overcome.

(c) Close of the Middle Ages. Disintegration. — While the
Church was yet at the height of her power the great revolution
began, which was to end in the disruption of that union between
the Temporal and the Spiritual which, under her dominion, had
characterized the life of the West. The Temporal now claimed
its proper rights. The political power of the Empire, indeed, had
been shattered; but this left all the more room for the vigorous
development of national states, notably of France and England.
At the same time intellectual life was enriched by a wealth of
fresh views and new ideas, partly the result of the busy inter-
course with the East to which the Crusades had given the first
impetus, and which had been strengthened and extended by
lively trade relations, partly of the revived study, eagerly
pursued, of ancient philosophy and literature (see RENAISSANCE).
Old forms became too narrow, and vigorously growing national
literatures appeared side by side with the universal Latin
literature. The life of the Church, moreover, was affected by the
economic changes due to the rise of the power of money as
opposed to the old economic system based upon land.

The effects of these changes made themselves felt on all sides,
in no case more strongly than in that of the papal claims to the
supreme government of the world. Theoretically they were still
unwaveringly asserted; indeed it was not till this time that they
received their most uncompromising expression (Augustinus
Triumphus, d. 1328; Alvarus Pelagius, d. 1352). After Boniface
VIII., however, no pope seriously attempted to realize them;
to do so had in fact become impossible, for from the time of their
residence at Avignon (1305-1377) the popes were in a state of
complete dependence upon the French crown. But even the
curialistic theory met everywhere with opposition. In France
Philip IV.'s jurists maintained that the temporal power was
independent of the spiritual. In Italy, a little later, Dante
championed the divine right of the emperor (De Monarchia,
1311). In Germany, Marsiglio of Padua and Jean of Jandun, the
literary allies of the emperor Louis IV., ventured to define anew
the nature of the civil power from the standpoint of natural law,
and to assert its absolute sovereignty (Defensor pads, c. 1352);
while the Franciscan William of Occam (d. 1349) examined, also
in Louis' interests, into the nature of the relation between the two
powers. He too concluded that the temporal power is inde-
pendent of the spiritual, and is even justified in invading the
sphere of the latter in cases of necessity.

While these thoughts were filling men's minds, opposition to
the papal rule over the Church was also gaining continually in
strength. The reasons for this were numerous, first among them
being the abuses of the papal system of finance, which had to
provide funds for the vast administrative machinery of the
Curia. There was also the boundless abuse and arbitrary
exercise of the right of ecclesiastical patronage (provisions,
reservations); and further the ever-increasing traffic in dis-
pensations, the abuse of spiritual punishments for worldly ends,
and so forth. No means, however, existed of enforcing any

CHURGH HISTORY

343

remedy until the papal schism occurred in 1378. Such a schism
as this, so intolerable to the ecclesiastical sense of the middle ages,
necessitated the discovery of some authority superior to the rival
popes, and therefore able to put an end to their quarrelling.
General councils were now once more called to mind; but these
were no longer conceived as mere advisory councils to the pope,
but as the highest representative organ of the universal Church,
and as such ranking above the pope, and competent to demand
obedience even from him. This was the view of the Germans
Conrad of Gelnhausen (d. 1390) and Heinrich of Langenstein (d.
1397), as also of the Frenchmen Pierre d'Ailli (d. 1420) and Jean
Charlier Gerson (d. 1429). These all recognized in the convoca-
tion of a general council the means of setting bounds to the
abuses in the government of the Church by an extensive reform.
The council of Pisa (1409) separated without effecting anything;
but the council of Constance (1414-1418) did actually put an end
to the schism. The reforms begun at Constance and continued
at Basel (1431-1449) proved, however, insufficient. Above all,
the attempt to set up the general council as an ordinary institu-
tion of the Catholic Church failed; and the Roman papacy,
restored at Constance, preserved its irresponsible and unlimited
power over the government of the Church. (See PAPACY;
CONSTANCE, COUNCIL or, and BASEL, COUNCIL or.)

Thus the attempt to reform the Church by means of councils
failed; but this very failure led to the survival of the desire for
reform. It was kept alive by the most various circumstances;
in the first instance by the attitude of the European states.
Thanks to his recognition by the powers, Pope Eugenius IV.
(1431-1447) had been victorious over the council of Basel; but
neither France nor Germany was prepared to forgo the reforms
passed by the council. France secured their validity, as far as
she herself was concerned, by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges
(July 7, 1438); Germany followed with the Acceptation of Mainz
(March 26, 1439). The theory of the papal supremacy held by
the Curia was thus at least called in question.

The antagonism of the opposition parties was even more
pronounced. The tendencies which they represented had been
present when the middle ages were yet at their height; but the
papacy, while at the zenith of its power, had succeeded in
crushing the attacks made upon the creed of the Church by its
most dangerous foes, the dualistic Cathari. On the other hand it
had not been able to overcome the less radical opposition of the
" Poor Man of Lyons " (Waldo, d. c. 1217), and even in the isth
century stray supporters of the Waldensian teaching were to be
found in Italy, France and Germany, everywhere keeping alive
mistrust of the temporal power of the Church, of her priesthood
and her hierarchy. In England the hierarchy was attacked by
John Wycliffe (d. 1384), its greatest opponent before Luther.
Starting from Augustine's conception of the Church as the
community of the elect, he protested against a church of wealth
and power, a church that had become a political institution
instead of a school of salvation, and against its head, the bishop of
Rome. Wycliffe's ideas, conveyed to the continent, precipitated
the outbreak of the Hussite storm in Bohemia. The council of
Constance thought to quell it by condemnation of Wycliffe's
teaching and by the execution of John Huss (1415). But in vain.
The flame burst forth, not in Bohemia alone, where Huss's death
gave the signal for a general rising, but also in England among the
Lollards, and in Germany among those of Huss's persuasion, who
had many points of agreement with the remnant of the Waldenses.

(See Huss; WYCLIFFE; LOLLARDS; WALDENSES.)

This was open opposition; but there was besides another
opposing force which, though it raised no noise of controversy,
yet was far more widely severed from the views of the Church
than either Wycliffe or Huss: this was the Renaissance, which
began its reign in Italy during the I4th century. The Re-
naissance meant the emancipation of the secular world from
the domination of the Church, and it contributed in no small
measure to the rupture of the educated class with ecclesiastical
tradition. Beauty of form alone was at first sought, and found in
the antique; but, with the form, the spirit of the classical
attitude towards life was revived. While the Church, like a

' careful mother, sought to lead her children, never allowed to grow
up, safely from time into eternity, the men of the Renaissance
felt thjt they had come of age, and that they were entitled to
make themselves at home in this world. They wished to possess
the earth and enjoy it by means of secular education and culture,
and an impassable gulf yawned between their views of religion
and morality and those of the Church.

This return to the ideals of antiquity did not remain confined to
Italy, but the humanism of the northern countries presents no
close parallel to the Italian renaissance. However much it
agreed in admiration of the ancients, it differed absolutely in its
preservation of the fundamental ideas of Christianity. But
neither Reuchlin (d. 1522), Erasmus (d. 1536), Faber d'Etaples
(d. 1536), Thomas More (d. 1535), nor the numerous others who
were their disciples, or who shared their views, were in the least
degree satisfied with the conditions prevailing in the Church.
Their ideal was a return to that simplicity of primitive Christen-
dom which they believed they found revealed in the New
Testament and in the writings of the early Fathers.

To this theology could not point the way. Since the time of
Duns Scotus (d. 1308) theologians had been conscious of the
discrepancy between Aristotelianism and ecclesiastical dogma.
Faith in the infallibility of the scholastic system was thus shaken,
and the system itself was destroyed by the revival of philosophic
nominalism, which had been discredited in the IT th century by
the realism of the great schoolmen. It now found a bold sup-
porter in William of Occam (<?.».), and through him became widely
accepted. But nominalism was powerless to inspire theology
with new life; on the contrary, its intervention only increased
the inextricable tangle of the hairsplitting questions with which
theology busied itself, and made their solution more and more
impossible.

Mysticism, moreover, which had no lack of noteworthy
supporters in the I4th and isth centuries, and the various new
departures in thought initiated by individual theologians such
as Nicolaus Cusanus (d. 1464) and Wessel Gansfort (d. 1489),
were not competent to restore to the Church what she had once
possessed in scholasticism — that is to say, a conception of
Christianity in which all Christendom recognized the convictions
in which it lived and had its being.

This was all the more significant because Western Christendom
in the isth century was by no means irreligious. Men's minds
were agitated by spiritual questions, and they sought salvation
and the assurance of salvation, using every means prescribed
by the Church: confession and the communion, indulgences
and relics, pilgrimages and oblations, prayers and attendance
at church; none of all these were contemned or held cheap.
Yet the age had no inward peace.

After the failure of the attempts at reform by the councils,
the guidance of the Church was left undisturbed in the hands of
the popes, and they were determined that it should remain so.
In 1450 Eugenius IV. set up in opposition to the council of Basel
a general council summoned by himself, which met first at
Ferrara and afterwards at Florence. Here he appeared to score
a great success. The split between East and West had led in
the nth century to the rupture of ecclesiastical relations between
Rome and Constantinople. This schism had lasted since the
i6th of July 1054; but now a union with the Eastern Church
was successfully accomplished at Florence. Eugenius certainly
owed his success merely to the political necessities of the emperor
of the East, and his union was forthwith destroyed owing to its
repudiation by oriental Christendom; yet at the same time his
decretals of union were not devoid of importance, for in them the
pope reaffirmed the scholastic doctrine regarding the sacraments
as a dogma of the Church, and he spoke as the supreme head of
all Christendom.

This claim to the supreme government of the Church was to be
steadily maintained. In the year 1512 Julius II. called together
the fifth Lateran general council, which expressly recognized the
subjection of the councils to the pope (Leo X.'s bull Pastor
Aeternum, of the igth of December 1516), and also declared the
constitution Unam Sanclam (see above) valid in law.

344

CHURCH HISTORY

But the papacy that sought to win back its old position was
itself no longer the same as of old. Eugenius IV.'s successor,
Nicholas V. (1447-1455). was the first of the Renaissance popes.
Under his successors the views which prevailed at the secular
courts of the Italian princes came likewise into play at the Curia:
the papacy became an Italian princedom. Innocent VIII.,
Alexander VI., Julius II. were in many respects remarkable men,
but they were scarcely affected by the convictions of the Christian
faith. The terrible tragedy which was consummated on the 23rd
of May 1498 before the Palazzo Vecchio, in Florence, casts a
lurid light upon the irreconcilable opposition in which the wearers
of the papal dignity stood to medieval piety; for Girolamo
Savonarola was in every fibre a loyal son of the medieval Church.

Twenty years after Savonarola's death Martin Luther made
public his theses against indulgences. The Reformation which
thus began brought the disintegrating process of the middle
ages to an end, and at the same time divided Western Catholicism
in two. Yet we may say that this was its salvation; for the
struggle against Luther drove the papacy back to its ecclesiastical
duties, and the council of Trent established medieval dogma
as the doctrine of modern Catholicism in contradistinction to
Protestantism. (See also PAPACY; RENAISSANCE; REFORMA-
TION, and biographies of popes, &c.)

AUTHORITIES. — For sources see U. Chevalier, Repertoire des
sources historiques du moyen-dge (Paris, 1903) ; A. Potthast, Biblio-
theca historica medii aevi (Berlin, 1896) ; W. Wattenbach, Deutsch-
lands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter (7th ed., Stuttgart, 1904);
A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de la France (Paris, 1901).
General Treatises: Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church
(12 yols., sth ed., New York, 1889-1892), vol. iy. Medieval Chris-
tianity, W. Moeller, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, vol. ii. Das
Mittelalter (Freiburg, 1891); H. H. Milman, History of Latin Chris-
tianity (6 vols., 2nded., London, 1857). Particular Treatises: J.
Lingard, The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church
(2 vols. 3rd ed., London, 1845); E. Churton, The Early English
Church (London, 1878) ; A. Martineau, Church History in England
from the Earliest Times to the Reformation (London, 1878) ; W. Hunt,
The English Church from its Foundation to the Norman Conquest
(London, 1899) ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England
(3 vols., London, 1874-1878) ; A. Bellesheim, Geschichte der kathol.
Kirche in SchotUand (2 vols., Mainz, 1883; Engl. transl. with Notes
and Additions by O. H. Blair, 4 vols., Edinburgh, 1887-1890) ;
W. Stephen, History of the Scottish Church (Edinburgh, 1894-1896,
2 vols.); W. D. Killen, The Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (2 vols.,
London, 1875-1878); A. Bellesheim, Geschichte der kalh. Kirche
in Irland (3 vols., Mainz, 1890-1891) ; F. Rettberg, Kirchengeschichte
Deutschlands (2 vols. Gottingen, 1846, 1848); A. Hauck, Kirchen-
geschichte Deutschlands (4 vols., Leipzig, 3rd ed., 1904); Gallia
Christiana in provincias eccl, distribute. (16 and 3 vols., Paris, 1715-
1900); F. N. Fager, Histoire de I'eglise cathol. en France depuis son
origine (19 vols., Paris, 1862-1873); Ughelli, Italia sacra (10 vols.,
Venice, 1717-1722) ; P. Gams, Kirchengeschichte von Spanien
(5 vols., Regensburg, 1862-1879); H. Reuterdahl, Svenska Kyrkans
historic (3 vols., Lund, 1838-1863); A. v. Maurer, Die Bekehrung
des norwegischen Stammes (2 vols., Munich, 1855-1856) ; Bang,
Udsigt over den norske Kirkes historic under Katholicismen (Chris-
tiania, 1887) ; P. Gams, Scries episcoporum ecclesiae cathplicae
(Regensburg, 1873) ; C. Eubel, Hierarchia catholica medii aevi
(2 vols., Miinster, 1898, 1901); P. Hinschius, System des kath.
Kirchenrechts (6 vols., Berlin, 1869-1896); E. Friedberg, Lehrbuch
des Kirchenrechts (sth ed., Leipzig, 1903); U. Stutz, " Kirchen-
recht " (Holtzendorff-Kohler, Encyklopaedie der Rechtswissenschaft,
6th ed. II. Leipzig, 1904); B. Haureau, Histoire de la philosophic
scolaslique (Paris, 1872); F. Schwane, Dogmengeschichte der mit-
tleren Zeit (Freiburg, 1882) ; A. Ebert, Allgem. Geschichte der Literatur
des Mittelalters im Abendlande (3 vols., Leipzig, 1874-1887) ; C. F. v.
Hefele, Conciliengeschichte (2nd ed., 9 vols., Freiburg, 1873-1890).

(A. H.*)

C. THE MODERN CHURCH

The issue in 1 564 of the canons of the council of Trent marks
a very definite epoch in the history of the Christian Church.
Up till that time, in spite of the schism of East and West and of
innumerable heresies, the idea of the Church as Catholic, not only
in its faith but in its organization, had been generally accepted.
From this conception the Reformers had, at the outset, no
intention of departing. Their object had been to purify the
Church of medieval accretions, and to restore the primitive
model in the light of the new learning; the idea of rival
" churches," differing in their fundamental doctrines and in
their principles of organization, existing side by side, was as

abhorrent to them as to the most rigid partisan of Roman central-
ization. The actual divisions of Western Christendom are the
outcome, less of the purely religious influences of the Reformation
period than of the political forces with which they were associated
and confused. When it became clear that the idea of doctrinal
change would find no acceptance at Rome, the Reformers
appealed to the divine authority of the civil power against that
of the popes; and princes within their several states succeeded,
as the result of purely political struggles and combinations, in
establishing the form of religion best suited to their convictions
or their policy. Thus over a great part of Europe the Catholic
Church was split up into territorial or national churches, which,
whatever the theoretical ties which bound them together, were
in fact separate organizations, tending ever more and more to
become isolated and self-contained units with no formal inter-
communion, and, as the rivalry of nationalities grew, with
increasingly little even of intercommunication.

It was not, indeed, till the settlement of Westphalia in 1648,
after the Thirty Years' War, that this territorial division of
Christendom became stereotyped, but the process had been
going on for a hundred years previously; in some states, as in
England and Scotland, it had long been completed; in others,
as in South Germany, Bohemia and Poland, it was defeated
by the political and missionary efforts of the Jesuits and other
agents of the counter-Reformation. In any case, it received a
vast impetus from the action of the council of Trent. With the
issue of the Tridentine canons, all hope even of compromise
between the " new " and the " old " religions was definitely
closed. The anathema of the Roman Church had fallen upon all
the fundamental doctrines for which the Reformers had contended
and died; the right of free discussion within the limits of the
creeds, which had given room for the speculations of the medieval
philosophers, was henceforth curtailed and confined; and the
definitions of the schoolmen were for ever exalted by the authority
of Rome into dogmas of the Church. The Latin Church, which,
by combining the tradition of the Roman centralized organization
with a great elasticity in practice and in the interpretation of
doctrine, had hitherto been the moulding force of civilization in
the West, is henceforth more or less in antagonism to that
civilization, which advances in all its branches — in science, in
literature, in art — to a greater or less degree outside of and in
spite of her, until in its ultimate and most characteristic develop-
ments it falls under the formal condemnation of the pope,
formulated in the famous Syllabus of 1864. Considered from the
standpoint of the world outside, the Roman Church is, no less
than the Protestant communities, merely one of the sects into
which Western Christendom has been divided — the most im-
portant and widespread, it is true, but playing in the general
life and thought of the world a part immeasurably less important
than that filled by the Church before the Reformation, and one
in no sense justifying her claim to be considered as the sole
inheritor of the tradition of the pre-Reformation Church.

If this be true of the Roman Catholic Church, it is still more
so of the other great communities and confessions which emerged
from the controversies of the Reformation. Of these the Anglican
Church held most closely to the tradition of Catholic organization ;
but she has never made any higher claim than to be one of " the
three branches of the Catholic Church," a claim repudiated by
Rome and never formally admitted by the Church of the East.
The Protestant churches established on the continent, even
where — as in the case of the Lutherans — they approximate more
closely than the official Anglican Church to Roman doctrine
and practice, make no such claim. The Bible is for them the
real source of authority in doctrine; their organization is part
and parcel of that of the state. They are, in fact, the state in its
religious aspect, and as such are territorial or national, not
Catholic. This tendency has been common in the East also,
where with the growth of racial rivalries the Orthodox Church
has split into a series of national churches, holding the same faith
but independent as to organization.

A yet further development, of comparatively recent growth,
has been the formation of what are now commonly called in

CHURCHILL, C.

345

England the " free churches." These represent a theory of the
Church practically unknown to the Reformers, and only reached
through the necessity for discovering a logical basis for the
communities of conscientious dissidents from the established
churches. According to this the Catholic Church is not a visibly
organized body, but the sum of all " faithful people " throughout
the world, who group themselves in churches modelled according
to their convictions or needs. For the organization of these
churches nodivine sanction is claimed, though all are theoretically
modelled on the lines laid down in the Christian Scriptures.
It follows that, while in the traditional Church, with its claim to
an unbroken descent from a divine original, the individual is
subordinate to the Church, in the " free churches " the Church
is in a certain sense secondary to the individual. The believer
may pass from one community to another without imperilling his
spiritual life, or even establish a new church without necessarily
incurring the reproach of schism. From this theory, powerful in
Great Britain and her colonies, supreme in the United States of
America, has resulted an enormous multiplication of sects.

It follows from the above argument that, from the period
of the Reformation onward, no historical account of the Christian
Church as a whole, and considered as a definite institution, is
possible. The stream of continuity has been broken, and divides
into innumerable channels. The only possible synthesis is that
of the Christianity common to all; as institutions, though they
possess many features in common, their history is separate and
must be separately dealt with. The history of the various
branches of the Christian Church since the Reformation will
therefore be found under their several titles (see ROMAN CATHOLIC
CHURCH; ENGLAND, CHURCH OF; PRESBYTERIANISM; BAPTISTS,
&c., &c.). (W. A. P.)

CHURCHILL, CHARLES (1731-1764), English poet and
satirist, was born in Vine Street, Westminster, in February 1731.
His father, rector of Rainham, Essex, held the curacy and
lectureship of St John's, Westminster, from 1733, and the son
was educated at Westminster school, where he became a good
classical scholar, and formed a close and lasting intimacy with
Robert Lloyd. Churchill was entered at Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1749, but never resided. He had been refused at
Oxford, ostensibly on the unlikely ground of lack of classical
knowledge, but more probably because of a hasty marriage
which he had contracted within the rules of the Fleet in his
eighteenth year. He and his wife lived in his father's house,
and Churchill was afterwards sent to the north of England to
prepare for holy orders. He became curate of South Cadbury,
Somersetshire, and, on receiving priest's orders (1756), began to
act as his father's curate at Rainham. Two years later the elder
Churchill died, and the son was elected to succeed him in his
curacy and lectureship. His emoluments amounted to less than
£100 a year, and he increased his income by teaching in a girls'
school. He fulfilled his various duties with decorum for a while,
but his marriage proved unfortunate, and he spent much of his
lime in dissipation in the society of Robert Lloyd. He was
separated from his wife in 1761, and would have been imprisoned
for debt but for the timely help of Lloyd's father, who had been
an usher and was now a master of Westminster school.

Churchill had already done some work for the booksellers,

nd his friend Lloyd had had some success with a didactic poem,
" The Actor." His intimate knowledge of the theatre was now
turned to account in the Rosciad, which appeared in March 1761.

This reckless and amusing satire described with the most dis-

oncerting accuracy the faults of the various actors and actresses
on the London stage. Its immediate popularity was no doubt

irgely due to its personal character, but its real vigour and
raciness make it worth reading even now when the objects of
Churchill's wit are many of them forgotten. The first impression

was published anonymously, and in the Critical Review, conducted
by Tobias Smollett, it was confidently asserted that the poem

vas the joint production of George Colman, Bonnell Thornton

nd Robert Lloyd. Churchill owned the authorship and immedi-
ately published an Apology addressed to the Critical Reviewers,
which, after developing the subject that it is only the caste of

authors that prey on their own kind, repeats the fierce attack
on the stage. Incidentally it contains an enthusiastic tribute to
Dryden, of whom Churchill was a not unworthy scholar. In
the Rosciad he had given warm praise to Mrs Pritchard, Mrs
Gibber and Mrs Clive, but no leading London actor, with the
exception of David Garrick, had escaped censure, and in the
A pology Garrick was clearly threatened. He deprecated criticism
by showing every possible civility to Churchill, who became a
terror to the actors. Thomas Davies wrote to Garrick attributing
his blundering in the part of Cymbeline " to my accidentally
seeing Mr Churchill in the pit, it rendering me confused and
unmindful of my business." Churchill's satire made him many
enemies, and inquiries into his way of life provided abundant
matter for retort. In Night, an Epistle to Robert Lloyd (1761),
he answered the attacks made on him, offering by way of defence
the argument that any faults were better than hypocrisy. His
scandalous conduct brought down the censure of the dean of
Westminster, and in 1763 the protests of his parishioners led
him to resign his offices, and he was free to wear his " blue coat
with metal buttons " and much gold lace without remonstrance
from the dean. The Rosciad had been refused by several pub-
lishers, and was finally published at Churchill's own expense.
He received a considerable sum from the sale, and paid his old
creditors in full, besides making an allowance to his wife.

He now became a close ally of John Wilkes, whom he regularly
assisted with the North Briton. The Prophecy of Famine: A
Scots Pastoral (1763), his next poem, was founded on a paper
written originally for that journal. This violent satire on
Scottish influence fell in with the current hatred of Lord Bute, and
the Scottish place-hunters were as much alarmed as the actors
had been. When Wilkes was arrested he gave Churchill a timely
hint to retire to the country for a time, the publisher, Kearsley,
having stated that he received part of the profits from the paper.
His Epistle to William Hogarth (1763) was in answer to the
caricature of Wilkes made during the trial. In it Hogarth's
vanity and envy were attacked in an invective which Garrick
quoted as " shocking. and barbarous." Hogarth retaliated by a
caricature of Churchill as a bear in torn clerical bands hugging a
pot of porter and a club made of lies and North Britons. The
Duellist (1763) is a virulent satire on the most active opponents of
Wilkes in the House of Lords, especially on Bishop Warburton.
He attacked Dr Johnson among others in The Ghost as " Pomposo,
insolent and loud, Vain idol of a scribbling crowd." Other
poems are " The Conference " (1763); " The Author " (1763),
highly praised by Churchill's contemporaries; " Gotham "
(1764), a poem on the duties of a king, didactic rather than
satiric in tone; "The Candidate" (1764), a satire on John
Montagu, fourth earl of Sandwich, one of Wilkes's bitterest
enemies, whom he had already denounced for his treachery in the
Duellist (Bk. iii.) as " too infamous to have a friend "; " The
Farewell" (1764); "The Times" (1764); "Independence,"
and an unfinished " Journey."

In October 1 764 he went to Boulogne to join Wilkes. There he
was attacked by a fever of which he died on the 4th of November.
He left his property to his two sons, and made Wilkes his literary
executor with full powers. Wilkes did little. He wrote an
epitaph for his friend and about half a dozen notes on his poems,
and Andrew Kippis acknowledges some slight assistance from him
in preparing his life of Churchill for the Biographia Britannica
(1780). There is more than one instance of Churchill's generosity
to his friends. In 1763 he found his friend Robert Lloyd in
prison for debt. He paid a guinea a week for his better mainten-
ance in the Fleet, and raised a subscription to set him free.
Lloyd fell ill on receipt of the news of Churchill's death, and died
shortly afterwards. Churchill's sister Patty, who was engaged to
Lloyd, did not long survive them. William Cowper was his
schoolfellow, and left many kindly references to him.

A partial collection of Churchill's poems appeared in 1763. They
are included in Chalmers's edition of the English poets, and were
edited (1804) by W. Tooke. This was reprinted in the Aldine
edition (1844). There is a revised edition (1892) in the same series,
The Poetical Works of Charles Churchill, with a Memoir by J. L.
I Hannay and copious notes by W. Tooke. For Churchill's biography,

34-6

CHURCHILL, LORD RANDOLPH

see Genuine Memoirs of Charles Churchill, with an account of and
observations on his writings; together with some Original letters . . .
between him and the author ( 1 765) ; A. Kippis, in Biographia Britannica
(1780); also John Forster in the Edinburgh Review January 1845).

CHURCHILL, LORD RANDOLPH HENRY SPENCER (1849-
1895), English statesman, third son of John, seventh duke of
Marl borough, by Frances, daughter of the third marquess of
Londonderry, was born at Blenheim Palace, on the I3th of
February 1849. His early education was conducted at home,
and at Mr Tabor's preparatory school at Cheam. In January
1863 he went to Eton, where he remained till July 1865. He was
not specially distinguished either in school work or games while at
Eton; his contemporaries describe him as a vivacious and rather
unruly lad. In October 1867 he matriculated at Merton College,
Oxford. He was fond of amusement, and had carried to Oxford
an early taste for sport which he retained throughout life. But
he read with some industry, and obtained a second class in
jurisprudence and modern history in 1870. In 1874 he was
elected to parliament in the Conservative interest for Woodstock,
defeating Mr George Brodrick, a fellow, and afterwards warden,
of Merton College. His maiden speech, delivered in his first
session, made no impression on the House.

It was not till 1878 that he forced himself into public notice as
the exponent of a species of independent Conservatism. He
directed a series of furious attacks against some of the occupants
of the front ministerial bench, and especially that " old gang "
who were distinguished rather for the respectability of their
private characters, and the unblemished purity of their Toryism,
than for striking talent. Mr Sclater-Booth (afterwards ist Lord
Basing), president of the Local Government Board, was the
especial object of his ire, and that minister's County Government
Bill was fiercely denounced as the " crowning dishonour to Tory
principles," and the " supreme violation of political honesty."
The audacity of Lord Randolph's attitude, and the vituperative
fluency of his invective, made him a parliamentary figure of some
importance before the dissolution of the 1874 parliament, though
he was not as yet taken quite seriously. In the new parliament of
1880 he speedily began to play a more notable role. With the
assistance of his devoted adherents, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff,
Sir John Gorst and occasionally of Mr Arthur Balfour, and one
or two others, he constituted himself at once the audacious
opponent of the Liberal administration and the unsparing
critic of the Conservative front bench. The " fourth party," as it
was nicknamed, was effective at first not so much in damaging the
government as in awakening the opposition from the apathy
which had fallen upon it after its defeat at the polls. Churchill
roused the Conservatives and gave them a fighting issue, by
putting himself at the head of the resistance to Mr Bradlaugh,
the member for Northampton, who, though an avowed atheist or
agnostic, was prepared to take the parliamentary oath. Sir
Stafford Northcote, the Conservative leader in the Lower House,
was forced to take a strong line on this difficult question by the
energy of the fourth party, who in this case clearly expressed the
views of the bulk of the opposition. The long and acrimonious
controversy over Mr Bradlaugh's seat, if it added little to the
reputation of the English legislature, at least showed that Lord
Randolph Churchill was a parliamentary champion who added to
his audacity much tactical skill and shrewdness. He continued
to play a conspicuous part throughout the parliament of 1880-
1885, dealing his blows with almost equal vigour at Mr Gladstone
and at the Conservative front bench, some of whose members,
and particularly Sir Richard Cross and Mr W. H. Smith, he
assailed with extreme virulence. From the beginning of the
Egyptian imbroglio Lord Randolph was emphatically opposed to
almost every step taken by the government. He declared that
the suppression of Arabi Pasha's rebellion was an error, and the
restoration of the khedive's authority a crime. He called Mr
Gladstone the " Moloch of Midlothian," for whom torrents of
blood had been shed in Africa. He was equally severe on the
domestic policy of the administration, and was particularly
bitter in his criticism of the Kilmainham treaty and the rapproche-
ment between the Gladstonians and the Parnellites. It is true

that for some time before the fall of the Liberals in 1885 he had
considerably modified his attitude towards the Irish question,
and was himself cultivating friendly relations with the Home
Rule members, and even obtained from them the assistance of
the Irish vote in the English constituencies in the general election.
By this time he had definitely formulated the policy of progressive
Conservatism which was known as " Tory democracy." He
declared that the Conservatives ought to adopt, rather than
oppose, reforms of a popular character, and to challenge the
claims of the Liberals to pose as the champions of the masses.
His views were to a large extent accepted by the official Con-
servative leaders in the treatment of the Gladstonian Franchise
Bill of 1884. Lord Randolph insisted that the principle of the
bill should be accepted by the opposition, and that resistance
should be focused upon the refusal of the government to combine
with it a scheme of redistribution. The prominent, and on the
whole judicious and successful, part he played in the debates on
these questions, still further increased his influence with the rank
and file of the Conservatives in the constituencies. At the same
time he was actively spreading the gospel of democratic Toryism
in a series of platform campaigns. In 1883 and 1884 he invaded
the Radical stronghold of Birmingham itself, and in the latter
year took part in a Conservative garden party at Aston Manor, at
which his opponents paid him the compliment of raising a serious
riot. He gave constant attention to the party organization, which
had fallen into considerable disorder after 1880, and was an active
promoter of the Primrose League, which owed its origin to the
happy inspiration of one of his own " fourth party " colleagues.
In 1884 the struggle between stationary and progressive
Toryism came to a head, and terminated in favour of the latter.
At the conference of the Central Union of Conservative Associa-
tions, Lord Randolph was nominated chairman, notwithstanding
the strenuous opposition of the parliamentary leaders of the
party. The split was averted by Lord Randolph's voluntary
resignation; but the episode had confirmed his title to a leading
place in the Tory ranks. It was further strengthened by the
prominent part he played in the events immediately preceding
the fall of the Liberal government in 1885; and when Mr
Childers's budget resolutions were defeated by the Conservatives,
aided by about half the Parnellites, Lord Randolph Churchill's
admirers were justified in proclaiming him to have been the
" organizer of victory." His services were, at any rate, far too
important to be refused recognition; and in Lord Salisbury's
cabinet of 1885 he was appointed to no less an office than that
of secretary of state for India. During the few months of his
tenure of this great post the young free-lance of Tory democracy
surprised the permanent officials and his own friends by the
assiduity with which he attended to his departmental duties and
the rapidity with which he mastered the complicated questions
of Indian administration. In the autumn election of 1885 he
contested Central Birmingham against Mr Bright, and though
defeated here, was at the same time returned by a very large
majority for South Paddington. In the contest which arose
over Mr Gladstone's Home Rule scheme, both in and out of
parliament, Lord Randolph again bore a conspicuous part, and
in the electioneering campaign his activity was only second to
that of some of the Liberal Unionists, the marquess of Hartington,
Mr Goschen and Mr Chamberlain. He was now the recognized
Conservative champion in the Lower Chamber, and when the
second Salisbury administration was formed after the general
election of 1886 he became chancellor of the exchequer and
leader of the House of Commons. His management of the
House was on the whole successful, and was marked by tact,
discretion and temper. But he had never really reconciled
himself with some of his colleagues, and there was a good deal
of friction in his relations with them, which ended with his
sudden resignation on the 2oth of December 1886. Various
motives influenced him in taking this surprising step; but the
only ostensible cause was that put forward in his letter to Lord
Salisbury, which was read in the House of Commons on
27th January. In this document he stated that his resignation
was due to his inability, as chancellor of the exchequer, to concui

CHURCHILL— CHURCHING OF WOMEN

347

in the demands made on the treasury by the ministers at the
head of the naval and military establishments. It was commonly
supposed that he expected his resignation to be followed by the
unconditional surrender of the cabinet, and his restoration to
office on his own terms. The sequel, however, was entirely
different. The cabinet was reconstructed with Mr Goschen as
chancellor of the exchequer (Lord Randolph had " forgotten
Goschen," as he is said to have remarked), and Churchill's own
career as a Conservative chief was practically closed.

He continued, for some years longer, to take a considerable
share in the proceedings of parliament, giving a general, though
decidedly independent, support to the Unionist administration.
On the Irish question he was a very candid critic of Mr Balfour's
measures, and one of his later speeches, which recalled the
acrimonious violence of his earlier period, was that which he
delivered in 1890 on the report of the Parnell commission. He
also fulfilled the promise made on his resignation by occasionally
advocating the principles of economy and retrenchment in the
debates on the naval and military estimates. In April 1889,
on the death of Mr Bright, he was asked to come forward as a
candidate for the vacant seat in Birmingham, and the result
was a rather angry controversy with Mr Chamberlain, terminating
in the so-called " Birmingham compact " for the division of
representation of the Midland capital between Liberal Unionists
and Conservatives. But his health was already precarious,
and this, combined with the anomaly of his position, induced
him to relax his devotion to parliament during the later years
of the Salisbury administration. He bestowed much attention
on society, travel and sport. He was an ardent supporter of
the turf, and in 1889 he won the Oaks with a mare named the
Abbesse de Jouarre. In 1891 he went to South Africa, in search
both of health and relaxation. He travelled for some months
through Cape Colony, the Transvaal and Rhodesia, making
notes on the politics and economics of the countries, shooting
lions, and recording his impressions in letters to a London
newspaper, which were afterwards republished under the title
of Men, Mines and Animals in South Africa. He returned with
renewed energy, and in the general election of 1892 once more
flung himself, with his old vigour, into the strife of parties.
His seat at South Paddington was uncontested; but he was
active on the platform, and when parliament met he returned
to the opposition front bench, and again took a leading part in
debate, attacking Mr Gladstone's second Home Rule Bill with
especial energy. But it was soon apparent that his powers were
undermined by the inroads of disease. As the session of 1893
wore on his speeches lost their old effectiveness, and in 1894
he was listened to not so much with interest as with pity. His
last speech in the House was delivered in the debate on Uganda
in June 1894, and was a painful failure. He was, in fact, dying
of general paralysis. A journey round the world was undertaken
as a forlorn hope. Lord Randolph started in the autumn of
1894, accompanied by his wife, but the malady made so much
progress that he was brought back in haste from Cairo. He
reached England shortly before Christmas and died in London
on the 24th of January 1895.

Lord Randolph Churchill married, in January 1874, Jennie,
daughter of Mr Leonard Jerome of New York, U.S.A., by whom
he had two sons. In 1900 Lady Randolph Churchill married
Mr G. Cornwallis-West.

His elder son, WINSTON CHURCHILL (1874- ), was educated
at Harrow, and after serving for a few years in the army and
acting as a special correspondent in the South African War
(being taken prisoner by the Boers, Nov. 15, 1899, but escaping
on Dec. 12), was elected Unionist member of parliament for
Oldham in October 1900. As the son of his father, his political
future excited much interest. His views, however, as to the
policy of the Conservative party gradually changed, and having
during 1904-1905 taken an active part in assisting the Liberal
party in parliament, he stood for N.W. Manchester at the general
election (1906) and was triumphantly returned as a Liberal and
free-trader. He was made under-secretary for the colonies in
the new Liberal government. In this position he became as

conspicuous in parliament as he had already become on the
platform as a brilliant and aggressive orator, and no politician
of the day attracted more interest or excited more controversy.
He was promoted to cabinet rank as president of the Board of
Trade in Mr Asquith's government in April (1908), but was
defeated at the consequent by-election in Manchester after a con-
test which aroused the keenest excitement. He was then returned
for Dundee, and later in the year married. Miss Clementine Hozier.

An interesting and authoritative biography of Lord Randolph,
by his son Winston (who had already won his spurs as a writer in
his River War, 1899, and other books on his military experiences),
appeared in 1906; and a brief and intimate appreciation by Lord
Rosebery, inspired by this biography, was published a few months
later. Lord Randolph's earlier speeches were edited, with an
introduction and notes, by Louis Jennings (2 vols., London, 1889).
See also T. H. S. Escott, Randolph Spencer Churchill (1895); H. W.
Lucy, Diary of Two Parliaments (1892); and Mrs Cornwallis-West,
The Reminiscences of Lady Randolph Churchill (i.e. of the author)
(1908). ( S. J. L.)

CHURCHILL (MISSINNIPPI or ENGLISH), the name of a river
of the province of Saskatchewan and district of Keewatin,
Canada. It rises in La Loche (or Methy) lake, a small lake in
56° 30' N. and 109° 30' W., at an altitude of 1577 ft. above the
sea, and flows E.N.E. to Hudson's Bay, passing through a number
of lake expansions. Its principal tributaries are the Beaver
(350 m. long), Sandy and Reindeer rivers. Between Frog and
Methy portages (480 m.) it formed part of the old voyageur
route to the Peace, Athabasca, and Mackenzie. It is still
navigated by canoes, but has many rapids. Its principal affluent,
the Reindeer, discharges the waters of Reindeer Lake (1150 ft.
above the sea, with an area of 2490 sq. m.) and WoLTaston Lake
(altitude, 1300 ft.). The Churchill is 925 m. long. Fort Churchill,
at its mouth, is the best harbour in the southern portion of
Hudson's Bay. The portage of La Loche (or Methy), 12^ m.
in length, connects its head waters with the Clearwater river, a
tributary of the Athabasca, draining into the Arctic Ocean.

CHURCHING OF WOMEN, the Christian ceremony of thanks-
giving on the part of mothers shortly after the birth of
their children. It no doubt originated in the Mosaic regula-
tion as to purification (Lev. xii. 6). In ancient times the
ceremony was usual but not obligatory in England. In the
Greek and Roman Catholic Churches to-day it is imperative.
The custom is first mentioned in the pseudo-Nicene Arabic
canons. No ancient form of service exists, and that which
figures in the English prayer-book of to-day dates only from the
middle ages. Custom differs, but the usual date of churching
was the fortieth day after confinement, in accordance with the
Biblical date of the presentment of the Virgin Mary and the
Child Jesus at the Temple. It was formerly regarded as unlucky
for a woman to leave her house to go out at all after confinement
till she went to be churched. It was not unusual for the church-
ing service to be said in private houses. In Herefordshire it
was not considered proper for the husband to appear in church
at the service, or at all events in the same pew. In some parishes
there was a special pew known as " the churching seat." The
words in the rubric requiring the woman to come " decently
apparelled " refer to the times when it was thought unbecoming
for a woman to come to the service with the elaborate head-dress
then the fashion. A veil was usually worn, and in some parishes
this was provided by the church, for an inventory of goods
belonging to St Benet's, Gracechurch Street, in 1560, includes
" A churching cloth, fringed, white damask."

The " convenient place," which, according to the rubric, the
woman must occupy, was in pre-Reformation times the church-
door. In the first prayer-book of Edward VI., she was to be
" nigh unto the quire door." In the second of his books, she was
to be " nigh unto the place where the Table standeth." Bishop
Wren's orders for the diocese of Norwich in 1636 are " That
women to be churched come and kneel at a side near the Com-
munion Table without the rail, being veiled according to custom,
and not covered with a hat." In Devonshire churching was
sometimes called " being uprose." Churchings were formerly
registered in some parishes. In pre-Reformation days it was
the custom in England for women to carry lighted tapers when

348

CHURCH RATE— CHURCHYARD, T.

being churched, in allusion to the Feast of the Purification of the
Virgin (February and), the day chosen by the Roman Catholic
church for the blessing of the candles for the whole year (see
CANDLEMAS). At her churching a woman was expected to make
some offering to the church, such as the chrisom or alb thrown
over the child at christening.

CHURCH RATE, the name of a tax formerly levied in each
parish in England and Ireland for the benefit of the parish
church. Out of these rates were defrayed the expenses of
carrying on divine service, repairing the fabric of the church,
and paying the salaries of the officials connected with it. The
church rates were made by the churchwardens, together with
the parishioners duly assembled after proper notice in the vestry
or the church. The rates thus made were recoverable in the
ecclesiastical court, or, if the arrears did not exceed £10 and no
questions were raised as to the legal liability, before two justices
of the peace. Any payment not strictly recognized by law made
out of the rate destroyed its validity. The church rate was a
personal charge imposed on the occupier of land or of a house
in the parish, and, though it was compulsory, much difficulty was
found in effectually applying the compulsion. This was especially
so in the case of Nonconformists, who had conscientious objec-
tions to supporting the Established Church; and in Ireland,
where the population was preponderatingly Roman Catholic, the
grievance was specially felt and resented. The agitation against
church rates led in 1868 to the passing of the Compulsory Church
Rates Abolition Act. By this act church rates are no longer
compulsory on the person rated, but are merely voluntary, and
those who are not willing to pay them are excluded from inquiring
into, objecting to, or voting in respect of their expenditure (s. 8).

CHURCHWARDEN, in England, the guardian or keeper of a
church, and representative of the body of the parish. The name
is derived from the original duty attached to the office, — that of
the custody or guardianship of the fabric and furniture of the
church, — which dates from the I4th century, when the responsi-
bility of providing for the repairs of the nave, and of furnishing
the utensils for divine service, was settled on the parishioners.
Churchwardens are always lay persons, and as they may, like
" artificial persons," hold goods and chattels and bring actions
for them, they are recognized in law as quasi-corporations.
Resident householders of a parish are those primarily eligible
as churchwardens, but non-resident householders who are
habitually occupiers are also eligible, while there are a few classes
of persons who are either ineligible or exempted. The appoint-
ment of churchwardens is regulated by the 8gth canon, which
requires that the churchwardens shall be chosen by the joint
consent of the ministers and parishioners, if it may be; but if
they cannot agree upon such a choice, then the minister is to
choose one, and the parishioners another. If, however, there
is any special custom of the place, the custom prevails, and the
most common custom is for the minister to appoint one, and
the parishioners another, and this has been established by
English statute, in the case of new parishes, by the Church
Building and New Parishes Acts 1818-1884. There are other
special customs recognized in various localities, e.g. in some of
the larger parishes in the north of England a churchwarden is
chosen for each township of the parish; in the old ecclesiastical
parishes of London both churchwardens are chosen by the
• parishioners; in some cases they are appointed by the select
vestry, or by the lord of the manor, and in a few exceptional
cases are chosen by the outgoing churchwardens.

In general, churchwardens are appointed in Easter week,
usually Easter Monday or Easter Tuesday, but in new parishes
the first appointment must be within twenty-one days after the
consecration of the church, or two calendar months after the
formation of the parish, subsequent appointments taking place
at the usual time for the appointment of parish officers. Each
churchwarden after election subscribes before the ordinary a
declaration that he will execute his office faithfully.

The duties of churchwardens comprise the provision of
necessaries for divine service, so far as the church funds or
voluntary subscriptions permit, the collecting the offertory of

the congregation, the keeping of order during the divine service,
and the giving of offenders into custody; the assignment of
seats to parishioners; the guardianship of the movable goods of
the church; the preservation and repair of the church and
churchyard, the fabric and the fixtures; and the presentment of
offences against ecclesiastical law.

In the episcopal church of the United States churchwardens
discharge much the same duties as those performed by the
English officials; their duties, however, are regulated by canons
of the diocese, not by canons general. In the United States, too,
the usual practice is for the parishes to elect both the church-
wardens.

See Prideaux's Churchwarden's Guide (i6th ed., London, 1895);
Steer's Parish Law (6th ed., London, 1899) ; Blunt's Book of Church
Law (7th ed., London, 1894).

CHURCHYARD, THOMAS (c. 1520-1604), English author,
was born at Shrewsbury about 1520, the son of a farmer. He
received a good education, and, having speedily dissipated at
court the money with which his father provided him, he entered
the household of Henry Howard, earl of Surrey. There he
remained for four years, learning something of the art of poetry
from his patron; some of the poems he contributed later (1557)
to Songes and Sonetles may well date from this early period.
In 1541 he began his career as a soldier of fortune, being, he said,
" pressed into the service." He fought his way through nearly
every campaign in Scotland and the Low Countries for thirty
years. He served under the emperor Charles V. in Flanders
in 1542, returning to England after the peace of Crepy (1544).
In the Scottish campaign of 1547 he was present at the barren
victory of Pinkie, and in the next year was taken prisoner at
Saint Monance, but aided by his persuasive tongue he escaped
to the English garrison at Lauder, where he was once more
besieged, only returning to England on the conclusion of peace
in 1550. A broadside entitled Davy Dycars Dreamt, a short and
seemingly alliterative poem in the manner of Piers Plowman,
brought him into trouble with the privy council, but he was dis-
missed with a reprimand. This tract was the starting-point of
a controversy between Churchyard and a certain Thomas Camel.
The whole of the " flyting " was reprinted in 1560 as The
Contention betwixte Churchyard and Cornell.

In 1550 he went to Ireland to serve the lord deputy, Sir
Anthony St Leger, who had been sent to pacify the country.
Here Churchyard enriched himself at the expense, it is to be
feared, of the unhappy Irish; but in 1552 he was in England
again, trying vainly to secure a fortune by marriage with a rich
widow. After this failure he departed once more to the wars
to the siege of Metz (1552), and " trailed a pike " in the emperor's
army, until he joined the forces under William, Lord Grey of
Wilton, with whom he says he served eight years. Grey was in
charge of the fortress of Gaines, which was besieged by the duke
of Guise in 1558. Churchyard arranged the terms of surrender,
and was sent with his chief to Paris as a prisoner. He was not
released at the peace of Cateau Cambresis for lack of money to
pay his ransom, but he was finally set free on giving his bond
for the amount, an engagement which he repudiated as soon as
he was safely in England. He is not to be identified with the
T. C. who wrote for the Mirror for Magistrates (ed. 1559), " How
the Lord Mowbray . . . was banished . . . and after died
miserablie in exile," which is the work of Thomas Chaloner, but
" Shore's Wife," his most popular poem, appeared in the 1563
edition of the same work, and to that of 1587 he contributed the
Tragedie of Thomas Wolsey." These are plain manly com-
positions in the seven-lined Chaucerian stanza. Repeated
petitions to the queen for assistance produced at first fair words,
and then no answer at all. He therefore returned to active
service under Lord Grey, who was in command of an English
army sent (1560) to help the Scottish rebels, and in 1564 he served
in Ireland under Sir Henry Sidney. The religious disturbances
in the Netherlands attracted him to Antwerp, where as the
agent of William of Orange he allowed the insurgents to place
him at their head, and was able to save much property fron
destruction. This action made him so hated by the mob tr.

CHURCHYARD— CHURL

349

he had to fly for his life in the disguise of a priest. In the next
year he was sent by the earl of Oxford to serve definitely under
the prince of Orange. After a year's service he obtained leave
to return to England, and after many adventures and narrow
escapes in a journey through hostile territory he embarked for
Guernsey, and thence for England. His patron, Lord Oxford,
disowned him, and the poet, whose health was failing, retired
to Bath. He appears to have made a very unhappy marriage
at this time, and returned to the Low Countries. Falling into
the hands of the Spaniards he was recognized as having had a
hand in the Antwerp disturbance, and was under sentence to be
executed as a spy when he was saved by the intervention of a
noble lady. This experience did not deter him from joining in
the defence of Zutphen in 1572, but this was his last campaign,
and the troubles of the remaining years of his life were chiefly
domestic.

Churchyard was employed to devise a pageant for the queen's
reception at Bristol in 1574, and again at Norwich in 1578.
He had published in 1 5 7 5 The firsts parte of Churchyarde's Chippes,
the modest title which he gives to his works. No second part
appeared, but there was a much enlarged edition in 1578. A
passage in Churchyarde's Chaise (1579) gave offence to Elizabeth,
and the author fled to Scotland, where he remained for three
years. He was only restored to favour about 1584, and in 1593
he received a small pension from the queen. The affectionate
esteem with which he was regarded by the younger Elizabethan
writers is expressed by Thomas Nashe, who says (Foure Letters
Confuted) that Churchyard's aged muse might well be " grand-
mother to our grandiloquentest poets at this present." Francis
Meres (Palladis Tamia, 1598) mentions him in conjunction with
many great names among " the most passionate, among us,
to bewail and bemoan the perplexities of love." Spenser, in
" Colin Clout's come home again," calls him with a spice of
raillery " old Palaemon " who " sung so long until quite hoarse
he grew." His writings, with the exception of his contributions
to the Mirror for Magistrates, are chiefly autobiographical in
character or deal with the wars in which he had a share.
They are very rare, and have never been completely reprinted.
Churchyard lived right through Elizabeth's reign, and was buried
in St Margaret's church, Westminster, on the 4th of April 1604.

The extant works of Churchyard, exclusive of commendatory
and occasional verses, include: — A lamentable and pitifull Des-
cription of the wofull warres in Flanders (1578); A general
rehearsall of warres, called Churchyard's Chaise (1579), really a
completion of the Chippes, and containing, like it, a number of
detached pieces ; A light Bondel of livelie Discourses, called Church-
yardes Charge (1580); The Worthines of Wales (1587), a valuable
antiquarian work in prose and verse, anticipating Michael Drayton;
Churchyard's Challenge (1593); A Musicall Consort of Heavenly
harmtnie . . . culled Churchyards Charitie (1595); A True Discourse
Historicall, of the succeeding Governors in the Netherlands (1602).

The chief authority for Churchyard's biography is his own
" Tragical! Discourse of the unhappy man's life " (Churchyardes
Chippes). George Chalmers published (1817) a selection from his
works relating to Scotland, for which he wrote a useful life. See
also an edition of the Chippes (ed. J. P. Collier, 1870), of the Worthines
of Wales (Spenser Soc. 1876), and a notice of Churchyard by H. W.
Adnitt (Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Nat. Hist.
Soc., reprinted separately 1884).

CHURCHYARD, a piece of consecrated ground attached to a
parochial church, and used as a burial place. It is distinguished
from a cemetery (q.v.), which is also a place of burial, but is
separate and apart from any parochial church. A cemetery in
England is either the property of a private company, incorporated
by special act of parliament, or of a local authority, and is
subject to the Cemeteries Clauses Act 1847, incorporated in the
Public Health Acts. The practice of burying in churches or
churchyards is said to have been connected with the custom of
praying for the dead, and it would appear that the earlier practice
was burying in the church itself. In England, about the year
750, spaces of ground adjoining the churches were enclosed and
appropriated to the burial of those who had been entitled to
attend divine service in those churches.

The right to burial in the parish churchyard is a common law
right, controlled in many points by the provisions of the law

ecclesiastical. This double character is sufficient to explain
the controversy which has so long raged round the subject of
burials in England. Every man, according to the common law,
has a right to be buried in his own churchyard, or, as it is some-
times put, in the churchyard of the parish where he dies. But
the churchyard, as well as the church itself, is the freehold of the
parson, who can in many respects deal with it as if it were a
private estate. A statute of Edward I. (35, st. 2) speaks of the
churchyard as the soil of the church, and the trees growing in the
churchyard " as amongst the goods of the church, the which
laymen have no authority to dispose," and prohibits " the
parsons from cutting down such trees unless required for repairs."
Notwithstanding the consecration of the church and churchyard,
and the fact that they are the parson's freehold, a right of way
may be claimed through them by prescription. The right to
burial may be subject to the payment of a fee to the incumbent,
if such has been the immemorial custom of the parish, but not
otherwise. The spirit of the ancient canons regarded such burial
fees as of a simoniacal complexion, inasmuch as the consecrated
grounds were among the res sacrae — a feeling which Lord Stowell
says disappeared after the Reformation. No person can be
buried in a church without the consent of the incumbent, except
when the owner of a manor-house prescribes for a burying-place
within the church as belonging to the manor-house. In the case
of Rex v. Taylor it was held that an information was grantable
against a person for opposing the burial of a parishioner; but
the court would not interpose as to the person's refusal to read
the burial service because he never was baptized — that being
matter for the ecclesiastical court. Strangers (or persons not
dying in the parish) should not be buried, it appears, without the
consent of the parishioners or churchwardens, " whose parochial
right of burial is invaded thereby."

In Scotland the obligation of providing and maintaining the
churchyard rests on the heritors of the parish. The guardianship
of the churchyard belongs to the heritors and also to the kirk-
session, either by delegation from the heritors, or in right of its
ecclesiastical character. The right of burial appears to be strictly
limited to parishioners, although an opinion has been expressed
that any person dying in the parish has a right to be buried in
the churchyard. The parishioners have no power of managemen t .
The presbytery may interfere to compel the heritors to provide
due accommodation, but has no further jurisdiction. It is the
duty of the heritors to allocate the churchyard. The Scottish
law hesitates to attach the ordinary incidents of real property
to the churchyard, while English law treats the ground as the
parson's freehold. It would be difficult to say who in Scotland
is the legal owner of the soil. Various opinions appear to prevail,
e.g. as to grass growing on the surface and minerals found beneath.
The difficulty as to religious services does not exist. On the
other hand, the religious character of the ground is hostile to
many of the legal rights recognized by the English law.

See also BURIAL AND BURIAL ACTS; CEMETERY.

CHURL (A.S. ceorl, cognate with^the Ger. Kerl and with
similar words in other Teutonic languages), one of the two main
classes, eorl and ceorl, into which in early Anglo-Saxon society
the freemen appear to have been divided. In the course of time
the status of the ceorl was probably reduced; but although his
political power was never large, and in some directions his
freedom was restricted, it hardly seems possible previous to
the Norman Conquest to class him among the unfree. Some
authorities, however, accept this view. At all events it is certain
that the ceorl was frequently a holder of land, and a person of
some position, and that he could attain the rank of a thegn.
Except in Kent his wergild was fixed at two hundred shillings, or
one-sixth of that of a thegn, and he is undoubtedly the tivyhynde
man of Anglo-Saxon law. In Kent his wergild was considerably
higher, and his status probably also, but his position in this
kingdom is a matter of controversy. After the Norman Conquest
the ceorls were reduced to a condition of servitude, and the word
translates the villanus of Domesday Book, although it also covers
classes other than the vttlani. The form ceorl soon became cherl,
as in Havelok the Dane (ante 1300) and several times in Chaucer.

35°

and subsequently churl. Taking a less technical sense than the
ceorl of Anglo-Saxon law, churl, or cherl was used in general to
mean a " man," and more particularly a " husband." In this
sense it was employed about 1000 in a translation of the New
Testament to render the word &vrjp (John iv. 16, 18). It was
then employed to describe a " peasant," and gradually began
to denote undesirable qualities. Hence comes the modern use
of the word for a low-born or vulgar person, particularly one with
an unpleasant, surly or miserly character.

See H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (Cam-
bridge, 1905) ; F. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law
(London, 1902).

CHURN (O. Eng. cyrin; found in various forms in most
Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch karn; according to the New
English Dictionary not connected with " quern," a mill), a vessel
in which butter is made, by shaking or beating the cream so as
to separate the fatty particles which form the butter from the
serous parts or buttermilk. Early churns were upright, and in
shape resembled the cans now used in the transport of milk,
to which the name " churn " is also given. The upright churn
was worked by hand by a wooden " plunger "; later came a
box-shaped churn with a " splasher " revolving inside and
turned by a handle. The modern type of churn, in large dairies
worked by mechanical means, either revolves or swings itself,
thus reverting to the most primitive method of butter-making,
the shaking or swinging of the cream in a skin-bag or a gourd.
(See DAIRY.)

CHUSAN, the principal island of a group situated off the
eastern coast of China, in 30° N. 122° E., belonging to the
province of Cheh-kiang. It lies N.W. and S.E., and has a
circumference of 51 m., the extreme length being 20, the extreme
breadth 10, and the minimum breadth 6 m. The island is
beautifully diversified with hill and dale, and well watered with
numerous small streams, of which the most considerable is the
Tungkiang, falling into the harbour of Tinghai. Most of the
surface is capable of cultivation, and nine teen- twentieths of
the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture. Wherever it is
possible to rear rice every other product is neglected; yet the
quantity produced is not sufficient for the wants of the inhabi-
tants. Millet, wheat, sweet potatoes, yams and tares are also
grown. The tea plant is found almost everywhere, and the
cotton plant is largely cultivated near the sea. The capital,
Tinghai, stands about half a mile from the southern shore, and
is surrounded by a wall nearly 3 m. in circuit. The ditch outside
the wall is interrupted on the N.W. side by a spur from a neigh-
bouring hill, which projects into the town, and forms an easy
access to an attacking force. The town is traversed by canals,
and the harbour, which has from 4 to 8 fathoms water, is land-
locked by several islands. Temple (or Joss-house) Hill, which
commands the town and harbour close to the beach, is 122 ft.
high. The population of the entire island is estimated at 250,000,
of which the capital contains about 40,000. Chusan has but few
manufactures; the chief are coarse cotton stuffs and agricultural
implements. There are salt works on the coast; and the
fisheries employ a number of the inhabitants. In Tinghai a
considerable business is carried on in carving and varnishing,
and its silver wares are in high repute. The principal exports
are fish, coarse black tea, cotton, vegetable tallow, sweet
potatoes, and some wheat. Chusan was occupied by the Japanese
during the Ming dynasty, and served as an important commercial
entrepot. It was taken by the British forces in 1840 and 1841,
and retained till 1846 as a guarantee for the fulfilment of the
stipulations of the treaty. It was also occupied by the British
in 1860.

CHUTE (Fr. for " fall," of water or the like; pronounced as
" shoot," with which in meaning it is identical), a channel or
trough, artificial or natural, down which objects such as timber,
coal or grain may slide from a higher to a lower level. The word
is also used of a channel cut in a dam or a river for the passage
of floating timber, and in Louisiana and on the Mississippi of
a channel at the side of a river, or narrow way between an island
and the shore. The " Water-Chute " or water tobogganing, is a

CHURN— GIBBER, C. G.

Canadian pastime, which has been popular in London and else-
where. A steep wooden slope terminates in a shallow lake ; down
this run flat-bottomed boats which rapidly increase their velocity
until at the end of the " chute " they dash into the water.

CHUTNEY, or CHUTNEE (Hindustani chatni), a relish or
seasoning of Indian origin, used as a condiment. It is prepared
from sweet fruits such as mangoes, raisins, &c., with acid flavour-
ing from tamarinds, lemons, limes and sour herbs, and with a
hot seasoning of chillies, cayenne pepper and spices.

CHUVASHES, or TCHUVASHES, a tribe found in eastern Russia.
They form about one-fourth of the population of the government
of Kazan, and live in scattered communities throughout the
governments of Simbirsk, Samara, Saratov, Orenburg and Perm.
They have been identified with the Burtasses of the Arab
geographers, and many authorities think they are the descendants
of the ancient Bolgars. In general they physically resemble the
Finns, being round-headed, flat-featured and light-eyed, but they
have been affected by long association with the Tatar element.
In dress they are thoroughly Russianized, and they are nominally
Christians, though they cling to many of the Old Shamanistic
practices. They number some half a million. Their language
belongs to the Tatar or Turkish group, but has been strongly
influenced by the Finno-Ugrian idioms spoken round it.

See Schott, De Lingua Tschuwaschorum (Berlin, 1841).

CIALDINI, ENRICO (1811-1892), Italian soldier, politician and
diplomatist, was born at Castelvetro, in Modena, on the loth of
August 1811. In 1831 he took part in the insurrection at
Modena, fleeing afterwards to Paris, whence he proceeded to
Spain to fight against the Carlists. Returning to Italy in 1848,
he commanded a regiment at the battle of Novara. In 1859 he
organized the Alpine Brigade, fought at Palestro at the head of
the 4th Division, and in the following year invaded the Marches,
won the battle of Castelfidardo, took Ancona, and subsequently
directed the siege of Gaeta. For these services he was created
duke of Gaeta by the king, and was assigned a pension of 10,000
lire by parliament. In 1861 his intervention envenomed the
Cavour-Garibaldi dispute, royal mediation alone preventing a
duel between him and Garibaldi. Placed in command of the
troops sent to oppose the Garibaldian expedition of 1862, he
defeated Garibaldi at Aspromonte. Between 1862 and 1866 he
held the position of lieutenant-royal at Naples, and in 1864 was
created senator. On the outbreak of the war of 1866 he resumed
command of an army corps, but dissensions between him and La
Marmora prejudiced the issue of the campaign and contributed
to the defeat of Custozza. After the war he refused the command
of the General Staff, which he wished to render independent of
the war office. In 1867 he attempted unsuccessfully to form a
cabinet sufficiently strong to prevent the threatened Garibaldian
incursion into the papal states, and two years later failed in a
similar attempt, through disagreement with Lanza concerning
the army estimates. On the 3rd of August 1870 he pleaded in
favour of Italian intervention in aid of France, a circumstance
which enhanced his influence when in July 1876 he replaced
Nigra as ambassador to the French Republic. This position he
held until 1882, when he resigned on account of the publication
by Mancini of a despatch in which he had complained of arrogant
treatment by M. Waddington. He died at Leghorn, on the 8th of
September 1892. (H. W. S.)

CIBBER (or CIBERT), CAIUS GABRIEL (1630-1700), Danish
sculptor, was born at Flensburg. He was the son of the king's
cabinetmaker, and was sent to Rome at the royal charge while yet
a youth. He came to England during the Protectorate, or during
the first years of the Restoration. Besides the famous statues
of Melancholy and Raving Madness (" great Gibber's brazen
brainless brothers "), now at South Kensington, Gibber produced
the bas-reliefs round the monument on Fish Street Hill. The
several kings of England and the Sir Thomas Gresham executed
by him for the Royal Exchange were destroyed with the building
itself in 1838. Gibber was long employed by the fourth earl of
Devonshire, and many fine specimens of his work are to be seen
at Chatsworth. Under that nobleman he took up arms in 1688
for William of Orange, and was appointed in return carver to the

GIBBER, COLLEY

351

king's closet. He died rich, and, according to Horace Walpole,
built the Danish church in London, where he lies buried beside
his second wife, to whom he erected a monument. She was a
Miss Colley of Glaiston, grand-daughter of Sir Anthony Colley,
and the mother of his son Colley Gibber.

GIBBER, COLLEY (1671-1757), English actor and dramatist,
was born in London on the 6th of November 1671, the eldest son
of Caius Gabriel Gibber, the sculptor. Sent in 1682 to the free
school at Grantham, Lincolnshire, the boy distinguished himself
by an aptitude for writing verse. He produced an " Oration " on
the death of Charles II. — whom he had seen feeding his ducks in
St James's Park, — and an " Ode " on the accession of James II.
He was removed from school in 1687 on the chance of election to
Winchester College. His father, however, had not then presented
that institution with his statue of William of Wykeham, and the
son was rejected, although through his mother he claimed to be
of " founder's kin." The boy went to London, and indulged his
passion for the theatre. He was invited to Chatsworth, the seat
of William Cavendish, earl (afterwards duke) of Devonshire, for
whom his father was then executing commissions, and he was on
his way when the news of the landing of William of Orange was
eceived; father and son met at Nottingham, and Colley Gibber
vas taken into Devonshire's company of volunteer?. He served

the bloodless campaign that resulted in the coronation of the
ace of Orange, and on its conclusion presented a Latin petition

i the earl imploring his interest. The earl did nothing for him,
owever, and he enrolled himself (1690) as an actor in Betterton's
ompany at Drury Lane.

After playing " full three-quarters of a year " without salary,
as was then the custom of all apprentice actors, he was paid ten
shillings a week. His rendering of the little part of the chaplain
in Otway's Orphan procured him a rise of five shillings; and a
subsequent impersonation (1694) on an emergency, and at the
author's request, of Lord Touchwood in The Double Dealer,
advanced him, on Congreve's recommendation, to a pound
a week. On this, supplemented by an allowance of £20 a year
from his father, he contrived to live with his wife and family —
he had married in 1693 — and to produce a play, Love's Last
Shift, or the Fool in Fashion (1696). Of this comedy Congreve
said that it had " a great many things that were like wit in it ";
and Vanbrugh honoured it by writing his Relapse as a sequel.
Gibber played the part of Sir Novelty Fashion, and his perform-
ance as Lord Foppington, the same character renamed, in
Vanbrugh's piece, established his reputation as an actor. In 1698
he was assailed, with other dramatists, by Jeremy Collier in the
Short View. In November 1702 he produced, at Drury Lane,
She Wou'd and She Wou'd Not; or the Kind Impostor, one of his
best comedies; and in 1704, for himself and Mrs Oldfield, The
Careless Husband, which Horace Walpole classed, with Gibber's
Apology, as " worthy of immortality." In 1706 Gibber left
Drury Lane for the Haymarket, but when the two companies
united two years later he rejoined his old theatre through the
influence of his friend Colonel Brett, a shareholder. Brett made
over his share to Wilks, Estcourt and Gibber. Complaints
against the management of Christopher Rich led, in 1709, to the
Qosing of the theatre by order of the crown, and William Collier
obtained the patent. After a series of intrigues Collier was
ought out by Wilks, Doggett and Gibber, under whose manage-
nent Drury Lane became more prosperous than it ever had been.
1715 a new patent was granted to Sir Richard Steele, and
Jarton Booth was also added to the management. In 1717
libber produced the Nonjuror, an adaptation from Moliere's
e; the play, for which Nicholas Rowe wrote an abusive

ologue, ran eighteen nights, and the author received from
Jeorge I., to whom it was dedicated, a present of two hundred

lineas. Tartuff e became an English Catholic priest who incited
ebellion, and there is little doubt that the Whig principles

pressed in the Nonjuror led to Gibber's appointment as poet
aureate (1730). It also provoked the animosity of the Jacobite
nd Catholic factions, and was possibly one of the causes of
Pope's hostility to Gibber. Numerous " keys " to the Nonjuror
ppeared in i 7 18. In 17 20 Drury Lane was closed for three days

by order of the duke of Newcastle, ostensibly on account of the
refusal of the patentees to submit to the authority of the lord
chamberlain, but really (it is asserted) because of a quarrel
between Newcastle and Steele, in which the former demanded
Gibber's resignation. In 1726 Gibber pleaded the cause of the
patentees against the estate of Sir Richard Steele before Sir
Joseph Jekyll, master of the rolls, and won his case. In 1730
Mrs Oldfield died, and her loss was followed in 1732 by that of
Wilks; Gibber now sold his share in the theatre, appearing
rarely on the stage thereafter. In 1 740 he published An A pology
for the Life of Colley Gibber, Comedian . . . with an Historical
View of the Stage during his Own Time. " There are few," wrote
Goldsmith, " who do not prefer a page of Montaigne or Colley
Gibber, who candidly tell us what they thought of the world,
and the world thought of them, to the more stately memoirs
and transactions of Europe." But beside the personal interest,
this book contains criticisms on acting of enduring value, and
gives the best account there is of Gibber's contemporaries on
the London stage. Samuel Johnson, who was no friend of Gibber,
gave it grudging praise (see Boswell's Life of Johnson, ed.
Birkbeck Hill, vol. iii. p. 72).

In 1742 Gibber was substituted for Theobald as the hero of
Pope's Dunciad. Gibber had introduced some gag into the
Rehearsal, in which he played the part of Bayes, referring to the
ill-starred farce of Three Hours after Marriage (1717). This play
was nominally by Gay, but Pope and Arbuthnot were known
to have had a hand in it. Gibber refused to discontinue the
offensive passage, and Pope revenged himself in sarcastic
allusions in his printed correspondence, in the Epistle to Dr
Arbuthnot and in the Dunciad. To these, Gibber replied with
A Letter from Mr Gibber to Mr Pope, inquiring into the motives
that might induce him in his satirical works to be so frequently
fond of Mr Gibber's name (1742). Gibber scored with an " idle
story of Pope's behaviour in a tavern " inserted in this letter,
and gives an account of the original dispute over the Rehearsal.
By the substitution of Gibber for Theobald as hero of the Dunciad,
much of the satire lost its point. Gibber's faults certainly did not
include dullness. A new edition contained a prefatory discourse,
probably the work of Warburton, entitled " Ricardus Aristarchus,
or the Hero of the Poem," in which Gibber is made to look
ridiculous from his own Apology. Gibber replied in 1744 with
Another Occasional Letter . . ., and altogether he had the best
of the argument. When he was seventy-four years old he made
his last appearance on the stage as Pandulph in his own Papal
Tyranny in the Reign of King John (Covent Garden, isth of
February 1745), a miserable paraphrase of Shakespeare's play.
He died on the nth of December 1757.

Gibber's reputation has suffered unduly from the depreciation
of Pope and Johnson. " I could not bear such nonsense," said
Johnson of one of Gibber's odes, " and I would not let him read
it to the end." Fielding attacked Gibber's style and language
more than once in Joseph A ndrews and elsewhere. Nevertheless,
Gibber possessed wit, unusual good sense and tact; and in the
Apology he showed himself the most delicate and subtle critic
of acting of his time. He was frequently accused of plagiarism,
and did not scruple to make use of old plays, but he is said to
have been ashamed of his Shakespearian adaptations, one of
which, however, Richard III. (Drury Lane, 1700), kept its place
as the acting version until 1821. Gibber is rebuked for his mutila-
tion of Shakespeare by Fielding in the Historical Register for
1736, where he figures as Ground Ivy.

If Gibber had not as much wit as his predecessors, he displayed
in his best plays abundant animation and spirit, free from the
extreme coarseness of many of his contemporaries, and a thorough
knowledge of the requirements of the stage. His most successful
comedies kept their place in the acting repertory for a long time.
He was an excellent actor, especially in the r61e of the fashionable
coxcomb. Horace Walpole said that as Bayes in The Rehearsal
he made the part what it was intended to be, the burlesque
of a great poet, whereas David Garrick degraded him to a
" garretteer."

The Apology was edited in 1822 by E. Bellchambers and in 1889

352

CIBORIUM— CIBRARIO

by R. W. Lowe, who printed with it other valuable theatrical books
and pamphlets. It is also included in Hunt and Clarke's Auto-
biographies (1826, &c.). (Jibber's Dramatic Works were published
in 1760, with an account of the life and writings of the author, and
again in 1777. Besides the plays already mentioned, he wrote
Woman's Wit, or the Lady in Fashion (1697), which was altered later
(1707) into The Schoolboy, or the Comical Rivals; Xerxes (1699), a
tragedy acted only once; The Provoked Husband (acted 1728),
completed from Vanbrugh's unfinished Journey to London; The
Rival Queens, with the Humours of Alexander the Great (acted 1710),
a comical tragedy; Damon and Phyllida (acted 1729), a ballad
opera; and adaptations from Beaumont and Fletcher, Dryden,
Moliere and Corneille. A bibliography of the numerous skits on
Gibber is to be found in Lowe's Bibliographical Account of English
Theatrical Literature.

Colley Cibber's son, THEOPHILUS CIBBER (1703-1758), also an
actor and playwright, was born on the 26th of November 1703.
In 1734 he was acting-manager at the Haymarket, and he
subsequently played at Drury Lane, Lincoln's Inn Fields and
Covent Garden. His best impersonation was as Pistol, but he
also distinguished himself in some of the fine-gentleman parts
affected by his father. He was one of the ringleaders in the
intrigues against John Highmore, who had bought a share in
the patent of Drury Lane from Colley Gibber. Theophilus Gibber,
with a number of other actors, seceded from Drury Lane,
and in thus depreciating the value of the patent, for which his
father had received a considerable sum, acted with doubtful
honesty. He contemplated the publication of an autobiography,
but was effectually dissuaded by the appearance ( 1 740) of a scath-
ing account of his career by an unknown author, entitled An
A pology for the Life of Mr 7*. ... C. ... supposed to be written
by himself. In 1753 he began The Lives and Characters of the
most Eminent Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and Ireland,
but he went no further than the life of Barton Booth. He wrote
some plays of no great merit. In 1753 appeared An Account of
the Lives of the Poets of Great Britain and Ireland, with the name
of " Mr Gibber " on the title page. The five volumes of Lives
are chiefly based on the earlier works of Gerard Langbaine and
Giles Jacob, and the MS. collections of Thomas Coxeter (1689-
1747). The book is said to have been largely written by Robert
Shiels, Dr Johnson's amanuensis. Theophilus Gibber perished
by shipwreck on his way to Dublin to play at the Theatre
Royal.

SUSANNAH MARIA CIBBER (1714-1766), wife of Theophilus,
•was an actress of distinction. She was the daughter of a Covent
•Garden upholsterer, and sister of Dr Arne (17-10-1778) the
composer. Mrs Gibber had a beautiful voice and began her career
in opera. She was the original Galatea in Handel's Ads and
Galatea, and the contralto arias in the Messiah are said to have
been written for her. She played Zarah in Aaron Hill's version
•of Voltaire's Zaire in 1736, and it was as a tragic actress, not as a
singer, that her greatest triumphs were won. From Colley Gibber
she learned a sing-song method of declamation. Her mannerisms,
however, did not obscure her real genius, and she freed herself
from them entirely when she began to act with Garrick, with
whom she was associated at Drury Lane from 1753. She died on
the 3oth of January 1766. She married Theophilus Gibber in
1734, but lived with him but a short time. Appreciations of
Mrs Cibber's fine acting are to be found in many contemporary
writers, one of the most discriminating being in the Rosciad
•of Charles Churchill.

Colley Cibber's youngest daughter, CHARLOTTE, married
Richard Charke, a violinist, from whom she was soon separated.
She began as an understudy to actresses in leading parts, but
quarrelled with her manager, Charles Fleetwood, on whom she
wrote a one-act skit, The Art of Management (1735). She also
wrote two comedies and two novels of small merit, and an un-
trustworthy, but amusing Narrative of Life of . . . Charlotte
Charke, . . . by herself (1755), reprinted in Hunt and Clarke's
Autobiographies (1822).

CIBOBIUM, a name in classical Latin for a drinking-vessel.
It is the latinized form of the Gr. Ki/Sajpiov, the cup-shaped
seed-vessel of the Egyptian water-lily, the seeds or nuts of which
were known as " Egyptian beans." In the early Christian

Church the ciborium was a canopy over the altar (q.v.), supported
on columns, and from it hung the receptacle in which was
reserved the consecrated wafer of the Eucharist. The use of
the word has probably been much influenced by the early false
connexion with cibus, food, cf. Agatio, bishop of Pisa (quoted
in Du Cange, Gloss, s.v.), " Ciborium vas esse ad ferendos cibos."
In the Eastern Church the columns rested on the altar itself, in
the Western they reached the ground. The name was early
transferred from the canopy to the vessel containing the reserved
sacrament, and in the Western Church the canopy was known
as a " baldaquin," Ital. baldacchino, from Baldacco, the Itilian
name of Bagdad, and hence applied to a rich kind of embroidered
tapestry made there and much used for canopies, &c. At the
present day it is usual in the Roman Church to use the term
" pyx " (TTIJ&S, properly a vessel made of boxwood) for the
receptacle for the reserved sacrament used in administering the
viaticum to the sick or dying. Medieval pyxes and ciboria are
often beautiful examples of the goldsmith's, enameller's and
metal-worker's craft. They take most usually the shape of a
covered chalice or of a cylindrical box with conical or cylindrical
cover surmounted by a cross. An exquisite ciborium fetched
£6000 at the sale of the Jerdone Braikenridge collection at
Christie's in 1908. It is supposed to have come from Malmesbury
Abbey, and is probably of 13th-century English make. It is of
copper-gilt and ornamented with champleve enamels, apple and
chrysoprase green, scarlet, mauve and white, turquoise and
lapis lazuli, the flesh tints being of a pale jasper. Various
subjects from the Old and New Testament, such as the sacrifice
of Abel, the brazen serpent, the nativity, crucifixion and re-
surrection are. represented on circular medallions on the outside.
It is illustrated in colours in the catalogue of the exhibition of
the Burlington Fine Arts Club, 1897.

CIBRARIO, LUIGI, COUNT (1802-1870), Italian statesman
and historian, descended from a noble but impoverished Pied-
montese family, was born in Usseglia on the 23rd of February
1802. He won a scholarship at the age of sixteen, and was
teaching literature at eighteen. His verses to King Charles
Albert, then prince of Carignano, on the birth of his son Victor
Emmanuel, attracted the prince's attention and proved the
beginning of a long intimacy. He entered the Sardinian civil
service, and in 1824 was appointed lecturer on canon and civil
law. His chief interest was the study of ancient documents,
and he was sent to search the archives of Switzerland, France
and Germany for charters relating to the history of Savoy.
During the war of 1848, after the expulsion of the Austrians
from Venice, Cibrario was sent to that city with Colli to negotiate
its union with Piedmont. But the proposal fell through when
the news of the armistice between King Charles Albert and
Austria arrived, and the two delegates were made the objects
of a hostile demonstration. In October 1848 Cibrario was made
senator, and after the battle of Novara (March 1849), when
Charles Albert abdicated and retired to a monastery near Oporto,
Cibrario and Count Giacinto di Collegno were sent as representa-
tives of the senate to express the sympathy of that body with the
fallen king. He reached Oporto on the 28th of May, and afte
staying there for a month returned to Turin, which he reache<
just before the news of Charles Albert's death. In May 1852
he became minister of finance in the reconstructed d'Azeglio
cabinet, and later minister of education in that of Cavour. In
the same year he was appointed secretary to the order of SS
Maurizio and Lazzaro. It was he who in 1853 dictated the
vigorous memorandum of protest against the confiscation by
Austria of the property of Lombard exiles who had been
naturalized in Piedmont. He strongly supported Cavour's
Crimean policy (1855), and when General La Marmora departet
in command of the expeditionary force and Cavour took the war
office, Cibrario was made minister for foreign affairs. He con
ducted the business of the department with great skill, and ably
seconded Cavour in bringing about the admission of Piedmont
to the congress of Paris on an equal footing with the great powers
On retiring from the foreign office Cibrario was created count
In 1860 he acted as mediator between Victor Emmanuel's

CICADA— CICERO

353

government and the republic of San Marino, and arranged a
treaty by which the latter's liberties were guaranteed. After
the war of 1866 by which Austria lost Venetia, Cibrario negotiated
with that government for the restitution of state papers and art
treasures removed by it from Lombardy and Venetia to Vienna.
He died in October 1870, near Said, on the lake of Garda.

His most important work was his Economia politico, del media
evo (Turin, 1839), which enjoyed great popularity at the time,
but is now of little value. His Schiavitii e servaggio (Milan,
1868-1869) gave an account of the development and abolition
of slavery and serfdom. Among his historical writings the
following deserve mention: — Delle artigiierie dal 1300 al 1700
(Turin, 1847); Origini .... detta monarchic, di Savoia (Turin,
1854); Degli ordini cavallereschi (Turin, 1846); Degli ordini
religiosi (Turin, 1845); and the Memorie Segrete of Charles
Albert, written by order of Victor Emmanuel but afterwards
withdrawn. Cibrario was a good example of the loyal, industrious,
honest Piedmontese aristocrat of the old school.

His biography has been written by F. Odorici, // Conte L. Cibrario
(Florence, 1872). (L. V.*)

CICADA (Cicadidae) , insects of the homopterous division of
the Hemiptera, generally of large size, with the femora of the
anterior legs toothed below, two pairs of large clear wings, and
prominent compound eyes. Cicadas are chiefly remarkable for
the shrill song of the males, which in some cases may be heard
in concert at a distance of a quarter of a mile or more. The vocal
organs, of which there is a pair in the thorax, protected by an
opercular plate, are quite unlike the sounding organs of other
insects. Each consists in essence of a tightly stretched membrane
or drum which is thrown into a state of rapid vibration by a
powerful muscle attached to its inner surface and passing thence
downwards to the floor of the thoracic cavity. Although no
auditory organs have been found in the females, the song of the
males is believed to serve as a sexual call. Cicadas are also
noteworthy for their longevity, which so far as is known surpasses
that of all other insects. By means of a saw-like ovipositor the
female lays her eggs in the branches of trees. Upon hatching,
the young, which differ from the adult in possessing long antennae
and a pair of powerful fossorial anterior legs, fall to the ground,
burrow below the surface, and spend a prolonged subterranean
larval existence feeding upon the roots of vegetation. After
many years the larva is transformed into the pupa or nymph,
which is distinguishable principally by the shortness of its
antennae and the presence of wing pads. After a brief existence
the pupa emerges from the ground, and, holding on to a plant
stem by means of its powerful front legs, sets free the perfect
insect through a slit along the median dorsal line of the thorax.
In some cases the pupa upon emerging constructs a chimney of
soil, the use of which is not known. In one of the best-known
species, Cicada septemdecim, from North America, the life-cycle
is said to extend over seventeen years. Cicadas are particularly
abundant in the tropics, where the largest forms are found.
They also occur in temperate countries, and were well known
to the ancient Greeks and Romans. One species only is found
in England, where it is restricted to the southern counties but
is an insect not commonly met with.

CICELY, Myrrhis odorala (natural order Umbelliferae), a
perennial herb with a leafy hollow stem, 2 to 3 ft. high, much
divided leaves, whitish beneath, a large sheathing base, and
terminal umbels of small white flowers, the outer ones only of
which are fertile. The fruit is dark brown, long (J to I in.),
narrow and beaked. The plant is a native of central and southern
Europe, and is found in parts of England and Scotland in pastures,
usually near houses. It has aromatic and stimulant properties
and was formerly used as a pot-herb.

CICERO, the name of two families of ancient Rome. It may
perhaps be derived from deer (pulse), in which case it would be
analogous to such names as Lentulns, Tubero, Piso. Of one
family, of the plebeian Claudian gens, only a single member,
Gaius Claudius Cicero, tribune in 454 B.C., is known. The other
family was a branch of the Tullii, settled from an ancient period
Arpinum. This family, four of whose members are noticed

specially below, did not achieve more than municipal eminence
until the time of M. Tullius Cicero, the great orator.

i. MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43 B.C.), Roman orator and
politician, was born at Arpinum on the 3rd of January 106 B.C.
His mother, Helvia, is said to have been of good family. His
father was by some said to have been descended from Attius
Tullius, the Volscian host of Coriolanus, while spiteful persons
declared him to have been a fuller; in any case he was a Roman
knight with property at Arpinum and a house in Rome. His
health was weak, and he generally lived at Arpinum, where he
devoted himself to literary pursuits. Cicero spent his boyhood
partly in his native town and partly at Rome. The poet Archias,
he says, first inspired him with the love of literature. He was
much impressed by the teaching of Phaedrus, the Epicurean,
at a period before he assumed the toga virilis ; he studied
dialectic under Diodotus the Stoic, and in 88 B.C. attended the
lectures of Philo, the head of the Academic school, whose devoted
pupil he became. He studied rhetoric under Molo (Molon) of
Rhodes, and law under the guidance of Q. Mucius Scaevola,
the augur and jurisconsult. After the death of the augur, he
transferred himself to the care of Q. Mucius Scaevola, the
pontifex maximus, a still more famous jurisconsult, nephew of
the augur. His literary education at this period consisted largely
of verse-writing and making translations from Greek authors.
We hear of an early poem named Pontius Glaucus the subject
of which is uncertain, and of translations of Xenophon's Oecono-
mica and the Phenomena of Aratus. Considerable fragments of
the latter work are still extant. To this period also belongs his
de Inventione rhetorica, of which he afterwards spoke lightly
(de Oral. i. 5), but which enjoyed a great vogue in the middle
ages. Cicero also, according to Roman practice, received
military training. At the age of seventeen he served in the social
war successively under Pompeius Strabo and Sulla (89 B.C.).
In the war between Marius and Sulla has sympathies were with
Sulla, but he did not take up arms (Sext. Rose. 136, 142).

His forensic life begins in 81 B.C., at the age of twenty-five.
A speech delivered in this year, pro Quinctio, is still extant; it
is concerned with a technical point of law and has little literary
merit. In the following year he made his celebrated defence of
Sextus Roscius on a charge of parricide. He subsequently
defended a woman of Arretium, whose freedom was impugned
on the ground that Sulla had confiscated the territory of that
town. Cicero then left Rome on account of his health, and
travelled for two years in the East. He studied philosophy at
Athens under various teachers, notably Antiochus of Ascalon,
founder of the Old Academy, a combination of Stoicism, Platon-
ism and Peripateticism. In Asia he attended the courses of
Xenocles, Dionysius and Menippus, and in Rhodes those of
Posidonius, the famous Stoic. In Rhodes also he studied
rhetoric once more under Molo, to whom he ascribes a decisive
influence upon the development of his literary style. He had
previously affected the florid, or Asiatic, style of oratory then
current in Rome. The chief faults of this were excess of orna-
ment, antithesis, alliteration and assonance, monotony of
rhythm, and the insertion of words purely for rhythmical effect.
Molo, he says, rebuked his youthful extravagance and he came
back " a changed man."1

He returned to Rome in 77 B.C., and appears to have married at
this time Terentia, a rich woman with a domineering temper,
to whom many of his subsequent embarrassments were due.1
He engaged at once in forensic and political life. He was
quaestor in 75, and was sent to Lilybaeum to supervise the corn
supply. His connexion with Sicily led him to come forward in
70 B.C., when curule-aedile elect, to prosecute Gaius Verres, who
had oppressed the island for three years. Cicero seldom prose-
cuted, but it was the custom at Rome for a rising politician to

1 Brutus, §316 "_ (Molon) dedit operam . . . ut nimis redundantis
nos et supra nuentis iuvenili quadam dicendi impunitate et licentia
reprimeret et quasi extra ripas diffluentis coerceret."

2 According to Plutarch she urged her husband to take vigorous
action against Catiline, who had compromised her half-sister Fabia,
a vestal virgin ; also to give evidence against Clodius, being jealous
of his sister Clodia.

VI. 12

354

CICERO

win his spurs by attacking a notable offender (pro Caelio, 73).
In the following year he defended Marcus (or Manius) Fonteius
on a charge of extortion in Gaul, using various arguments which
might equally well have been advanced on behalf of Verres himself.

In 68 B.C. his letters begin, from which (and especially those to
T. Pomponius Atticus, his " second self ") we obtain wholly
unique knowledge of Roman life and history. In 66 B.C. he was
praetor, and was called upon to hear cases of extortion. In the
same year he spoke on behalf of the proposal of Gaius Manilius
to transfer the command against Mithradates from Lucullus to
Pompey (de Lege Manilla), and delivered his clever but dis-
ingenuous defence of Aulus Cluentius (pro Cluentio). At this
time he was a prospective candidate for the consulship, and
was obliged by the hostility of the nobles towards " new men "
to look for help wherever it was to be found. In 65 B.C. he even
thought of defending Catiline on a charge of extortion, and
delivered two brilliant speeches on behalf of Gaius Cornelius,
tribune in 67 B.C., a leader of the democratic party. In 64 B.C.
he lost his father and his son Marcus was born. The optimates
finally decided to support him for the consulship in order to
keep out Catiline, and he eagerly embraced the " good cause,"
his affection for which from this time onward never varied,
though his actions were not always consistent.

The public career of Cicero henceforth is largely covered by
the general article on ROME: History, II. " The Republic," ad
fin. The year of his consulship (63) was one of amazing activity,
both administrative and oratorical. Besides the three speeches
against Publius Rullus and the four against Catiline, he delivered
a number of others, among which that on behalf of Gaius Rabirius
is especially notable. The charge was that Rabirius (q.v.) had
killed Satuminus in 100 B.C., and by bringing it the democrats
challenged the right of the senate to declare a man a public
enemy. Cicero, therefore, was fully aware of the danger which
would threaten himself from his execution of the Catilinarian
conspirators. He trusted, however, to receive the support of
the nobles. In this he was disappointed. They never forgot
that he was a " new man," and were jealous of the great house
upon the Palatine which he acquired at this time. Caesar had
made every possible effort to conciliate Cicero,1 but, when all
overtures failed, allowed Publius Clodius to attack him. Cicero
found himself deserted, and on the advice of Cato went into exile
to avoid bloodshed. He left Rome at the end of March 58, and
arrived on the 23rd of May at Thessalonica, where he remained
in the deepest dejection until the end of November, when he
went to Dyrrhachium (Durazzo) awaiting his recall. He left
for Italy on the 4th of August 57, and on arriving at Brundisium
(Brindisi) found that he had been recalled by a law passed by the
comitia on the very day of his departure. On his arrival at Rome
he was received with enthusiasm by all classes, but did not find
the nobles at all eager to give him compensation for the loss of
his house and villas, which had been destroyed by Clodius.
He was soon encouraged by the growing coolness between
Pompey and Caesar to attack the acts of Caesar during his
consulship, and after his successful defence of Publius Sestius
on the loth of March he proposed on the 5th of April that the
senate should on the 15th of May discuss Caesar's distribution
of the Campanian land. This brought about the conference of
Luca (Lucca) . Cicero was again deserted by his supporters and
threatened with fresh exile. He was forced to publish a " re-
cantation," probably the speech de Provinciis Consularibus,
and in a private letter says frankly, " I know that I have been a
regular ass." His conduct for the next three years teems with
inconsistencies which we may deplore but cannot pass over.
He was obliged to defend in 54 Publius Vatinius, whom he had
fiercely attacked during the trial of Sestius; also Aulus Gabinius,
one of the consuls to whom his exile was due; and Rabirius
Postumus, an agent of Gabinius. On the other hand, he made a
violent speech in the senate in 55 against Lucius Piso, the col-

1 Caesar, at one time, offered him a place on the coalition, which
on his refusal became a triumvirate (Alt. ii. 3. 3; Prov. Cons. 41),
and afterwards a post on his commission for the division of the
Campanian land, or a legatio libera.

league of Gabinius in 58. We know from his letters that he
accepted financial aid from Caesar, but that he repaid the loan
before the outbreak of the civil war.2 There is no doubt that he
was easily deceived. He was always an optimist, and thought
that he was bringing good influence to bear upon Caesar as
afterwards upon Octavian. His actions, however, when Caesar's
projects became manifest, sufficiently vindicated his honesty.
During these unhappy years he took refuge in literature. The de
Oratore was written in 55 B.C., the de Republica in 54, and the de
Legibus at any rate begun in 52. The latter year is famous for
the murder of Clodius by T. Annius Milo on the Appian Way
(on the i8th of January), which brought about the appointment
of Pompey as sole consul and the passing of the special laws
dealing with rioting and bribery. Cicero took an active part in
the trials which followed, both as a defender of Milo and his
adherents and as a prosecutor of the opposite faction. At the
close of the year, greatly to his annoyance, he was sent to govern
Cilicia under the provisions of Pompey's law (see POMPEY and
ROME: History). His reluctance to leave Rome, already shown
by his refusal to take a province, after his praetorship and
consulship, was increased by the inclination of his daughter
Tullia, then a widow, to marry again.3 During his absence she
married the profligate spendthrift, P. Cornelius Dolabella.

The province of Cilicia was a large one. It included, in
addition to Cilicia proper, Isauria, Lycaonia, Pisidia, Pamphylia
and Cyprus, as well as a protectorate over the client kingdoms of
Cappadocia and Galatia. There was also danger of a Parthian
inroad. Cicero's legate was his brother Quintius Cicero (below),
an experienced soldier who had gained great distinction under
Caesar in Gaul. The fears of Parthian invasion were not realized,
but Cicero, after suppressing a revolt in Cappadocia, undertook
military operations against the hill-tribes of the Amanus and
captured the town of Pindenissus after a siege of forty-six days.
A supplicatio in his honour was voted by the senate. The early
months of 50 were occupied by the administration of justice,
chiefly at Laodicea, and by various attempts to alleviate the
distress in the province caused by the exactions of his predecessor,
Appius Claudius. He had to withstand pressure from influential
persons (e.g. M. Brutus,who had business interests in his province),
and refused to provide his friends with wild beasts for their
games in Rome. Leaving his province on the earliest opportunity,
he reached Brundisium on the 24th of November, and found civil
war inevitable. He went to Rome on the 4th of January, but
did not enter the city, since he aspired to a triumph for his
successes.4 After the outbreak of war he was placed by Pompey
in charge of the Campanian coast. After much irresolution he
refused Caesar's invitations and resolved to join Pompey's
forces in Greece. He was shocked by the ferocious language of
his party, and himself gave offence by his bitter jests (Plut.
Cic. 38). Through illness he was not present at the battle of
Pharsalus, but afterwards was offered the command by Cato
the Younger at Corcyra, and was threatened with death by the
young Cn. Pompeius when he refused to accept it. Thinking it
useless to continue the struggle, he sailed to Brundisium, where
he remained until the 1 2th of August 47, when, after receiving
a kind letter from Caesar, he went to Rome. Under Caesar's
dictatorship Cicero abstained from politics. His voice was
raised on three occasions only: once in the senate in 46 to praise
Caesar's clemency to M. Claudius Marcellus (pro Marcello), to
plead in the same year before Caesar for Quintus Ligarius, and in
45 on behalf of Deiotarus, tetrarch of Galatia, also before Caesar.
He suffered greatly from family troubles at this period. In 46,
his patience giving way, he divorced Terentia, and married his
young and wealthy ward Publilia. Then came the greatest grief

2 Alt. vii. 8. 5 "est enim &itop4>ov ivTiiro\i.Tevoii

3 She was married in 63 B.C. to C. Calpurnius Piso Frugi, whom
Cicero found a model son-in-law. He appears to have died before
56, since in that year Tullia was betrothed to Furius Crassipes
(quaestor in Bithynia in 51). It is not known if this marriage actually
took place.

4 That the loss of his triumph rankled in his mind may be seen
from Brutus, § 255 : " hanc gloriam . . . tuae quidem supplication!
non, sed triumphis multorum antepono."

CICERO

355

of his life, the death of Tullia, his beloved daughter. He shortly
afterwards divorced Publilia, who had been jealous of Tullia's
influence and proved unsympathetic. To solace his troubles
he devoted himself wholly to literature. To this period belong
several famous rhetorical and philosophical works, the Brutus,
Orator, Partitiones Oratoriae, Paradoxa, Academica, de Finibus,
Tusculan Disputations, together with other works now lost, such
as his Laus Catonis, Consolatio and Hortensius.

His repose was broken by Caesar's murder on the isth of
March 44, to which he was not a party. On the I7th of March
he delivered a speech in the senate urging a general amnesty like
that declared in Athens after the expulsion of the Thirty Tyrants.
When it became apparent that the conspirators had only removed
the despot and left the despotism, he again devoted himself to
philosophy, and in an incredibly short space of time produced the
de Natura Deorum, de Divinatione, de Fato, Cato maior (or de
Senectute), Laelius (or de Amicitia), and began his treatise de
Officiis. To this period also belongs his lost work de Gloria.
He then projected a journey to Greece in order to see his son
Marcus, then studying at Athens, of whose behaviour he heard
unfavourable reports. He reached Syracuse on the i st of August,
having during the voyage written from memory a translation
of Aristotle's Topica. He was driven back by unfavourable
winds to Leucopetra, and then, hearing better news, returned to
Rome on the 2ist of August. He was bitterly attacked by
Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) in the senate on the ist of
September for not being present there, and on the next day
replied in his First Philippic. He then left Rome and devoted
himself to the completion of the de Officiis, and to the composition
of his famous Second Philippic, which was never delivered, but
was circulated, at first privately, after Antony's departure from
Rome to Cisalpine Gaul on the 28th of November.

Cicero returned to Rome on the 9th of December, and from
that time forward led the republican party in the senate. His
policy, stated briefly, was to make use of Octavian, whose name
was all-powerful with the veterans, until new legions had been
raised which would follow the republican commanders (Phil. xi.
39). Cicero pledged his credit for the loyalty of Octavian, who
styled him " father " and affected to take his advice on all
occasions (Epp. ad Brut. i. 17. 5). Cicero, an incurable optimist
in politics, may have convinced himself of Octavian's sincerity.
The breach, however, was bound to come, and the saying,
maliciously attributed to Cicero, that Octavian was an " excellent
youth who must be praised and — sent to another place," neatly
expresses the popular view of the situation.1 Cicero was sharply
criticized by M. Junius Brutus for truckling to Octavian while
showing irreconcilable enmity to Antony and Lepidus (ad Brut.
i. 16. 4, i. 15. 9); but Brutus was safe in his province, and it is
difficult to see what other course was open to a politician in
Rome. Whether Cicero was right or wrong, none can question
his amazing energy. He delivered his long series of Philippics
at Rome, and kept up a correspondence with the various
provincial governors and commanders, all short-sighted and
selfish, and several of them half-hearted, endeavouring to keep
each man in his place and to elaborate a common plan of opera-
tions. He was naturally included in the list of the proscribed,
though it is said that Octavian fought long on his behalf, and
was slain near Formiae on the 7th of December 43. He had a
ship near in which he had previously attempted to fly, but being
cast back by unfavourable winds he returned to his villa, saying,
" Let me die in the country which I have often saved." His
head and hands were sent to Rome and nailed to the rostra,
after Fulvia, wife of Antony and widow of Clodius, had thrust
a hairpin through the tongue.

Works. — The literary works of Cicero may be classed as (i)
rhetorical; (2) oratorical; (3) philosophical and political; (4)

Ipistolary.
(i.) Rhetorical? — His chief works of this kind are: (a) de

' Fam. xi. 20 " laudandum adolescentem, ornandum, tollendum."
7 With these it is usual to include a treatise to Herennius by an
anonymous author, a contemporary of Sulla, in modern times gener-
ally identified with a person named Cornificius, quoted by Quintilian

Oratore, a treatise in three books dedicated to his brother Quintus.
The discussion is conducted in the form of a dialogue which is
supposed to have occurred in 91 B.C. chiefly between the two
orators L. Crassus and M. Antonius. The first book deals with
the studies necessary for an orator; the second with the treat-
ment of the subject matter; the third with the form and delivery
of a speech. Cicero says of this work in a letter (Fam. i. 9. 23)
that it " does not deal in hackneyed rules and embraces the whole
theory of oratory as laid down by Isocrates and Aristotle."
(6) Brutus, or de Claris oratoribus, a history of Roman eloquence
containing much valuable information about his predecessors,
drawn largely from the Chronicle (liber annalis) of Atticus (§§ 14,
15). (c) Orator, dedicated to M. Brutus, sketching a portrait
of the perfect and ideal orator, Cicero's last word on oratory.
The sum of his conclusion is that the perfect orator must also
be a perfect man. Cicero says of this work that he has " con-
centrated in it all his taste " (Fam. vi. 18. 4). The three treatises
are intended to form a continuous series containing a complete
system of rhetorical training.

It will be convenient to mention here a feature of Ciceronian
prose on which singular light has been thrown by recent inquiry.
In the de Oratore, iii. 173 sqq., he considers the element of rhythm
or metre in prose, and in the Orator (174-226) he returns to the
subject and discusses it at length. His main point is that prose
should be metrical in character, though it should not be entirely
metrical, since this would be poetry (Orator, 220). Greek writers
relied for metrical effect in prose on those feet which were not much
used in poetry. Aristotle recommended the paean Uy u -• Cicero
preferred the cretic -u-, which he says is the metrical equivalent
df the paean. Demosthenes was especially fond of the cretic.
Rhythm pervades the whole sentence but is most important at the
end or clausula, where the swell of the period sinks to res£. The ears
of the Romans were incredibly sensitive to such points. We are
told that an assembly was stirred to wild applause by a double
trochee -w-w.3 If the order were changed, Cicero says, the
effect would be lost. The same rhythm should be found in the
membra which compose the sentence. He quotes a passage from
one of his own speeches in which any change in the order would
destroy the rhythm. Cicero gives various clausulae which his ears
told him to be good or bad, but his remarks are desultory, as also are
those of Quintilian, whose examples were largely drawn from Cicero's
writings. It was left for modern research to discover rules of har-
mony which the Romans obeyed unconsciously. Other investigators
had shown that Cicero's clausulae are generally variations of some
three or four forms in which the rhythm is trochaic. Dr Thaddaeus
Zielinski of St Petersburg, after examining all the clausulae in
Cicero's speeches, finds that they are governed by a law. In every
clausula there is a basis followed by a cadence. The basis consists
of a cretic or its metrical equivalent.* This is followed by a cadence
trochaic in character, but varying in length. The three favourite
forms are (i.) -0 — j;, (ii.) -0 — *, M > (in-) ~o — v-c- These
he styles verae (V). Other frequent clausulae, which he terms
licitae (L), are those in which a long syllable is resolved, as in verse,
into two shorts, e.g. esse vtdeatur. These two classes, V and L, include
86 % of the clausulae in the orations. Some rarer clausulae which he
terms M ( = malae) introduce no new principle. There remain two
interesting forms, viz. S( = selectae), in which a spondee is substituted

for a trochee in the cadence, e.g. -« , this being done

for special emphasis, and P ( = pessimae), where a dactyl is so used,
e.g. -o — uv»-C, this being the heroica clausula condemned
by Quintilian. Similar rules apply to the membra of the sentence,
though in these the S and P forms are more frequent, harmony being
restored in the clausula.

These results apply not only to the speeches but also to the

(iii. i. 21). This is a manual of rhetoric derived from Greek sources
with illustrations of figures drawn from Roman orators. Cicero's
juvenile work de Inventione appears to be drawn partly from this
and partly from a treatise by Hermagoras. This is a slight pro-
duction and does not require detailed notice. Other minor works
written in later life, such as the Partifiones Oratoriae, a catechism
of rhetoric, in which instruction is given by Cicero to his son Marcus ;
the Topica, and an introduction to a translation of the speeches
delivered by Demosthenes and Aeschines for and against Ctesiphon,
styled de optima genere oratorum, also need only be mentioned.

'Orator, § 214 " patris dictum sapiens temeritas fill comprfi-
bavlt — hoc dichoreo tantus clamor contionis excitatus est ut admira-
bile esset. Quaero, nonne id numerus efficerit? Verborum ordinem
immuta, fac sic: ' Comprobavit fili temeritas ' jam nihil erit."

4 This theory is partly anticipated by Terentianus Maurus (c. A.D.
290), who says of the cretic (v. 1440 sqq.) : —

" Plurimum orantes decebit quando paene in ultimo
Obtinet sedem beatam, terminet si clausulam
Dactylus spondeus imam, nee trochaeum respuo;
Plenius tractatur istod arte prosa rhetorum.

CICERO

philosophical writings and the more elaborate letters, and with
modifications to other rhythmical prose, e.g. that of Pliny and
Seneca Rhythm was avoided by Caesar who was an Atticist, and
by Sallust who was an archaist. Livy's practice is exactly opposite
to that of Cicero, since he has a marked preference for the S forms,
thereby exemplifying Cicero's saying that long syllables are more
appropriate to history than to oratory.1

(ii.) Speeches. — These were generally delivered before the senate
or people, if political in character, and before jurors sitting in
a quaestio, if judicial. The speech against Vatinius was an attack
upon a witness under examination; that de Domo was made
before the Pontifices; that pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo in
the course of a prowcatio to the people; and those pro Ligario
and pro rege Deiotaro before Caesar. The five orations com-
posing the Actio Secunda in Verrem were never spoken, but
written after Verres had gone into exile. The Second Philippic
also was not delivered but issued as a pamphlet. Cicero's speech
for Milo at his trial was not a success, though, as Quintilian
(ix. 2. 54) quotes from it, as taken down by shorthand reporters,
an example of a rhetorical figure well used, it cannot have been
such a failure as is alleged by later writers. The extant speech
was written by Cicero at his leisure. None of the other speeches
are in the exact form in which they were delivered. Cicero's
method was to construct a commentarius or skeleton of his
speech, which he used when speaking. If he was pleased with
a speech he then wrote it out for publication. Sometimes he
omitted in the written speech a subject on which he had spoken.
A record of this is sometimes preserved: e.g. " de Postumi
criminibus " (Mur. 51), " de teste Fufio " (Cael. 19). These com-
mentarii were published by his freedman Tiro and are quoted
by Asconius (ad Oral, in Toga Candida, p. 87).

Cicero in his speeches must be given all the privileges of an
advocate. Sometimes he had a bad client; he naively confesses
the straits to which he was put when defending Scamander
(Clu. 51; cf. Phil. xiii. 26). He thought of defending Catiline,
though he says that his guilt is clear as noon-day (Att. i. 1-2
and 2. i). Sometimes the brief which he held at the moment
compelled him to take a view of facts contrary to that which
he had previously advocated. Thus in the pro Caecina he
alleges judicial corruption against a witness, Falcula, while in
the pro Cluentio he contends that the offence was not proved
(Caec. 28, Clu. 103). He says quite openly that " it is a great
mistake to suppose that statements in his speeches express his
real opinions " (Clu. 139). It is therefore idle to reproach him
with inconsistencies, though these are sometimes very singular.
Thus in the pro Cornelia he speaks with praise of Aulus Gabinius,
who, when a colleague vetoed his proposal, proceeded to depose
him after the precedent set by Tiberius Gracchus (Asconius in
Cornel. p. 71). In the pro Cluentio, in, he contends that nothing
is easier than for a new man to rise at Rome. In the pro Caelio
he says that Catiline had in him undeveloped germs of the greatest
virtues, and that it was the good in him that made him so
dangerous (Cael. 12-14). He sometimes deliberately puts the
case upon a wrong issue. In the pro Milone he says that either
Milo must have lain in wait for Clodius or Clodius for Milo,
leaving out of sight the truth, that the encounter was due to
chance. He used to boast that he had cast dust into the eyes
of the jury in the case of Cluentius (Quintil. ii. 17-21).

Cicero had a perfect mastery of all weapons wielded by a
pleader in Rome. He was specially famous for his pathos, and
for this reason, when several counsel were employed, always
spoke last (Oral. 130). A splendid specimen of pathos is to be
found in his account of the condemnation and execution of the
Sicilian captains ( Verr. (Acl.ii.)v. 106-122). Much exaggeration
was permitted to a Roman orator. Thus Cicero frequently
speaks as if his client were to be put to death, though a criminal
could always evade capital consequences by going into exile.
His enemies scoffed at his " tear-drops." He indulged in the
more violent invective, which, though shocking to a modern
reader, e.g. in his speeches against Vatinius and Piso, was not
offensive to Roman taste (de Oral. ii. 216-290). He was much

1 Orator, § 212 " cursum contentiones magis requirunt, exposi-
tiones rerum tarditatem."

criticized for his jokes, and even Quintilian (ii. 17-21) regrets
that he made so many in his speeches. He could never resist
the temptation to make a pun. It must be remembered, however,
that he was the great wit of the period. Caesar used to have a
collection of Cicero's bon-mots brought to him. Cicero complains
that all the jokes of the day were attributed to himself, including
those made by very sorry jesters (Fam. vii. 32. i). A fine
specimen of sustained humour is to be found in his speech pro
Murena, where he rallies the jurisconsults and the Stoics. He
was also criticized for his vanity and perpetual references to
his own achievements. His vanity, however, as has been
admirably remarked, is essentially that of " the peacock, not
of the gander," and is redeemed by his willingness to raise a
laugh at his own expense (Strachan-Davidson, p. 192). Some
critics have impugned his legal knowledge, but probably without
justice. It is true that he does not claim to be a great expert,
though a pupil of the Scaevolas, and when in doubt would con-
sult a jurisconsult; also, that he frequently passes lightly over
important points of law, but this was probably because he was
conscious of a flaw in his case.

(iii.) Political and Philosophical Treatises. — These are generally
written in the form of dialogues, in which the speakers sometimes
belong to bygone times and sometimes to the present. The
first method was known as that of Heraclides, the second as
that of Aristotle (Att. xiii. 19. 4). There is no reason to suppose
that the speakers held the views with which Cicero credits them,
or had such literary powers as would make them able to express
such views (ib. xiii. 12. 3). The political works are de Republica
and de Legibus. The first was a dialogue in six books concerning
the best form of constitution, in which the speakers are Scipio
Africanus Minor and members of his circle. He tells us that he
drew largely from Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus and writings
of the Peripatetics. The famous " Dream of Scipio " recalls
the " Vision of Er " in Plato's Republic (Book x. ad fin.). The
de Legibus, a sequel to this work in imitation of Plato's Laws,
is drawn largely from Chrysippus.

Cicero as a philosopher belonged to the New Academy. The
followers of this school were free to hear all arguments for and
against, and to accept the conclusion which for the moment
appeared most probable (Acad. ii. 131). Thus in the Tusculan
Disputations v. he expresses views which conflict with de Finibus
iv., and defends himself on the ground that as an Academic he
is free to change his mind. He was much fascinated by the
Stoic morality, and it has been noticed that the Tusculan Dis-
putations and de Officiis are largely Stoic in tone. He has
nothing but contempt for the Epicureans, and cannot forgive
their neglect of literary style. As Cicero's philosophical writings
have been severely attacked for want of originality, it is only
fair to recollect that he resorted to philosophy as an anodyne
when suffering from mental anguish, and that he wrote incredibly
fast. He issued two editions of his Academics. The first con-
sisted of two books, in which Catulus and Lucullus were the chief
speakers. He then rewrote his treatise in four books, making
himself, Varro and Atticus the speakers. The Romans at this
time had no manuals of philosophy or any philosophical writings
in Latin apart from the poem of Lucretius and some unskilful
productions by obscure Epicureans. Cicero set himself to supply
this want. His works are confessedly in the main translations
and compilations (Att. xii. 52. 3); all that he does is to turn
the discussion into the form of a dialogue, to adapt it to Roman
readers by illustrations from Roman history, and to invent
equivalents for Greek technical terms. This is equally true of
the political treatises. Thus, when Atticus criticized a strange
statement in de Republ. ii. 8, that all the cities of the Peloponnese
had access to the sea, he excuses himself by saying that he found
it in Dicaearchus and copied it word for word (Att. vi. 2. 3).
In the same passage he used an incorrect adjective, Phliuntii
for Phliasii; he says that he had already corrected his own
copy, but the mistake survives in the single palimpsest in which
this work has been preserved. The only merits, therefore,
which can be claimed for Cicero are that he invented a philo-
sophical terminology for the Romans, and that he produced a

CICERO

357

series of manuals which from their beauty of style have had
enduring influence upon mankind.

The most famous of these treatises are the following : —

De Finibus, on the Supreme Good. In Book i. L. Manlius Tor-
quatus explains the Epicurean doctrine, which is refuted in ii. by
Cicero. In iii. and iv. M. Pprcius Cato sets forth the doctrine of the
Stoics which is shown by Cicero to agree with that of Antiochus of
Ascalon; in v. M. Pupius Piso explains the views of the Academics
and Peripatetics.

Tusculanae Disputaliones, so called from Cicero's villa at Tusculum
in which the discussion is supposed to have taken place. The sub-
jects treated are: — in Book i., the nature of death and the reasons for
despising it; Book ii., the endurance of pain: Pain is not an evil;
Book iii., wisdom makes a man insensible to sorrow; Book iv.,
wisdom banishes all mental disquietude; Book v., virtue is sufficient
to secure happiness. The materials are drawn largely from works
of Dicaearchus.

De Deorum Natura. — The dialogue is placed in 77 B.C. In Book i.
Velleius attacks other philosophies and explains the system of
Epicurus. He is then refuted by Cotta. In Book ii. Balbus, speak-
ing as a Stoic, discusses the existence of the gods, nature, the govern-
ment of the world and providence. In Book iii. Cotta criticizes the
views of Balbus. The statement of the Epicurean doctrine is drawn
from the work of Phaedrus Hep* Stav, the criticism of this from
Posidonius. The Stoic teaching is derived from Cleanthes, Chry-
sippus and Zeno, and is criticized from the writings of Carneades
and Clitomachus.

De Officiis, addressed to his son Marcus. In this the form of
dialogue was not employed. The material is chiefly drawn from
Stoic sources, e.g. works of Panaetius in Books i. and ii., of Posidonius
and Hecato in Book iii.

The Academica, as they have come down to us, are a conflation
from the two editions of this work. They consist of the second book
from the first edition, and a portion of the first book from the second
edition.

Cato maior, or de Senectute, a dialogue placed in 150 B.C. in which
Cato, addressing Scipio and Laelius, set forth the praises of old age.
The idea is drawn from Aristo of Chios, and the materials largely
derived from Xenophqn and Plato.

Laelius, or de Amicitia, a dialogue between Laelius and his sons-
in-law, in which he sets forth the theory of friendship, speaking
with special reference to the recent death of Scipio. Cicero here
draws from a work of Theophrastus on the same subject and from
Aristotle.

(iv.) Letters. — Those preserved are (i) ad Familiares, i.-xvi.;
(2) ad Atticum, i.-xvi.; (3) ad Quinlum, i.-iii., ad Brutum, i.-ii.
Some thirty-five other books of letters were known to antiquity,
e.g. to Caesar, to Pompey, to Octavian and to his son Marcus.

The collection includes nearly one hundred letters written by
other persons. Thus, the eighth Book ad Fam. consists entirely
of letters from Caelius to Cicerj when in Cilicia. When writing
to Atticus Cicero frequently sent copies of letters which he had
received. There is a great variety in the style not only of
Cicero's correspondents, but also of Cicero himself. Caelius
writes in a breezy, school-boy style ; the Latinity of Plancus is
Ciceronian in character; the letter of Sulpicius to Cicero on
the death of Tullia is a masterpiece of style; Matius writes a
most dignified letter justifying his affectionate regard for Caesar's
memory. There is an amazingly indiscreet letter of Quintus
to his brother's freedman, Tiro, in which he says of the consuls-
elect, Hirtius and Pansa, that he would hesitate to put one of
them in charge of a village on the frontier, and the other in that
of the basement of a tavern (Fam. xvi. 27. 2). Several of his
correspondents are indifferent stylists. Cato labours to express
himself in an awkward and laconic epistle, apologizing for its
length. Metellus Celer is very rude, but gives himself away in
every word. Antony writes bad Latin, while Cicero himself
writes in various styles. We have such a cri de comr as his few
words to one of the conspirators after Caesar's murder, " I
congratulate you. I rejoice for myself. I love you. I watch
your interests; I wish for your love and to be informed what
you are doing and what is being done" (Fam. vi. 15). When
writing to Atticus he eschews all ornamentation, uses short
sentences, colloquial idioms, rare diminutives and continually
quotes Greek. This use of Greek tags and quotations is also
found in letters to other intimate friends, e.g. Paetus and Caelius;
also in letters written by other persons, e.g. Cassius to Cicero;
Quintus to Tiro, and subsequently in those of Augustus to
Tiberius. It is a feature of the colloquial style and often corre-
sponds to the modern use of " slang." Other letters of Cicero,

especially those written to persons with whom he was not quite
at his ease or those meant for circulation, are composed in his
elaborate style with long periods, parentheses and other devices
for obscuring thought. These are throughout rhythmical in
character, like his speeches and philosophical works.

We know from Cicero's own statement (Alt. xvi. 5. 5) that he
thought of publishing some of his letters during his lifetime.
On another occasion he jestingly charges Tiro with wishing to
have his own letters included in the " volumes " (Fawt.xvi. 17. i).
It is obvious that Cicero could not have meant to publish his
private letters to Atticus hi which he makes confessions about
himself, or those to Quintus in which he sometimes outsteps
the limits of brotherly criticism, but was thinking of polished
productions such as the letters to Lentulus Spinther or that to
Lucceius which he describes as "very pretty" (Alt. iv. 6. 4).

It is universally agreed that the letters ad Familiares were
published by Tiro, whose hand is revealed by the fact that he
suppresses all letters written by himself, and modestly puts at
the end those written to him. That Cicero kept copies of his
letters, or of many of them, we know from a passage in which,
when addressing a friend who had inadvertently torn up a letter
from him, he says that there is nothing to grieve about; he has
himself a copy at home and can replace the loss (Fam. vii. 25. i).
Tiro may have obtained from Terentia copies of letters written
to her. It has been suggested that he may also have edited the
letters to Quintus, as he could obtain them from members of
the family. The letters ad Familiares were generally quoted in
antiquity by books, the title being taken from the first letter, e.g.
Cicero ad Varronem epistula Paeti.

While the letters ad Familiares were circulated at once, those
to Atticus appear to have been suppressed for a considerable time.
Cornelius Nepos (Alt. 16) knew of their existence but distinguishes
them from the published letters. Asconius (p. 87), writing under
Claudius, never quotes themr, though, when discussing Cicero's
projected defence of Catiline, he could hardly have failed to do
so, if he had known them. The first author who quotes them is
Seneca. It is, therefore, probable that they were not published
by Atticus himself, who died 32 B.C., though his hand may be
seen in the suppression of all letters written by himself, but that
they remained in the possession of his family and were not
published until about A.D. 60. At that date they could be pub-
lished without expurgation of any kind, whereas in the letters ad
Familiares the editor's hand is on one occasion (iii. 10. ii)
manifest. Cicero is telling Appius, his predecessor in Cilicia,
of the measures which he is taking on his behalf. There then
follows a lacuna. It is obvious that Tiro thought the passage
compromising and struck it out. In the letters to Atticus, on
the other hand, we have Cicero's private journal, his confessions
to the director of his conscience, the record of his moods from
day to day, without alterations of any kind.

Cicero's letters are the chief and most reliable source of
information for the period. It is due to them that the Romans
of the day are living figures to us, and that Cicero, in spite of,
or rather in virtue of his frailties, is intensely human and sym-
pathetic. The letters to Atticus abound in the frankest self-
revelation, though even in the presence of his confessor his
instinct as a pleader makes him try to justify himself. The
historical value of the letters, therefore, completely transcends
that of Cicero's other works. It is true that these are full of
information. Thus we learn much from the de Legibus regarding
the constitutional history of Rome, and much from the Brutus
concerning the earlier orators. The speeches abound in details
which may be accepted as authentic, either because there is no
reason for misrepresentation or on account of their circumstan-
tiality. Thus the Verrines are our chief source of information for
the government of the provinces, the system of taxation, the
powers of the governor. We hear from them of such interesting
details as that the senate annul a judicial decision improperly
arrived at by the governor, or that the college of tribunes could
consider the status at Rome of a man affected by this decision
(Verr. II. ii. 95-100). We have unfolded to us the monstrous
system by which the governor could fix upon a remote place

358

CICERO

for the delivery of corn, and so compel the farmer to compound
by a payment in money which the orator does not blame, on
the ground that it is only proper to allow magistrates to receive
corn wherever they wish (ib. iii. 190). From the speech pro
Cluentio (145-154) we gain unique information concerning the
condition of society in a country town, the extraordinary exemp-
tion of equites from prosecution for judicial corruption, the
administration of domestic justice in the case of slaves examined
by their owner (ib. 176-187). But we have always to be on our
guard against misrepresentation, exaggeration and falsehood.
The value of the letters lies in the fact that in them we get behind
Cicero and are face to face with the other dramatis personae;
also that we are admitted behind the scenes and read the secret
history of the times. One of the most interesting documents in
the correspondence is a despatch of Caesar to his agent Oppius,
written in great haste and in disjointed sentences. It runs as
follows: " On the gth I came to Brundisium. Pompey is at
Brundisium. He sent Magius to me to treat of peace. I gave
him a suitable answer " (Alt. ix. 13, Ai.). In the de Beilo civili,
on the other hand, Caesar, who wishes to show that he did
his best to make peace, after stating that he sent his captive
Magius to negotiate, expresses mild surprise at the fact that
Pompey did not send him back (Bell. Civ. i. 26). We hear of the
extraordinary agreement made by two candidates for the consul-
ship in Caesar's interest with the sitting consuls of 54 B.C., which
Cicero says he hardly ventures to put on paper. Under the terms
of this the consuls, who were optimales, bound themselves to
betray their party by securing, apparently fraudulently, the
election of the candidates while they in turn bound themselves
to procure two ex-consuls who would swear that they were present
in the senate when supplies wqfre voted for the consular provinces,
though no meeting of the senate had been held, and three augurs
who would swear that a lex curiata had been passed, though the
comitia curiata had not been convened (Alt. iv. 18. 2). But
perhaps the most singular scene is the council of three great ladies
presided over by Servilia at Antium, which decides the movements
of Brutus and Cassius in June 44 B.C., when Cassius " looking
very fierce — you would say that he was breathing fire and
sword " — blustered concerning what he considered an insult,
viz. a'commission to supply corn which had been laid upon him.
Servilia calmly remarks she will have the commission removed
from the decree of the senate (Alt. xv. n. 2).

(v.) Miscellaneous. — It is not necessary to dwell upon the
other forms of literary composition attempted by Cicero. He
was a fluent versifier, and would write 500 verses in one night.
Considerable fragments from a juvenile translation of Aratus
have been preserved. His later poems upon his own consulship
and his exile were soon forgotten except for certain lines which
provoked criticism, such as the unfortunate verse:

" O fortunatam natam me consule Romam."

He wrote a memoir of his consulship in Greek and at one time
thought of writing a history of Rome. Nepos thought that he
would have been an ideal historian, but as Cicero ranks history
with declamation and on one occasion with great na'iiiett asks
Lucius Lucceius (q.v.), who was embarking on this task, to
embroider the facts to his own credit, we cannot accept this
criticism (Fam. vi. 2. 3).

(vi.) Authenticity. — The genuineness of certain works of Cicero
has been attacked. It was for a long time usual to doubt
the authenticity of the speeches post reditum and pro Marcello.1
Recent scholars consider them genuine. As their rhythmical
structure corresponds more or less exactly with the canon of
authenticity formed by Zielinski from the other speeches, the
question may now be considered closed.2 Absurd suspicion has
been cast upon the later speeches in Catilinam and that pro
Archia. An oration pridie quam in exsilium iret is certainly
a forgery, as also a letter to Octavian. There is a " controversy "
between Cicero and Sallust which is palpably a forgery, though

1 Markland and F. A. Wolf first rejected them.
1 In the speeches generally L+F = 86 %. In the de Dome the
proportion is 88 and in the pro Marcello 87 %.

a quotation from it occurs in Quintilian.3 Suspicion has been
attached to the letters to Brutus, which in the case of two letters
(i. 16 and 17) is not unreasonable since they somewhat resemble
the style of suasoriae, or rhetorical exercises, but the latest
editors, Tyrrell and Purser, regard these also as genuine.

Criticism, (i.) Ancient. — After Cicero's death his character was
attacked by various detractors, such as the author of the spurious
Controversia put into the mouth of Sallust, and the calumniator from
whom Dio Cassius (xlvi. 1-28) draws the libellous statements which
he inserts into the speech of Q. Fufius Calenus in the senate. Of such
critics, Asconius (in Tog. Cand. p. 95) well says that it is best to ignore
them. His prose style was attacked by Pollio as Asiatic, also by
his son, Asimus Callus, who was answered by the emperor Claudius
(Suet. 41). The writers of the silver age found fault with his pro-
lixity, want of sparkle and epigram, and monotony of his clausulae.4
A certain Largius Licinius gained notoriety by attacking his Latinity
in a work styled Ciceromaslix. His most devoted admirers were
the younger Pliny, who reproduced his oratorical style with con-
siderable success, and Quintilian (x. i. 112), who regarded him as the
perfect orator, and draws most of his illustrations from his works.
At a later period his style fascinated Christian writers, notably
Lactantius, the " Christian Cicero," Jerome and S. Augustine, who
drew freely from his rhetorical writings.

The first commentator upon Cicero was Asconius, a Roman senator
living in the reign of Claudius, who wrote a commentary upon the
speeches, in which he explains obscure historical points for the
instruction of his sons (see ASCONIUS). Passing over a number of
grammatical and rhetorical writers who drew illustrations from
Cicero, we may mention the Commentary of Victorinus, written in
the 4th century, upon the treatise de Inventione, and that of Boethius
(A.D. 480-524) upon the Topica. Among scholiasts may be men-
tioned the Scholiasta Bobiensis who is assigned to the 5th century,
and a pseudo-Asconius, who wrote notes upon the Verrines dealing
with points of grammar and rhetoric.

(ii.) Medieval Scholars. — In the middle ages Cicero was chiefly
known as a writer on rhetoric and morals. The works which were
most read were the de Inventione and Topica — though neither of
these was quite so popular as the treatise ad Herennium, then sup-
posed to be by Cicero — and among the moral works, the de Offichs,
and the Calo Maior. John of Salisbury (1110-1180) continually
quotes from rhetorical and philosophical writings, but only once
from the speeches. The value set upon the work de Inventione is
shown by a passage in which Notker (d. 1022) writing to his bishop
says that he has lent a MS. containing the Philippics and a com-
mentary upon the Topics, but has received as a pledge something far
more valuable, viz. the de Inventione, and the " famous commen-
tary of Victorinus."6 We have an interesting series of excerpts
made by a priest named Hadoard, in the 9th century, taken from
all the philosophical writings now preserved, also from the de
Oratoref

The other works of Cicero are seldom mentioned. The most
popular speeches were those against Catiline, the Verrines, Caesari-
anae and Philippics, to which may be added the spurious Contro-
versia. A larger knowledge of the speeches is shown by Wibald,
abbot of Corvey, who in 1146 procured from Hildesheim a MS.
containing with the Philippics the speeches against Rullus, wishing
to form a corpus of Ciceronian works.7 Gerbert (afterwards Pope
Silvester II., 940-1003) was especially interested in the speeches, and
in a letter to a friend (Epist. 86) advises him to take them with him
when journeying. The letters are rarely mentioned. The abbey
of Lorsch possessed in the 9th century five MSS. containing " Letters
of Cicero," but those to Atticus are only mentioned once, in the
catalogue of Cluny written in the I2th century.8 Letters of Cicero
were known to Wibald of Corvey, also to Servatus Lupus, abbot
of Ferrieres (805-832), who prosecuted in the 9th century a search
for MSS. which reminds us of the Italian humanists in the 15th
century. A good deal of textual criticism must have been devoted
to Cicero's works during this period. The earliest critic was Tiro,
who, as we know from Aulus Gellius (i. 7. i), corrected MSS. which
were greatly valued as containing his recension. We have a very
interesting colophon to the speeches against Rullus, in which Statilius
Maximus states that he had corrected the text by the help of a MS.
giving the recension of Tiro, which he had collated with five other
ancient copies.9

It is interesting to notice that Servatus Lupus did similar work
in the gth century. Thus, writing to Ansbald of Prum, he says,
" I will collate the letters of Cicero which you sent with the copy

3 Quintil. iv. i. 68. It is possible that the writer may have used
a quotation preserved from a real speech by Quintilian.

4 Tacitus, Dial. 22 " omnis clausulas uno et eodem modo
determine!." ' Ed. P. Piper, p. 861.

« Philologus (1886), Suppl. Bd. v.

7 Jaffe, Bibl. Rer. German., i. 326.

« Delisle, Cabinet des MSS., ii. 459.

9 " Statilius Maximus rursus emendavi ad Tironem et Laeccania-
num et dom. et alios veteres III." He was a grammarian who lived
at the end of the 2nd century.

CICERO

359

which I have so as to elicit the true reading, if possible, by comparing
the two."1 He asks another correspondent to supply him with
a copy of the Verrines or any other works for a similar purpose.

Brunetto Latini (d. ca. 1294), the master of Dante, translated the
Caesarianae into Italian. Dante himself appears to be acquainted
only with the Laelius, Cato Maior, de Officiis, de Finibus, de
Inventions and Paradoxa. Petrarch says that among his country-
men Cicero was a great name, but was studied by few. Petrarch
himself sought for MSS. of Cicero with peculiar ardour. He found
the speech pro Archia at Li6ge in 1333, and in 1345 at Verona made
his famous discovery of the letters to Atticus, which revealed to
the world Cicero as a man in place of the " god of eloquence " whom
they had worshipped. Petrarch was under the impression in his old
age that he had once possessed Cicero's lost work de Gloria, but
it is probable that he was misled by one of the numerous passages
in the extant writings dealing with this subject.2 The letters ad
Familiares were discovered towards the close of the I4th century
at Vercelli. The largest addition to the sum of Ciceronian writings
was made by Poggio (Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini) in the
course of his celebrated mission to the Council of Constance (1414-
1417). He brought back no less than ten speeches of Cicero previ-
ously unknown to the Italians, viz. pro Sexto Roscio, pro Murena,
pro Cacina, de lege agraria i.-iii., pro Rablrio perduellionis reo,
pro Rabirio Postumo, pro Roscio Comoedo, and in Pisonem. An
important discovery was made at Lodi in 1422 of a MS. which,
in addition to complete copies of the de Oratore and Orator, hitherto
known from mutilated MSS., contained an entirely new work, the
Brutus. The second book of Cicero's letters to Brutus was first
printed by Cratander of Basel in 1528 from a MS. obtained for him
by Sichardus from the abbey of Lorsch.3

All these MSS. are now lost, except that containing the Epistolae
ad Familiares, a MS. written in the gth century and now at Florence
(Laur. xlix. 9). A similar fate overtook three other MSS. containing
the letters to Atticus, independent of the Veronensis, viz. a mutilated
MS. of Books i.-vii. discovered by Cardinal Capra in 1409, a Lorsch
MS. used by Cratander (C), and a French MS. (Z), generally termed
Tornaesianus from its owner, Jean de Tournes, a printer of Lyons,

CrobaWy identical with No. 492 in the old Cluny catalogue, used
y Turnebus, Lambinus and Bosius. A strange mystification was
practised by the last named, a scholar of singular brilliancy, who
claimed to have a mutilated MS. which he called his Decurtatus,
bought from a common soldier who had obtained it from a sacked
monastery; also to have been furnished by a friend, Pierre de
Crouzeil, a doctor of Limoges, with variants taken from an old MS.
found at Noyon, and entered in the margin of a copy of the Lyons
edition. The rough draft of his notes, however, upon Books x.-xvi.,
which afterwards came into the hands of Baluze, is preserved in the
Paris library (Lat. 8538 A), in which he continually ascribes different
readings to these MSS., the alteration corresponding with a change
in his own conjecture. It is, therefore, obvious that he invented
the readings in order to strengthen his own corrections. The book,
which he termed his Crusellinus, may well be his copy of the Lyons
edition of 1545 (number 8665 in the sale-catalogue of Baluze), which
is described as cum notis et emendationibus MSS. manu ejusdem
Bosii.*

The oldest evidence now existing for any works of Cicero is to be
found in palimpsests written in the 4th or 5th century. The most
interesting of these, now in the Vatican (Lat. 5757), discovered by
Angelo Mai in 1822, contains the treatise de Republica, only known
from this source. Fragments of the lost speeches pro Tullio and
pro Scauro were discovered in two Milan and Turin palimpsests.
The Vatican also possesses an important palimpsest of the Verrines
(Reg. 2077). A palimpsest containing fragments of various orations
was recently destroyed by the fire at the Turin library. The works
de Oratore and Orator are well represented by ancient MSS., the two
best known being one at Avranches (Abrincensis 238) and a Harleian
MS. (2736), both written in the 9th century. The Brutus is only
known from 15th-century transcripts of the lost cod. Lodensis.

The oldest MS. of any speeches, or indeed of any work of Cicero's,
apart from the palimpsests, belongs to the Chapter-house of St Peter's
in Rome (H. 25). It contains the speeches in Pisonem, pro Fonteio,
pro Flacco and the Philippics. The earlier part of the MS. was
written in the 8th century. The Paris library has two gth-century
MSS., viz. 7774 A. containing in Verrem (Act. ii.), iv. and v., and
7794, containing the post reditum speeches, together with those
pro Sestio, in Vatinium, de provinciis consularibus, pro Balbo, pro
Caelio. The only other gth-century MS. of the speeches is now in
Lord Leicester's library at Holkham, No. 387. 6 It originally belonged
to Cluny, being No. 498 in the old catalogue. It contains in a muti-
lated form the speeches in Catilinam, pro Ligario, pro rege Deiotaro
nd in Verrem (Act. ii.)ii.

The speeches pro Sex. Roscio and pro Murena are only known
from an ancient and illegible MS. discovered by Poggio at Cluny,

' Episl. 69 " Tullianas epistulas quas misisti cum nostris conferri
ciam ut ex utrisque, si possit fieri, veritas exsculpatur."
* Nolhac, Petrarque et I'humanisme, pp. 216-223.

3 Lehmann, De Ciceronis ad Atticum epp. recensendis, p. 128.

4 Philologus, 1901, p. 216.

5 Anecdota Oxoniensia, Classical Series, part ix. (W. Peterscn).

No. 496 in the old catalogue, and now lost. The most faithful
transcript was made in France (Paris, Lat. 14,749) before the MS.
passed into Poggio's hand by a writer who carefully reproduced
the corruptions, sometimes in facsimile.* The speeches pro Roscio
Comoedo, pro Rabirio perduellionis reo and pro Rabirio Postumo are
only known from Italian copies of the transcript (now lost) made by
Poggio from lost MSS. The de Officiis, Tusculan Disputations and
Cato Maior are found in a number ofgth-century MSS. A collection,
consisting of de Natura deorum, de Divinatione, Timaeus, de Fato,
Paradoxa, Lucullus (=Acad. Prior.) and de Legibus, is found in
several MSS. of the same date. Only one MS. of the Laelius is as
old as the roth century.

The Academica Posteriora are said by editors to be found only in
15th-century MSS. A MS. in the Pans library (Lat. 6331) is, how-
ever, assigned by Chatelain to the I2th century.

For the letters ad Familiares our chief source of information is
Laur. xlix. 9 (gth century), which contains all the sixteen books.
There are independent MSS. written in France and Germany in the
nth and I2th centuries, containing i.-viii. and ix.-xvi. respectively.
There is no extant MS. of the letters to Atticus older than the 1 4th
century, apart from a few leaves from a lath-century MS. discovered
at or near Wurzburg in the last century. Very great importance has
been attached to a Florentine MS. (Laur. xlix. 18) M., which until
recently was supposed to have been copied by Petrarch himself from
the lost Veronensis. It is now known not to be in the hand of
Petrarch, but it was still supposed to be the archetype of all Italian
MSS., and possibly of all MSS., including the lost C and Z. It has,
however, been shown by Lehmann that there is an independent
group of Italian MSS., termed by him S, containing Books i.-vii.
in a mutilated form, and probably connected with the MS. of Capra.
These often agree with CZ against M, and the readings of CZS are
generally superior.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — It is impossible to mention more than a few
works as the literature is so vast. (l) Historical. — I. L. Strachan-
Davidson, Life of Cicero (Heroes of the Nations); G. Boissier,
Ciceron et ses amis; Suringar, Cicero de vita sua (Leiden, 1854);
W. Warde Fowler, Social Life at Rome (1908); introductions to
Tyrrell and Purser's edition of the letters. (2) Palaeographical.—
Facsimiles of the best-known MSS. are given by E. Chatelain in
Paleographie des classiques latins, parts 2, 3 and 7. Information
regarding various MSS. will be found in Halm, Zur Handschriften-
kunde der ciceronischen Schriften (Munich, 1850); Deschamps,
Essai Ubliographique sur Ciceron (Paris, 1863) (an unscientific
work) ; Lehmann, De Ciceronis ad Atticum epistulis recensendts
(Berlin, 1892); Anecdota Oxoniensia, classical series, parts vii.,
ix., x. (3) Literary. — M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur,
i. 194-274. (Miinchen, 1890). (4) Linguistic. — Merpuet, Lexicon
to Oratorical and Philosophical Works; Le Breton, Etudes sur la
langue et la grammaire de Ciceron (Paris, ippi); Norden, Die antike
Kunstprosa (Leipzig, 1898); Th. Zielinski, Das Clauselgesetz in
Ciceros Reden (Leipzig, 1904). Much information on points of
Ciceronian idiom and language will be found in J. S. Reid's Acade-
mica (London, 1885) and Landgraf's Pro Sext. Roscio (Erlangen,
1884). (5) Legal. — A. H. J. Greenidge, The Legal Procedure of
Cicero's Time (Oxford, 1901). (6) Philosophical. — An excellent
account of Cicero as a philosopher is given in the preface to Reid's
edition of the Academica. (7) Editions (critical) of the complete
texts.— Baiter-Halm (1845-1861); C. F. W. Miiller (1880-1896);
Oxford Classical Texts. (A. C. C.)

2. QTJINTUS TULLIUS CICERO, brother of the orator and
brother-in-law of T. Pomponius Atticus, was born about 102 B.C.
He was aedile in 67, praetor in 62, and for the three following
years propraetor in Asia, where, though he seems to have
abstained from personal aggrandizement, his profligacy and
ill-temper gained him an evil notoriety. After his return to
Rome, he heartily supported the attempt to secure his brother's
recall from exile, and was nearly murdered by gladiators in the
pay of P. Clodius Pulcher. He distinguished himself as one of
Julius Caesar's legates in the Gallic campaigns, served in Britain,
and afterwards under his brother in Cilicia. On the outbreak
of the civil war between Pompey and Caesar, Quintus, like
Marcus, supported Pompey, but after Pharsalus he deserted
and made peace with Caesar, largely owing to the intercession
of Marcus. Both the brothers fell victims to the proscription
which followed Caesar's death, Quintus being put to death in
43, some time before Marcus. His marriage with Pomponia was
very unhappy, and he was much under the influence of his slave
Statius. Though trained on the same lines as Marcus he never
spoke in public, and even said, " One orator in a family is enough,
nay even in a city." Though essentially a soldier, he took
considerable interest in literature, wrote epic poems, tragedies
and annals, and translated plays of Sophocles. There are extant

• Anecdota Oxoniensia, Classical Series, part x. (A. C. Clark).

360

CICERONE— CICOGNARA

four letters written by him (one to his brother Marcus, and three
to his freedman Tiro) and a short paper, De Petitione Consulates
(on canvassing for the consulship), addressed to his brother in 64.
Some consider this the work of a rhetorician of later date. A
few hexameters by him on the twelve signs of the Zodiac are
quoted by Ausonius.

Cicero in several of his Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser) ; pro Sestio,
31; Caesar, Bell. Gal.; Appian, Bell. Civ. iv. 20; Dio Cassius, xl.
7, xlvii. jo; text of the De Petit, Cons, in A. Eussner, Commen-
tariolum Petltionis (1872), see also R. Y. Tyrrell in Hermathena, v.
(1877), and A. Beltrami, De Commentariolo Petition^ Q. Ciceroni
vindicando (1892); G. Boissier, Cicero and His Friends (Eng. trans.,
1897), especially pp. 235-241.

3. MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, only son of the orator and his
wife Terentia, was born in 65 B.C. At the age of seventeen he
served with Pompey in Greece, and commanded a squadron of
cavalry at the battle of Pharsalus. In 45 he was sent to Athens
to study rhetoric and philosophy, but abandoned himself to a
life of dissipation. It was during his stay at Athens that his
father dedicated the de Officiis to him. After the murder of
Caesar (44) he attracted the notice of Brutus, by whom he was
offered the post of military tribune, in which capacity he rendered
good service to the republican cause. After the battle of Philippi
(42), he took refuge with Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, where the
remnants of the republican forces were collected. He took
advantage of the amnesty granted by the treaty of Misenum (39)
to return to Rome, where he took no part in public affairs,
but resumed his former dissipated habits. In spite of this, he
received signal marks of distinction from Octavian, who not only
nominated him augur, but accepted him as his colleague in the
consulship (30). He had the satisfaction of carrying out the
decree which ordered that all the statues of Antony should be
demolished, and thus " the divine justice reserved the completion
of Antony's punishment for the house of Cicero" (Plutarch).
He was subsequently appointed proconsul of Asia or Syria,
but nothing further is known of his life. In spite of his de-
bauchery, there is no doubt that he was a man of considerable
education and no mean soldier, while Brutus, in a letter to his
father (Epp. ad Brutum, ii. 3), even goes so far as to say that the
son would be capable of attaining the highest honours without
borrowing from the father's reputation.

See Plutarch, Cicero, Brutus; Appian, Bell. Civ. ii. 20. 51, iv. 20;
Dio Cassius xlv. 15, xlvi. 18, Ii. 19; Cicero's Letters (ed. Tyrrell and
Purser); G. Boissier, Cicero and His Friends (Eng. trans., 1897),
pp. 104-107.

4. QUINTUS TULLIUS CICERO (c. 67-43 B.C.), son of Quintus
Tullius Cicero (brother of the orator). He accompanied his
uncle Marcus to Cilicia, and, in the hope of obtaining a reward,
repaid his kindness by informing Caesar of his intention of
leaving Italy. After the battle of Pharsalus he joined his father
in abusing his uncle as responsible for the condition of affairs,
hoping thereby to obtain pardon from Caesar. After the death
of Caesar he attached himself to Mark Antony, but, owing to
some fancied slight, he deserted to Brutus and Cassius. He was
included in the proscription lists, and was put to death with his
father in 43. In his last moments he refused under torture to
disclose his father's hiding-place. His father, who in his conceal-
ment was a witness of what was taking place, thereupon gave
himself up, stipulating that he and his son should be executed
at the same time.

See Cicero, ad Alt. x. 4. 6, 7. 3; xiv. 20. 5; Dio Cassius xlvii. 10.

CICERONE, a guide, one who conducts visitors to museums,
galleries, &c., and explains matters of archaeological, antiquarian,
historic or artistic interest. The word is presumably taken from
Marcus Tullius Cicero, as a type of learning and eloquence.
The New English Dictionary finds examples of the use earlier in
English than Italian, the earliest quotation being from Addison's
Dialogues on Medals (published posthumously 1726). It appears
that the word was first applied to " learned antiquarians who
show and explain to foreigners the antiquities and curiosities of
the country " (quotation of 1762 in the New English Dictionary).

CICHLID (Cichlidae), a family of Acanthopterygian fishes,
related to the perches and wrasses, and confined to the fresh

and brackish waters of Central and South America, Africa,
Syria, and India and Ceylon. It has recently assumed special
importance through the large number of genera and species,
many of them showing extraordinary modifications of the
dentition, which have been discovered in tropical Africa, especi-
ally in the great lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa. About
180 species are known from Africa (with Syria and Madagascar),
150 from America, and 3 from India and Ceylon. They were
formerly known under the inappropriate name of Chromides.

These fish are further remarkable for their nursing habits.
It was formerly believed that the male takes charge of the eggs,
and later the young, by sheltering them in the mouth and
pharynx. This may still be true of some of the American species,
but a long series of recent observations have shown that this
most efficacious parental care devolves invariably on the female
in the African and Syrian species. We are now acquainted with
a large number of species in which this extraordinary habit has
been observed, the number having lately been greatly increased
by the collections made in Lakes Tanganyika and Victoria.

L. Lortet had described a fish from Lake Tiberias in which he
believed he had observed the male take up the eggs after their
deposition and retain them in his mouth and pharynx long after
eclosion, in fact until the young are able to shift for themselves,
and this fish he named Chromis paterfamilias. A. Giinther had
also ascribed the same sex to a fish from Natal, Chromis philander,
observed by N. Abraham to have similar habits. G. A. Boulenger
has since had an opportunity to examine the latter specimen
and found it to be a female, as in all other nursing individuals
from various parts of Africa, previously observed by himself;
whilst J. Pellegrin has acertained the female sex of a specimen
with eggs in the mouth presented to the Paris museum by Lortet
as his Chromis paterfamilias (= Tilapia simonis). Further
observations by Pellegrin on Tilapia galilaea and Pelmatochromis
lateralis, by E. Schoeller on Paratilapia multicolor, have led to
the same result.

It therefore remains unproven whether in any of the African
Cichlidae the buccal " incubation," as it has been called by
Pellegrin, devolves on the male; the instances previously
adduced being unsupported by the only trustworthy evidence — an
examination of the genital glands.

The relative size and number of the eggs thus taken charge
of vary very much according to the species. Thus they may
be moderately large and numerous (100 to 200) in Tilapia
nilotica and galilaea, larger and only about 30 in number in
Paratilapia multicolor, while in Tropheus moorii, a fish measur-
ing only no mm., the eggs filling the mouth and pharynx
measure 4 mm. in diameter and are only four in number, they
being proportionally the largest Teleostome eggs known. In
Paratilapia pfefferi, a fish measuring 75 mm., the eggs found in
the pharynx were only about a dozen in number, and they
measure i\ mm. in diameter. In Tilapia dardennii, which grows
to a length of 240 mm., a score of eggs fills the mouth and
pharynx, and each measures 5 to 6 mm. in diameter, an enormous
size for so small a fish.

Pellegrin has made the interesting observation on Tilapia
galilaea that while the eggs are developing in the bucco-pharyngeal
cavity the ovarian eggs are rapidly growing towards maturity,
so that a fresh deposition of ova may almost immediately follow
the release of the young fishes from maternal care. (G. A. B.)

CICISBEO (Ital.; of uncertain origin; perhaps an inversion
of bel cece, "beautiful chick (pea)," or from Fr. chiche beau,
with same meaning), the term in Italy from the I7th century
onwards for a dangler about women. The cicisbeo was the pro-
fessed gallant of a married woman, who attended her at all
public entertainments, it being considered unfashionable for the
husband to be escort.

CICOGNARA, LEOPOLDO, COUNT (1767-1834), Italian archae-
ologist and writer on art, was born at Ferrara on the i7th of
November 1767. Mathematical and physical science diverted
him a while; but his bent was decided, and not even the notice
of such men as Spallanzani and Scarpa could make a savant of
him. A residence of some years at Rome, devoted to painting

CID

361

and the study of the antiquities and galleries of the Eternal City,
was followed by a visit to Naples and Sicily, and by the publica-
tion, at Palermo, of his first work, a poem of no merit. The
island explored, he betook himself to Florence, Milan, Bologna
and Venice, acquiring a complete archaeological knowledge of
these and other cities. In 1 795 he took up his abode at Modena,
and was for twelve years engaged in politics, becoming a member
of the legislative body, a councillor of state, and minister pleni-
potentiary of the Cisalpine Republic at Turin. Napoleon
decorated him with the Iron Crown; and in 1808 he was made
president of the Academy of the Fine Arts at Venice, a post in
which he did good work for a number of years. In 1 808 appeared
his treatise Del bello ragionamenli, dedicated in glowing terms
to Napoleon. This was followed (1813-1818) by his magnum opus,
the Storia della scultura dal suo risorgimento in Italia al secolo di
Napoleone, in the composition of which he had been encouraged
and advised by Giordano and Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845).
The book was designed to complete the works of Winckelmann
and D'Agincourt, and is illustrated with 180 plates in outline.
In 1814, on the fall of Napoleon, Cicognara was patronized by
Francis I. of Austria, and published (1815-1820), under the
auspices of that sovereign, his Fabbriche piu cospicue di Venezia,
two superb folios, containing some 150 plates. Charged by the
Venetians with the presentation of their gifts to the empress
Caroline at Vienna, Cicognara added to the offering an illustrated
catalogue of the objects it comprised; this book, Omaggio delle
Provincie Venete alia maesta di Carolina Augusta, has since
become of great value to the bibliophilist. Reduced to poverty
by these splendid editorial speculations, Cicognara contrived to
alienate the imperial favour by his political opinions. He left
Venice for Rome; his library was offered for sale; and in 1821
he published at Pisa a catalogue raisonne, rich in bibliographical
lore, of this fine collection, the result of thirty years of loving
labour, which in 1824 was purchased en bloc by Pope Leo XII.,
and added to the Vatican library. The other works of Cicognara
are — the Memorie storiche de' litterati ed artisti Ferraresi (1811);
the Vite de' piu insigni pittori e scultori Ferraresi, MS.; the
Memorie spettanti alia storia della calcografia (1831); and a large
number of dissertations on painting, sculpture, engraving and
other kindred subjects. (See Papoli, in No. n of the Exile, a
print written and published by Italian refugees.) Cicognara's
work in the academy at Venice, of which he became president in
1808, had important results in the increase in number of the
professors, the improvement in the courses of study, the institu-
tion of prizes, and the foundation of a gallery for the reception
of Venetian pictures. He died on the sth of March 1834.

See Zanetti, Cenni biografici di Leopoldo Cicognara (Venice, 1834);
Malmani, Memorie del conte Leopoldo Cicognara (Venice, 1888).

CID, THE, the favourite hero of Spain, and the most prominent
figure in her literature. The name, however, is so obscured by
myth and fable as scarcely to belong to history. So extravagant
are the deeds ascribed to him, and so marvellous the attributes
with which he has been clothed by the fond idolatry of his country-
men, that by some he has been classed with the Amadises and
the Orlandos whose exploits he emulated. The Jesuit Masdeu
stoutly denies that he had any real existence, and this heresy
has not wanted followers even in Spain. The truth of the matter,
however, has been expressed by Cervantes, through the mouth
of the Canon in Don Quixote: " There is no doubt there was
such a man as the Cid, but much doubt whether he achieved
what is attributed to him." The researches of Professor Dozy,
of Leiden, have amply confirmed this opinion. There is a Cid
of history and a Cid of romance, differing very materially in
character, but each filling a large space in the annals of his
country, and exerting a singular influence in the development
of the national genius.

The Cid of history, though falling short of the poetical ideal
which the patriotism of his countrymen has so long cherished,
is still the foremost man of the heroical period of Spain — the
greatest warrior produced out of the long struggle between
Christian and Moslem, and the perfect type of the Castilian of
i zth century. Rodrigo Diaz, called de Bivar, from the place

of his birth, better known by the title given him by the Arabs
as the Cid (El Seid, the lord), and El Campeador, the champion
par excellence, was of a noble family, one of whose members in a
former generation had been elected judge of Castile. The date
of his birth cannot be fixed with any certainty, but it was
probably between 1030 and 1040. As Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar
he is first mentioned in a charter of Ferdinand I. of the year
1064. The legends which speak of the Cid as accompanying this
monarch in his expeditions to France and Italy must be rejected
as purely apocryphal. Ferdinand, a great and wise prince, under
whom the tide of Moslem conquest was first effectually stemmed,
on his deathbed, in 1065, divided his territories among his five
children. Castile was left to his eldest son Sancho, Leon to
Alphonso, Galicia to Garcia, Zamora and Toro to his two daughters
Urraca and Elvira. The extinction of the western caliphate
and the dispersion of the once noble heritage of the Ommayads
into numerous petty independent states, had taken place some
thirty years previously, so that Castilian and Moslem were once
again upon equal terms, the country being almost equally divided
between them. On both sides was civil war, urged as fiercely as
that against the common enemy, in which the parties sought
allies indiscriminately among Christians and Mahommedans.

No condition of affairs could be more favourable to the genius
of the Cid. He rose to great distinction in the war between
Sancho of Castile and Sancho of Navarre, in which he won his
name of Campeador, by slaying the enemy's champion in single
combat. In the quarrel between Sancho and his brotherAlphonso,
Rodrigo Diaz espoused the cause of the former, and it was
he who suggested the perfidious stratagem by which Sancho
eventually obtained the victory and possession of Leon. Sancho
having been slain in 1072, while engaged in the siege of Zamora,
Alphonso returned from exile and occupied the vacant throne.
One of the most striking of the passages in the Cid's legendary
history is that wherein he is represented as forcing the new king
to swear that he had no part in his brother's death; but there
was cause enough without this for Alphonso's animosity against
the man who had helped to despoil him of his patrimony. For
a time the Cid, already renowned throughout Spain for his
prowess in war, was even advanced by the king's favour and
entrusted with high commissions of state. In 1074 the Cid was
wedded to Ximena, daughter of the count of Oviedo, and grand-
daughter, by the mother's side, of Alphonso V. The original
deed of the marriage-contract is extant. Some time afterwards
the Cid was sent on an embassy to collect tribute from Motamid,
the king of Seville, whom he found engaged in a war with
Abdallah, the king of Granada. On Abdallah's side were many
Castilian knights, among them Count Garcia Ordonez, a prince
of the blood, whom the Cid endeavoured vainly to persuade of
the disloyalty of opposing their master's ally. In the battle
which ensued under the walls of Seville, Abdallah and his
auxiliaries were routed with great slaughter, the Cid returning
to Burgos with many prisoners and a rich booty. There fresh
proofs of his prowess only served to kindle against him the
rancour of his enemies and the jealousy of the king. Garcia
Ordonez accused him to Alphonso of keeping back part of the
tribute received from Seville, and the king took advantage of
the Cid's absence on a raid against the Moors to banish him
from Castile.

Henceforth Rodrigo Diaz began to live that life of a soldier
of fortune which has made him famous, sometimes fighting
under the Christian banner, sometimes under Moorish, but
always for his own hand. At the head of a band of 300 free lances
he offered his services first to the count of Barcelona; then,
failing him, to Moktadir, the Arab king of Saragossa, of the race
of the Beni Houd. Under Moktadir, and his successorsMoutamin
and Mostain, the Cid remained for nearly eight years, fighting
their battles against Mahommedan and Christian, when not
engaged upon his own, and being admitted almost to a share
of their royal authority. He made more than one attempt to
be reconciled with Alphonso, but, his overtures being rejected,
he turned his arms against the enemies of the Beni Houd,
extending their dominions at the expense of the Christian states

362

CIDER

of Aragon and Barcelona, and harrying even the border lands
of Castile. Among the enterprises of the Cid the most famous
was that against Valencia, then the richest and most flourishing
city of the peninsula, and an object of cupidity to both Christian
and Moslem. The Cid appeared before the place at the head
of an army of 7000 men, for the greater part Mahommedans.
In vain did the Valencians implore succour from the emir of
Cordova, and from their co-religionists in other parts of the
peninsula. In defiance of an army which marched to the relief
of the beleaguered city under Yusef the Almoravide, the Cid took
Valencia after a siege of nine months, on the isth of June 1094 —
the richest prize which up to that time had been recovered from
the Moors. The conditions of the surrender were all violated —
the cadi Ibn Djahhaff burnt alive, a vast number of the citizens
who had escaped death by famine slaughtered, and the possessions
divided among the Campeador's companions. In other respects
the Cid appears to have used his victory mildly, ruling his
kingdom, which now embraced nearly the whole of Valencia
and Murcia, for four years with vigour and justice. At length
the Almoravides, whom he had several times beaten, marched
against him in great force, inflicting a crushing defeat at Cuenca
upon the Cid's army, under his favourite lieutenant, Alvar
Fanez. The "blow was a fatal one to the aged and war-worn
Campeador, who died of anger and grief in July 1099. His
widow maintained Valencia for three years longer against the
Moors, but was at last compelled to evacuate the city, taking
with her the body of the Cid to be buried in the monastery of
San Pedro at Cardena, in the neighbourhood of Burgos. Here,
in the centre of a small chapel, surrounded by his chief com-
panions in arms, by Alvar Fanez Minaya, Pero Bermudez,
Martin Antolinez and Pelaez the Asturian, were placed the
remains of the mighty warrior, the truest of Spanish heroes,
the embodiment of all the national virtues and most of the
national vices. The bones have since been removed to the
town hall of Burgos. Philip II. tried to get him canonized,
but Rome objected, and not without reason.

Whatever were his qualities as a fighter, the Cid was but
indifferent material out of which to make a saint, — a man who
battled against Christian and against Moslem with equal
zeal, who burnt churches and mosques with equal zest,
who ravaged, plundered and slew as much for a livelihood as
for any patriotic or religious purpose, and was in truth almost
as much of a Mussulman as a Christian in his habits and his
character. His true place in history is that of the greatest of
the guerrilleros — the perfect type of that sort of warrior in
which, from the days of Viriathus to those of Juan Diaz, El
Empecinado, the soil of Spain has been most productive.

The Cid of romance, the Cid of a thousand battles, legends
and dramas, the Cid as apotheosized in literature, the Cid
invoked by good Spaniards in every national crisis, whose name
is a perpetual and ever-present inspiration to Spanish patriotism,
is a very different character from the historical Rodrigo Diaz —
the freebooter, the rebel, the consorter with the infidels and the
enemies of Spain. He is the Perfect One, the Born in a Happy
Hour, " My Cid," the invincible, the magnanimous, the all-
powerful. He is the type of knightly virtue, the mirror of
patriotic duty, the flower of all Christian grace. He is Roland
and Bayard in one. In the popular literature of Spain he holds
a place such as has no parallel in other countries. From an
almost contemporary period he has been the subject of song;
and he who was chanted by wandering minstrels in the izth
century has survived to be hymned in revolutionary odes of the
1 9th. In a barbarous Latin poem, written in celebration of the
conquest of Almeria by Alphonso VII. in the year 1147, we
have the bard testifying to the supereminence of the Cid among
his country's heroes: —

" lose Rodericus Mio Cid semper vocatus,
De quo cantatur quod ab hostibus haud superatus,
Qui domuit Mauros, comites domuit quoque nostros."

Within a hundred years of his death the Cid had become
the centre of a whole system of myths. The Poema del Cid,
written in the latter half of the 1 2th century, has scarcely any

trace of a historical character. Already the Cid had reached his
apotheosis, and Castilian loyalty could not consent to degrade
him when banished by his sovereign : —

" Dios, que buen vassalo si oviese buen senor ! "

cry the weeping citizens of Burgos, as they speed the exile on
his way.

The Poem of the Cid is but a fragment of 3744 lines, written
in a barbarous style, in rugged assonant rhymes, and a rude
Alexandrine measure, but it glows with the pure fire of poetry,
and is full of a noble simplicity and a true epical grandeur,
invaluable as a living picture of the age. The ballads relating
to the Cid, of which nearly two hundred are extant, are greatly
inferior in merit, though some of them are not unworthy to be
ranked with the best in this kind. Duran believes the greater
part of them to have been written in the i6th century. A few
betray, not more by the antiquity of their language than by their
natural and simple tone, traces of an earlier age and a freer
national life. They all take great liberties with history, thus
belying the opinion of Sancro Panza that " the ballads are too
old to tell lies." Such of them as are not genuine relics of the
1 2th century are either poetical versions of the leading episodes
in the hero's life as contained in the Chronicle, that Chronicle
itself having been doubtless composed out of still earlier legends
as sung by the wandering juglares, or pure inventions of a kter
time, owing their inspiration to the romances of chivalry. In
these last the ballad-mongers, not to let their native hero be
outdone by the Amadises, the Esplandians, and the Felixmartes,
engage him in the most extravagant adventures — making war
upon the king of France and upon the emperor, receiving em-
bassies from the soldan of Persia, bearding the pope at Rome,
and performing other feats not mentioned even in the Poem or
the Chronicle. The last and the worst of the Cid ballads are
those which betray by their frigid conceits and feeble mimicry
of the antique the false taste and essentially unheroic spirit
of the age of Philip II. As for the innumerable other poems,
dramas and tales which have been founded on the legend of the
Cid, from the days of Guillen de Castro and Diamante to those
of Quintana and Trueba, they serve merely to prove the abiding
popularity of the national hero in his native land.

The chief sources from which the story of the Cid is to be gathered
are, first, the Latin chronicle discovered by Risco in the convent
of San Isidro at Leon, proved by internal evidence to have been
written before 1258; the Cronica General, composed by Alphonso X.
in the second half of the I3th century, partly (so far as relates to the
Cid) from the above, partly from contemporary Arabic histories, and
partly from tradition; the Cronica del Cid, first published in 1512,
by Juan de Velorado, abbot of the monastery of San Pedro at
Cardena, which is a compilation from the last, interlarded with new
fictions due to the piety of the compiler; lastly, various Arabic
manuscripts, some of contemporary date, which are examined and
their claims weighed in the second volume of Professor Dozy's
Recherches sur Vhistoire politique et litteraire de I'Espagne pendant
le moyen dge (Leiden, 1849). Huber, Miiller, and Ferdinand Wolf are
among the leading authorities in the history and literature of the
Cid. M. Damas Hinard has published the poem, with a literal French
translation and notes, and John Hookham Frere has rendered it into
English with extraordinary spirit and fidelity. The largest collection
of the Cid ballads is that of Durant, in the Romancero general, in
two volumes, forming part of Rivadeneyra's Biblioteca de autores
espanoles. (H. E. W.)

CIDER, or CYDER (from the Fr. cidre, derived from the Lat.
sicera or cisera, Gr. a-'mtpa, Heb. shikar, strong drink), an
alcoholic beverage made from apples.

Cider and perry (the corresponding beverage made from pears)
are liquors containing from as little as 2% of alcohol to 7 or
8 %, seldom more, and rarely as much, produced by the vinous
fermentation of the expressed juice of apples and pears; but
cider and perry of prime quality can only be obtained from
vintage fruit, that is, apples and pears grown for the purpose
and unsuited for the most part for table use. A few table apples
make good cider, but the best perry is only to be procured from
pears too harsh and astringent for consumption in any other
form. The making of perry is in England confined, in the main,
to the counties of Hereford, Worcester and Gloucester. These
three counties, together with Somerset and Devon, constitute,
too, the principal cider-making district of the country; but the

CIDER

363

industry, which was once more widely spread, still survives in
Norfolk, and has lately been revived in Kent, though, in both
these counties, much of the fruit used in cider-making is imported
from the west country and some from the continent. Speaking
generally, the cider of Herefordshire is distinguished for its
lightness and briskness, that of Somerset for its strength, and
that of Devonshire for its lusciousness.

Cider used to be made in the south of Ireland, but the industry
had almost become extinct until revived by the Department of
•Agriculture, which in 1904 erected a cider-making plant at
Drogheda, Co. Louth, gave assistance to private firms at Dun-
garvan, Co. Waterford, and Fermoy, Co. Cork, and provided a
travelling mill and press to work in the South Riding of Co.
Tipperary. The results have been highly satisfactory, a large
quantity of good cider having been produced.

Inasmuch as English orchards are crowded with innumerable
varieties of cider apples, many of them worthless, a committee
composed of members of the Herefordshire Fruit-Growers'
Association and of the Fruit and Chrysanthemum Society was
appointed in 1899 to make a selection of vintage apples and
pears best suited to Herefordshire and the districts adjoining.
The following is the list drawn up by the committee: —

Apples. — Old Foxwhelp, Cherry Pearmain, Cowarne Red,
Dymock Red, Eggleton Styre, Kingston Black or Black Taunton,
Skyrme's Kernel, Spreading Redstreak, Carrion apple, Cherry
Norman, Cummy Norman, Royal Wilding, Handsome Norman,
Strawberry Norman, White Bache or Norman, Broad-leaved
Norman, Argile Grise, Bramtot, De Boutville, Frequin Audievre,
Medaille d'Or, the last five being French sorts introduced from
Normandy about 1880, and now established in the orchards of
Herefordshire.

Pears. — Taynton Squash, Barland, Oldfield, Moorcroft or
Malvern Hill, Red-pear, Thurston's Red, Longland, Pine pear.

No equally authoritative selection has been made for the
Somerset and Devon districts, but the following varieties of
cider apples are held in good repute in those parts: — Kingston
Black, Jersey Chisel, Hangdowns, Fair Maid of Devon, Woodbine,
Duck's Bill, Slack-my-Girdle, Bottle Stopper, Golden Ball,
Sugar-loaf, Red Cluster, Royal Somerset and Cadbury (believed
to be identical with the Royal Wilding of Herefordshire). As a
rule the best cider apples are of small size. " Petites pommes,
gros cidre," say the French.

Cider and perry not being taxable liquors in England, it is
impossible to estimate with even an approach to accuracy the
amount of the annual production of them. In 1896 Mr Sampson,
the then secretary of the National Association of English Cider-
makers, in his evidence before the royal commission on agricul-
ture, put it at 55 j million gallons. Since that date the increased
demand for these native wines has given such an impetus to the
industry that this figure might with safety be doubled. In France
official statistics are available, and these show not only that that
country is the largest producer of cider (including perry) in the
world, but that the output is yearly increasing. A great pro-
portion, however, of what passes as cider in France is boisson,
i.e. cider to which water has been added in the process of making
or at a subsequent stage; while much of the perry is disposed
of to the makers of champagne. Although some cider is made in
sixty-five departments, by far the largest amount comes from
the provinces of Normandy and Brittany. In Germany cider-
making is a considerable and growing industry. Manufactories
on a small scale exist in north Germany, as at Guben and Griin-
berg, but the centre of the industry is at Frankfort-on-Main,
Sachsenhausen and the neighbourhood, where there are five
large and twenty-five small factories employing upwards of
1000 hands. Large quantities of cider fruit are imported from
foreign countries, as, speaking generally, the native-grown fruit
used in Germany for cider-making consists of inferior and
undersized table apples not worth marketing. The bottled cider
for export is treated much like champagne, and is usually fortified
and flavoured until, in the words of an acknowledged French
authority, M. Truelle, it becomes a hybrid between cider and
white wine rather than pure cider.

The practice which formerly prevailed in England of making
cider on the farm from the produce of the home orchards has
within the last few years been to a large extent given up, and,
as in Germany and many parts of France, farmers now sell their
fruit to owners of factories where the making of cider and perry
is carried on as a business of itself. In these hand or horse power
is superseded by steam and sometimes by electricity, as in the
factory of E. Seigel in Griinberg, and the old-fashioned appliances
of the farm by modern mills and presses capable of turning out
large quantities of liquor. The clearing of the juice, too, which
used to be effected by running it through bags, is in the factories
accomplished more quickly by forcing it through layers of
compressed cotton in a machine of German origin known as
Lumley's filter. The actual process of cider and perry making
is simple, and resembles that of making grape wine. The fruit is
ground or crushed in machines of various construction, the latest
and most powerful being of American origin. The resulting
pomace is pressed for the extraction of the juice, which is then
run into vats, where it undergoes fermentation, which, converting
the saccharine ingredients into alcohol and carbonic acid gas,
turns it into cider. Cider made from a judicious mixture of
several varieties of apples is to be preferred to cider made from
one variety only, inasmuch as it is less difficult to find the requisite
degrees of richness, astringency and flavour in several varieties
than in one; but the contrary is the case with pears, of which
the most noted sorts, such as the Barland, the Taynton Squash
and the Oldfield, produce the best perry when unmixed with
other varieties. Some fining of an albuminous nature is generally
requisite in order to clear the juice and facilitate its passage
through the filter, but the less used the better. The simplest
and cleanest is skim milk whipped to a froth and blended gradu-
ally with the cider as it is pumped into the mixing vat. Many
nostrums are sold for the clearing of cider, but none is necessary
and most are harmful.

Of late years the practice has largely obtained of using
preservatives for the purpose of checking fermentation. The
principal preservatives employed are salicylic and boracic acids
and formalin. The two former are ineffective except in quantities
likely to prove hurtful to health, while formalin, in itself a
powerful and deleterious drug, though it stops fermentation,
renders the liquor cloudy and undrinkable. Other foreign in-
gredients, such as saccharin and porcherine, both coal-tar
derivatives — the latter a recent discovery of a French chemist,
after whom it is named — are used by many makers, chiefly for
the purpose of rendering bad and therefore unwholesome cider
palatable and saleable. Provided that cider and perry be properly
filtered, and attention paid to perfect cleanliness of vessels and
appliances, there is no need of preservatives or sweeteners, and
their use ought to be forbidden by law in England, as it is in
most continental states in the case of liquors to be consumed
within their borders, though not, it is significant to note, in the
case of liquors intended for exportation.

The wholesome properties of cider and perry when pure and
unadulterated have been recognized by medical men, who
recommend them as pleasant and efficacious remedies in affec-
tions of a gouty or rheumatic nature, maladies which, strange
to say, these very liquors were once supposed to foster, if
not actually to originate. Under a similar false impression the
notion is general that hard rough cider is apt to cause diarrhoea,
colic and kindred complaints, whereas, as a fact, disorders
of this kind are conspicuous by their absence in those parts of
the country where rough cider and perry constitute the staple
drinks of the working-classes. This is especially the case in
Herefordshire, which is said also to be the only county in England
whence no instance of the occurrence of Asiatic cholera has ever
been reported.

The importance which the cider industry has of late attained
in England has been marked by the establishment of the National
Fruit and Cider Institute at Long Ashton near Bristol. This
institute, founded in 1903 at the instance of the Board of
Agriculture, is supported by grants from the board, the Bath
and West of England Society, the councils of the cider-producing

364

CIENFUEGOS— CIGNANI

counties of Hereford, Gloucester, Worcester, Monmouth, Devon
and Somerset, and by subscription of members. The objects of
the institute are the promotion of research into the causes of
the changes which occur in cider and perry during fermentation,
with the view of imparting to these liquors a degree of exactitude
hitherto unattainable; the adoption from time to time of im-
proved machinery and methods in cider-making; the detection
of adulteration; the giving of instruction in the principles and
practice of cider- making; the publication of reports detailing
the results of the researches undertaken at the institute; the
testing and selection of the sorts of fruit best suited for vintage
purposes; the propagation of useful varieties likely from neglect
to go out of cultivation; and the conducting of experiments
in regard to the best systems of planting and protecting young
fruit trees.

Fruit-growers who look to cider-making " as a means of
utilizing windfalls and small and inferior apples of cooking and
dessert varieties not worth sending to market " should be warned
that it is as important to the cider industry that good cider only
should be on sale as it is to the fruit-growing industry that good
fruit only should be sent to market. The juice of the apple is
naturally affected by the condition of the fruit itself, and if this
be unripe, unsound or worm-eaten the dder made from it will
be inferior to that made from full-grown, ripe and sound fruit.
If such fruit be not good enough to send to market, neither will
the cider made from it be good enough to place before the public.
Nevertheless, it may furnish a sufficiently palatable drink for
home consumption, and may therefore be so utilized. But
when, as happens from time to time in fruit-growing districts,
there is a glut, and even the best table fruit is not saleable at
a profit, then, indeed, cider-making is a means of storing in a
liquid form what would otherwise be left to rot on the ground;
whilst if a proportion of vintage fruit were mixed therewith,
a drink would be produced which would not discredit the cider
trade, and would bring a fair return to the maker. (C. W. R. C.)

CIENFUEGOS, NICASIO ALVAREZ DE (1764-1809), Spanish
poet and publicist, was born at Madrid on the i4th of December
1764. He studied with distinction at Salamanca, where he met
the poetftMelendez Vald6s. His poems, published in 1778,
immediately attracted attention. He was successively editor
of the Gaceta and Mercurio, and was condemned to death for
having published an article against Napoleon; on the petition
of his friends, he was respited and deported to France; he died
at Orthez early in the following year. His verses are modelled
on those of Melendez Vald6s; though not deficient in technique
or passion, they are often disfigured by spurious sentimentality
and by the flimsy philosophy of the age. Cienfuegos was blamed
for an unsparing use of both archaisms and gallicisms. His
plays, Pitaco, Zoraida, La Condesa de Castillo, and Idomeneo,
four tragedies on the pseudo-classic French model, and Las
Hermanas generosas, a comedy, are deservedly forgotten.

CIENFUEGOS (originally FERNANDINA DE JAGUA), one of the
principal cities of Cuba, in Santa Clara province, near the central
portion of the S. coast, 195 m. E.S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907)
30,100. Cienfuegos is served by the United railways and by
steamers connecting with Santiago, Batabano, Trinidad and
the Isle of Pines. It lies about 6 m. from the sea on a peninsula
in the magnificent landlocked bay of Jagua. Vessels drawing
1 6 ft. have direct access to the wharves. A circular railway
about the water-front, wharves and warehouses facilitates the
loading and unloading of vessels. The city streets are broad
and regularly laid out. There is a handsome cathedral; and
the Tomas Terry theatre (given to the city by the heirs of
one of the millionaire sugar planters of the jurisdiction), the
governor's house (1841-1844), the military and government
hospitals, market place and railway station are worthy of note.
In the Cathedral Square (Plaza de Armas) , embracing two city-
squares, and shaded — like all the plazas of the island — with
laurels and royal palms, are a statue of Isabel the Catholic,
and two marble lions given by Queen Isabel II. ; elsewhere there
are statues of General Clouet and Marshal Serrano, once captain-
general. The city is lighted by gas and electricity, has an

abundant water-supply, and cable connexion with Europe,
the United States, other Antilles and South America. The
surrounding country is one of the prettiest and most fertile
regions in Cuba, varied with woods, rivers, rocky gulches,
beautiful cascades and charming tropic vegetation. Several
of the largest and finest sugar estates in the world are situated in
the vicinity, including the Soledad (with a botanical experiment
station maintained by Harvard University), the Terry and
others — most of them connected with the city by good drive-
ways. Cienfuegos is a centre of the sugar trade on the south
coast; tobacco too is exported.

The bay of Jagua was visited by Columbus. The city was
founded in 1819, with the aid of the Spanish government, by a
Louisianian, General Luis de Clouet; it was destroyed by a
hurricane and was rebuilt in 1825. Many naturalized foreign
Catholics, including Americans, were among the original settlers.
The settlement was first named in honour of Ferdinand VII.,
and later in honour of Captain-General Jose Cienfuegos Jovel-
lanos. The harbour was known from the earliest times, and has
been declared by Mahan to be the most important of the
Caribbean Sea for strategic purposes. In 1740-1745 a fortifica-
tion called Nuestra Senora de los Angeles was erected at the
entrance; it is still standing, on a steep bluff overlooking the
sea, and is one of the most picturesque of the old fortifications
of the island. On the i ith of May 1898 a force from two vessels
of the United States fleet under Admiral Schley, searching for
Cervera and blockading the port, cut two of the three cables
here (at Point Colorado, at the entrance of the harbour), and for
the first time in the Spanish- American War the American troops
were under fire.

CIEZA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of
Murcia, on the right bank of the river Segura, and on the Madrid-
Cartagena railway. Pop. (1000) 13,626. Cieza is built in a
narrow bend of the Segura valley, which is enclosed on the north
by mountains, and on the south broadens into a fertile plain,
producing grain, wine, olives, raisins, oranges and esparto grass.
In the town itself there are flour and paper mills, sawmills and
brandy distilleries. Between 1870 and 1900 local trade and
population increased rapidly, owing partly to improved means
of communication; and the appearance of Cieza is thoroughly
modern.

CIGAR, the common term for tobacco-leaf prepared for smok-
ing by being rolled into a short cylinder tapering to a point at
the end which is placed in the mouth, the other end, which is
lighted, being usually cut square (see TOBACCO). The Spanish
cigarro is of doubtful origin, possibly connected with cigarra, a
cicada, from its resemblance to the body of that insect, or with
cigarral, a word of Arabic origin meaning a pleasure garden.
The explanation that it comes from a Cuban word for a certain
species of tobacco is probably erroneous, since no native word
of the kind is known. The diminutive, cigarette, denotes a roll
of cut tobacco enclosed usually in thin paper, but sometimes
also in tobacco-leaf or the husk of Indian corn.

CIGNANI, CARLO (1628-1719), Italian painter, was born of a
noble family at Bologna, where he studied under Battista Cairo,
and afterwards under Francesco Albani. Though an intimate
friend of the latter, and his most famous disciple, Cignani was
yet strongly and deeply influenced by the genius of Correggio.
His greatest work, moreover, the " Assumption of the Virgin,"
round the cupola of the church of the Madonna della Fuoca at
Forli, which occupied him some twenty years, and is in some
respects one of the most remarkable works of art of the i?th
century, is obviously inspired from the more renowned fresco of
Correggio in the cupola of the cathedral of Parma. Cignani had
some of the defects of his masters; his elaborate finish, his
audacious artificiality in the use of colour and in composition,
mark the disciple of Albani; but he imparted to his work a
more intellectual character than either of his models, and is not
without other remarkable merits of his own. As a man Cignani
was eminently amiable, unassuming and generous. His success,
however, made him many enemies; and the envy of some of
these is said to have impelled them to deface certain of his works.

CIGOLI— CILICIA

He accepted none of the honours offered him by the duke of
Parma and other princes, but lived and died an artist. On his
removal to Forli, where he died, the school he had founded at
Bologna was fain in some sort to follow its master. His most
famous pictures, in addition to the Assumption already cited,
are — the " Entry of Paul III. into Bologna "; the " Francois I.
Touching for King's Evil "; a " Power of Love," painted under
a fine ceiling by Agostino Carracci, on the walls of a room in the
ducal palace at Parma; an " Adam and Eve " (at the Hague);
and two of " Joseph and Potiphar's Wife " (at Dresden and
Copenhagen). His son Felice (1660-1724) and nephew Paolo
(1700-1764) were also painters.

CIGOLI (or CivoLi),LODOVICOCARDIDA(i559-i6i3), Italian
painter, architect and poet, was born at Cigoli in Tuscany.
Educated under Alessandro Allori and Santi di Tito, he formed a
peculiar style by the study at Florence of Michelangelo, Cor-
reggio, Andrea del Sarto and Pontormo. Assimilating more of
the second of these masters than of all the others, he laboured for
some years with success; but the attacks of his enemies, and
intense application to the production of a wax model of certain
anatomical preparations, induced an alienation of mind which
affected him for three years. At the end of this period he
visited Lombardy, whence he returned to Florence. There he
painted an " Ecce Homo," in competition with Passignani and
Caravaggio, which gained the prize. This work was afterwards
taken by Bonaparte to the Louvre, and was restored to Florence
in 1815. Other important pictures are — a " St Peter Healing
the Lame Man," in St Peter's at Rome; a " Conversion of St
Paul," in the church of San Paolo fuori le Mura, and a " Story of
Psyche," in fresco, at the Villa Borghese; a " Martyrdom of
Stephen," which earned him the name of the Florentine Cor-
reggio, a " Venus and Satyr," a " Sacrifice of Isaac," a " Stigmata
of St Francis," at Florence. Cigoli, who was made a knight of
Malta at the request of Pope Paul III., was a good and solid
draughtsman and the possessor of a rich and harmonious palette.
He died, it is said, of grief at the failure of his last fresco (in the
Roman church of Santa Maria Maggiore), which is rendered
ridiculous by an abuse of perspective.

CILIA (plural of Lat. cUium, eyelash), in biology, the thread-
like processes by the vibration of which many lowly organisms,
or the male reproductive cells of higher organisms, move through
water.

CILIATA (M. Pertz), one of the two divisions of Infusoria,
characterized by the permanent possession of cilia or organs
derived from these (cirrhi, membranelles, &c.), and possessing
a single mouth (except in the Opalinopsidae, all parasitic) . They
are the most highly differentiated among the Protozoa.

CILICIA, in ancient geography, a district of Asia Minor,
extending along the south coast from the Alara Su, which
separated it from Pamphylia, to the Giaour Dagh (Mt. Amanus),
which parted it from Syria. Its northern limit was the crest of
Mt. Taurus. It was naturally divided into Cilicia Trachea, W.
of the Lamas Su, and Cilicia Pedias, E. of that river.

Cilicia Trachea is a rugged mountain district formed by the
spurs of Taurus, which often terminate in rocky headlands with
small sheltered harbours, — a feature which, hi classical times,
made the coast a resort of pirates, and, in the middle ages, led
to its occupation by Genoese and Venetian traders. The district
is watered by the Geuk Su (Calycadnus and its tributaries), and
is covered to a large extent by forests, which still, as of old,
supply timber to Egypt and Syria. There were several towns
but no large trade centres. In the interior were Coropissus (Da

• Bazar), Olba (Uzunjabur j) , and, hi the valley of the Calycadnus,
Claudiopolis (Mut) and Germanicopolis (Ermenek). On or
near the coast were Coracesium (Alaya), Selinus-Trajanopolis
(Selinti) , Anemourium ( Anamur) , Kelenderis (Kilindria) , Seleucia

I id Calycadnum (Selefkeh), Corycus (Korghoz) and Elaeusa-
sebaste ( Ayash) . Roads connected Laranda, north of theTaurus,
(rith Kelenderis and Seleucia.
Cilicia Pedias included the rugged spurs of Taurus and a large
alain, which consists, in great part, of a rich stoneless loam. Its
astern half is studded with isolated rocky crags, which are

crowned with the ruins of ancient strongholds, and broken by
the low hills that border the plain of Issus. The plain is watered
by the Cydnus (Tarsus Chai), the Sarus (Sihun) and the Pyramus
(Jihun), each of which brings down much silt. The Sarus now
enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but there are clear
indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus, and that
the united rivers ran to the sea west of Kara-tash. Such appears
to have been the case when Alexander's army crossed Cilicia.
The plain is extremely productive, though now little cultivated.
Through it ran the great highway, between the east and the west,
on which stood Tarsus on the Cydnus, Aduna on the Sarus,
and Mopsuestia (Missis) on the Pyramus. North of the road
between the two last places were Sision-Flaviopolis (Sis), Ana-
zarbus (Anazarba) and Hierapolis-Kastabala (Budrum); and
on the coast were Soli-Pompeiopolis, Mallus (Kara-tash), Aegae
(Ayash), Issus, Baiae (Piyas) and Alexandria ad Issum (Alexan-
dretta). The great highway from the west, on its long rough
descent from the Anatolian plateau to Tarsus, ran through a
narrow pass between walls of rock called the CilicianGate,Ghulek
Boghaz. After crossing the low hills east of the Pyramns it
passed through a masonry .(Cilician) gate, Demir Kapu, and
entered the plain of Issus. From that plain one road ran south-
ward through a masonry (Syrian) gate to Alexandretta, and
thence crossed Mt. Amanus by the Syrian Gate, Beilan Pass, to
Antioch and Syria; and another ran northwards through a
masonry (Amanian) gate, south of Toprak Kaleh, and crossed Mt.
Amanus by the Amanian Gate, Baghche Pass, to North Syria
and the Euphrates. By the last pass, which was apparently
unknown to Alexander, Darius crossed the mountains prior to
the battle of Issus. Both passes are short and easy, and connect
Cilicia Pedias geographically and politically with Syria rather
than with Asia Minor. Another important road connected Sision
with Cocysus and Melitene. In Roman times Cilicia exported
the goats'-hair cloth, Cilicium, of which tents were made.

The Cilicfans appear as Khilikku in Assyrian inscriptions,
and in the early part of the first millennium B.C. were one of the
four chief powers of western Asia. It is generally assumed that
they had previously been subject to the Syro-Cappadocian
empire; but, up to 1909 at all events, " Hittite " monuments
had not been found hi Cilicia; and we must infer that the
" Hittite " civilizations which flourished in Cappadocia and N.
Syria, communicated with each other by passes E. of Amanus
and not by the Cilicia'n Gates. Under the Persian empire
Cilicia was apparently governed by tributary native kings, who
bore a name or title graecized as Syennesis; but it was officially
included in the fourth satrapy by Darius. Xenophon found a
queen in power, and no opposition was offered to the march of
Cyrus. Similarly Alexander found the Gates open, when he
came down from the plateau in 333 B.C.; and from these facts
it may be inferred that the great pass was not under direct
Persian control, but under that of a vassal power always ready
to turn against its suzerain. After Alexander's death it was long
a battle ground of rival marshals and kings, and for a time
fell under Ptolemaic dominion, but finally under that of the
Seleucids, who, however, never held effectually more than the
eastern half. Cilicia Trachea became the haunt of pirates, who
were subdued by Pompey. Cilicia Pedias became Roman
territory in 103 B.C., and the whole was organized by Ppmpey,
64 B.C., into a province which, for a short time, extended to and
included part of Phrygia. It was reorganized by Caesar, 47 B.C.,
and about 27 B.C. became part of the province Syria-Cilicia-
Phoenice. At first the western district was left independent
under native kings or priest-dynasts, and a small kingdom, under
Tarkondimotus, was left in the east; but these were finally
united to the province by Vespasian, A.D. 74. Under Diocletian
(circa 297), Cilicia, with the Syrian and Egyptian provinces,
formed the Diocesis Orientis. In the 7th century it was invaded
by the Arabs, who held the country until it was reoccupied by
Nicephorus II. in 965.

The Seljuk invasion of Armenia was followed by an exodus of
Armenians southwards, and in 1080 Rhupen, a relative of the last
king of Ani, founded in the heart of the Cilician Taurus a small

366

CILLI— CIMABUE

principality, which gradually expanded into the kingdom of
Lesser Armenia. This Christian kingdom — situated in the
midst of Moslem states, hostile to the Byzantines, giving valuable
support to the crusaders, and trading with the great commercial
cities of Italy — had a stormy existence of about 300 years.
Gosdantin I. (1095-1100) assisted the crusaders on their march
to Antioch, and was created knight and marquis. Thoros I.
(1100-1123), in alliance with the Christian princes of Syria,
waged successful war against Byzantines and Seljuks. Levond
(Leo) II., "the Great" (1185-1219), extended the kingdom
beyond Mount Taurus and established the capital at Sis. He
assisted the crusaders, was crowned king by the archbishop of
Mainz, and married one of the Lusignans of Cyprus. Haithon I.
(1224-1269) made an alliance with the Mongols, who, before their
adoption of Islam, protected his kingdom from the Mamelukes
of Egypt. When Levond V. died (1342), John of Lusignan was
crowned king as Gosdantin IV.; but he and his successors
alienated the Armenians by attempting to make them conform
to the Roman Church, and by giving all posts of honour to
Latms, and at last the kingdom, a prey to internal dissensions,
succumbed (1375) to the attacks of the Egyptians. Cilicia
Trachea was occupied by the Osmanlis in the isth century, but
Cilicia Pedias was only added to the empire in 1515.

From 1833 to 1840 Cilicia formed part of the territories
administered by Mehemet Ali of Cairo, who was compelled to
evacuate it by the allied powers. Since that date it has formed
the vilayet of Adana (?.».).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Beside the general authorities for ASIA MINOR,
see: — W. B. Barker, Lares and Penates (1853); V. Langlois, Voyage
dans la Cilicie (1861); F. Beaufort, Karamania (1817); W. F.
Ainsworth, Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition (1888), and Travels
in Asia Minor (1842); R. Heberdey and A. Wilhelm, Reisen in
Kilikien (1896); D. G. Hogarth and J. A. R. Munro, Mod. and Anc.
Roads in E. Asia Minor (R. G. S. Supp. Papers, iii.) (1893); D. G.
Hogarth, A Wandering Scholar (1896); G. L. Schlumberger, Vn
Empereur byzantin (1890); T. Kotschy, Reise in dent cilicischen
Taurus (1858); H. C. Barkley, Ride through Asia Minor and
Armenia (1891); E. J. Davis, Life in Asiatic Turkey (1879); J.
Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverwaltung, i. (1874) ; J. R. S. Sterrett,
Wolfe Expedition (1888). See also authorities under ARMENIA and
MEHEMET ALI. (C. W. W. ; D. G. H.)

CILLI, ULRICH, COUNT OF (1406-1456), son of Frederick II.,
count of Cilli, and Elizabeth Frangepan. Of his youth we
know nothing certain. About 1432 he married Catherine,
daughter of George Brankovich, despot* of Servia.

His influence in the troubled affairs of Hungary and the
Empire early overshadowed that of his father, together with
whom he was made a prince of the Empire by the emperor
Sigismund (1436). Hence feuds with the Habsburgs, wounded
in their rights as overlords of Cilli, ending, however, in an
alliance with the Habsburg king Albert II., who made Ulrich
for a short while his lieutenant in Bohemia. After Albert's
death (1439) Ulrich took up the cause of his widow Elizabeth,
and presided at the coronation of her infant son Ladislaus V.
Posthumus (1440). A feud with the Hunyadis followed, em-
bittered by John Hunyadi's attack on George Brankovich of
Servia (1444) and his refusal to recognize Ulrich 's claim to
Bosnia on the death of Stephen Tvrtko (1443). In 1446
Hunyadi, now governor of Hungary, harried the Cilli territories
in Croatia-Slavonia; but his power was broken at Kossovo
(1448), and Count Ulrich was able to lead a successful crusade,
nominally in the Habsburg interest, into Hungary (1450). In
1452 he forced the emperor Frederick III. to hand over the boy
king Ladislaus V. to his keeping, and became thus practically
ruler of Hungary. In 1454 his power was increased by his
succession to his father's vast wealth; and in 1456 he was named
by Ladislaus his lieutenant in Hungary. The Hunyadis now
conspired to destroy him. On the 8th of November, in spite
of warnings, he entered Belgrade with the king; the next
day he was attacked by Laszlo Hunyadi and his friends, and
done to death. With him died the male line of the counts
of Cilli.

Count Ulrich's ambition was boundless, his passions un-
bridled; but the hostile judgments passed by Aeneas

Sylvius and other contemporaries upon him must be read
with caution.

CILLI (Slovene, Celje), a town in Styria, Austria, 82 m. S. by
W. of Graz by rail. Pop. (1900) 6743. It is picturesquely
situated on the left bank of the river Sann, and still has remains
of the old walls and towers, with which it was once surrounded.
Memorials of a still earlier period in its history — Roman anti-
quities— are to be seen in the municipal museum, while its canals
and sewers are also of Roman origin. These were discovered
during the second half of the igth century, and were in such a
good state of preservation that after a few small repairs they
are now utilized. The parish church, dating from the i4th
century, with its beautiful Gothic chapel, is one of the most
interesting specimens of medieval architecture. The so-called
German church, in Romanesque style, belonged to the Minorite
monastery, founded in 1241 and closed in 1808. The throne of
the counts of Cilli is preserved here, and also the tombs of several
members of the family. On the Schlossberg (1320 ft.), situated
to the S.E. of the town, are the ruins of the castle of Ober-Cilli,
the former residence of the counts of Cilli. Ten miles to the
N.W. of Cilli are situated the baths of Neuhaus, with indifferent
thermal waters (117° F.), frequented by ladies. Not far from
it is the ruined castle of Neuhaus, called since 1643 Schlangen-
burg, from which an extensive view of the neighbouring Alps
is obtained.

Cilli is one of the oldest places in Styria, and was probably a
Celtic settlement. It was taken possession of by the Romans
in 15 B.C., and in A.D. 50 the emperor Claudius raised it to a
Roman municipium and named it Claudia Celeja. It soon
became one of the most flourishing Roman colonies, and possessed
numerous great buildings, of which the temple of Mars was
famous throughout the whole empire. It was incorporated with
Aquileia, under Constantine; and towards the end of the 6th.
century was destroyed by the invading Slavs. It had a period
of exceptional prosperity from the middle of the I4th to the
latter half of the 1 5th century, under the counts of Cilli, on the
extinction of which family it fell to Austria. In the i6th century
it suffered greatly both from revolts of the peasantry and from
the Counter-Reformation, Protestantism having made many
converts in the district, particularly among the nobles.

See Glantschnigg, Celeja (Cilli, 1892).

CIMABUE, GIOVANNI (1240 to about 1302), Italian painter,
was born in Florence of a respectable family, which seems to
have borne the name of Gualtieri, as well as that of Cimabue
(Bullhead). He took to the arts of design by natural inclination,
and sought the society of men of learning and accomplishment.
Vasari, the historian of Italian painting, zealous for his own
native state of Florence, has left us the generally current account
of Cimabue, which later researches have to a great extent
invalidated. We cannot now accept his assertion that art,
extinct in Italy, was revived solely by Cimabue, after he had
received some training from Greek artists invited by the Floren-
tine government to paint the chapel of the Gondi in the church
of S. Maria Novella; for native Italian art was not then a nullity,
and this church was only begun when Cimabue was already
forty years old. Even Lanzi's qualifying statement that Greek
artists, although they did not paint the chapel of the Gondi, did
execute rude decorations in a chapel below the existing church,
and may thus have inspired Cimabue, makes little difference
in the main facts. What we find as the general upshot is that
some Italian painters preceded Cimabue — particularly Guido of
Siena and Giunta of Pisa; that he worked on much the same
principle as they, and to a like result; but that he was neverthe-
less the most advanced master of his time, and, by his own works,
and the training which he imparted to his mighty pupil Giotto,
he left the art far more formed and more capable of growth than
he found it (see PAINTING).

The undoubted admiration of his contemporaries would alone
demonstrate the conspicuous position which Cimabue held, and
deserved to hold. For the chapel of the Rucellai in S. Maria
Novella he painted in tempera a colossal " Madonna and Child
with Angels," the largest altarpiece produced up to that date;

CIMAROSA

367

before its removal from the studio it was visited with admiration
by Charles of Anjou, with a host of eminent men and gentle
ladies, and it was carried to the church in a festive procession of
the people and trumpeters. Cimabue was at this time living in
the Borgo Allegri, then outside the walls of Florence; the legend
that the name Allegri (Joyous) was bestowed on the locality in
consequence of this striking popular display is more attractive
than accurate, for the name existed already. Of this celebrated
picture, one of the great landmarks of modern and sacred art,
some details may be here given, which we condense from the
History of Painting in Italy by Crowe and Cavalcaselle.

" The Virgin in a red tunic and blue mantle, with her feet resting
on an open-worked stool, is sitting on a chair hung with a white
drapery flowered in gold and blue, and carried by six angels kneeling
in threes above each other. A delicately engraved nimbus surrounds
her head, and that of the infant Saviour on her lap, who is dressed
in a white tunic, and purple mantle shot with gold. A dark-coloured
frame surrounds the gabled square of the picture, delicately traced
with an ornament interrupted at intervals by thirty medallions on
gold ground, each of which contains the half-figure of a saint. In
the face of the Madonna is a soft and melancholy expression; in
the form of the infant, a certain freshness, animation and natural
proportion; in the group, affection — but too rare at this period.
There is sentiment in the attitudes of the angels, energetic mien in
some prophets, comparative clearness and soft harmony in the
colours. A certain loss of balance is caused by the overweight of
the head in the Virgin as compared with the slightness of her frame.
The features are the old ones of the I3th century; only softened,
as regards the expression of the eye, by an exaggeration of elliptical
form in the iris, and closeness of the curves of the lids. In the angels
the absence of all true notions of composition may be considered
striking; yet their movements are more natural and pleasing than
hitherto. One indeed, to the spectator's right of the Virgin, com-
bines more tender reverence in its glance than any that had yet been
produced. Cimabue gave to the flesh-tints a clear and carefully
fused colour, and imparted to the forms some of the rotundity which
they had lest. With him vanished the sharp contrasts of hard lights,
half-tones and shadows."

In a general way, it may be said that Cimabue showed himself
forcible in his paintings, as especially in heads of aged or strongly
characterized men; and, if the then existing development of
art had allowed of this, he might have had it in him to express
the beautiful as well. He, according to Vasari, was the first
painter who wrote words upon his paintings, — as, for instance,
round the head of Christ in a picture of the Crucifixion, the
words addressed to Mary, Mulier ecce filius luus.

Other paintings still extant by Cimabue are the following: —
In the academy of Arts in Florence, a " Madonna and Child,"
with eight angels, and some prophets in niches, — better than
the Rucellai picture in composition and study of nature, but
more archaic in type, and the colour now spoiled (this work was
painted for the Badia of S. Trinita, Florence) ; in the National
Gallery, London, a "Madonna and Child with Angels," which
came from the Ugo Baldi collection, and had probably once
been in the church of S. Croce, Florence; in the Louvre, a
" Madonna and Child," with twenty-six medallions in the frame,
originally in the church of S. Francesco, Pisa. In the lower
church of the Basilica of S. Francesco at Assisi, Cimabue,
succeeding Giunta da Pisa, probably adorned the south transept,
—painting a colossal " Virgin and Child between four Angels,"
above the altar of the Conception, and a large figure of St
Francis. In the upper church, north transept, he has the
" Saviour Enthroned and some Angels," and, on the central
ceiling of the transept, the " Four Evangelists with Angels."
Many other works in both the lower and the upper church have
been ascribed to Cimabue, but with very scanty evidence; even
the above-named can be assigned to him only as matter of
probability. Numerous others which he indisputably did paint
have perished, — for instance, a series (earlier in date than the
Rucellai picture) in the Carmine church at Padua, which were
destroyed by a fire.

From Assisi Cimabue returned to Florence. In the closing
y"ears of his life he was appointed capomaestro of the mosaics
of the cathedral of Pisa, and was afterwards, hardly a year
before his death, joined with Arnolfo di Cambio as architect
for the cathedral of Florence. In Pisa he executed a Majesty
in the apse, — " Christ in glory between the Virgin and John

the Evangelist," a mosaic, now much damaged, which stamps
him as the leading artist of his time in that material. This was
probably the last work that he produced.

The debt which art owes to Cimabue is not limited to his own
performances. He was the master of Giotto, whom (such at
least is the tradition) he found a shepherd boy of ten, in the
pastures of Vespignano, drawing with a coal on a slate the figure
of a lamb. Cimabue took him to Florence, and instructed him
in the art; and after his death Giotto occupied a house which
had belonged to his master in the Via del Cocomero. Another
painter with whom Cimabue is said to have been intimate was
Gaddo Gaddi.

It had always been supposed that the bodily semblance of
Cimabue is preserved to us in a portrait-figure by Simon Memmi
painted in the Cappella degli Spagnuoli, in S. Maria Novella,—
a thin hooded face in profile, with small beard, reddish and
pointed. This is, however, extremely dubious. Simone Martini
of Siena (commonly called Memmi) was born in 1283, and would
therefore have been about nineteen years of age when Cimabue
died; it is not certain that he painted the work in question, or
that the figure represents Cimabue. The Florentine master is
spoken of by a nearly contemporary commentator on Dante
(the so-called Anonimo, who wrote about 1334) as arrogante e
disdegnoso; so " arrogant and scornful " that, if any one,
or if he himself, found a fault in any work of his, however
cherished till then, he would abandon it in disgust. This,
however, to a modern mind, looks more like an aspiring and
fastidious desire for perfection than any such form of " arrogance
and scorn " a£ blemishes a man's character. Giovanni Cimabue
was buried in the cathedral of Florence, S. Maria del Fiore, with
an epitaph written by one of the Nini: —

" Credidit ut Cimabos picturae castra tenere,
Sic tenuit vivens; nunc tenet astra poli."

Here we recognize distinctly a parallel to the first clause in the
famous triplet of Dante:

" Credette Cimabue nella pintura
Tener lo campo; ed ora ha Giotto il grido,
Si che la fama di colui s' oscura."

Besides Vasari, and Crowe and Cavalcaselle (re-edited by Langton) ,
the following works may be consulted: — P. Angeli, Storia delta
basilica d' Assisi; Cole and Stillman, Old Italian Masters (1892);
Mrs Ady, Painters of Florence (1900). (W. M. R.)

CIMAROSA, DOMENICO (1740-1801), Italian musical com-
poser, was born at Aversa, in the kingdom of Naples, on the i;th
of December 1749. His parents were poor, but anxious to give
their son a good education; and after removing to Naples they
sent him to a free school connected with one of the monasteries
of that city. The organist of the monastery, Padre Polcano,
was struck with the boy's intellect, and voluntarily instructed
him in the elements of music, as also in the ancient and modern
literature of his country. To his influence Cimarosa owed a
free scholarship at the musical institute of Santa Maria di Loreto,
where he remained for eleven years, studying chiefly the great
masters of the old Italian school. Piccini, Sacchini and other
musicians of repute are mentioned amongst his teachers. At
the age of twenty-three Cimarosa began his career as a composer
with a comic opera called Le Stravaganze del Conle, first per-
formed at the Teatro dei Fiorentini at Naples in 1772. The
work met with approval, and was followed in the same year by
Le Pazzie di Stellidanza e di Zoroastro, a farce full of humour
and eccentricity. This work also was successful, and the fame
of the young composer began to spread all over Italy. In 1774
he was invited to Rome to write an opera for the stagione of
that year; and he there produced another comic opera called
L'ltaliana in Londra.

The next thirteen years of Cimarosa's life are not marked by
any event worth mentioning. He wrote a number of operas for
the various theatres of Italy, living temporarily in Rome, in
Naples, or wherever else his vocation as a conductor of his works
happened to call him. From 1784-1787 he lived at Florence,
writing exclusively for the theatre of that city. The productions
of this period of his life are very numerous, consisting of
operas, both comic and serious, cantatas, and various sacred

368

CIMBRI— CIMON

compositions. The following works may be mentioned amongst
many others: — Caio Mario; the three biblical operas,
Assalone, La Giuditta and // Sacrifaio d' Abramo; also //
Convito di Pietra; and La Ballerina amante, a pretty comic
opera first performed at Venice with enormous success.

About the year 1788 Cimarosa went to St Petersburg by
invitation of the empress Catherine II. At her court he remained
four years and wrote an enormous number of compositions,
mostly of the nature of pieces d' occasion. Of most of these not
even the names are on record. In 1702 Cimarosa left St Peters-
burg, and went to Vienna at the invitation of the emperor
Leopold II. Here he produced his masterpiece, // Matrimonio
segreto, which ranks amongst the highest achievements of light
operatic music. In 1793 Cimarosa returned to Naples, where
// Matrimonio segreto and other works were received with great
applause. Amongst the works belonging to his last stay in
Naples may be mentioned the charming opera Le Astuzie
feminili. This period of his life is said to have been embittered
by the intrigues of envious and hostile persons, amongst whom
figured his old rival Paisiello. During the occupation of Naples
by the troops of the French Republic, Cimarosa joined the
liberal party, and on the return of the Bourbons, was, like many
of his political friends, condemned to death. By the intercession
of influential admirers his sentence was commuted into banish-
ment, and he left Naples with the intention of returning to
St Petersburg. But his health was broken, and after much
suffering he died at Venice on the nth of January 1801, of
inflammation of the intestines. The nature of his disease led
to the rumour of his having been poisoned by his enemies,
which, however, a formal inquest proved to be unfounded.
He worked till the last moment of his life, and one of his operas,
Artemisia, remained unfinished at his death.

CIMBRI, a Teutonic tribe who made their first appearance
in Roman history in the year 113 B.C., when they defeated the
consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo near Noreia in the modern
Carinthia. It was the common belief that they had been driven
from their homes on the North Sea by inundations, but, whatever
the cause of their migration, they had been wandering along the
Danube for some years warring with the Celtic tribes on either
bank. After the victory of 113 they passed westwards over the
Rhine, threatening the territory of the Allobroges. Their request
for land was not granted, and in 109 B.C. they defeated the consul
Marcus Junius Silanus in southern Gaul, but did not at once
follow up the victory. In 105 they returned to the attack under
their king Boiorix, and favoured by the dissensions of the Roman
commanders Gnaeus Mallius Maximus and Caepio, defeated
them in detail and annihilated their armies at Aranisio (Orange).
Again the victorious Cimbri turned away from Italy, and, after
attempting to reduce the Arverni, moved into Spain, where they
failed to overcome the desperate resistance of the Celtiberian
tribes. In 103 they marched back through Gaul, which they
overran as far as the Seine, where the Belgae made a stout
resistance. Near Rouen the Cimbri were reinforced by the
Teutoni and two cantons of the Helvetii. Thereupon the host
marched southwards by two routes, the Cimbri moving on the
left towards the passes of the Eastern Alps, while the newly
arrived Teutoni and their allies made for the western gates of
Italy. In 102 B.C. the Teutoni and Ambrones were totally
defeated at Aquae Sextiae by Marius, while the Cimbri succeeded
in passing the Alps and driving Q. Lutatius Catulus across the
Adige and Po. In 101 Marius overthrew them on the Raudine
Plain near Vercellae. Their king Boiorix was killed and the
whole army destroyed. The Cimbri were the first in the long
line of the Teutonic invaders of Italy.

The original home of the Cimbri has been much disputed.
It is recorded in the Monumentum Ancyranum that a Roman
fleet sailing eastwards from the mouth of the Rhine (c. A.D. 5)
received at the farthest point reached the submission of a people
called Cimbri, who sent an embassy to Augustus. Several early
writers agree in saying that the Cimbri occupied a peninsula,
and in the map of Ptolemy Jutland appears as the Cimbric
Chersonese. As Ptolemy seems to have regarded the district

north of the Liimfjord (Limfjord) as a group of islands, the
territory of the Cimbri, the northernmost tribe of the peninsula,
would be included in the modern county (Ami) of Aalborg.
This was formerly called Himbersyssel or Himmerland, forms
which may very well preserve their name, especially as the name
Charydes, mentioned next to them in the M onumentum Ancy-
ranum, appears to survive in the modern Hardeland. Possibly
also the district across the Liimfjord formerly called Thythsyssel
or Thyland may in the same way preserve the name of the
Teutoni (q.v.). Strabo and other early writers relate a number
of curious facts concerning the customs of the Cimbri, which are
of great interest as the earliest records of the manner of life of
the Teutonic nations.

SOURCES. — Liyy, Epitome, Ixvii., Ixviii. ; Monumentum Ancy-
ranum; Pomponius Mela iii. 3; C. Plinius Secundus, Nat. Hist.
iv. cap. 13 and 14, §§ 95 ff. ; Strabo p. 292 ff. ; Plutarch, Marius,
passim; Florus iii. 3; Ptolemy ii. II. II f. (F. G. M. B.)

CIMICIFUGA, in botany, a small genus of herbaceous plants,
of the natural order Ranunculaceae, which is widely distributed
in the north temperate zone. C. foetida, bugbane, is used as a
preventive against vermin; and the root of a North American
species, C. racemosa, known as black snake-root, as an emetic.

CIMMERII, an ancient people of the far north or west of
Europe, first spoken of by Homer (Odyssey, xi. 12-19), who
describes them as living in perpetual darkness. Herodotus (iv.
11-13), m his account of Scythia, regards them as the early
inhabitants of South Russia (after whom the Bosporus Cimmerius
[q.v.] and other places were named), driven by the Scyths along
by the Caucasus into Asia Minor, where they maintained them-
selves for a century. But the Cimmerii are often mentioned in
connexion with the Thracian Treres who made their raids across
the Hellespont, and it is quite possible that some Cimmerii took
this route, having been cut off by the Scyths as the Alani (q.v.)
were by the Huns. Certain it is that in the middle of the 7th
century B.C., Asia Minor was ravaged by northern nomads
(Herod, iv. 12), one body of whom is called in Assyrian sources
Gimirrai and is represented as coming through the Caucasus.
They were probably Iranian speakers, to judge by the few proper
names preserved. The name has also been identified with the
biblical Corner, son of Japheth (Gen. x. 2, 3). To the north of
the Euxine their main body was merged in the invading Scyths.
Later writers identified them with the Cimbri of Jutland, who
were probably Teutonized Celts, but this is a mere guess due to
the similarity of name. The Homeric Cimmerii belong to an
early part of the Odyssey in which the hero was conceived as
wandering in the Euxine; these adventures were afterwards
translated to the western Mediterranean in accordance with a
wider geographical outlook.

For the Cimmerian invasions described by Herodotus, see SCYTHIA ;

LYDIAjGYGES. (E. H. M.)

CIMON [Kifiuv] (c. 507-449), Athenian statesman and
general, was the son of Miltiades (q.v.) and Hegesipyle, daughter
of the Thracian prince Olorus. Miltiades died in disgrace,
leaving unpaid the fine imposed upon him for his conduct at
Paros. Cimon's first task in life, therefore, was to remove the
stain on the family name by paying this fine (about £12,000).
In the second Persian invasion, especially at Salamis, and in the
consolidation of the Delian League, he won a high reputation
for courage and integrity. At first with Aristides, and afterwards
as sole commander, he directed the Athenian contingent of the
fleet; on the disgrace of Pausanias he practically commanded
the entire Greek fleet and drove Pausanias from his retreat in
Byzantium. Having captured Eion (at the mouth of the
Strymon) , he expelled the Persian garrisons from the entire sea-
board of Thrace with the exception of Doriscus, and, having
defeated the piratical Dolopians of Scyros (470), confirmed his
popularity by transferring thence to Athens the supposed bones
of the Attic hero Theseus. The bones were buried in Athens,
and over the tomb the Theseum (temple) was erected. In 466
Cimon proceeded to liberate the Greek cities of Lycia and
Pamphylia, and at the mouth of the Eurymedon he defeated
the Persians decisively by land and sea.

CIMON OF CLEONAE— CINCHONA

369

The Persian danger was now over, and the immediate purpose
of the Delian League was achieved. Already, however, Athens
had introduced the policy of coercion which was to transform
the league into an empire, a policy which, after the ostracism
of Themistod.es and the death of Aristides, must be attributed
to Cimon, whose fundamental idea was the union of the Greeks
against all outsiders (see DELIAN LEAGUE). Carystus was
compelled to join the league; Naxos (c. 469) and Thasos (465-
463), which had revolted, were compelled to accept the position
of tributary allies. In 464 Sparta was involved in war with her
Helots (principally of Messenian origin) and was in great
difficulties. Cimon, then the most prominent man in Athens,
persuaded the Athenians to send assistance, on the ground that
Athens could not " stand without her yoke-fellow " and leave
" Hellas lame." The expedition was a failure, and Cimon was
exposed to the attacks of the democrats led by Ephialtes. The
history of this party struggle is not clear. The ordinary account
is that Ephialtes during Cimon's absence in Messenia destroyed
the powers of the Areopagus (q.ii.) and then obtained the ostra-
cism of Cimon, who attempted to reverse his policy. Without
going fully into the question, which is full of difficulty, it may
be pointed out (i) that when the Messenian expedition started
Cimon had twice within the preceding year triumphed over the
opposition of Ephialtes, and (2) that presumably the Cimonian
party was predominant until after the expedition proved a
failure. It is therefore unlikely that, immediately after Cimon's
triumph in obtaining permission to go to Messenia, Ephialtes
was able to attack the Areopagus with success. The probability
is that when the expedition failed, Cimon was ostracized, and
that then Ephialtes defeated the Areopagus, and also made a
change in foreign policy by making alliances with Sparta's
enemies, Argos and Thessaly. This hypothesis alone explains
the absence of any account of a third struggle between Cimon
and Ephialtes over the Areopagus. The chronology would
thus be: ostracism of Cimon, spring, 461; fall of the Areopagus
and reversal of Philo-Laconian policy, summer, 461.

A more difficult question is involved in the date of Cimon's
return from ostracism. The ordinary account says that he was
recalled after the battle of Tanagra (457) to negotiate the Five
Years' Truce (451 or 450). To ignore the unexplained interval
of six or seven years is an uncritical expedient, which, however,
has been adopted by many writers. Some maintaining that
Cimon did return soon after 457, say that the truce which he
arranged was really the four months' truce recorded by Diodorus
(only). To this there are two main objections: (i) if Cimon
returned in 457, why does the evidence of antiquity connect his
return specifically with the truce of 451? and (2) why does he
after 457 disappear for six years and return again to negotiate
the Five Years' Truce and to command the expedition to Cyprus?
It seems much more likely that he returned in 451, at the very
time when Athens returned to his old policy of friendship with
Sparta and war in the East against Persia (i.e. the Cyprus
expedition). Thus it would appear that from 453 onwards there
was a recrudescence of conservative influence, and that for four
years (453-449) Pericles was not master in Athens (see PERICLES) ;
this theory is corroborated by the fact that Pericles, in the
alarm caused by the Egyptian failure of 454, was induced to
remove the Delian treasury to Athens and to abandon his anti-
Spartan policy of land empire.

Cimon died in Cyprus before the walls of Citium (449), and
was buried in Athens. Later Attic orators speak in glowing
terms of a " Peace " between Athens and Persia, which is
sometimes connected with the name of Cimon and sometimes
with that of one Callias. If any such peace was concluded, it
cannot have been soon after the battle of the Eurymedon as
Plutarch assumes. It can have been only after Cimon's death
and the evacuation of Cyprus (i.e. c. 448). It is only in this form
that the view has been maintained logically in modern times.
Apart from the fact that the peace is ignored by Thucydides
and that the earliest reference to it is the passage in Isocrates
(Paneg. 118 and 120), there are weighty reasons which render it
improbable that any formal peace can have been concluded at

that period between Athens and Persia (see further Ed. Meyer's
Forschungen, ii.).

Cimon's services in connexion with the consolidation of the
Empire rank with those of Themistocles and Aristides. He is
described as genial, brave and generous. He threw open his
house and gardens to his fellow-demesmen, and beautified the
city with trees and buildings. But as a statesman he failed to
cope with the new conditions created by the democracy of
Cleisthenes. The one great principle for which he is memorable
is that of the balance of power between Athens and Sparta,
as respectively the naval and military leaders of a united Hellas.
It has been the custom to regard Cimon as a man of little culture
and refinement. It is clear, however, from his desire to adorn
the city, that he was by no means without culture and imagina-
tion. The truth is that, as in politics, so in education and attitude
of mind, he represented the ideals of an age which, in the new
atmosphere of democratic Athens, seemed to savour of rusticity
and lack of education.

The lives of Cimon by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos are uncritical ;
the conclusions above expressed are derived from a comparison of
Plutarch, Cimon, 17, Pericles, 10; Theopompus, fragm. 92; Ando-
cides, de Pace, §§ 3, 4; Diodorus xi. 86 (the four months' truce).
See histories of Greece (e.g. Grote, ed. 1907, i vol.); also PERICLES;
DELIAN LEAGUE, with works quoted. (J. M. M.)

CIMON OF CLEONAE, an early Greek painter, who is said
to have introduced great improvements in drawing. He repre-
sented " figures out of the straight, and ways of representing
faces looking back, up or down; he also made the joints of the
body clear, emphasized veins, worked out folds and doublings
in garments" (Pliny). All these improvements are such as may
be traced in the drawing of early Greek red-figured vases (see
GREEK ART).

CINCHONA, the generic name of a number of trees which
belong to the natural order Rubiaceae. Botanically the genus
includes trees of varying size, some reaching an altitude of 80 ft.
and upwards, with evergreen leaves and deciduous stipules.
The flowers are arranged in panicles, white or pinkish in colour,
with a pleasant odour, the calyx being 5-toothed superior, and
the corolla tubular, s-lobed and fringed at the margin. The
stamens are 5, almost concealed by the tubular corolla, and the
ovary terminates in a fleshy disk. The fruit is an ovoid or sub-
cylindrical capsule, splitting from the base, and held together
at the apex. The numerous seeds are flat and winged all round.
About 40 species have been distinguished, but of these not more
than about a dozen have been economically utilized. The plants
are natives of the western mountainous regions of South America,
their geographical range extending from 10° N. to 22° S. lat.;
and they flourish generally at an elevation of from 5000 to 8000
ft. above sea-level, although some have been noted growing as
high up as 1 1, ooo ft., and others have been found down to 2600 ft.

The trees are valued solely on account of their bark, which
long has been the source of the most valuable febrifuge or
antipyretic medicine, quinine (q.v.), that has ever been dis-
covered. The earliest well-authenticated instance of the medi-
cinal use of cinchona bark is found in the year 1638, when the
countess of Chinchon (hence the name), the wife of the governor
of Peru, was cured of an attack of fever by its administration.
The medicine was recommended in her case by the corregidor
of Loxa, who was said himself to have practically experienced
its supreme virtues eight years earlier. A knowledge of the bark
was disseminated throughout Europe by members of the Jesuit
brotherhood, whence it also became generally known as Jesuits'
bark. According to another account, this name arose from its
value having been first discovered to a Jesuit missionary who,
when prostrate with fever, was cured by the administration of
the bark by a South American Indian. In each of the above
instances the fever was no doubt malaria.

The procuring of the bark in the dense forests of New Granada,
Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia is a work of great toil and hardship
to the Indian cascarilleros or cascadores engaged in the pursuit.
The trees grow isolated or in small clumps, which have to be
searched out by the experienced cascarillero, who laboriously cuts
his way through the dense forest to the spot where he discovers

CINCINNATI

a tree. Having freed the stem from adhering parasites and
twining plants, he proceeds, by beating and cutting oblong pieces,
to detach the stem bark as far as is within his reach. The tree is
then felled, and the entire bark of stem and branches secured.
The bark of the smaller branches, as it dries, curls up, forming
" quills," the thicker masses from the stems constituting the
" flat " bark of commerce. The drying, packing and transport
of the bark are all operations of a laborious description conducted
under most disadvantageous conditions.

The enormous medicinal consumption of these barks, and
the wasteful and reckless manner of procuring them in America
long ago, caused serious and well-grounded apprehension that
the native forests would quickly become exhausted. The atten-
tion of European communities was early directed to the necessity
of securing steady and permanent supplies by introducing the
more valuable species into localities likely to be favourable to
their cultivation. The first actual attempt to rear plants was
made in Algeria in 1849; but the effort was not successful.
In 1854 the Dutch government seriously undertook the task of
introducing the trees into the island of Java, and an expedition
for that purpose was fitted out on an adequate scale. Several
hundreds of young trees were obtained, of which a small pro-
portion was successfully landed and planted in Java; and as
the result of great attention the cultivation of cinchona planta-
tions in that island became highly prosperous and promising.
The desirability of introducing cinchonas into the East Indies
was urged in a memorial addressed to the East India Company
between 1838 and 1842 by Sir Robert Christison and backed by
Dr Forbes Royle; but no active step was taken till 1852, when,
again on the motion of Dr Royle, some efforts to obtain plants
were made through consular agents. In the end the question
was seriously taken up, and Sir Clements R. Markham was
appointed to head an expedition to obtain young trees from
South America and convey them to India. The transference
of the plants was attended with considerable difficulty, but in
1 86 1 under his superintendence a consignment of plants was
planted in a favourable situation in the Nilgiri Hills. For
several years subsequently additional supplies of plants of
various species were obtained from different regions of South
America, and some were also procured from the Dutch planta-
tions in Java. Now the culture has spread over a wide area
in southern India, in Ceylon, on the slopes of the Himalayas,
and in British Burma, and has become widely spread through
the tropics generally. The species grown are principally Cinchona
qfficinalis, C. Calisaya, C. succirubra, C. pitayensis, and C.
Pahudiana, some agreeing with certain soils and climates better
than others, while the yield of alkaloids and the relative pro-
portions of the different alkaloids differ in each species.

The official " bark " of the British Pharmacopoeia is that of
Cinchona succirubra or red bark. It is imported in the form of
quills or recurved pieces, with a rough brown outer surface
and a deep red inner surface, forming a reddish brown odourless
powder, which has a bitter, astringent taste. The British
Pharmacopoeia directs that the bark, when used to make the
various medicinal preparations, shall contain not less than 5
nor more than 6% of total alkaloids, of which at least one-half
is to be constituted by quinine and cinchonidine. The prepara-
tions of this bark are four: a liquid extract, standardized to
contain 5% of total alkaloids; an acid infusion; a tincture
standardized to contain i % of total alkaloids; and a compound
tincture which must possess one-half the alkaloidal strength of
the last. The only purpose for which these preparations of
cinchona bark should be used is as tonics; and even when
this is the desired action there are many reasons why the alkaloid
should be preferred, even though the recent introduction of
standardization removes one of the chief objections to their use.

The pharmacology of red bark, dependent'as it is almost entirely
upon the contained quinine, will not here be discussed (see QUININE).
But the composition of cinchona bark is a matter of importance
and interest. The bark contains, in the first place, five alkaloids,
of which all but quinine may here be dealt with. Q'uinidine,
C»Hi4NiOj, is isomeric with quinine, from which it differs in crystal-
lizing in prisms instead of needles, in being dextro- and not laevo-

rotatory, and in being insoluble in ammonia except in much excess.
Cinchonine has the formula CijHnNiO, quinine being methoxy
cinchonine, i.e. Ci»Hji(OCH»)NjO. It occurs in inodorous, bitter,
colourless prisms; unlike the two alkaloids already named, does
not yield a green colour with chlorine water and ammonia; is
dextro-rotatory; not fluorescent, and practicaljy insoluble in
ammonia and in ether. A fourth alkaloid, cinchonidine, is isomeric
with cinchonine, which yields it when boiled with amyl alcoholic
potash, but is laevo-rotatory, slightly soluble in ether, and faintly
fluorescent. When red baric is extracted with dilute hydrochloric
acid, the product filtered, and excess of sodium hydrate added
thereto, quinine and quinidine are precipitated: on concentrating
the mother liquor, cinchonine falls down, and on further concen-
tration with addition of still more alkali, cinchonidine is thrown
out. Yellow bark, which is not official, yields 3 % of quinine,
and pale bark about 10 % of total alkaloids, of which hardly
any is quinine, cinchonine and quinidine being its chief constituents.
The various forms of bark also yield a very small quantity of an
unimportant alkaloid, conquinamine. In addition to the above,
red bark contains guinic acid, CjHuOe, which is closely allied
to benzoic acid and is excreted in the urine as hippuric acid.
There also occurs chinovic acid, derived from a glucoside chinovin,
which occurs as such in the bark. Besides a trace of volatile
oil which gives the bark its characteristic odour, and cinchona red
(the bark pigment), there occurs about 2 % of cinchp-tannic acid,
closely allied to tannic acid and giving the bark its astringent
property. Cinchona is never used, however, in order to obtain an
astringent action.

The importance of recognizing the complex and inconstant
composition of cinchona bark lies, as in so many other instances,
in this — that the physician who employs it can have only a very
imperfect knowledge of the drug he is using. The latest work on
the action of these alkaloids has shown that cinchonine has a tend-
ency to produce convulsions in certain patients, and that this action
is a still more marked feature of cinchonidine and cinchonamine.
Even small doses administered to epileptics increase the number
of their attacks. They will probably be classified later among the
convulsive poisons. The use of cinchona bark and its preparations,
now that definite active principles can be readily obtained and pre-
cisely studied, is almost entirely to be deprecated. Quinidine is almost
as powerful an antidote to malaria as quinine ; cinchonidine has about
two-thirds the power of quinine, and cinchonine less than one-half.

CINCINNATI, a city and the county-seat of Hamilton county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, opposite the mouth of the
Licking, about 100 m. S.W. of Columbus, about 305 m. by rail
S.E.of Chicago, and about 760 m. (by rail) W.S.W.of New York.
Through the city flows Mill Creek, which empties into the Ohio.
Pop. (i8gol) 296,908; (1900) 325,002, of whom 197,896 were of
foreign parentage (i.e. either their fathers or mothers or both
were foreign-born), 57,961 were foreign-born, and 14,482 were
negroes; (1910) 363,591. The German is by far the most
important of the foreign elements. In addition to the large
number of inhabitants of German descent, there were, in 1900,
107,152 of German parentage, and of the foreign-born 38,219
came from Germany.

Cincinnati is situated on the N. side of the river upon two
terraces or plateaus — the first about 60 ft., the second from
100 to 150 ft., above low water — and upon hills which enclose
these terraces on three sides in the form of an amphitheatre,
rising to a height of about 400 ft. on the E. and of about
460 ft. on the W., and commanding magnificent views of the
river, the valley, the numerous suburbs, and the more distant
wooded hills. About half of the hill-enclosed plain lies S. of
the river, and it is upon this southern half that Covington,
Newport, Dayton, Ludlow and other Kentucky suburbs of
Cincinnati are situated. Cincinnati has a river-frontage of about
14 m., extends back about 6 m. on the W. side in the valley of
Mill Creek, and occupies a total area of about 44 sq. m. Since
1867 it has been connected with Covington by a wire suspension
bridge designed by John A. Roebling, and rebuilt and enlarged
in 1 897. This bridge is 1057 ft. long between towers (or, including
the approaches, 2252 ft. long), with a height of 101 ft. above
low water, and has a double wagon road and two ways for
pedestrians. By two bridges there is direct communication with
Newport; by one, that of the Cincinnati Southern railway, with
Ludlow; and by one (Chesapeake & Ohio; see vol. v., p. 109)

1 Previous census reports of the total population were as follows:
(1810) 2540; (1820) 9642; (1830) 24,831; (1840) 46,338; (1850)
IJ5.435; (1860) 161,044; (1870) 216,239; (1880) 225,139. In the
territory within a radius of 10 m. of the United States government
building there was in 1900 a population of about 480,000.

CINCINNATI

with West Covington. On the terraces the streets generally
intersect at right angles, but on the hills their directions are
irregular. To the " bottoms " (which have suffered much from
floods l)» between Third Street and the river the manufacturing
and wholesale districts are for the most part confined, although
many of these interests are now on the higher levels or in the
suburbs; the principal retail houses are on the higher levels
N. of Third Street, and the handsomest residences are on the
picturesque hills before mentioned, in those parts of the city,
formerly separate villages, known as Avondale, Mt. Auburn,
Clifton, Price Hill, Walnut Hills and Mt. Lookout. The main
part of the city is connected with these residential districts by
electric street railways, whose routes include four inclined-plane
railways, namely, Mt. Adams (268 ft. elevation), Bellevue (300
ft.), Fairview (210 ft.) and Price Hill (350 ft.), from each of which
an excellent panoramic view of the city and suburbs may be
obtained. There are various suburbs, chiefly residential, in the
Mill Creek valley, among them being Carthage, Hartwell,
Wyoming, Lockland and Glendale. Other populous and attrac-
tive suburbs N. of the Ohio river are Norwood and College
Hill.

Buildings, 6*c. — Brick, blue limestone, and a greyish buff
freestone are the most common building materials, and the city
has various buildings of much architectural merit. The chamber
of commerce (completed 1889), designed by H. H. Richardson,
is one of the finest public buildings in the United States. Its
walls are of undressed granite, and it occupies a ground area of
100 by 1 50 ft. The U nited States government building (designed
by A. B. Mullet, and built of Maine and Missouri granite) is a
fine structure in classic style, 360 ft. long and 160 ft. wide, and
4j storeys high; its outer walls are faced with sawn freestone.
It was erected in 1874-1885 and cost (including the land)
$5,250,000. The city hall (332 ft. by 203 ft.), with walls of
red granite and brown sandstone, is a massive and handsome
building erected at a cost of $1,600,000. The county court
house (rebuilt in 1887) is in the Romanesque style, and with
the gaol attached occupies an entire square. The Cincinnati
hospital (completed 1869), comprising eight buildings grouped
about a central court and connected by corridors, occupies a
square of four acres. A new public hospital for the suburbs was
projected in 1907. St Peter's (Roman Catholic) cathedral (begun
1839, consecrated 1844), Grecian in style, is a fine structure,
with a graceful stone spire 224 ft. in height and a chime of 13
bells; it has as an altar-piece Murillo's " St Peter Liberated by
an Angel." The church of St Francis de Sales (in Walnut Hills),
built in 1888, has a bell, cast in Cincinnati, weighing fifteen
tons, and said to be the largest swinging bell in the world.
Several of the Protestant churches, such as the First Presbyterian
(built 1835; steeple, including spire, 285 ft. high), Second
Presbyterian (1872), Central Christian (1869), St Paul's Methodist
Episcopal (1870), and St Paul's Protestant Episcopal pro-
cathedral (1851), are also worthy of mention, and in the residential
suburbs there are many fine churches. Cincinnati is the seat
of a Roman Catholic archbishopric and a Protestant Episcopal
and Methodist Episcopal bishopric. The Masonic temple ( 1 95 f t.
long and 100 ft. wide), in the Byzantine style, is four storeys
high, and has two towers of 140 ft.; the building was completed
in 1860 and has subsequently been remodelled. Among other
prominent buildings are the Oddfellows' temple (completed
1894), the public library, the art museum (1886), a Jewish
synagogue (in Avondale), and the (Jewish) Plum Street temple
(1866), Moorish in architecture. The Soldiers', Sailors' and
Pioneers' building (1907) is a beautiful structure, classic in
design. The business houses are of stone or brick, and many of

I them are attractive architecturally; there are a number of
modern office buildings from 15 to 20 storeys in height. There
are also several large hotels and ten theatres (besides halls and
auditoriums for concerts and public gatherings), the most
notable being Springer music hall.

1 The most destructive floods have been those of 1832, 1847, 1883,
1884 and 1907; the highest stage of the water before 1904 was
71 ft. } in. in 1884, the lowest I ft. 1 1 in. in 1 88 1.

One of the most noted pieces ot monumental art in the United
States is the beautiful Tyler Davidson bronze fountain in
Fountain Square (Fifth Street, between Walnut and Vine
streets), the business centre of the city, by which (or within one
block of which) all car lines run. The fountain was unveiled in
1871 and was presented to the city by Henry Probasco (1820-
1902), a wealthy citizen, who named it in honour of his deceased
brother-in-law and business partner, Mr Tyler Davidson. The
design, by August von Kreling (1810-1876), embraces fifteen
bronze figures, all cast at the royal bronze foundry in Munich,
the chief being a female figure with outstretched arms, from
whose fingers the water falls in a fine spray. This figure reaches
a height of 45 ft. above the ground. The city has, besides,
monuments to the memory of Presidents Harrison and Garfield
(both in Garfield Place, the former an equestrian statue by
Louis T. Rebisso, and the latter by Charles H. Niehaus) ; also,
in Spring Grove cemetery, a monument to the memory of the
Ohio volunteers who lost their lives in the Civil War. The art
museum, in Eden Park, contains paintings by celebrated Euro-
pean and American artists, statuary, engravings, etchings,
metal work, wood carving, textile fabrics, pottery, and an ex-
cellent collection in American ethnology and archaeology. The
Cincinnati Society of Natural History (incorporated 1870) has a
large library and a museum containing a valuable palaeont ological
collection, and bones and implements from the prehistoric
cemetery of the mound-builders, at Madisonville, Ohio.

Parks. — In 1908 Cincinnati had parks covering about 540
acres; there are numerous pleasant driveways both within the
city limits and in the suburban districts, and several attractive
resorts are within easy reach. Eden Park, of 214 acres, on Mount
Adams, about i m. E. of the business centre and near the river,
is noted for its natural beauty, greatly supplemented by the
landscape-gardener's skill, and for its commanding views. The
ground was originally the property of Nicholas Longworth (1782-
1863), a wealthy citizen and well-known horticulturist, who
here grew the grapes from which the Catawba wine, introduced
by him in 1828, was made. The park contains the art museum
and the art academy. Its gateway, Elsinore, is a -medieval
reproduction; other prominent features are the reservoirs,
which resemble natural lakes, and a high water tower, from
which there is a delightful view. In Burnet Woods Park, lying
to the N.E. of Eden and containing about 163 acres, are the
buildings and groundsof the University of Cincinnati, and a lake
for boating and skating. The zoological gardens occupy 60
acres and contain a notable collection of animals and birds.
Other pleasure resorts are the Lagoon on the Kentucky side (in
Ludlow, Ky.) , Chester Park, about 6 m. N. of the business centre,
and Coney Island, about 10 m. up the river on the Ohio side.
Washington (5-6 acres), Lincoln (10 acres), Garfield and Hopkins
are small parks in the city. In 1907 an extensive system of
new parks, parkways and boulevards was projected. Spring
Grove cemetery, about 6 m. N.W. of Fountain Square, contains
600 acres picturesquely laid out on the park plan. It contains
many handsome monuments and private mausoleums, and a
beautiful mortuary chapel in the Norman style.

Water-Supply. — A new and greatly improved water-supply
system for the city was virtually completed in 1907. This
provides for taking water from the Ohio river at a point on the
Kentucky side opposite the village of California, Ohio, and several
miles above the discharge of the city sewers; for the carrying
of the water by a gravity tunnel under the river to the Ohio side,
the water being thence elevated by four great pumping engines,
each having a daily capacity of 30,000,000 gallons, to settling
basins, being then passed through filters of the American or
mechanical type, and flowing thence by a gravity tunnel more
than 4 m. long to the main pumping station, on the bank of
the river, within the city; and for the pumping of the water
thence, a part directly into the distributing pipes and a part to
the principal storage reservoir in Eden Park.

Education. — Cincinnati is an important educational centre.
The University of Cincinnati, originally endowed by Charles
M'Micken (d. 1858) and opened in 1873, occupies a number of

372

CINCINNATI

handsome buildings erected since 1895 on a campus of 43 acres
in Burnet Woods Park, has an astronomical observatory on the
highest point of Mt. Lookout, and is the only strictly municipal
university in the United States. The institution embraces a
college of liberal arts, a college of engineering, a college of law
(united in 1897 with the law school of Cincinnati College, then
the only surviving department of that college, which was founded
as Lancaster Seminary in 1815 and was chartered as Cincinnati
College in 1819), a college of medicine (from 1819 to 1896 the
Medical College of Ohio; the college occupies the site of the old
M'Micken homestead), a college for teachers, a graduate school,
and a technical school (founded in 1886 and transferred to the
university in 1901); while closely affiliated with it are the
Clinical and Pathological School of Cincinnati and the Ohio
College of Dentistry. With the exception of small fees charged
for incidental expenses, the university is free to all students
who are residents of the city; others pay $75 a year for tuition.
It is maintained in part by the city, through public taxation,
and in part by the income from endowment funds given by
Charles M'Micken, Matthew Thorns, David Sinton and others.
The government of the university is entrusted mainly to a
board of nine directors appointed by the mayor. In 1909 it
had a faculty of 144 and 1364 students. Lane Theological
Seminary is situated in Walnut Hills, in the north-eastern part
of the city; it was endowed by Ebenezer Lane and the Kemper
family; was founded in 1829 for the training of Presbyterian
ministers; had for its first president (1832-1852) Lyman
Beecher; and in 1834 was the scene of a bitter contest between
abolitionists in the faculty and among the students, led by
Theodore D wight Weld, and the board of trustees, who forbade
the discussion of slavery in the seminary and so caused about
four-fifths of the students to leave, most of them going to Oberlin
College. The city has also Saint Francis Xavier College (Roman
Catholic, established in 1831 and until 1840 known as the
Athenaeum); Saint Joseph College (Roman Catholic, 1873);
Mount St Mary's of the West Seminary (Roman Catholic, theo-
logical, 1848, at Cedar Point, Ohio); Hebrew Union College
(1875), the leading institution in the United States for educating
rabbis; the largely attended Ohio Mechanics' Institute (founded
1828), a private corporation not conducted for profit, its object
being the education of skilled workmen, the training of industrial
leaders, and the advancement of the mechanic arts (in 1907
there were in all departments 1421 students, a large majority of
whom were in the evening classes); an excellent art academy,
modelled after that of South Kensington; the College of Music
and the Conservatory of Music (mentioned below); the Miami
Medical College (opened in 1852); the Pulte Medical College
(homeopathic; coeducational; opened 1872); the Eclectic
Medical Institute (chartered 1845); two women's medical
colleges, two colleges of dental surgery, a college of pharmacy,
and several business colleges. The public, district, and high
schools of the city are excellent. The City (or public) library
contained in 1906 301,380 vols. and 57,562 pamphlets; the
University library (including medical, law and astronomical
branches), 80,000 vols. (including the Robert Clarke collection,
rich in Americana, and the library — about 5000 vols. — of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science); the
Young Men's Mercantile library, 70,000 vols.; and the Law
library, 35,000 vols.; in addition, the Lloyd library and
museum of botany and pharmacy, and the library of the His-
torical and Philosophical Society of Ohio (1831), which contains
a valuable collection of rare books, pamphlets and manuscripts,
are worthy of mention.

Art, &c. — The large German population makes the city note-
worthy for its music. The first Sangerfest was held in Cincinnati
in 1849, and it met here again in 1870, when a new hall was built
for its accommodation. Under the leadership of Theodore
Thomas (1835-1905), the Cincinnati Musical Festival Association
was incorporated, and the first of its biennial May festivals was
held in 1873. In 1875-1878 was built the large Springer music
hall, named in honour of Reuben R. Springer (1800-1884),
its greatest benefactor, who endowed the Cincinnati College of

Music (incorporated in 1878), of which Thomas was director in
1878-1881. Until his death Thomas was director of the May
festivals also. The grounds for the music hall were given by the
city and are perpetually exempt from taxation. The great organ
in the music hall was dedicated at the third of the May festivals
in 1878. The Sangerfest met in Cincinnati for the third time in
1879, and its jubilee was held here in 1899. By 1880 the May
festival chorus had become a permanent organization. The city
has several other musical societies — the Apollo and Orpheus
clubs (1881 and 1893), a Liederkranz (1886), and a United
Singing Society (1896) being among the more prominent; and
there are two schools of music — the Conservatory of Music and
the College of Music.

The city has large publishing interests, and various religious
(Methodist Episcopal and Roman Catholic) and fraternal
periodicals, and several technical journals and trade papers are
published here. The principal daily newspapers are the Enquirer,
a Democratic journal, established in 1842 and conducted for
many years after 1852 by Washington McLean (1816-1890),
and then by his son, John Roll McLean (b. 1848); the Commercial
Tribune (Republican; previously the Commercial-Gazette and
still earlier the Commercial, founded in 1793, The Tribune being
merged with it in 1896), the Times-Star (the Times established
in 1836), and the Post, established in 1881 (both evening papers);
and several influential German journals, including the VolksblaU
(Republican; established 1836), and the Volksfreund (Demo-
cratic; established 1850).

Among the social clubs of the city are the Queen City Club,
organized in 1874; the Phoenix Club, organized in 1856 and the
leading Jewish club in the city; the Cuvier Club, organized in
1871 and originally an association of hunters and anglers for the
preservation of game and fish; the Cincinnati Club, the Business
Men's Club, the University Club, the Art Club, and the Literary
Club, of the last of which many prominent men, including
President Hayes, have been members. This club dates from
1849, and is said to be the oldest literary club in the country.
There are various commercial ajid trade organizations, the oldest
and most influential being the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce
and Merchants' Exchange, which dates from 1839.

Administration. — The city is governed under the municipal
code enacted by the state legislature in 1902, for the provisions
of which see OHIO.

Among the institutions are the City infirmary (at Hartwell, a
suburb), which, besides supporting pauper inmates, affords relief
to outdoor poor; the Cincinnati hospital, which is supported
by taxation and treats without charge all who are unable to pay;
twenty other hospitals, some of which are charitable institutions;
a United States marine hospital; the Longview hospital for the
insane, at Carthage, 10 m. from the city, and belonging to
Hamilton county, whose population consists largely of the
inhabitants of Cincinnati; an insane asylum for negroes; six
orphan asylums — the Cincinnati, two Protestant, two Roman
Catholic, and one for negroes; a home for incurables; a day
nursery; a fresh-air home and farm for poor children; the
Franciscan Brothers' Protectory for boys; a children's home;
two widows' homes; two old men's homes; several homes for
indigent and friendless women; a foundling asylum; the
rescue mission and home for erring women; a social settlement
conducted by the University of Cincinnati; the house of refuge
(1850) for " the reformation and education of homeless and
incorrigible children under 16 years of age "; and a workhouse
for adults convicted of minor offences.

Communications. — Cincinnati is a railway centre of great im-
portance and has an extensive commerce both by rail and by
river. It is served by the following railways: the Pittsburg,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania system), the Cleve-
land, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (New York Central system),
the Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville, the Cincinnati, New
Orleans & Texas Pacific (the lessee of the Cincinnati Southern
railway,1 connecting Cincinnati and Chattanooga, Tenn., its line

1 The Cincinnati Southern railway is of especial interest in that it
was built by the city of Cincinnati in its corporate capacity. Much

CINCINNATI

373

forming part of the so-called Queen & Crescent Route to New
Orleans), the Erie, the Baltimore & Ohio South- Western (Balti-
more & Ohio system), the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Norfolk &
Western, the Louisville & Nashville, the Cincinnati, Hamilton &
Dayton, the Cincinnati Northern (New York Central system),
the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania system),
and the Cincinnati, Lebanon & Northern (Pennsylvania system).
Most of these railways use the Union Station; the Pennsylvania
and the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, have separate stations.
The city's river commerce, though of less relative importance
since the advent of railways, is large and brings to its wharves
much bulky freight, such as coal, iron and lumber; it also helps
to distribute the products of the city's factories; and the National
government has done much to sustain this commerce by deepen-
ing and lighting the channel. Formerly there was considerable
commerce with Lake Erie by way of the Miami & Erie Canal to
Toledo; the canal was completed in 1830 and has never been
entirely abandoned.

Industries.— Although the second city in population in the
state, Cincinnati ranked first in 1900 as a manufacturing centre,
but lost this pre-eminence to Cleveland in 1005, when the value
of Cincinnati's factory product was $166,059,050, an increase of
17-2% over the figures for 1900. In the manufacture of vehicles,
harness, leather, hardwood lumber, wood-working machinery,
machine tools, printing ink, soap, pig-iron, malt liquors, whisky,
shoes, clothing, cigars and tobacco, furniture, cooperage goods,
iron and steel safes and vaults, and pianos, also in the packing
of meat, especially pork,1 it ranks very high among the cities
of the Union. The well-known and beautiful Rookwood ware
has been made in Cincinnati since 1880, at the Rookwood Pottery
(on Mt. Adams), founded by Mrs Bellamy (Maria Longworth)
Storer, named from her father's home near the city, the first
American pottery to devote exclusive attention to art ware.
The earlier wares were yellow, brown and red; then came deep
greens and blues, followed by mat glazes and by " vellum "
ware (first exhibited in 1904), a lustreless pottery, resembling
old parchment, with its decoration painted or modelled or both.
The clays used are exclusively American, much being obtained
in Missouri. Among the more important manufactures of the
city in 1905 were the following, with the value of the product for
that year: clothing ($16,972,484), slaughtering and meat-
packing products ($13,446,202), foundry and machine-shop
products ($11,528,768), boots and shoes ($10,596,928), distilled
liquors ($9,609,826), malt liquors ($7,702,693), and carriages
and wagons ($6,323,803). 2

History. — Cincinnati was founded by some of the first settlers
in that part of the North- West Territory which afterwards became
the state of Ohio. It lies on part of the land purchased for
himself and others by John Cleves Symmes (1742-1814) from the
United States government in 1788, and the settlement was estab-
lished near the close of the same year by immigrants chiefly
from New Jersey and Kentucky. When the town was laid out
early in 1789, John Filson, one of the founders, named it Losanti-

of the city's trade had always been with the Southern states, and the
urgent need of better facilities for this trade than the river and
existing railway lines afforded led to the building of this road by
the city. The work was carried on under the direction of a board of
five trustees appointed by the superior court of Cincinnati in accord-
ance with the so-called Ferguson Act passed by the Ohio legislature
in 1869, and the railway was completed to Chattanooga in February
1880. For accounts of the building and the management of the
railway, see J. H. Hollander, The Cincinnati Southern Railway;
A Study in Municipal Activity (Baltimore, 1894), one of the Johns
Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science;
and The Founding of the Cincinnati Southern Railway, with an Auto-
biographical Sketch byE.A. Ferguson (Cincinnati, 1905).

1 Before 1863 Cincinnati was the principal centre in the United
States for the slaughtering of hogs and the packing of pork. The
industry began as early as 1820 and rapidly increased in importance,
but after 1863 Chicago took the lead.

* These _ figures are from the U.S. census, and are of course for
Cincinnati proper; some of the largest industrial establishments,
however, are just outside the city limits — among these are manu-
factories of soap (the Ivory Soap Works), machine tools, electrical
machinery and appliances, structural and architectural iron work,
and office furnishings.

ville (L for Licking; os, Latin for mouth; anti, Greek for
opposite; and ville, French for town), but early in the next year
Symmes caused the present name to be substituted in honour of
the Order of the Cincinnati, General Arthur St Clair, the governor
of the North- West Territory, being then president of the Pennsyl-
vania State Society of the Cincinnati. St Clair arrived about the
time the change in name was made, immediately erected Hamilton
County, and made Cincinnati its seat of government; the
territorial legislature also held its sessions here from the time of
its first organization in 1799 until 1801, when it removed to
Chillicothe. During the early years the Indians threatened the
life of the settlement, and in 1 789 Fort Washington, a log building
for protection against the Indians, was built in the city; General
Josiah Harmar, in 1790, and General St Clair, in 1791, made
unsuccessful expeditions against them, and the alarm increased
until 1 794, when General Wayne won a decisive victory over the
savages at Maumee Rapids in the battle of Fallen Timbers, after
which he secured their consent to the terms of the treaty of
Greenville (1795)- Cincinnati was incorporated as a village in
1802, received a second charter in 1815, was chartered as a city
in 1819, and received its second city charter in 1827 and its third
in 1832; since 1851 it has been governed nominally by general
laws of the state, although by the state's method of classifying
cities many acts for its government have been in reality special.
When first incorporated its limits were confined to an area of
3 sq. m., but by annexations in 1849 and 1850 this area was
doubled; in 1854 another square mile was added; in 1869 and
1870 large additions were made, which included the villages of
Sedamsville, Price Hill, Walnut Hills, Mount Aub'um, Clinton-
ville, Corryville, Vemon, Mount Harrison, Barrsville, Fairmount,
West Fairmount, St Peters, Lick Run and Clifton Heights; in
1872 Columbia^which was settled a short time before Cincinnati,
was added; in 1873 Cumminsville and Woodbum; in 1895
Avondale, Riverside, Clifton, Linwood and Westwood; in 1903
Bond Hill, Winton Place, Hyde Park and Evanston; in 1904
portions of Mill Creek township, and in 1905 a small tract in
Mill Creek Valley.

In 1829 Mrs Frances Trollope established in Cincinnati, where
she lived for a part of two years, a " Bazar," which as the
principal means of carrying out her plan to benefit the town was
entirely unsuccessful; a vivid but scarcely unbiassed picture of
Cincinnati in the early thirties is to be found in her Domestic
Manners of the Americans (1831). In 1845 began the marked
influx of Germans, which lasted in large degree up to 1860; they
first limited themselves to the district " Over the Rhine " (the
Rhine being the Miami & Erie Canal), in the angle north-east
of the junction of Canal and Sycamore streets, but gradually
spread throughout the city, although this " Over the Rhine " is
still most typically German.

For more than ten years preceding the 'Civil War the city
was much disturbed by slavery dissension — the industrial
interests were largely with the South, but abolitionists were
numerous and active, and the city was an important station on
the" Underground Railroad, "of which Dr Norton S. To wnshend
(1815-95) was conductor, and one of the stations was the home
of Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, jvho lived in Cincinnati from 1832
to 1850, and gathered there much material embodied in Uncle
Tom's Cabin. In 1834 came the Lane Seminary controversies
over slavery previously referred to. In 1835 James G. Bimey
established here his anti-slavery journal, The Philanthropist, but
his printing shops were repeatedly mobbed and his presses
destroyed, and in January of 1836 his bold speech before a mob
gathered at the court-house was the only thing that saved him
from personal violence, as the city authorities had warned him
that they had not sufficient force to protect him.

At the time of the Civil War the city was strongly in sympathy
with the North. In September 1862 the city was threatened
by a Confederate force under General Kirby Smith, who led
the advance of General Bragg's army (see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR).
On the 28th of March 1884 many of the citizens met at Music
Hall to protest against the lax way in which the law was enforced,
notably in the case of a recent murder, when the confessed

374

CINCINNATUS— CINEMATOGRAPH

criminal had been found guilty of manslaughter only. An
attack was made on the gaol by the lawless element outside the
hall, but was futile, — the murderer having been removed by the
authorities to Columbus. In its efforts to break into the gaol
and court-house the mob was confronted by the militia, and
bloodshed and loss of life resulted; during the rioting the court-
house was fired by the mob and practically destroyed, and many
valuable records were burned. Various important political
conventions have met in Cincinnati, including the national
Democratic convention of 1856, the national Liberal-Republican
convention of 1872, the national Republican convention of 1876,
and the national Democratic convention of 1880, — by which,
respectively, James Buchanan, Horace Greeley, R. B. Hayes and
Winfield Scott Hancock were nominated for the presidency.

See C. T. Greve, Centennial History of Cincinnati and Representative
Citizens (Chicago, 1904), the official municipal documents, the
Annual Reports of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, &c.

CINCINNATUS,1 LUCIUS QUINCTIUS (b. c. 519 B.C.), one of
the heroes of early Rome, a model of old Roman virtue and
simplicity. A persistent opponent of the plebeians, he resisted
the proposal of Terentilius Arsa (or Harsa) to draw up a code of
written laws applicable equally to patricians and plebeians. He
was in humble circumstances, and lived and worked on his own
small farm. The story that he became impoverished by paying
a fine incurred by his son Caeso is an attempt to explain the needy
position of so distinguished a man. Twice he was called from
the plough to the dictatorship of Rome in 458 and 439. In 458
he defeated the Aequians in a single day, and after entering
Rome in triumph with large spoils returned to his farm. The
story of his success, related five times under five different years,
possibly rests on an historical basis, but the account given in Livy
of the achievements of the Roman army is obviously incredible.

See Livy iii. 26-29; Dion. Halic. x. 23-25; Floras i. II. For a
critical examination of the story see Schwegler, Romische Geschichte,
bk. xxviii. 12; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of early Roman
History, ch. xii. 40; W. Ihne, History of Rome, i. ; E. Pais, Storia
di Roma, i. ch. 4 (1898).

CINDERELLA (i.e. little cinder girl), the heroine of an almost
universal fairy-tale. Its essential features are (i) the persecuted
maiden whose youth and beauty bring upon her the jealousy
of her step-mother and sisters, (2) the intervention of a fairy or
other supernatural instrument on her behalf, (3) the prince who
falls in love with and marries her. In the English version, a
translation of Perrault's Cendrillon, the glass slipper which she
drops on the palace stairs is due to a mistranslation of pantoufle
en vair (a. fur slipper) , mistaken for en verre. It has been suggested
that the story originated in a nature-myth, Cinderella being
the dawn, oppressed by the night-clouds (cruel relatives) and
finally rescued by the sun (prince).

See Marian Rolfe Cox, Cinderella; Three Hundred and Forty-five
Variants (1893); A Lang, Perrault's Popular Tales (1888).

CINEAS, a Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of
Epirus. He studied oratory in Athens, and was regarded as the
most eloquent man of his age. He tried to dissuade Pyrrhus
from invading Italy, and after the defeat of the Romans at
Heraclea (280 B.C.) was sent to Rome to discuss terms of peace.
These terms, which are said by Appian (De Rebus Samniticis,
10, n) to have included the freedom of the Greeks in Italy
and the restoration to the Bruttians, Apulians and Samnites of
all that had been taken from them, were rejected chiefly through
the vehement and patriotic speech of the aged Appius Claudius
Caecus the censor. The withdrawal of Pyrrhus from Italy was
demanded, and Cineas returned to his master with the report
that Rome was a temple and its senate an assembly of kings.
Two years later Cineas was sent to renew negotiations with
Rome on easier terms. The result was a cessation of hostilities,
and Cineas crossed over to Sicily, to prepare the ground for
Pyrrhus's campaign. Nothing more is heard of him. He is
said to have made an epitome of the Tactica of Aeneas, probably
referred to by Cicero, who speaks of a Cineas as the author of a
treatise De Re Militari.

1 I.e. the " curly-haired."

See Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 11-21; Justin xviii. 2; Eutropius ii. 12;
Cicero, Ad Fam. ix. 25.

CINEMATOGRAPH, or KINEMATOGRAPH (from idvrina., motion,
and yp6.<t>ta>, to depict), an apparatus in which a series of views
representing closely successive phases of a moving object are
exhibited in rapid sequence, giving a picture which, owing to
persistence of vision, appears to the observer to be in continuous
motion. It is a development of the zoetrope or " wheel of life,"
described by W. G. Homer about 1833, which consists of a
hollow cylinder turning on a vertical axis and having its surface
pierced with a number of slots. Round the interior is arranged
a series of pictures representing successive stages of such a subject
as a galloping horse, and when the cylinder is rotated an observer
looking through one of the slots sees the horse apparently in
motion. The pictures were at first drawn by hand, but photo-
graphy was afterwards applied to their production. E. Muy-
bridge about 1877 obtained successive pictures of a running
horse by employing a row of cameras, the shutters of which
were opened and closed electrically by the passage of the horse
in front of them, and in 1883 E. J. Marey of Paris established
a studio for investigating the motion of animals by similar
photographic methods.

The modern cinematograph was rendered possible by the
invention of the celluloid roll film (employed by Marey in 1800),
on which the serial pictures are impressed by instantaneous
photography, a long sensitized film being moved across the focal
plane of a camera and exposed intermittently. In one apparatus
for making the exposures a cam jerks the film across the field
once for each picture, the slack being gathered in on a drum
at a constant rate. In another four lenses are rotated so as to
give four images for each rotation, the film travelling so as to
present a new portion in the field as each lens comes in place.
Sixteen to fifty pictures may be taken per second. The films
are developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric
light may be fixed to enable the process to be watched. A
positive is made from the negative thus obtained, and is passed
through an optical lantern, the images being thus successively
projected through an objective lens upon a distant screen.
For an 'hour's exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures are needed.
To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the film
for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in
position; when they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the
picture dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another
method of exhibiting cinematographic effects is to bind the
pictures together in book form by one edge, and then release
them from the other in rapid succession by means of the thumb
or some mechanical device as the book is bent backwards. In
this case the subject is viewed, not by projection, but directly,
either with the unaided eye or through a magnifying glass.

Cinematograph films produced by ordinary photographic
processes, being in black and white only, fail to reproduce the
colouring of the subjects they represent. To some extent this
defect has been remedied by painting them by hand, but this
method is too expensive for general adoption, and moreover
does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt
three-colour photography, by using simultaneously three films,
each with a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining
the three images on the screen, have to overcome great difficulties
in regard to maintenance of register, because very minute errors
of adjustment between the pictures on the films are magnified
to an intolerable extent by projection. In a process devised by
G. A. Smith, the results of which were exhibited at the Society
of Arts, London, in December 1908, the number of colour records
was reduced to two. The films were specially treated to increase
their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were taken through
two colour filters alternately interposed in front of the film;
both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition
specially concerned with the orange and red of the subject, and
the other, of blue-green, with the green, blue-green, blue and
violet. The camera was arranged to take not less than 16
pictures a second through each filter, or 32 a second in all. The
positive transparency made from the negative thus obtained

CINERARIA— CINNA

375

was used in a lantern so arranged that beams of red (composed
of crimson and yellow) and of green (composed of yellow and
blue) issued from the lens alternately, the mechanism presenting
the pictures made with the red filter to the red beam, and those
made with the green filter to the green beam. A supplementary
shutter was provided to introduce violet and blue, to compensate
for the deficiency in those colours caused by the necessity of
cutting them out in the camera owing to the over-sensitiveness
of the film to them, and the result was that the successive pic-
tures, blending on the screen by persistence of vision, gave a
reproduction of the scene photographed in colours which were
sensibly the same as those of the original.

The cinematograph enables "living" or "animated pictures"
of such subjects as an army on the march, or an express train
at full speed, to be presented with marvellous distinctness
and completeness of detail. Machines of this kind have been
devised in enormous numbers and used for purposes of amuse-
ment under names (bioscope, biograph, kinetoscope, mutograph,
&c.) formed chiefly from combinations of Greek and Latin words
for life, movement, change, &c., with suffixes taken from such
words as owirtiv, to see, ypatfrtiv, to depict; they have also
been combined with phonographic apparatus, so that, for
example, the music of a dance and the motions of the dancer
are simultaneously reproduced to ear and eye. But when they
are used in public places of entertainment, owing to the extreme
inflammability of the celluloid film and its employment in close
proximity to a powerful source of light and heat, such as is
required if the pictures are to show brightly on the screen,
precautions must be taken to prevent, as far as possible, the heat
rays from reaching it, and effective means must be provided
to extinguish it should it take fire. The production of films
composed of non-inflammable material has also engaged the
attention of inventors.

See H. V. Hopwood, Living Pictures (London, 1899), containing
a bibliography and a digest of the British patents, which is supple-
mented in the Optician, vol. xviii. p. 85 ; Eugene Trutat, La Photo-
graphie animee (1899), which contains a list of the French patents.
For the camera see also PHOTOGRAPHY: 'Apparatus.

CINERARIA. The garden plants of this name have originated
from a species of Senecio, S. cruentus (nat. ord. Compositae), a
native of the Canary Isles, introduced to the royal gardens at
Kew in 1777. It was known originally as Cineraria cruenla,
but the genus Cineraria is now restricted to a group of South
African species, and the Canary Island species has been trans-
ferred to the large and widespread genus Senecio. Cinerarias can
be raised freely from seeds. For spring flowering in England the
seeds are sown in April or May hi well-drained pots or pans, in
soil of three parts loam to two parts leaf-mould, with one-sixth
sand; cover the seed thinly with fine soil, and press the surface
firm. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them
out in pans or pots of similar soil, and when more advanced pot
them singly in 4-in. pots, using soil a trifle less sandy. They
should be grown in shallow frames facing the north, and, if so
situated that the sun shines upon the plants in the middle of the
day, they must be slightly shaded; give plenty of air, and never
allow them to get dry. When well established with roots, shift
them into 6-in. pots, which should be liberally supplied with
manure water as they get filled with roots. In winter remove
to a pit or house, where a little heat can be supplied whenever
there is a risk of their getting frozen. They should stand on a
moist bottom, but must not be subjected to cold draughts.
When the flowering stems appear, give manure water at every
alternate watering. Seeds sown in March, and grown on in this
way, will be in bloom by Christmas if kept in a temperature of
from 40° to 45° at night, with a little more warmth in the day;
and those sown in April and May will succeed them during the
early spring months, the latter set of plants being subjected to a
temperature of 38° or 40° during the night. If grown much
warmer than this, the Cineraria maggot will make its appearance
in the leaves, tunnelling its way between the upper and lower
surfaces and making whitish irregular markings all over. Such
affected leaves must be picked off and burned. Green fly is a

great pest on young plants, and can only be kept down by
fumigating or vaporizing the houses, and syringing with a solu-
tion of quassia chips, soft soap and tobacco.

CINGOLI (anc. Cingulum), a town of the Marches, Italy, in the
province of Macerata, about 14 m. N.W. direct, and 17 m. by
road, from the town of Macerata. Pop. (1901) 13,357. The
Gothic church of S. Esuperanzio contains interesting works of
art. The town occupies the site of the ancient Cingulum, a
town of Picenum, founded and strongly fortified by Caesar's
lieutenant T. Labienus (probably on the site of an earlier village)
in 63 B.C. at his own expense. Its lofty position (2300 ft.) made
it of some importance in the civil wars, but otherwise little is
heard of it. Under the empire it was a municipium.

CINNA, a Roman patrician family of the gens Cornelia. The
most prominent member was Lucius CORNELIUS CINNA, a
supporter of Marius in his contest with Sulla. After serving in
the war with the Marsi as praetorian legate, he was elected
consul in 87 B.C. Breaking the oath he had swom to Sulla that
he would not attempt any revolution in the state, Cinna allied
himself with Marius, raised an army of Italians, and took posses-
sion of the city. Soon after his triumphant entry and the
massacre of the friends of Sulla, by which he had satisfied his
vengeance, Marius died. L. Valerius Flaccus became Cinna's
colleague, and on the murder of Flaccus, Cn. Papirius Carbo.
In 84, however, China, who was still consul, was forced to advance
against Sulla; but while embarking his troops to meet him in
Thessaly, he was killed in a mutiny. His daughter Cornelia was
the wife of Julius Caesar, the dictator; but his son, L. CORNELIUS
CINNA, praetor in 44 B.C., nevertheless sided with 'the murderers
of Caesar and publicly extolled their action.

The hero of Corneille's tragedy Cinna (1640) was Cn. Cornelius
Cinna, surnamed Magnus (after his maternal grandfather
Pompey), who was magnanimously pardoned by Augustus for
conspiring against him.

CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS, Roman poet of the later Ciceronian
age. Practically nothing is known of his life except that he was
the friend of Catullus, whom he accompanied to Bithynia in the
suite of the praetor Memmius. The circumstances of his death
have given rise to some discussion. Suetonius, Valerius Maximus,
Appian and Dio Cassius all state that, at Caesar's funeral, a
certain Helvius Cinna was killed by mistake for Cornelius Cinna',
the conspirator. The last three writers mentioned above add
that he was a tribune of the people, while Plutarch, referring to
the affair, gives the further information that the Cinna who
was killed by the mob was a poet. This points to the identity
of Helvius Cinna the tribune with Helvius Cinna the poet.
The chief objection to this view is based upon two lines in the
9th eclogue of Virgil, supposed to have been written 41 or 40 B.C.
Here reference is made to a certain Cinna, a poet of such import-
ance that Virgil deprecates comparison with him; it is argued
that the manner in which this Cinna, who could hardly have been
any one but Helvius Cinna, is spoken of implies that he was
then alive; if so, he could not have been killed in 44. But such
an interpretation of the Virgilian passage is by no means
absolutely necessary; the terms used do not preclude a reference
to a contemporary no longer alive. It has been suggested that
it was really Cornelius, not Helvius Cinna, who was slain at
Caesar's funeral, but this is not borne out by the authorities.
Cinna's chief work was a mythological epic poem called Smyrna,
the subject of which was the incestuous love of Smyrna (or
Myrrha) for. her father Cinyras, treated after the manner of the
Alexandrian poets. It is said to have taken nine years to finish.
A Propempticon Pollionis, a send-off to [Asinius] Pollio, is also
attributed to him. In both these poems, the language of which
was so obscure that they required special commentaries, his
model appears to have been Parthenius of Nicaea.

See A. Weichert, Poetarum Latinorum Vitae (1850); L. Mailer's
edition of Catullus (1870), where the remains of Cinna's poems are
printed; A. Kiessling, " De C. Helvio Cinna Poe'ta " in Commen-
tationes Philologicae in honorem T. Mommsen (1878); O. Ribbeck,
Geschichte der romischen Dichtunt, i. (1887); Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist,
of Roman Lit. (Eng. tr. 213, 2-5) ; Plessis, Poesie latine (1909).

37^

CINNABAR— CINNAMUS

CINNABAR (Ger. Zinnober), sometimes written cinnabarite,
a name applied to red mercuric sulphide (HgS), or native
vermilion, the common ore of mercury. The name comes from
the Greek wwdjSapi, used by Theophrastus, and probably
applied to several distinct substances. Cinnabar is generally
found in a massive, granular or earthy form, of bright red colour,
but it occasionally occurs in crystals, with a metallic adamantine
lustre. The crystals belong to the hexagonal system, and are
generally of rhombohedral habit, sometimes twinned. Cinnabar
presents remarkable resemblance to quartz in its symmetry and
optical characters. Like quartz it exhibits circular polarization,
and A. Des Cloizeaux showed that it possessed fifteen times the
rotatory power of quartz (see POLARIZATION or LIGHT) . Cinnabar
has higher refractive power than any other known mineral, its
mean index for sodium light being 3-02, whilst the index for
diamond — a substance of remarkable refraction — is only 2-42 (see
REFRACTION). The hardness of cinnabar is 3, and its specific
gravity 8-998.

Cinnabar is found in all localities which yield quicksilver,
notably Almaden (Spain), New Almaden (California), Idria
(Austria), Landsberg, near Ober-Moschel in the Palatinate,
Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps (Tuscany), the mountain
Avala (Servia), Huancavelica (Peru), and the province of Kwei-
chow in China, whence very fine crystals have been obtained.
Cinnabar is in course of deposition at the present day from the
hot waters of Sulphur Bank, in California, and Steamboat
Springs, Nevada.

Hepatic cinnabar is an impure variety from Idria in Carniola,
in which the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy
matter.

Metacinnabarite is a cubic form of mercuric sulphide, this
compound being dimorphous.

For a general description of cinnabar, see G. F. Becker's Geology
of the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope, U.S. Geol. Surv.
Monographs, No. xiii. (1888). (F. W. R.*)

CINNAMIC ACID, or PHENYLACRYLIC Aero, CgH8Oi or
C6H6-CH:CH-COOH, an acid found in the form of its benzyl
ester in Peru and Tolu balsams, in storax and in some gum-
benzoins. It can be prepared by the reduction of phenyl propi-
olic acid with zinc and acetic acid, by heating benzal malonic
acid, by the condensation of ethyl acetate with benzaldehyde
in the presence of sodium ethylate or by the so-called " Perkin
reaction "; the latter being the method commonly employed.
In making the acid by this process benzaldehyde, acetic an-
hydride and anhydrous sodium acetate are heated for some
hours to about 180° C., the resulting product is made alkaline
with sodium carbonate, and any excess of benzaldehyde removed
by a current of steam. The residual liquor is filtered and
acidified with hydrochloric acid, when cinnamic acid is precipi-
tated, C6H6CHO+CH3COONa=C,#6CH:CH-COONa+H2O. It
may be purified by recrystallization from hot water. Consider-
able controversy has taken place as to the course pursued by
this reaction, but the matter has been definitely settled by the
work of R. Fittig and his pupils (Annalen, 1883, 216, pp. 100,
115; 1885, 227, pp. 55, 119), in which it was shown that the
aldehyde forms an addition compound with the sodium salt
of the fatty acid, and that the acetic anhydride plays the part of
a dehydrating agent. Cinnamic acid crystallizes in needles or
prisms, melting at 133° C.; on reduction it gives phenyl propionic
acid, C6H5'CH2'CH2'COOH. Nitric acid oxidizes it to benzoic
acid and acetic acid. Potash fusion decomposes it into benzoic
and acetic acids. Being an unsaturated acid it combines directly
with hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, bromine, &c. On
nitration it gives a mixture of ortho and para nitrocinnamic
acids, the former of which is of historical importance, as by
converting it into orthonitrophenyl propiolic acid A. Baeyer was
enabled to carry out the complete synthesis of indigo (q.v.).
Reduction of orthonitrocinnamic acid gives orthoaminocinnamic
acid, CeH4(NH2)CH:CH-COOH, which is of theoretical import-
ance, as it readily gives a quinoline derivative. An isomer of
cinnamic acid known as allo-cinnamic acid is also known.
For the oxy-cinnamic acids see COUMARIN.

CINNAMON, the inner bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum, a
small evergreen tree belonging to the natural order Lauraceae,
native to Ceylon. The leaves are large, ovate-oblong in shape,
and the flowers, which are arranged in panicles, have a greenish
colour and a rather disagreeable odour. Cinnamon has been
known from remote antiquity, and it was so highly prized among
ancient nations that it was regarded as a present fit for monarchs
and other great potentates. It is mentioned in Exod. xxx. 23,
where Moses is commanded to use both sweet cinnamon (Kinna-
mon) and cassia, and it is alluded to by Herodotus under the
name Kivviimattov, and by other classical writers. The tree is
grown at Tellicherry, in Java, the West Indies, Brazil and Egypt,
but the produce of none of these places approaches in quality
that grown in Ceylon. Ceylon cinnamon of fine quality is a very
thin smooth bark, with a light-yellowish brown colour, a highly
fragrant odour, and a peculiarly sweet, warm and pleasing
aromatic taste. Its flavour is due to an aromatic oil which it
contains to the extent of from 0-5 to i%. This essential oil,
as an article of commerce, is prepared by roughly pounding the
bark, macerating it in sea-water, and then quickly distilling the
whole. It is of a golden-yellow colour, with the peculiar odour
of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste. It consists essenti-
ally of cinnamic aldehyde, and by the absorption of oxygen as
it becomes old it darkens in .colour and develops resinous com-
pounds. Cinnamon is principally employed in cookery as a
condiment and flavouring material, being largely used in the
preparation of some kinds of chocolate and liqueurs. In medicine
it acts like other volatile oils and has a refutation as a cure for
colds. Being a much more costly spice than cassia, that com-
paratively harsh-flavoured substance is frequently substituted
for or added to it. The two barks when whole are easily enough
distinguished, and their microscopical characters are also quite
distinct. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of iodine,
little effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality,
but when cassia is present a deep-blue tint is produced, the
intensity of the coloration depending on the proportion of the
cassia.

CINNAMON-STONE, a variety of garnet, belonging to the
lime-alumina type, known also as essonite or hessonite, from
the Gr. jjffo-aw, " inferior," in allusion to its being less hard and
less dense than most other garnet. It has a characteristic red
colour, inclining to orange, much like that of hyacinth or
jacinth. Indeed it was shown many years ago, by Sir A. H.
Church, that many gems, especially engraved stones, commonly
regarded as hyacinth, were really cinnamon-stone. The difference
is readily detected by the specific gravity, that of hessonite being
3-64 to 3-69, whilst that of hyacinth (zircon) is about 4-6.
Hessonite is rather a soft stone, its hardness being about that of
quartz or 7, whilst the hardness of most garnet reaches 7-5.
Cinnamon-stone comes chiefly from Ceylon, where it is found
generally as pebbles, though its occurrence in its native matrix
is not unknown.

CINNAMUS [KINNAMOS], JOHN, Byzantine historian, flourished
in the second half of the 1 2th century. He was imperial secretary
(probably in this case a post connected with the military ad-
ministration) to Manuel I. Comnenus (1143-1180), whom he
accompanied on his campaigns in Europe and Asia Minor. He
appears to have outlived Andronicus I., who died in 1185.
Cinnamus was the author of a history of the period 1118-1176,
which thus continues the Alexiad of Anna Comnena, and em-
braces the reigns of John II. and Manuel I., down to the un-
successful campaign of the latter against the Turks, which ended
with the disastrous battle of Myriokephalon and the rout of
the Byzantine army. Cinnamus was probably an eye-witness
of the events of the last ten years which he describes. The work
breaks off abruptly; originally it no doubt went down to the
death of Manuel, and there are indications that, even in its
present form, it is an abridgment. The text is in a very corrupt
state. The author's hero is Manuel; he is strongly impressed
with the superiority of the East to the West, and is a de-
termined opponent of the pretensions of the papacy. But he
cannot be reproached with undue bias; he writes with the

CINNOLIN— CINQUE PORTS

377

straightforwardness of a soldier, and is not ashamed on occasion
to confess his ignorance. The matter is well arranged, the style
(modelled on that of Xenophon) simple, and on the whole free
from the usual florid bombast of the Byzantine writers.

Editio princeps, C. Tollius (1652); in Bonn, Corpus Scriptorum
Hist. Byz., by A. Meineke (18(56), with Du Cange's valuable notes;
Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxxiii. ; see also C. Neumann, Griechische
Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert (1888); H. von Kap-Herr,
Die abendldndische Politik Kaiser Manuels (1881) ; C. Krumbacher,
Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).

CINNOLIN, C8H«N2, a compound isomeric with phthalazine,
prepared by boiling dihydrocinnolin dissolved in benzene with
freshly precipitated mercuric oxide. The solution is filtered
and the hydrochloride of the base precipitated by alcoholic
hydrochloric acid; the free base is obtained as an oil by adding
caustic soda. It may be obtained in white silky needles, melting
at 24-25° C. and containing a molecule of ether of crystallization
by cooling the oil dissolved in ether. The free base melts at
39° C. It is a strong base, forming stable salts with mineral
acids, and is easily soluble in water and in the ordinary organic
solvents. It has a taste resembling that of chloral hydrate,
and leaves a sharp irritation for some time on the tongue; it is
also very poisonous (M. Busch and A. Rast, Berichte, 1897, 30,
p. 521). Cinnolin derivatives are obtained from oxycinnolin
carboxylic acid, which is formed by digesting orthophenyl
propiolic acid diazo chloride with water. Oxycinnolin car-
boxylic acid on heating gives oxycinnolin, melting at 225°,
which with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlorcinnolin. This
substance is reduced by iron filings and sulphuric acid to di-
hydrocinnolin.

The relations of these compounds are here shown: —

O-ph«iyl propiolic
acid diazo hydroxide

Oxycinnolin

CINO DA PISTOIA (1270-1336), Italian poet and jurist,
whose full name was GUITTONCINO DE' SINIBALDI, was born in
Pistoia, of a noble family. He studied law at Bologna under
Dinus Muggelanus (Dino de Rossonis: d. 1303) and Franciscus
Accursius, and in 1307 is understood to have been assessor of
civil causes in his native city. In that year, however, Pistoia
was disturbed by the Guelph and Ghibelline feud. The Ghibel-
lines, who had for some time been the stronger party, being
worsted by the Guelphs, Cino, a prominent member of the former
faction, had to quit his office and the city of his birth. Pitecchio,
a stronghold on the frontiers of Lombardy, was yet in the hands
of Filippo Vergiolesi, chief of the Pistoian Ghibellines; Selvaggia,
his daughter, was beloved by Cino (who was probably already
the husband of Margherita degli Unghi); and to Pitecchio did
the lawyer-poet betake himself. It is uncertain how long he
remained at the fortress; it is certain, however, that he v/as not
with the Vergiolesi at the time of Selvaggia's death, which
happened three years afterwards (1310), at the Monte della
Sambuca, in the Apennines, whither the Ghibellines had been
compelled to shift their camp. He visited his mistress's grave
on his way to Rome, after some time spent in travel in France
and elsewhere, and to this visit is owing his finest sonnet. At
Rome Cino held office under Louis of Savoy, sent thither by
the Ghibelline leader Henry of Luxemburg, who was crowned
emperor of the Romans in 1312. In 1313, however, the emperor
died, and the Ghibellines lost their last hope. Cino appears to
have thrown up his party, and to have returned to Pistoia.
Thereafter he devoted himself to law and letters. After filling
several high judicial offices, a doctor of civil law of Bologna in
his forty-fourth year, he lectured and taught from the professor's
chair at the universities of Treviso, Siena, Florence ind Perugia
in succession; his reputation and success were great, his judicial
experience enabling him to travel out of the routine of the schools.
In literature he continued in some sort the tradition of Dante
during the interval dividing that great poet from his successor
Petrarch. The latter, besides celebrating Cino in an obituary

sonnet, has coupled him and his Selvaggia with Dante and
Beatrice in the fourth capitolo of his Trionfi d' Amore.

Cino, the master of Bartolus, and of Joannes Andreae the
celebrated canonist, was long famed as a jurist. His commentary
on the statutes of Pistoia, written within two years, is said to
have great merit; while that on the code (Lectwa Cino Pistoia
super codice, Pavia, 1483; Lyons, 1526) is considered by Savigny
to exhibit more practical intelligence and more originality of
thought than are found in any commentary on Roman law since
the time of Accursius. As a poet he also distinguished himself
greatly. He was the friend and correspondent of Dante's later
years, and possibly of his earlier also, and was certainly, with
Guido Cavalcanti and Durante da Maiano, one of those who
replied to the famous sonnet A ciascun' alma preset e gentU core
of the Vita Nuova. In the treatise De Vulgari Eloquio Dante
refers to him as one of " those who have most sweetly and subtly
written poems in modern Italian," but his works, printed at
Rome in 1 559, do not altogether justify the praise. Strained and
rhetorical as many of his outcries are, however, Cino is not
without moments of true passion and fine natural eloquence.
Of these qualities the sonnet in memory of Selvaggia, lo
fui in sull' alto e in sul beato monte, and the canzone to Dante,
Avegnache di omaggio piit per tempo, are interesting examples.

The text-book for English readers is D. G. Rossetti's Early Italian
Poets, wherein will be found not only a memoir of Cino da Pistoia,
but also some admirably translated specimens of his verse-^-the
whole wrought into significant connexion with that friendship of
Cino's which is perhaps the most interesting fact about him. See
also Ciampi, Vita e poesie di ntesser Cino da Pistoia (Pisa, 1813).

CINQ-MARS, HENRI COIFFIER RUZ& D'EFFIAT, MARQUIS
DE (1620-1642), French courtier, was the second son of Antoine
Coiffier Ruze, marquis d'Effiat, marshal of France (1581-1632),
and was introduced to the court of Louis XIII. by Richelieu,
who had been a friend of his father and who hoped he would
counteract the influence of the queen's favourite Mile, de
Hautefort. Owing to his handsome appearance and agreeable
manners he soon became a favourite of the king, and was made
successively master of the wardrobe and master of the horse.
After distinguishing himself at the siege of Arras in 1640, Cinq-
Mars wished for a high military command, but Richelieu opposed
his pretensions and the favourite talked rashly about over-
throwing the minister. He was probably connected with the
abortive rising of the count of Soissons in 1641 ; however that
may be, in the following year he formed a conspiracy with the
duke of Bouillon and others to overthrow Richelieu. This plot
was under the nominal leadership of the king's brother Gaston
of Orleans. The plans of the conspirators were aided by the
illness of Richelieu and his absence from the king, and at the
siege of Narbonne Cinq-Mars almost induced Louis to agree to
banish his minister. Richelieu, however, recovered, became
acquainted with the attempt of Cinq-Mars to obtain assistance
from Spain, and laid the proofs of his treason before the king,
who ordered his arrest. Cinq-Mars was brought to trial, admitted
his guilt, and was condemned to death. He was executed" at
Lyons on the I2th of September 1642. It is possible that
Cinq-Mars was urged to engage in this conspiracy by his affection
for Louise Marie de Gonzaga (1612-1667), afterwards queen of
Poland, who was a prominent figure at the court of Louis XIII.;
and this tradition forms part of the plot of Alfred de Vigny's
novel Cinq-Mars.

See Le P. Griffet, Histoire de Louis XIII; A. Bazin, Histoire de
Louis XIII (1846); L. D'Astarac de Frontrailles, Relations des
chases particulieres de la cour pendant lafaveur deM.de Cinq-Mars.

CINQUE CENTO (Italian for five hundred; short for 1500), in
architecture, the style which became prevalent in Italy in the
century following 1500, now usually called " 16th-century work."
It was the result of the revival of classic architecture known as
Renaissance, but the change had commenced already a century
earlier, in the works of Ghiberti and Donatello in sculpture,
and of Brunelleschi and Albert! in architecture.

CINQUE PORTS, the name of an ancient jurisdiction in the
south of England, which is still maintained with considerable
modifications and diminished authority. As the name implies,

37*

CINQUE PORTS

the ports originally constituting the body were only five in
number — Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover and Sandwich ;
but to these were afterwards added the " ancient towns " of
Winchelsea and Rye with the same privileges, and a good many
other places, both corporate and non-corporate, which, with
the title of limb or member, held a subordinate position. To
Hastings were attached the corporate members of Pevensey
and Seaford, and the non-corporate members of Bulvarhythe,
Petit Iham (Yham or Higham), Hydney, Bekesbourn, Northeye
and Grenche or Grange; to Romney, Lydd, and Old Romney,
Dengemarsh, Orwaldstone, and Bromehill or Promehill; to
Dover, Folkestone and Faversham, and Margate, St John's,
Goresend (now Birchington), Birchington Wood (now Wood-
church), St Peter's, Kingsdown and Ringwould; to Sandwich,
Fordwich and Deal, and Walmer, Ramsgate, Reculver, Stonor
(Estanor), Sarre (or Serre) and Brightlingsea (in Essex). To
Rye was attached the corporate member of Tenterden, and to a
Hythe the non-corporate member of West Hythe. The juris-
diction thus extends along the coast from Seaford in Sussex
to Birchington near Margate in Kent; and it also includes a
number of inland districts, at a considerable distance from the
ports with which they are connected. The non-incorporated
members are within the municipal jurisdiction of the ports to
which they are attached; but the corporate members are as
free within their own liberties as the individual ports themselves.

The incorporation of the Cinque Ports had its origin in the
necessity for some means of defence along the southern seaboard
of England, and in the lack of any regular navy. Up to the
reign of Henry VII. they had to furnish the crown with nearly
all the ships and men that were needful for the state; and for
a long time after they were required to give large assistance to
the permanent fleet. The oldest charter now on record is one
belonging to the 6th year of Edward I.; and it refers to previous
documents of the time of Edward the Confessor and William
the Conqueror. In return for their services the ports enjoyed
extensive privileges. From the Conquest or even earlier they
had, besides various lesser rights — (i) exemption from tax
and tallage; (2) soc and sac, or full cognizance of all criminal
and civil cases within their liberties; (3) tol and team, or the
right of receiving toll and the right of compelling the person
in whose hands stolen property was found to name the person
from whom he received it; (4) blodwit and fled wit, or the right
to punish shedders of blood and those who were seized in an
attempt to escape from justice; (5) pillory and tumbrel; (6)
infangentheof and [outfangentheof , or power to imprison and
execute felons; (7) mundbryce (the breaking into or violation
of a man's mund or property in order to erect banks or
dikes as a defence against the sea); (8) waives and strays,
or the right to appropriate lost property or cattle not claimed
within a year and a day; (9) the right to seize all flotsam,
jetsam, or ligan, or, in other words, whatever of value was cast
ashore by the sea; (10) the privilege of being a gild with power
to impose taxes for the common weal; and (n) the right of
assembling in portmote or parliament at Shepway or Shepway
Cross, a few miles west of Hythe (but afterwards at Dover),
the parliament being empowered to make by-laws for the
Cinque Ports, to regulate the Yarmouth fishery, to hear appeals
from the local courts, and to give decision in all cases of treason,
sedition, illegal coining or concealment of treasure trove. The
ordinary business of the ports was conducted in two courts
known respectively as the court of brotherhood and the court
of brotherhood and guestling, — the former being composed of
the mayors of the seven principal towns and a number of jurats
and freemen from each, and the latter including in addition the
mayors, bailiffs and other representatives of the corporate
members. The court of brotherhood was formerly called the
brotheryeeld, brodall or brodhull; and the name guestling
seems to owe its origin to the fact that the officials of the
" members " were at first in the position of invited guests.

The highest office in connexion with the Cinque Ports is that
of the lord warden, who also acts as governor of Dover Castle,
and has a maritime jurisdiction (vide infra) as admiral of the

ports. His power was formerly of great extent, but he has now
practically no important duty to exercise except that of chairman
of the Dover harbour board. The emoluments of the office are
confined to certain insignificant admiralty droits. The patronage
attached to the office consists of the right to appoint the judge
of the Cinque Ports admiralty court, the registrar of the Cinque
Ports and the marshal of the court; the right of appointing
salvage commissioners at each Cinque Port and the appointment
of a deputy to act as chairman of the Dover harbour board in
the absence of the lord warden. Walmer Castle was for long
the official residence of the lord warden, but has, since the
resignation of Lord Curzon in 1903, ceased to be so used, and
those portions of it which are of historic interest are now open
to the public. George, prince of Wales (lord warden, 1903-1907),
was the first lord warden of royal blood since the office was held
by George, prince of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne.

Admiralty Jurisdiction. — The court of admiralty for the
Cinque Ports exercises a co-ordinate but not exclusive admiralty
jurisdiction over persons and things found within the territory
of the Cinque Ports. The limits of its jurisdiction were declared
at an inquisition taken at the court of admiralty, held by the
seaside at Dover in 1682, to extend from Shore Beacon in Essex
to Redcliff, near Seaford, in Sussex; and with regard to salvage,
they comprise all the sea between Seaford in Sussex to a point
five miles off Cape Grisnez on the coast of France, and the coast
of Essex. An older inquisition of 1526 is given by R.G. Marsden
in his Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty, II. xxx. The court
is an ancient one. The judge sits as the official and commissary
of the lord warden, just as the judge of the high court of admiralty
sat as the official and commissary of the lord high admiral. And,
as the office of lord warden is more ancient than the office of
lord high admiral (The Lord Warden v. King in his office of
Admiralty, 1831, 2 Hagg. Admy. Rep. 438), it is probable that
the Cinque Ports court is the more ancient of the two.

The jurisdiction of the court has been, except in one matter
of mere antiquarian curiosity, unaffected by statute. It exercises
only, therefore, such jurisdiction as the high court of admiralty
exercised, apart from restraining statutes of 1389 and 1391 and
enabling statutes ofi84oandi86i. Cases of collision have been
tried in it (the " Vivid," i Asp. Maritime Law Cases, 601).
But salvage cases (the " Clarisse," Swabey, 129; the " Marie,"
Law. Rep. 7 P.D. 203) are the principal cases now tried. It has
no prize jurisdiction. The one case in which jurisdiction has
been given to it by statute is to enforce forfeitures under the
statute of 1538.

Dr (afterwards the Right Hon. Robert Joseph) Phillimore
succeeded his father as judge of the court from 1855 to 1875,
being succeeded by Mr Arthur Cohen, K.C. As Sir R. Phillimore
was also the last judge of the high court of admiralty, from 1867
(the date of his appointment to the high court) to 1875, the two
offices were, probably for the first time in history, held by the
same person. Dr Phillimore's patent had a grant of the " place
or office of judge official and commissary of the court of admiralty
of the Cinque Ports, and their members and appurtenances,
and to be assistant to my lieutenant of Dover castle in all such
affairs and business concerning the said court of admiralty
wherein yourself and assistance shall be requisite and necessary."
Of old the court sat sometimes at Sandwich, sometimes at other
ports. But the regular place for the sitting of the court has for
a long time been, and still is, the aisle of St James's church,
Dover. For convenience the judge often sits at the royal courts
of justice. The office of marshal in the high court is represented
in this court by a Serjeant, who also bears a silver oar. There
is a registrar, as in the high court. The appeal is to the king in
council, and is heard by the judicial committee of the privy
council. The court can hear appeals from the Cinque Ports
salvage commissioners, such appeals being final (Cinque Ports
Act 1821). Actions may be transferred to it, and appeals made
to it, from the county courts in all cases arising within the
jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports as defined by that act. At the
solemn installation of the lord warden the. judge as the next
principal officer installs him.

CINTRA— CIPRIANI

379

The Cinque Ports from the earliest times claimed to be exempt
from the jurisdiction of the admiral of England. Their early
charters do not, like those of Bristol and other seaports, express
this exemption in terms. It seems to have been derived from
the general words of the charters which preserve their liberties
and privileges.

The lord warden's claim to prize was raised in, but not finally
decided by, the high court of admiralty in the " Ooster Ems,"
i C. Rob. 284, 1783.

See S. Jeake, Charters of the Cinque Ports (1728); Boys, Sandwich
and Cinque Ports; Knocker, Grand Court of Shepway (1862); M.
Burrows, Cinque Ports (1895); F. M. Hueffer, Cinque Ports (1900);
Indices of the Great White and Black Books of the Cinque Ports (1905).

CINTRA, a town of central Portugal, in the district of Lisbon,
formerly included in the province of Estramadura; 17 m.
W.N.W. of Lisbon by the Lisbon-Cagem-Cintra railway, and
6 m. N. by E. of Cape da Roca, the westernmost promontory of
the European mainland. Pop. (1900) 5914. Cintra is magnifi-
cently situated on the northern slope of the Serra da Cintra, a
rugged mountain mass, largely overgrown with pines, eucalyptus,
cork and other forest trees, above which the principal summits
rise in a succession of bare and jagged grey peaks; the highest
being Cruz Alta (1772 ft.), marked by an ancient stone cross,
and commanding a wonderful view southward over Lisbon and
the Tagus estuary, and north-westward over the Atlantic and
the plateau of Mafra. Few European towns possess equal
advantages of position and climate; and every educated
Portuguese is familiar with the verses in which the beauty of
Cintra is celebrated by Byron in Childe Harold (1812), and by
Camoens in the national epic Os Lusiadas (1572). One of the
highest points of the Serra is surmounted by the Palacio da Pena,
a fantastic imitation of a medieval fortress, built on the site of a
Hieronymite convent by the prince consort Ferdinand of Saxe-
Coburg (d. 1885); while an adjacent part of the range is occupied
by the Castello des Mouros, an extensive Moorish fortification,
containing a small ruined mosque and a very curious set of
ancient cisterns. The lower slopes of the Serra are covered
. with the gardens and villas of the wealthier inhabitants of
Lisbon, who migrate hither in spring and stay until late
autumn.

In the town itself the most conspicuous building is a I4th-
iSth-century royal palace, partly Moorish, partly debased Gothic
in style, and remarkable for the two immense conical chimneys
which rise like towers in the midst. The 18th-century Palacio
de Seteaes, built in the French style then popular in Portugal,
is said to derive its name (" Seven Ahs ") from a sevenfold echo;
here, on the 22nd of August 1808, was signed the convention of
Cintra, by which the British and Portuguese allowed the French
army to evacuate the kingdom without molestation. Beside the
road which leads for 35 m. W. to the village of Collares, celebrated
for its wine, is the Penha Verde, an interesting country house and
chapel, founded by Joao de Castro (1500-1548), fourth viceroy
of the Indies. De Castro also founded the convent of Santa Cruz,
better known as the Convento de Cortiga or Cork convent, which
stands at the western extremity of the Serra, and owes its name
to the cork panels which formerly lined its walls. Beyond the
Penha Verde, on the Collares road, are the palace and park of
Montserrate. The palace was originally built by William
Beckford, the novelist and traveller (1761-1844), and was
purchased in 1856 by Sir Francis Cook, an Englishman who
afterwards obtained the Portuguese title viscount of Montserrate.
The palace, which contains a valuable library, is built of pure
white stone, in Moorish style; its walls are elaborately sculptured.
The park, with its tropical luxuriance of vegetation and its variety
of lake, forest and mountain scenery, is by far the finest example
of landscape gardening in the Iberian Peninsula, and probably
among the finest in the world. Its high-lying lawns, which
overlook the Atlantic, are as perfect as any in England, and
there is one ravine containing a whole wood of giant tree-ferns
from New Zealand. Other rare plants have been systematically
collected and brought to Montserrate from all parts of the world
by Sir Francis Cook, and afterwards by his successor, Sir

Frederick Cook, the second viscount. The Praia das Macas, or
" beach of apples," in the centre of a rich fruit-bearing valley,
is a favourite sea-bathing station, connected with Cintra by an
extension of the electric tramway which runs through the town.

CIPHER, or CYPHER (from Arab, fifr, void), the symbol o,
nought, or zero; and so a name for symbolic or secret writing
(see CRYPTOGRAPHY), or even for shorthand (q.v.), and also in
elementary education for doing simple sums (" ciphering ").

CIPPUS (Lat. for a " post " or " stake "), in architecture,
a low pedestal, either round or rectangular, set up by the Romans
for various purposes such as military or mile stones, boundary
posts, &c. The inscriptions on some in the British Museum show
that they were occasionally funeral memorials.

CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1727-1785), Italian painter
and engraver, Pistoiese by descent, was born in Florence in 1727.
His first lessons were given him by an Englishman, Ignatius
Heckford or Hugford, and under his second master, Antonio
Domenico Gabbiani, he became a very clever draughtsman.
He was in Rome from 1750 to 1753, where he became acquainted
with Sir William Chambers, the architect, and Joseph Wilton,
the sculptor, whom he accompanied to England in August 1755.
He had already painted two pictures for the abbey of San
Michele in Pelago, Pistoia, which had brought him reputation,
and on his arrival in England he was patronized by Lord Tilney,
the duke of Richmond and other noblemen. His acquaintance
with Sir William Chambers no doubt helped him on, for when
Chambers designed the Albany in London for Lord Holland,
Cipriani painted a ceiling for him. He also painted part of a
ceiling in Buckingham Palace, and a room with poetical subjects
at Standlynch in Wiltshire. Some of his best and most permanent
work was, however, done at Somerset House, built by his friend
Chambers, upon which he lavished infinite pains. He not only
prepared the decorations for the interior of the north block, but,
says Joseph Baretti in his Guide through the Royal Academy
(1780), " the whole of the carvings in the various fronts of
Somerset Place — excepting Bacon's bronze figures — were carved
from finished drawings made by Cipriani." These designs
include the five masks forming the keystones to the arches on the
courtyard side of the vestibule, and the two above the doors
leading into the wings of the north block, all of which are believed
to have been carved by Nollekens. The grotesque groups
flanking the main doorways on three sides of the quadrangle
and the central doorway on the terrace appear also to have been
designed by Cipriani. The apartments in Sir William Chambers's
stately palace that were assigned to the Royal Academy, into
which it moved in 1780, owed much to Cipriani's graceful, if
mannered, pencil. The central panel of the library ceiling was
painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, but the four compartments
in the coves, representing Allegory, Fable, Nature and History,
were Cipriani's. These paintings still remain at Somerset House,
together with the emblematic painted ceiling, also his work, of
what was once the library of the Royal Society. It was natural
that Cipriani should thus devote himself to adorning the apart-
ments of the academy, since he was an original member (1768)
of that body, for which he designed the diploma so well engraved
by Bartolozzi. In recognition of his services in this respect the
members presented him in 1769 with a silver cup with a com-
memorative inscription. He was much employed by the pub-
lishers, for whom he made drawings in pen and ink, sometimes
coloured. His friend Bartolozzi engraved most of them. Draw-
ings by him are in both the British Museum and Victoria and
Albert Museum. His best autograph engravings are " The Death
of Cleopatra," after Benvenuto Cellini; "The Descent of the
Holy Ghost," after Gabbiani; and portraits for Hollis's memoirs,
1780. He painted allegorical designs for George III.'s state
coach — which is still in use — in 1782, and repaired Verrio's
paintings at Windsor and Rubens's ceiling in the Banqueting
House at Whitehall. If his pictures were often weak, his decora-
tive treatment of children was usually exceedingly happy. Some
of his most pleasing work was that which, directly or indirectly,
he executed for the decoration of furniture. He designed many
groups of nymphs and amorini and medallion subjects to form

38o

CIRCAR— CIRCASSIA

the centre of Pergolesi's bands of ornament, and they were
continually reproduced upon the elegant satin-wood furniture
which was growing popular in his later days and by the end of
the 1 8th century became a rage. Sometimes these designs were
inlaid in marqueterie, but most frequently they were painted
upon the satin-wood by other hands with delightful effect, since
in the whole range of English furniture there is nothing more
enchanting than really good finished satin-wood pieces. There
can be little doubt that some of the beautiful furniture designed
by the Adams was actually painted by Cipriani himself. He also
occasionally designed handles for drawers and doors. Cipriani
died at Hammersmith in 1785 and was buried at Chelsea, where
Bartolozzi erected a monument to his memory. He had married
an English lady, by whom he had two sons.

CIRCAR, an Indian term applied to the component parts of a
subah or province, each of which is administered by a deputy-
governor. In English it is principally employed in the name
of the NORTHERN CIRCARS, used to designate a now obsolete
division of the Madras presidency, which consisted of a narrow
slip of territory lying along the western side of the Bay of Bengal
from 15° 40' to 20° 17' N. lat. These Northern Circars were
five in number, Chicacole, Rajahmundry, Ellore, Kondapalli
and Guntur, and their total area was about 30,000 sq. m.

The district corresponds in the main to the modern districts
of Kistna, Godavari, Vizagapatam, Ganjam and a part of
Nellore. It was first invaded by the Mahommedans in 1471;
in 1541 they conquered Kondapalli, and nine years later they
extended their conquests over all Guntur and the districts of
Masulipatam. But the invaders appear to have acquired only
an imperfect possession of the country, as it was again wrested
from the Hindu princes of Orissa about the year 1571, during
the reign of Ibrahim, of the Kutb Shahi dynasty of Hyderabad
or Golconda. In 1687 the Circars were added, along with the
empire of Hyderabad, to the extensive empire of Aurangzeb.
Salabat Jang, the son of the nizam ul mulk Asaf Jah, who was
indebted for his elevation to the throne to the French East
India Company, granted them in return for their services the
district of Kondavid or Guntur, and soon afterwards the other
Circars. In 1 7 59, by the conquest of the fortress of Masulipatam,
the dominion of the maritime provinces on both sides, from the
river Gundlakamma to the Chilka lake, was necessarily trans-
ferred from the French to the British. But the latter left them
under the administration of the nizam, with the exception of
the town and fortress of Masulipatam, which were retained by
the English East India Company. In 1765 Lord Olive obtained
from the Mogul emperor Shah Alam a grant of the five Circars.
Hereupon the fort of Kondapalli was seized by the British, and
on the 1 2th of November 1766 a treaty of alliance was signed
with Nizam Ali by which the Company, in return for the grant
of the Circars, undertook to maintain troops for the nizam's
assistance. By a second treaty, signed on the ist of March
1768, the nizam acknowledged the validity of Shah Alam's
grant and resigned the Circars to the Company, receiving as a
mark of friendship an annuity of £50,000. Guntur, as the
personal estate of the nizam's brother Basalat Jang, was ex-
cepted during his lifetime under both treaties. He died in 1782,
but it was not till 1 788 that Guntur came under British admini-
stration. Finally, in 1823, the claims of the nizam over the
Northern Circars were bought outright by the Company, and
they became a British possession.

CIRCASSIA, a name formerly given to the north-western
portion of the Caucasus, including the district between the
mountain range and the Black Sea, and extending to the north
of the central range as far as the river Kuban. Its physical
features are described in the article on the Russian province of
KUBAN, with which it approximately coincides. The present
article is confined to a consideration of the ethnographical
relations and characteristics of the people, their history being
treated under CAUCASIA.

The Cherkesses or Circassians, who gave their name to this
region, of which they were until lately the sole inhabitants, are a
peculiar race, differing from the other tribes of the Caucasus in

origin and language. They designate themselves by the name
of Adigheb, that of Cherkesses being a term of Russian origin.
By their long-continued struggles with the power of Russia,
during a period of nearly forty years, they attracted the attention
of the other nations of Europe in a high degree, and were at the
same time an object of interest to the student of the history cf
civilization, from the strange mixture which their customs
exhibited of chivalrous sentiment with savage customs. For
this reason it may be still worth while to give a brief summary
of their national characteristics and manners, though these
must now be regarded as in great measure things of the past.

In the patriarchal simplicity of their manners, the mental
qualities with which they were endowed, the beauty of form
and regularity of feature by which they were distinguished, they
surpassed most of the other tribes of the Caucasus. At the
same time they were remarkable for their warlike and intrepid
character, their independence, their hospitality to strangers,
and that love of country which they manifested in their deter-
mined resistance to an almost overwhelming power during the
period of a long and desolating war. The government under
which they lived was a peculiar form of the feudal system. The
free Circassians were divided into three distinct ranks, the
princes or pshi, the nobles or uork (Tatar usden), and the peasants
or hokotl. Like the inhabitants of the other regions of the
Caucasus, they were also divided into numerous families, tribes
or clans, some of which were very powerful, and carried on war
against each other with great animosity. The slaves, of whom
a large proportion were prisoners of war, were generally employed
in the cultivation of the soil, or in the domestic service of some
of the principal chiefs.

The will of the people was acknowledged as the supreme
source of authority; and every free Circassian had a right to
express his opinion in those assemblies of his tribe in which the
questions of peace and war, almost the only subjects which
engaged their attention, were brought under deliberation. The
princes and nobles, the leaders of the people in war and their
rulers in peace, were only the administrators of a power which
was delegated to them. As they had no written laws, the
administration of justice was regulated solely by custom and
tradition, and in those tribes professing Mahommedanism by
the precepts of the Koran. The most aged and respected
inhabitants of the various aids or villages frequently sat in
judgment, and their decisions were received without a murmur
by the contending parties. The Circassian princes and nobles
were professedly Mahommedans; but in their religious services
many of the ceremonies of their former heathen and Christian
worship were still preserved. A great part of the people had
remained faithful to the worship of their ancient gods — Shible,
the god of thunder, of war and of justice; Tleps, the god of fire;
and Seosseres, the god of water and of winds. Although the
Circassians are said to have possessed minds capable of the
highest cultivation, the arts and sciences, with the exception
of poetry and music, were completely neglected. They possessed
no written language. The wisdom of their sages, the knowledge
they had acquired, and the memory of their warlike deeds were
preserved in verses, which were repeated from mouth to mouth
and descended from father to son.

The education of the young Circassian was confined to riding,
fencing, shooting, hunting, and such exercises as were calculated
to strengthen his frame and prepare him for a life of active
warfare. The only intellectual duty of the atalik or instructor,
with whom the young men lived until they had completed
their education, was that of teaching them to express their
thoughts shortly, quickly and appropriately. One of their
marriage ceremonies was very strange. The young man who
had been approved by the parents, and had paid the stipulated
price in money, horses, oxen, or sheep for his bride, was expected
to come with his friends fully armed, and to carry her off by force
from her father's house. Every free Circassian had unlimited
right over the lives of his wife and children. Although polygamy
was allowed by the laws of the Koran, the custom of the country
forbade it, and the Circassians were generally faithful to the

CIRCE— CIRCEIUS MONS

381

marriage bond. The respect for superior age was carried to
such an extent that the young brother used to rise from his seat
when the elder entered an apartment, and was silent when he
spoke. Like all the other inhabitants of the Caucasus, the
Circassians were distinguished for two very opposite qualities —
the most generous hospitality and implacable vindictiveness
Hospitality to the stranger was considered one of the most
sacred duties. Whatever were his rank in life, all the members
of the family rose to receive him on his entrance, and conduct
him to the principal seat in the apartment. The host was con-
sidered responsible with his own life for the security of his guest
upon whom, even although his deadliest enemy, he would inflict
no injury while under the protection of his roof. The chief who
had received a stranger was also bound to grant him an escort
of horse to conduct him in safety on his journey, and confide
him to the protection of those nobles with whom he might be on
friendly terms. The law of vengeance was no less binding on
the Circassian. The individual who had slain any member of a
family was pursued with implacable vengeance by the relatives,
until his crime was expiated by death. The murderer might,
indeed, secure his safety by the payment of a certain sum of
money, or by carrying off from the house of his enemy a newly-
born child, bringing it up as his own, and restoring it when its
education was finished. In either case, the family of the slain
individual might discontinue the pursuit of vengeance without
any stain upon its honour. The man closely followed by his
enemy, who, on reaching the dwelling of a woman, had merely
touched her hand, was safe from all other pursuit so long as he
remained under the protection of her roof. The opinions of the
Circassians regarding theft resembled those of the ancient
Spartans. The commission of the crime was not considered so
disgraceful as its discovery; and the punishment of being
compelled publicly to restore the stolen property to its original
possessor, amid the derision of his tribe, was much dreaded by
the Circassian who would glory in a successful theft. The greatest
stain upon the Circassian character was the custom of selling
their children, the Circassian father being always willing to
part with his daughters, many of whom were bought by Turkish
merchants for the harems of Eastern monarchs. But no degrada-
tion was implied in this transaction, and the young women
themselves were generally willing partners in it. Herds of cattle
and sheep constituted the chief riches of the inhabitants. The
princes and nobles, from whom the members of the various tribes
held the land which they cultivated, were the proprietors of the
soil. The Circassians carried on little or no commerce, and the
state of perpetual warfare in which they lived prevented them
from cultivating any of the arts of peace.

CIRCE (Gr. Kip/cry), in Greek legend, a famous sorceress, the
daughter of Helios and the ocean nymph Perse. Having
murdered her husband, the prince of Colchis, she was expelled
by her subjects and placed by her father on the solitary island
of Aeaea on the coast of Italy. She was able by means of drugs
and incantations to change human beings into the forms of
wolves or lions, and with these beings her palace was surrounded.
Here she was found by Odysseus and his companions; the
latter she changed into swine, but the hero, protected by the herb
moly (q.v.) , whichhe had received from Hermes, not only forced her
to restore them to their original shape, but also gained her love.
For a year he relinquished himself to her endearments, and
when he determined to leave, she instructed him how to sail
to the land of shades which lay on the verge of the ocean stream,
in order to learn his fate from the prophet Teiresias. Upon his
return she also gave him directions for avoiding the dangers of
the journey home (Homer, Odyssey, x.-xii.; Hyginus, Fab.
125)- The Roman poets associated her with the most ancient
traditions of Latium, and assigned her a home on the promontory
of Circei (Virgil, Aeneid, vii. 10). The metamorphoses of Scylla
and of Picus, king of the Ausonians, by Circe, are narrated in
Ovid (Metamorphoses, xiv.).

The Myth ofKirke, by R. Brown (1883), in which Circe is explained
as a moon-goddess of Babylonian origin, contains an exhaustive
summary of facts, although many of the author's speculations may

be proved untenable (review by H. Bradley in Academy, January 19,
1884); see also I. E. Harrison, Myths of the Odyssey (1882);
C. Seehgcr in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie.

CIRCEIUS MONS (mod. Monte Circeo), an isolated promontory
on the S.W. coast of Italy, about 80 m. S.E. of Rome. It is a
ridge of limestone about 3$ m. long by i m. wide at the base,
running from E. to W. and surrounded by the sea on all sides
except the N. The land to the N. of it is 53 ft. above sea-level,
while the summit of the promontory is 1775 ft. The origin of
the name is uncertain: it has naturally been connected with the
legend of Circe, and Victor BSrard (in Les Phiniciens et I'Odyssee,
ii. 261 seq.) maintains in support of the identification that Maiit,
the Greek name for the island of Circe, is a faithful transliteration
of a Semitic name, meaning " island of the hawk," of which
yijo-os Kipicrjs is the translation. The difficulty has been raised,
especially by geologists, that the promontory ceased to be an
island at a period considerably before the time of Homer; but
Procopius very truly remarked that the promontory has all the
appearance of an island until one is actually upon it. Upon the
E. end of the ridge of the promontory are the remains of an
enceinte, forming roughly a rectangle of about 200 by 100 yds.
of very fine polygonal work, on the outside, the blocks being
very carefully cut and jointed and right angles being intention-
ally avoided. The wall stands almost entirely free, as at Arpinum
—polygonal walls in Italy are as a rule embanking walls— and
increases considerably in thickness as it descends. The blocks
of the inner face are much less carefully worked both here and at
Arpinum. It seems to have been an acropolis, and contains no
traces of buildings, except for a subterranean cistern, circular,
with a beehive roof of converging blocks. The modern village
of S. Felice Circeo seems to occupy the site of the ancient town,
the citadel of which stood on the mountain top, for its medieval
walls rest upon ancient walls of Cyclopean work of less careful
construction than those of the citadel, and enclosing an area of
200 by 150 yds.

. Circei was founded as a Roman colony at an early date —
according to some authorities in the time of Tarquinius Superbus,
but more probably about 390 B.C. The existence of a previous
population, however, is very likely indicated by the revolt of
Circei in the middle of the 4th century B.C., so that it is doubtful
whether the walls described are to be attributed to the Romans
or the earlier Volscian inhabitants. At the end of the republic,
however, or at latest at the beginning of the imperial period,
the city of Circei was no longer at the E. end of the promontory,
but on the E. shores of the Lago di Paola (a lagoon — now a
considerable fishery — separated from the sea by a line of
sandhills and connected with it by a channel of Roman date:
Strabo speaks of it as a small harbour) one mile N. of the W.
end of the promontory. Here are the remains of a Roman town,
belonging to the ist and 2nd centuries, extending over an area
of some 600 by 500 yards, and consisting of fine buildings along
the lagoons, including a large open piscina or basin, surrounded
by a double portico, while farther inland are several very large
and well-preserved water-reservoirs, supplied by an aqueduct
of which traces may still be seen. An inscription speaks of an
amphitheatre, of which no remains are visible. The transference
of the city did not, however, mean the abandonment of the E.
end of the promontory, on which stand the remains of several
very large villas. An inscription, indeed, cut in the rock near
S. Felice, speaks of this part of the promunturium Veneris (the
only case of the use of this name) as belonging to the city of
Zircei. On the S. and N. sides of the promontory there are
comparatively few buildings, while at the W. end there is a
sheer precipice to the sea. The town only acquired municipal
rights after the Social War, and was a place of little importance,
except as a seaside resort. For its villas Cicero compares it
with Antium, and probably both Tiberius and Domitian possessed
residences there. The beetroot and oysters of Circei had a
certain reputation. The view from the highest summit of the
>romontory (which is occupied by ruins of a platform attributed
with great probability to a temple of Venus or Circe) is of re-
markable beauty; the whole mountain is covered with fragrant

CIRCLE

FIG. i.

FIG. 2.

shrubs. From any point in the Pomptine Marshes or on the
coast-line of Latium the Circeian promontory dominates the
landscape in the most remarkable way.

See T. Ashby, " Monte Circeo," in Melanges de I'ecole franc. aise de
Rome, xxv. (1905) 157 seq. (T. As.)

CIRCLE (from the Lat. circulus, the diminutive of circus, a
ring; the cognate Gr. word is dprns, generally used in the form
Kplun), a plane curve definable as the locus of a point which
moves so that its distance from a fixed point is constant.

The form of a circle is familiar to all; and we proceed to define
certain lines, points, &c., which constantly occur in studying
its geometry. The fixed point in the preceding definition is
termed the " centre " (C in fig. i); the constant distance, e.g.
CG, the " radius." The curve itself is sometimes termed the
" circumference." Any line through the centre and terminated
at both extremities by the curve, e.g. AB, is a "diameter";
any other line similarly terminated, e.g. EF, a " chord." Any
line drawn from an external point to cut the circle in two points,
e.g. DEF, is termed a " secant "; if it touches the circle, e.g.
DG, it is a " tangent." Any portion of the circumference
terminated by two points, e.g. AD (fig. 2), is termed an " arc ";
and the plane figure enclosed by a chord and arc, e.g. ABD, is

termed a "segment";

if the chord be a dia-
meter, the segment
is termed a " semi-
circle." The figure
included by two radii
and an arc is a
"sector," e.g. ECF
(fig. 2). " Concentric
circles " are, as the
name obviously
shows, circles having
the same centre; the
figure enclosed by the
circumferences of two
concentric circles is
an " annulus " (fig. 3),
and of two non-con-
centric circles a " lune, " the shaded portions in fig. 4; the
clear figure is sometimes termed a " lens. "

The circle was undoubtedly known to the early civilizations,
its simplicity specially recommending it as an object for study.
Euclid defines it (Book I. def. 15) as a " plane figure enclosed
by one line, all the straight lines drawn to which from one point
within the figure are equal to one another." In the succeeding
three definitions the centre, diameter and the semicircle are
defined, while the third postulate of the same book demands
the possibility of describing a circle for every " centre " and
" distance." Having employed the circle for the construction
and demonstration of several propositions in Books I. and II.
Euclid devotes his third book entirely to theorems and problems
relating to the circle, and certain lines and angles, which he
defines in introducing the propositions. The fourth book deals
with the circle in its relations to inscribed and circumscribed
triangles, quadrilaterals and regular polygons. Reference
should be made to the article GEOMETRY: Euclidean, for a
detailed summary of the Euclidean treatment, and the elementary
properties of the circle.

Analytical Geometry of the Circle.

In the article GEOMETRY: Analytical, it is shown that the
general equation to a circle in rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates
Cartetl is *t+y*+2gx+2fy+c=o, i.e. in the general equation
co-ord" °^ t'le second degree the co-efficients of & and y2 are
a*tcM. equal, and of xy zero. The co-ordinates of its centre
are -gfc, -flc; and its radius is (g*+f*-c)*. The
equations to the chord, tangent and normal are readily derived
by the ordinary methods.
, Consider the two circles : —

x*+y*+2ex+2fy+e=o, x*+y*+2g'x+2f'y+c'=o.

FIG. 3.

FIG. 4.

THltaeat
co-ordi-
nates.

Obvious|y these equations show that the curves intersect in
four points, two of which lie on the intersection of the line,
2(g—g')x+2(f—f')y+c—c' = o, the radical axis, with the circles, and
the other two where the lines x*+y* = (x+iy) (x—iy)=o (where
i= V — i) intersect the circles. The first pair of intersections may
be either real or imaginary ; we proceed to discuss the second pair.

The equation xt+yi=o denotes a pair of perpendicular imaginary
lines; it follows, therefore, that circles always intersect in two
imaginary points at infinity along these lines, and since the terms
x1+y1 occur in the equation of every circle, it is seen that all circles
pass through two fixed points at infinity. The introduction of these
lines and points constitutes a striking achievement in geometry,
and from their association with circles they have been named
the " circular lines " and " circular points." Other names for the
circular lines are " circulars " or " isotropic lines." Since the
equation to a circle of zero radius is x*-\-y* = o, i.e. identical with the
circular lines, it follows that this circle consists of a real point and the
two imaginary lines; conversely, the circular lines are both a pair
of lines and a circle. A further deduction from the principle of
continuity follows by considering the intersections of concentric
circles. The equations to such circles may be expressed in the form
x*+y* = a2, x1-\-yt = fP. These equations show that the circles touch
where they intersect the lines x1+yl = o, i.e. concentric circles have
double contact at the circular points, the chord of contact being the
line at infinity.

In various systems of triangular co-ordinates the equations
to circles specially related to the triangle of reference assume
comparatively simple forms; consequently they provide elegant
algebraical demonstrations of properties concerning a triangle
and the circles intimately associated with its geometry. In this
article the equations to the more important circles — the circum-
scribed, inscribed, escribed, self -con jugate — will be given;
reference should be made to the article TRIANGLE for the con-
sideration of other circles (nine-point, Brocard, Lemoine, &c.);
while in the article GEOMETRY: Analytical, the principles of the
different systems are discussed.

The equation to the circumcircle assumes the simple form
a/3y+bya+caf3 = o, the centre being cos A, cos B, cosC. The inscribed
circle is cos ^AVo+cos JB V/9+cos JC V"x = o, with centre
a = /3=-y; while the escribed circle opposite the angle A
is cos JAV — o+sin JBV/3+sin JCy7=o, with centre
— o = 0 — y. The self-conj ugate circle is a2 sin 2 A +/S2 sin 2 B
+72 sin 2C = o, or the equivalent form ocosAa* -(-dcosB/S2 +ccosC-xl = o,
the centre being sec A, sec B, sec C.

The general equation to the circle in trilinear co-ordinates is readily
deduced from the fact that the circle is the only curve which inter-
sects the line infinity in the circular points. Consider the equation
apy+bya.+ca0+(la+m0+nv)(aa+bP+cy') =o (i).

This obviously represents a conic intersecting the circle afiy+bya
+co/3=o in points on the common chords la+mff+ny = o, aa+bff
+cy=o. The line la+mf)-j-ny is the radical axis, and since oa+6/S
-\-cy =o is the line infinity, it is obvious that equation (i) represents
a conic passing through the circular points, i.e. a circle. If we
compare (i) with the general equation of the second degree
Ua?+v/P+wy*+2u'fly+2v ya+2w'aff = o, it is readily seen that for
this equation to represent a circle we must have

— kabc =vc1+wb1—2u'bc =wa*+uc1—2v'ca = ub* -\-va*—2w'ab.

The corresponding equations in areal co-ordinates are readily
derived by substituting x/a, y/b, z/c for o, ft, y respectively in
the trilinear equations. The circumcircle is thus seen xrea/
to be a1yz+b^zx+c2xy = o, with centre sin 2A, sin 28, '_,.

sin 2C ; the inscribed circle is V (* cot JA) + V (y cot JB) „,„*
+ V (z cot JC) =o, with centre sin A, sin B, sin C; the
escribed circle opposite the angle A is V (— * cot JA) + V (y tan JB)
+ V (z tan JC) =o, with centre —sin A, sin B, sin C; and the self-
conjugate circle is **cot A+y cot B+z2 cot C =o, with centre tan A,
tan B, tan C. Since in areal co-ordinates the line infinity is repre-
sented by the equation x+y+z=o it is seen that every circle is
of the form dlyz+btzx+cixy+(lx+my+nz)(x-{-v-{-z) =o. Compar-
ing this equation with ux2+vy*-\-wz*+2u'yz+2v'zx+2io'xy = o, we
obtain as the condition for the general equation of the second degree
to represent a circle : —

(v +i»-2«')/a2 = (w+u-2v')[b1 = (u+v-2w')/{?.

In tangential (p, q, r) co-ordinates the inscribed circle has for its
equation(i — a)qr+(s — b)rp+(s — c)p?=o,ibeingequaltoJ(o-r-6+c);
an alternative form is qr cot JA+r£ cot JB +pq cot JC = o ; TaareaOal
the centre isap+bq+cr = o,or p sinA+g sin B+rsinC =o. go.ordi-
The escribed circle opposite the angle A is— sqr+(s — c)rp aates.
+ (s—b)pq=oor— greet JA+r£ tan JB+£g tan JC=o,with
centre — ap+bq+cr=o. The circumcircle is a-J p+b-<lq+c^r=o,
the centre being p sin 2A+g sin 2B+r sin aC=o. The general
equation to a circle in this system of co-ordinates is deduced as
follows: If p be the radius and lp+mg-\-nr = o the centre, we have
p = (lpi+mqi+nri)/(l+m+n), in which Pi, gi, n is a line distant ?
from the point lp+mq+nr = o. Making this equation homogeneous

CIRCLE

383

by the relation 2a*(p — q) (p — r)=4A2 (see GEOMETRY: Analytical,
which is generally written [ap, bg, cr|2 = 4As, we obtain
{ap, bg, erjV = 4A1|(/p+w?+»r)/(/+m+n)|2, the accents being
dropped, and p, q, r regarded as current co-ordinates. This equa-
tion, which may be more conveniently written \ap, bg, cr)2
= (X/>+^g+yr)2, obviously represents a circle, the centre being
\p+nq+vr = o, and radius 2A/(\+M+»')- If we make\ = |u = K = o,
p is infinite, and we obtain \ap, bg, cr\* = o as the equation to the
circular points.

Systems of Circles.

Centres and Circle of Similitude. — The " centres of similitude "
of two circles may be defined as the intersections of the common
tangents to the two circles, the direct common tangents giving
rise to the " external centre," the transverse tangents to the
" internal centre." It may be readily shown that the external
and internal centres are the points where the line joining the
centres of the two circles is divided externally and internally in
the ratio of their radii.

The circle on the line joining the internal and external centres
of similitude as diameter is named the " circle of similitude."
It may be shown to be the locus of the vertex of the triangle
which has for its base the distance between the centres of the
circles and the ratio of the remaining sides equal to the ratio of the
radii of the two circles.

With a system of three circles it is readily seen that there
are six centres of similitude, viz. two for each pair of circles,
and it may be shown that these lie three by three on four lines,
named the " axes of similitude." The collinear centres are the
three sets of one external and two internal centres, and the three
external centres.

Coaxal Circles. — A system of circles is coaxal when the locus
of points from which tangents to the circles are equal is a straight
line. Consider the case of two circles, and in the first place
suppose them to intersect in two real points A and B. Then by
Euclid iii. 36 it is seen that the line joining the points A and B is
the locus of the intersection of equal tangents, for if P be any
point on AB and PC and PD the tangents to the circles, then
PA-PB = PC2 = PD2, and therefore PC = PD. Furthermore it is
seen that AB is perpendicular to the line joining the centres,
and divides it in the ratio of the squares of the radii. The line
AB is termed the " radical axis." A system coaxal with the two
given circles is readily constructed by describing circles through
the common points on the radical axis and any third point;
the minimum circle of the system is obviously that which has
the common chord of intersection for diameter, the maximum

is the radical axis — considered as
a circle of infinite radius. In the
case of two non-intersecting circles
it may be shown that the radical
axis has the same metrical relations
to the line of centres.

There are several methods of con-
structing the radical axis in this case.
One of the simplest is: Let P and P'
(fig. 5) be the points of contact of
a common tangent; drop perpen-
diculars PL, P?L', from P and P'

FIG. 5.

to OO', the line joining the centres,
then the radical axis bisects LL' (at X) and is perpendicular to OO'.
To prove this let AB, AB1 be the tangents from any point on the
line AX. Then by Euc. i. 47, AB2 = AO2-OB2 = AX2+OXJ-OP2;
and OX2 = OD2-DX» = OP2+PD2-DX2. Therefore ABS = AX2
-DX2-f-PD2. Similarly AB'2 = AX2-DX2+DP'2. Since PD = PD',
it follows that AB=AB'.

To construct circles coaxal with the two given circles, draw the
tangent, say XR, from X, the point where the radical axis intersects
the line of centres, to one of the given circles, and with centre X and
radius XR describe a circle. Then circles having the intersections of
tangents to this circle and the line of centres for centres, and the
lengths of the tangents as radii, are members of the coaxal system.

In the case of non-intersecting circles, it is seen that the
minimum circles of the coaxal system are a pair of points I and I',
where the orthogonal circle to the system intersects the line of
centres; these points are named the " limiting points." In the
case of a coaxal system having real points of intersection the
limiting points are imaginary. Analytically, the Cartesian

equation to a coaxal system can be written in the form
*2+y2+2ax±£2 = o, where a varies from member to member,
while k is a constant. The radical axis is x=o, and it may be
shown that the length of the tangent from a point (o, h) is
K*±k*, i.e. it is independent of a, and therefore of any particular
member of the system. The circles intersect in real or imaginary
points according to the lower or upper sign of K1, and the limiting
points are real for the upper sign and imaginary for the lower sign.
The fundamental properties of coaxal systems may be
summarized: —

1. The centres of circles forming a coaxal system are collinear;

2. A coaxal system having real points of intersection has imagin-

ary limiting points;

3. A coaxal system having imaginary points of intersection has

real limiting points;

4. Every circle through the limiting points cuts all circles of the

system orthogonally ;

5. The limiting points are inverse points for every circle of the

system.

The theory of centres of similitude and coaxal circles affords
elegant demonstrations of the famous problem: To describe a
circle to touch three given circles. This problem, also termed
the " Apollonian problem," was demonstrated with the aid of
conic sections by Apollonius in his book on Contacts or Tangencies;
geometrical solutions involving the conic sections were also given
by Adrianus Romanus, Vieta, Newton and others. The earliest
analytical solution appears to have been given by the princess
Elizabeth, a pupil of Descartes and daughter of Frederick V.
John Casey, professor of mathematics at the Catholic university
of Dublin, has given elementary demonstrations founded on
the theory of similitude and coaxal circles which are' reproduced
in his Sequel to Euclid; an analytical solution by Gergonne is
given in Salmon's Conic Sections. Here we may notice that
there are eight circles which solve the problem.

Mensuration of the Circle.

All exact relations pertaining to the mensuration of the circle
involve the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. This
ratio, invariably denoted by ir, is constant for all circles, but
it does not admit of exact arithmetical expression, being of the
nature of an incommensurable number. Very early in the history
of geometry it was known that the circumference and area of a
circle of radius r could be expressed in the forms 27rr and wr2.
The exact geometrical evaluation of the second quantity, viz.
7TT2, which, in reality, is equivalent to] determining a square
equal in area to a circle, engaged the attention of mathematicians
for many centuries. The history of these attempts, together
with modern contributions to our knowledge of the value and
nature of the number TT, is given below (Squaring of the Circle).

The following table gives the values of this constant and several
expiessions involving it: —

Number.

Logarithm.

Number.

Logarithm.

IT

3-1415927

0-4971499

nt

9-8696044

0-9942997

2ir

6-2831853

0-7981799

4<r

12-56t>3708

1-0992099

0-0168869

2-2275490

IF

1-5707963

0-1961199

6w2

IT

1-0471976
0-7853982

0-020286
1-8950899

VT

1-7724539

0-2485750

IT
IT

0-5235988
0-3926991

1-7189986
1-5940599

t.

1-4645919

0-1657166

IT

0-2617994
4-1887902

1-4179686
0-6220886

1

V T

0-5641896

1-7514251

JL

0-0174533

•J -2418774

2

1-1283792

0-0524551

\ »

JT

0-3183099

1-5028501

1

0-2820948

1-4503951

i.

1-2732395

0-1049101

-3-

1-2407010

0-0936671

• IT

1

4ir

0-0795775

•5-9087901

4

0-6203505

1-7926371

180

57-2957795

1-7581226

log«ir

1-1447299

0-0587030

Useful fractional approximations are 22/7 and 355/113.

A synopsis of the leading formula connected with the circle will
now be given.

1. Circle. — Data: radius = a. Circumference = 2ra. Area=»a2.

2. Arc and Sector. — Data: radius = a; 9=circular measure of
angle subtended at centre by arc; c=chord of arc; c« = chord of
semi-arc; c4 = chord of quarter-arc.

CIRCLE

Exact formulae arc:— Arc = o0, where 9 may be given directly,
or indirectly by the relation c = 2a sin \6. Area of sector = Ja*0

Approximate formulae are:— Arc = J(8c2-c) (Huygen's formula);

arc = 1l!(<:-40<:i+25<*«)- f

3. Segment.— Data : a, 6, c, ct, as in (2); h = height of segment,
i.e. distance of mid-point of arc from chord.

Exact formulae are:— Area = Ja*(0- sin 6)=^ate-\c> cot J9
= Ja' — JcV(a* — ic1). If A be given, we can use cl+4h* = 8ah, zA
— c tan J9 to determine 8.

Approximate formulae are :— Area = A (6c+8c2)fc ; = f V (c1

, A(7c-f 30)*, o being the true length of the
From the

.nese results the mensuration of any figure bounded by
circufar arcs and straight lines can be determined, e.g. the area
of a tune or meniscus is expressible as the difference or sum of two
segments, and the circumference as the sum of two arcs. (C. E.*)

Squaring of the Circle.

The problem of finding a square equal in area to a given circle,
like all problems, may be increased in difficulty by the imposition
of restrictions; consequently under the designation there may
be embraced quite a variety of geometrical problems. It has
to be noted, however, that, when the " squaring " of the circle
is especially spoken of, it is almost always tacitly assumed that
the restrictions are those of the Euclidean geometry.

Since the area of a circle equals that of the rectilineal triangle
whose base has the same length as the circumference and whose
altitude equals the radius (Archimedes, Kii/cXou /wrpjjcrts, prop.i),
it follows that, if a straight line could be drawn equal in length
to the circumference, the required square could be found by
an ordinary Euclidean construction; also, it is evident that,
conversely, if a square equal in area to the circle could be obtained
it would be possible to draw a straight line equal to the circumfer-
ence. Rectification and quadrature of the circle have thus been,
since the time of Archimedes at least, practically identical
problems. Again, since the circumferences of circles are pro-
portional to their diameters — a proposition assumed to be true
from the dawn almost of practical geometry — the rectification
of the circle is seen to be transformable into finding the ratio of
the circumference to the diameter. This correlative numerical
problem and the two purely geometrical problems are inseparably
connected historically.

Probably the earliest value for the ratio was 3. It was so
among the Jews (i Kings vii. 23, 26), the Babylonians (Oppert,
Journ. asiatique, August 1872, October 1874), the Chinese (Biot,
Journ. asiatique, June 1841), and probably also the Greeks.
Among the ancient Egyptians, as would appear from a calculation
in the Rhind papyrus, the number (|)4, i.e. 3-1605, was at one
time in use.1 The first attempts to solve the purely geometrical
problem appear to have been made by the Greeks (Anaxagoras,
&c.)2, one of whom, Hippocrates, doubtless raised hopes of a
solution by his quadrature of the so-called meniscoi or lune?

[The Greeks were in possession of several relations pertaining
to the quadrature of the lune. The following are among the more
interesting. In fig. 6, ABC is an isosceles triangle right
O

FIG. 7

angled at C, ADB is the semicircle described on AB as diameter,
AEB the circular arc described with centre C and radius
CA = CB. It is easily shown that the areas of the lune ADBEA
and the- triangle ABC are equal. In fig. 7, ABC is any triangle

1 Eisenlohr, Bin math. Handbuch d. alien Agypter, libers, u.
erklart (Leipzig, 1877); Rodet, Butt, de la Soc. Math, de France, vi.
pp. 139-149.

2 H. Hankel, Zur Gesch. d. Math, im Alterthum, &c., chap, v
(Leipzig, 1874); M. Cantor, Vorlesungen uber Gesch. d. Math. i.
(Leipzig/i 880); Tannery, M im. delaSoc ., 6fc., aBordeaux; Allman,
in Hermathena.

'Tannery, Bull, des sc. math. [2], x. pp. 213-226.

right angled at C, semicircles are described on the three sides,
thus forming two lunes AFCDA and CGBEC. The sum of the
areas of these lunes equals the area of the triangle ABC.]

As for Euclid, it is sufficient to recall the facts that the original
author of prop. 8 of book iv. had strict proof of the ratio being
<4, and the author of prop. 15 of the ratio being >3, and to
direct attention to the importance of book x. on incommensur-
ables and props. 2 and 16 of book xii., viz. that " circles are to
one another as the squares on their diameters " and that " in
the greater of two concentric circles a regular 2n-gon can be
inscribed which shall not meet the circumference of the less,"
however nearly equal the circles may be.

With Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) a notable advance was made.
Taking the circumference as intermediate between the perimeters
of the inscribed and the circumscribed regular w-gons, he showed
that, the radius of the circle being given and the perimeter of
some particular circumscribed regular polygon obtainable, the
perimeter of the circumscribed regular polygon of double the
number of sides could be calculated; that the like was true of
the inscribed polygons; and that consequently a means was
thus afforded of approximating to the
circumference of the circle. As a
matter of fact, he started with a semi-
side AB of a circumscribed regular
hexagon meeting the circle in B (see
fig. 8), joined A and B with O the
centre, bisected the angle AOB by
OD, so that BD became the semi-side of a circumscribed regular
i2-gon; then as AB:BO:OA::i: -^3:2 he sought an ap-
proximation to V3 and found that AB: BO > 153 1265. Next
he applied his theorem4 BO+OA:AB: :OB:BD to calculate
BD; from this in turn he calculated the semi-sides of the
circumscribed regular 24-gon, 48-gon and 96-gon, and so finally
established for the circumscribed regular 96-gon that perimeter
: diameter <3^:i. In a quite analogous manner he proved for
the inscribed regular 96-gon that perimeter :diameter>3^:i.
The conclusion from these therefore was that the ratio of cir-
cumference to diameter is< 3^- and > 3-^-. This is a most notable
piece of work; the immature condition of arithmetic at the time
was the only real obstacle preventing the evaluation of the ratio
to any degree of accuracy whatever.6

No advance of any importance was made upon the achieve-
ment of Archimedes until after the revival of learning. His
immediate successors may have used his method to attain a
greater degree of accuracy, but there is very little evidence
pointing in this direction. Ptolemy (fl. 127-151), in the Great
Syntaxis, gives 3-141552 as the ratio'; and the Hindus
(c. A.D. 500), who were very probably indebted to the Greeks,
used 62832/20000, that is, the now familiar 3-i4i6.T

It was not until the isth century that attention in Europe
began to be once more directed to the subject, and after the
resuscitation a considerable length of time elapsed before any
progress was made. The first advance in accuracy was due to a
certain Adrian, son of Anthony, a native 'of Metz (1527), and
father of the better-known Adrian Metius of Alkmaar. In
refutation of Duchesne(Van der Eycke), he showed that the ratio
was <3iVff and >3TLfo, and thence made the exceedingly lucky
step of taking a mean between the two by the quite unjustifiable
process of halving the sum of the two numerators for a new
numerator and halving the sum of the two denominators for
a new denominator, thus arriving at the now well-known ap-
proximation 3!^ or fff, which, being equal to 3-1415929. . .,
is correct to the sixth fractional place. 8

4 In modern trigonometrical notation, i+sec0:tan0 :: i : tan {9.

' Tannery, " Sur la mesure du cercle d'Archimede," in Mtm

Bordeaux [2], iv. pp. 313-339; Menge, Des Archimedes Kreismessung
(Coblenz, 1874).

1 De Morgan, in Penny Cyclop, xix. p. 186.

7 Kern, Aryabhatttyam (Leiden, 1874), trans, by Rodet (Paris,
1879).

8 De Morgan, art. " Quadrature of the Circle,"in English Cyclop. ;
Glaisher, Mess, of Math. ii. pp. 119-128, iii. pp. 27-46; de Haan,
Nieuw Archiefv. Wish. i. pp. 70-86, 206-211.

CIRCLE

385

The next to advance the calculation was Francisco Vieta.
By finding the perimeter of the inscribed and that of the circum-
scribed regular polygon of 393216 (i.e. 6X2") sides, he proved
that the ratio was >3'i4i592°535 and <3'i4i5926s37, so that
its value became known (in 1579) correctly to 10 fractional places.
The theorem for angle-bisection which Vieta used was not that
of Archimedes, but that which would now appear in the form
i - cos 6 = 2 sin2 \6. With Vieta, by reason of the advance in
arithmetic, the style of treatment becomes more strictly trigono-
metrical; indeed, the Universales Inspectiones, in which the
calculation occurs, would now be called plane and spherical
trigonometry, and the accompanying Canon mathemalicus a
table of sines, tangents and secants.1 Further, in comparing
the labours of Archimedes and Vieta, the effect of increased
power of symbolical expression is very noticeable. Archimedes's
process of unending cycles of arithmetical operations could at
best have been expressed in his time by a "rule" in words; in
the i6th century it could be condensed into a " formula."
Accordingly, we find in Vieta a formula for the ratio of diameter
to circumference, viz. the interminate product 2 —

From this point onwards, therefore, no knowledge whatever
of geometry was necessary in any one who aspired to determine
the ratio to any required degree of accuracy; the problem
being reduced to an arithmetical computation. Thus in connexion
with the subject a genus of workers became possible who may
be styled " ir-computers or circle-squarers " — a name which, if
it connotes anything uncomplimentary, does so because of the
almost entirely fruitless character of their labours. Passing over
Adriaan van Roomen (Adrianus Romanus) of Louvain, who
published the value of the ratio correct to 15 places in his Idea
mathematica (1593),' we come to the notable computer Ludolph
van Ceulen (d. 1610), a native of Germany, long resident in
Holland. His book, Van den Circkel (Delft, 1596), gave the ratio
correct to 20 places, but he continued his calculations as long
as he lived, and his best result was published on his tombstone
in St Peter's church, Leiden. The inscription, which is not
known to be now in existence,4 is in part as follows: —
.... Qui in vita sua multo labore circumferentiae circuli proxi-
mam rationem ad diametrum invenit sequentem —

quando diameter est I
turn circuli circumferentia plus est
auam 314159265358979323846264338327950288

IOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

et minus

auam 3 ' 4 ' 59265358979323846264338327950289

IOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO . . .

This gives the ratio correct to 3 5 places. Van Ceulen 's process
was essentially identical with that of Vieta. Its numerous root
extractions amply justify a stronger expression than " multo
labore," especially in an epitaph. In Germany the "Ludolphische
Zahl " (Ludolph's number) is still a common name for the ratio. 6
Up to this point the credit of most that had been done may be
set down to Archimedes. A new departure, however, was made

by Willebrord Snell of Leiden
in his Cyclometria, published
in 1621. His achievement
was a closely approximate
D geometrical solution of the
problem of rectification (see
fig. 9) : ACB being a semicircle

whose centre is O, and AC the arc to be rectified, he pro-
duced AB to D, making BD equal to the radius, joined DC,

'Vieta, Opera math. (Leiden, 1646); Marie, Hist, des sciences
math. iii. 27 seq. (Paris, 1884).

>' Kliigel, Math. Worterb. ii. 606, 607.
1 Kastner, Gesch. d. Math. i. (Gottingen, 1796-1800).
4 But see Les Delices de Leide (Leiden, 1712); or de Haan, Mess,
of Math. iii. 24-26.

' For minute and lengthy details regarding the quadrature of the
circle in the Low Countries, see de Haan, " Bouwstoffen voor de
geschiedenis, &c.," in Versl. en Mededeel. der K. Akad. van Wetensch.
ix., x.,xi.,xii. (Amsterdam); also his "Notice sur quelques quad-
rateurs, &c.," in Bull, di bibliogr. e di storia delle sci. mat. e fis. vii.
--144.

and produced it to meet the tangent at A in E ; and then his
assertion (not established by him) was that AE was nearly equal
to the arc AC, the error being in defect. For the purposes of
the calculator a solution erring in excess was also required, and
this Snell gave by slightly varying the former construction.
Instead of producing AB
(see fig. 10) so that BD was
equal to r, he produced it
only so far that, when the
extremity D' was joined with

FIG. 10.

C, the part D'F outside the
circle was equal to r; in
other words, by a non-Euclidean construction he trisected the
angle AOC, for it is readily seen that, since FD' = FO=OC, the
angle FOB = JAOC.« This couplet of constructions is as im-
portant from the calculator's point of view as it is interesting
geometrically. To compare it on this score with the fundamental
proposition of Archimedes, the latter must be put into a form
similar to Snell's. AMC being an arc of a circle (see fig. n)
whose centre is 0, AC its chord, and HK the tangent drawn at
the middle point of the arc and bounded by OA, OC produced,
then, according to Archimedes, AMC<HK, but >AC. In
modern trigonometrical notation the propositions to be compared
stand as follows: —

2 tan J0>0>2 sin }0 (Archimedes) ;
tan 19+2 sin i9>g>,3+s^ (Snell).

It is readily shown that the latter gives the best approxima-
tion to 0 ; but, while the former requires for its application a
knowledge of the trigonometrical ratios of only one angle (in
other words, the ratios of the sides of only one right-angled
triangle), the latter requires the same for two angles, 0 and \9.

4

c,

FIG. ii.

FIG. 12.

Grienberger, using Snell's method, calculated the ratio correct
to 39 fractional places.7 C. Huygens, in his De Circuli Magni-
tudine Iniienta, 1654, proved the propositions of Snell, giving
at the same time a number of other interesting theorems, for
example, two inequalities which may be written as follows * —

chd

"sin 9) >g>chd 0+Kchd 0-sin 0).

As might be expected, a fresh view of the matter was taken
by Rene Descartes. The problem he set himself was the exact
converse of that of Archimedes. A given straight line being
viewed as equal in length to the circumference of a circle, he
sought to find the diameter of the circle. His construction is
as follows (see fig. 1 2). Take AB equal to one-fourth of the given
line; on AB describe a square ABCD; join AC; in AC produced
find, by a known process, a point Q such that, when CiBj is
drawn perpendicular to AB produced and CiDi perpendicular
to BC produced, the rectangle BQ will be equal to JABCD; by
the same process find a point Cz such that the rectangle BiCj will
be equal to iBCr, and so on ad infinitum. The diameter sought
is the straight line from A to the limiting position of the series of
B's, say the straight line AB oo . As in the case of the process of

* It is thus manifest that by his first construction Snell gave an
approximate solution of two great problems of antiquity.

7 Elementa trigonometrica (Rome, 1630); Glaisher, Messenger of
Math. iii. 35 seq.

8 See Kiessling's edition of the De Circ. Magn. Inv. (Flensburg,
1869) ; or Pirie's tract on Geometrical Methods of Approx. to the Value
ofr (London, 1877).

VI. 1.3

386

CIRCLE

Archimedes, we may direct our attention either to the infinite
series of geometrical operations or to the corresponding infinite
series of arithmetical operations. Denoting the number of units
in AB by \c, we can express BB,, 8,82, ... in terms of \c, and
the identity AB«, =AB+BB1+B1B2-|- . . . gives us at once
an expression for the diameter in terms of the circumference by
means of an infinite series.1 The proof of the correctness of the
construction is seen to be involved in the following theorem,
which serves likewise to throw new light on the subject :— AB
being any straight line whatever, and the above construction
being made, then AB is the diameter of the circle circumscribed
by the square ABCD (self-evident), ABi is the diameter of the
circle circumscribed by the regular 8-gon having the same
perimeter as the square, AB2 is the diameter of the circle circum-
scribed by the regular i6-gon having the same perimeter as the
square, and so on. Essentially, therefore, Descartes's process
is that known later as the process of iso perimeters, and often
attributed wholly to Schwab.2

In 1655 appeared the Arithmetica Infinitorum of John Wallis,
where numerous problems of quadrature are dealt with, the
curves being now represented in Cartesian co-ordinates, and
algebra playing an important part. In a very curious manner,
by viewing the circle y=(i— *2)* as a member of the series of
curves y= (i — a?)1, y = (i — *2)2, &c., he was led to the proposition
that four times the reciprocal of the ratio of the circumference
to the diameter, i.e. 4/w, is equal to the infinite product

3- 3- 5- 5- 7.7-Q-.
2.4.4.6.6.8.8...'

and, the result having been communicated to Lord Brouncker,
the latter discovered the equally curious equivalent continued
fraction

j2 ,Z rJ 72

t _i i ji i L.

^2+2+2+2 ••

The work of Wallis had evidently an important influence
on the next notable personality in the history of the subject,
James Gregory, who lived during the period when the higher
algebraic analysis was coming into power, and whose genius
helped materially to develop it. He had, however, in a certain
sense one eye fixed on the past and the other towards the
future. His first contribution 3 was a variation of the method
of Archimedes. The latter, as we know, calculated the perimeters
of successive polygons, passing from one polygon to another of
double the number of sides; in a similar manner Gregory
calculated the areas. The general theorems which enabled him
to do this, after a start had been made, are

A2n = VAnA'n (SnelPs Cyclom.),

An-J-A2n An I -A2n

where An, A'n are the areas of the inscribed and the circum-
scribed regular n-gons respectively. He also gave approximate
rectifications of circular arcs after the manner of Huygens;
and, what is very notable, he made an ingenious and, according
to J. E. Montucla, successful attempt to show that quadrature
of the circle by a Euclidean construction was impossible.4 Besides
all this, however, and far beyond it in importance, was his use
of infinite series. This merit he shares with his contemporaries
N. Mercator, Sir I. Newton and G. W. Leibnitz, and the exact
dates of discovery are a little uncertain. As far as the circle-
squaring functions are concerned, it would seem that Gregory
was the first (in 1670) to make known the series for the arc in
terms of the tangent, the series for the tangent in terms of the
arc, and the secant in terms of the arc; and in 1669 Newton
showed to Isaac Barrow a little treatise in manuscript containing
the series for the arc in terms of the sine, for the sine in terms of
the arc, and for the cosine in terms of the arc. These discoveries

1 See Euler, " Annotationes in locum quendam Cartesii," in Nov.
Comm. Acad. Petrop. viii.

1 Gergonne, Annales de math. vi.

* See Vera Circuit et Hyperbolae^ Quadratura (Padua, 1667) ; and
the Appendicula to the same in his Exercitationes geometricae
(London, 1668).

4 Penny Cyclop, xix. 187.

'ormed an epoch in the history of mathematics generally, and
lad, of course, a marked influence on after investigations
regarding circle-quadrature. Even among the mere computers
:he series

0 = tan0-Jtans0-ri tan'0-...,
specially known as Gregory's series, has ever since been a
necessity of their calling.

The calculator's work having now become easier and more
mechanical, calculation went on apace. In 1699 Abraham
Sharp, on the suggestion of Edmund Halley, took Gregory's
series, and, putting tan 0 = fv/3, found the ratio equal to

from which he calculated it correct to 71 fractional places.'
About the same time John Machin calculated it correct to 100
places, and, what was of more importance, gave for the ratio the
rapidly converging expression

ft-

,
^

-
"^

_

94 "/'

3-52'5-54 7- 5" '7 239V 3- 239s ' S-2394
which long remained without explanation.' Fautet de Lagny,
still using tan 30°, advanced to the I27th place.7

Leonhard Euler took up the subject several times during his
life, effecting mainly improvements in the theory of the various
series.8 With him, apparently, began the usage of denoting
by ir the ratio of the circumference to the diameter.*

The most important publication, however, on the subject
in the i8th century was a paper by J. H. Lambert,10 read before
the Berlin Academy in 1761, in which he demonstrated the
irrationality of v. The general test of irrationality which he
established is that, if

a\ a$ 03
7i =*= 62 ^ 5^ ^ '

be an interminate continued fraction, 01, a?, . . ., bi, bt . . .
be integers, ai/bi, a^/hi, ... be proper fractions, and the value

of every one of the interminate continued fractions j[± . . .,
5?± , ... be < i, then the given continued fraction repre-
sents an irrational quantity. If this be applied to the right-hand
side of the identity

it follows that the tangent of every arc commensurable with
the radius is irrational, so that, as a particular case, an arc of
45°, having its tangent rational, must be incommensurable
with the radius; that is to say, Tr/4 is an incommensurable
number.11

This incontestable result had no effect, apparently, in re-
pressing the ir-computers. G. von Vega in 1789, using series
like Machin's, viz. Gregory's series and the identities
ir/4 = 5tan-'f+2tan-y9 (Euler, 1779),
1/4= tair1 j+2 tan"1 | (Hutton, 1776),

neither of which was nearly so advantageous as several found
by Charles Hutton, calculated IT correct to 136 places." This
achievement was anticipated or outdone by an unknown calcu-
lator, whose manuscript was seen in the Radcliffe library,
Oxford., by Baron von Zach towards the end of the century,
and contained the ratio correct to 152 places. More astonishing
still have been the deeds of the x-computers of the igth century.

5 See Sherwin's Math. Tables (London, 1705), P- 59-

6 See W. Jones, Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos (London, 1706);
Maseres, Scriptures Logarithmici (London, 1791 - 1796), iii- «59 seq- ;
Hutton, Tracts, i. 266.

7 See Hist, de I' Acad. (Paris, 1719); 7 appears instead of 8 in tl
1 1 3th place.

'Comment. Acad. Petrop. ix., xi.; Nov. Comm. Ac. Pet. xvi.;
Nova A eta Acad. Pet. xi.

9 Introd. in Analysin Infin. (Lausanne, 1748), chap. vin.

10 Mem. sur quelques proprietes remarquables des quantites transcen-
dantes, circulates, et logarithmiques.

"See Legendre, Elements de geometrie (Paris, 1794). note iv.;
Schlomilch, Handbuck d. algeb. Analysis (Jena, 1851), chap. xin.

12 Nova Acta Petrop. ix. 41 ; Thesaurus Logarithm. Completus,
633-

CIRCLEVILLE— CIRCUIT

387

A condensed record compiled by J. W. L. Glaisher (Messenger
of Math. ii. 122) is as follows:—

Date.

Computer.

No. of
fr. digits
calcd.

No. of
fr. digits
correct.

Place of Publication.

1842

Rutherford .

208

152

Trans. Roy. Soc. (London, 1841), p. 283.

1844

Dase .

205

200

Crelle's Journ. xxvii. 198.

1847
1853

Clausen .
Shanks .

250
3i8

248

318

Astron. Nachr. xxv. col. 207.
Proc. Roy. Soc. (London, 1853), 273.

1853

Rutherford .

440

440

Ibid.

iSST

Shanks .

53°

Ibid.

•**JJ

1853

Shanks .

tw

607

W. Shanks, Rectification of the Circle

(London, 1853).

1853

Richter . .

333

330

Grunert's Archiv, xxi. 119.

1854

Richter . .

400

330

Ibid. xxii. 473.

1854

Richter . .

400

400

Ibid, xxiii. 476.

1854

Richter . .

500

500

Ibid. xxv. 472.

1873

Shanks .

707

Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), xxi.

ments, and the canning of sweet corn and other produce. The
city occupies the site of prehistoric earth-works, from one of
which, built in the form of a circle, it derived
its name. Circleville, first settled about 1806,
was chosen as the county-seat in 1810. The
court-house was built in the form of an octagon
at the centre of the circle, and circular streets
were laid out around it; but this arrangement
proved to be inconvenient, the court-house was
destroyed by fire in 1841, and at present no
trace of the ancient landmarks remains. Circle-
ville was incorporated as a village in 1814, and
was chartered as a city in 1853.

CIRCUIT (Lat. circuilus, from circum, round,
and ire, to go), the act of moving round; so
circumference, or anything encircling or en-
circled. The word is particularly known as a law

By these computers Machin's identity, or identities analogous

to it c ?

»/4 = tan-'i+tan-'i +tan-'i (Dase, 1844),
ir/4 = 4tan-1i -tan-1^, -t-tan"1^ (Rutherford),

and Gregory's series were employed.1

A much less wise class than the ir-computers of modern times
are the pseudo-circle-squarers, or circle-squarers technically so
called, that is to say, persons who, having obtained by illegiti-
mate means a Euclidean construction for the quadrature or a
finitely expressible value for v, insist on using faulty reasoning
and defective mathematics to establish their assertions. Such
persons have flourished at all times in the history of mathematics;
but the interest attaching to them is more psychological than
mathematical.2

It is of recent years that the most important advances in the
theory of circle-quadrature have been made. In 1873 Charles
Hermite proved that the base e of the Napierian logarithms
cannot be a root of a rational algebraical equation of any degree.3
To prove the same proposition regarding IT is to prove that a
Euclidean construction for circle-quadrature is impossible.
For in such a construction every point of the figure is obtained
by the intersection of two straight lines, a straight line and a
circle, or two circles; and as this implies that, when a unit of
length is introduced, numbers employed, and the problem
transformed into one of algebraic geometry, the equations to
be solved can only be of the first or second degree, it follows that
the equation to which we must be finally led is a rational equation
of even degree. Hermite4 did not succeed in his attempt on TT;
but in 1882 F. Lindemann, following exactly in Herrnite's steps,
accomplished the desired result.5 (See also TRIGONOMETRY.)

REFERENCES. — Besides the various writings mentioned, see for
the history of the subject F. Rudio, Geschichte des Problems von der
Quadratttr des Zirkels (1892); M. Cantor, Geschichte der Mathematik
(1894-1901) ;Montucla, Hist. des. math. (6 vols., Paris, 1758, 2nd
ed. 1799-1802); Murhard, Bibliotheca Mathematical, ii. 106-123
(Leipzig, 1798); Reuss, Repertorium Comment. Vii. 42-44 (Got-
tingen, 1808). For a few approximate geometrical solutions,
see Leybourn's Math. Repository, vi. 151-154; Grunert's Archiv,
xii. 98, xlix. 3; Nieuw Archief v. Wisk. iv. 200-204. For experi-
mental determinations of TT, dependent on the theory of prob-
ability, see Mess, of Math. ii. 113, 119; Casopis pro pistovdni
math. afys. x. 272-275; Analyst, ix. 176. (T. Mu.)

CIRCLEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Pickaway
county, Ohio, U.S.A., about 26 m. S. by E. of Columbus, on the
Scioto river and the Ohio Canal. Pop. (1890) 6556; (1900)
6991 (551 negroes); (1910) 6744. It is served by the Cincinnati
& Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania lines) and the Norfolk &
Western railways, and by the Scioto Valley electric line. Circle-
ville is situated in a farming region, and its leading industries
are the manufacture of straw boards and agricultural imple-

1 On the calculations made before Shanks, see Lehmann, " Beitrag
zur Berechnung der Zahl *-," in Grunert's Archiv, xxi. 121-174.

1 See Montucla, Hist, des rech. sur la quad, du cercle (Paris, 1754,
2nd ed. 1831); de Morgan, Budget of Paradoxes (London, 1872).

3 " Sur la fonction exponentielle," Comptes rendus (Paris), Ixxvii.
18, 74, 226, 285.

* See Crelle's Journal, Ixxvi. 342.

* See " Uber die Zahl x," in Math. Ann. xx. 213.

term, signifying the periodical progress of a legal tribunal for
the purpose of carrying out the administration of the law in the
several provinces of a country. It ha's long been applied to the
journey or progress which the judges have been in the habit of
making through the several counties of England, to hold courts
and administer justice, where recourse could not be had to the
king's court at Westminster (see ASSIZE).

In England, by sec. 23 of the Judicature Act 1875, power was
conferred on the crown, by order in council, to make regulations
respecting circuits, including the discontinuance of any circuit,
and the formation of any new circuit, and the appointment of
the place at which assizes are to be held on any circuit. Under
this power an order of council, dated the sth of February 1876,
was made, whereby the circuit system was remodelled. A new
circuit, called the North-Eastern circuit, was created, consisting
of Newcastle and Durham taken out of the old Northern circuit,
and York and Leeds taken out of the Midland circuit. Oakham,
Leicester and Northampton, which had belonged to the Norfolk
circuit, were added to the Midland. The Norfolk circuit and the
Home circuit were abolished and a new South-Eastern circuit
was created, consisting of Huntingdon, Cambridge, Ipswich,
Norwich, Chelmsford, Hertford and Lewes, taken partly out
of the old Norfolk circuit and partly out of the Home circuit.
The counties of Kent and Surrey were left out of the circuit
system, the assizes for these counties being held by the judges
remaining in London. Subsequently Maidstone and Guildford
were united under the revived name of the Home circuit for the
purpose of the summer and winter assizes, and the assizes in
these towns were held by one of the judges of the Western circuit,
who, after disposing of the business there, rejoined his colleague
in Exeter. In 1899 this arrangement was abolished, and Maid-
stone and Guildford were added to the South-Eastern circuit.
Other minor changes in the assize towns were made, which it is
unnecessary to particularize. Birmingham first became a
circuit town in the year 1884, and the work there became,
by arrangement, the joint property of the Midland and Oxford
circuits. There are alternative assize towns in the following
counties, viz.: — On the Western circuit, Salisbury and Devizes
for Wiltshire, and Wells and Taunton for Somerset; on the
South-Eastern, Ipswich and Bury St Edmunds for Suffolk;
on the North Wales circuit, Welshpool and Newtown for Mont-
gomery; and on the South Wales circuit, Cardiff and Swansea
for Glamorgan.

According to the arrangements in force in 1909 there are
four assizes in each year. There are two principal assizes, viz.
the winter assizes, beginning in January, and the summer assizes,
beginning at the end of May. At these two assizes criminal and
civil business is disposed of in all the circuits. There are two
other assizes, viz. the autumn assizes and the Easter assizes.
The autumn assizes are regulated by acts of 1876 and 1877
(Winter Assizes Acts 1876 and 1877), and orders of council made
under the former act. They are held for the whole of England
and Wales, but for the purpose of these assizes the work is to a
large extent " grouped," so that not every county has a separate
assize. For example, on the South-Eastern circuit Huntingdon

388

is grouped with Cambridge; on the Midland, Rutland is grouped
with Lincoln; on the Northern, Westmorland is grouped with
Cumberland; and the North Wales and South Wales circuits
are united, and no assizes are held at some of the smaller towns.
At these assizes criminal business only is taken, except at
Manchester, Liverpool, Swansea, Birmingham and Leeds.
The Easter assizes are held in April and May on two circuits
only, viz. at Manchester and Liverpool on the Northern and at
Leeds on the North-Eastern. Both civil and criminal business
is taken at Manchester and Liverpool, but criminal business
only at Leeds.

Other changes were made, with a view to preventing the
complete interruption of the London sittings in the common law
division by the absence of the judges on circuit. The assizes
were so arranged as to commence on different dates in the various
circuits. For example, the summer assizes begin in the South-
Eastern and Western circuits on the zpth of May; in the
Northern circuit on the z8th of June; hi the Midland and
Oxford circuits on the i6th of June; in the North-Eastern
circuit on the 6th of July; in the North Wales circuit on the
7th of July; and in the South Wales circuit on the nth of July.
Again, there has been a continuous development of what may
be called the single-judge system. In the early days of the new
order the members of the court of appeal and the judges of the
chancery division shared the circuit work with the judges in the
common law division. This did not prove to be a satisfactory
arrangement. The assize work was not familiar and was un-
congenial to the chancery judges, who had but little training
or experience to fit them for it. Arrears increased in chancery,
and the appeal court was shorn of much of its strength for a
considerable part of the year. The practice was discontinued
in or about the year 1884. The appeal and chancery judges were
relieved of the duty of going on circuit, and an arrangement
was made by the treasury for making an allowance for expenses
of circuit to the common law judges, on whom the whole work
of the assizes was thrown. In order to cope with the assize
work, and at the same time keep the common law sittings going
in London, an experiment, which had been previously tried
by Lord Cairns and Lord Cross (then home secretary) and
discontinued, was revived. Instead of two judges going together
to each assize town, it was arranged that one judge should go
by himself to certain selected places — practically, it may be
said, to all except the more important provincial centres. The
only places to which two judges now go are Exeter, Winchester,
Bristol, Manchester, Liverpool, Nottingham, Stafford, Birming-
ham, Newcastle, Durham, York, Leeds, Chester, and Cardiff or
Swansea.

It could scarcely be said that, even with the amendments
introduced under orders in council, the circuit system was alto-
gether satisfactory or that the last word had been pronounced
on the subject. In the first report of the Judicature Commission,
dated March asth, 1869, p. 17 (Park Papers, 1868-1869), the
majority report that " the necessity for holding assizes in every
county without regard to the extent of the business to be trans-
acted in such county leads, in our judgment, to a great waste of
judicial strength and a great loss of time in going from one
circuit town to another, and causes much unnecessary cost and
inconvenience to those whose attendance is necessary or cus-
tomary at the assizes." And in their second report, dated July 3rd,
1872 (Parl. Papers, 1872, vol. xx.), they dwell upon the advis-
ability of grouping or a discontinuance of holding assizes " in
several counties, for example, Rutland and Westmorland, where
it is manifestly an idle waste of time and money to have assizes."
It is thought that the grouping of counties which has been effected
for the autumn assizes might be carried still further and applied
to all the assizes; and that the system of holding the assizes
alternately in one of two towns within a county might be extended
to two towns in adjoining counties, for example, Gloucester
and Worcester. The facility of railway communication renders
this reform comparatively easy, and reforms in this direction
have been approved by the judges, but ancient custom and
local patriotism, interests, or susceptibility bar the way. The

CIRCUIT

Assizes and Quarter Sessions Act 1908 contributed something
to reform by dispensing with the obligation to hold assizes
at a fixed date if there is no business to be transacted. Nor
can it be said that the single-judge system has been altogether
a success. When there is only one judge for both civil and
criminal work, he properly takes the criminal business first.
He can fix only approximately the time when he can hope to
be free for the civil business. If the calendar is exceptionally
heavy or one or more of the criminal cases prove to be unex-
pectedly long (as may easily happen) , the civil business necessarily
gets squeezed into the short residue of the allotted time. Suitors
and their solicitors and witnesses are kept waiting for days, and
after all perhaps it proves to be impossible for the judge to take
the case, and a " remanet " is the result. It is the opinion of
persons of experience that the result has undoubtedly been to
drive to London much of the civil business which properly
belongs to the provinces, and ought to be tried there, and thus
at once to increase the burden on the judges and jurymen in
London, and to increase the costs of the trial of the actions sent
there. Some persons advocate the continuous sittings of the
high court in certain centres, such as Manchester, Liverpool,
Leeds, Newcastle, Birmingham and Bristol, or (in fact) a de-
centralization of the judicial system. There is already an excel-
lent court for chancery cases for Lancashire in the county
palatine court, presided over by the vice-chancellor, and with a
local bar which has produced many men of great ability and
even eminence. The Durham chancery court is also capable
of development. Another suggestion has been made for con-
tinuous circuits throughout the legal year, so that a certain
number of the judges, according to a rota, should be continuously
in the provinces while the remaining judges did the London
business. The value of this suggestion would depend on an
estimate of the number of cases which might thus be tried in the
country in relief of the London list. This estimate it would be
difficult to make. The opinion has also been expressed that it
is essential in any changes that may be made to retain the
occasional administration by judges of the high court of criminal
jurisdiction, both in populous centres and in remote places. It
promotes a belief in the importance and dignity of justice and
tHe care to be given to all matters affecting a citizen's life,
liberty or character. It also does something, by the example
set by judges in country districts, to check any tendency to
undue severity of sentences in offences against property.

Counsel are not expected to practise on a circuit other than
that to which they have attached themselves, unless they receive
a special retainer. They are then said to " go special," and the
fee in such a case is one hundred guineas for a king's counsel,
and fifty guineas for a junior. It is customary to employ one
member of the circuit on the side on which the counsel comes
special. Certain rules have been drawn up by the Bar Com-
mittee for regulating the practice as to retainers on circuit,
(i) A special retainer must be given for a particular assize (a
circuit retainer will not, however, make it compulsory upon
counsel retained to go the circuit, but will give the right to
counsel's services should he attend the assize and the case be
entered for trial) ; (2) if the venue is changed to another place
on the same circuit, a fresh retainer is not required; (3) if the
action is not tried at the assize for which the retainer is given,
the retainer must be renewed for every subsequent assize until
the action is disposed of, unless a brief has been delivered;
(4) a retainer may be given for a future assize, without a retainer
for an intervening assize, unless notice of trial is given for such
intervening assize. There are also various regulations enforced
by the discipline of the circuit bar mess.

In the United States the English circuit system still exists
in some states, as in Massachusetts, where the judges sit in
succession in the various counties of the state. The term circuit
courts applies distinctively in America to a certain class of
inferior federal courts of the United States, exercising juris-
diction, concurrently with the state courts, in certain matters
where the United States is a party to the litigation, or in cases
of crime against the United States. The circuit courts act in

CIRCULAR NOTE— CIRCUMCISION

389

nine judicial circuits, divided as follows: 1st circuit, Maine,
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island; 2nd circuit,
Connecticut, New York, Vermont; yd circuit, Delaware, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania; 4th circuit, Maryland, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia; 5th circuit, Alabama,
Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas; 6th circuit,
Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee; fth circuit, Illinois,
Indiana, Wisconsin; 8th circuit, Arkansas, Colorado, Okla-
homa, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New
Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming; 9th
circuit, Alaska, Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada,
Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii. A circuit court of ap-
peals is made up of three judges of the circuit court, the
judges of the district courts of the circuit, and the judge of the
Supreme Court allotted to the circuit.

In Scotland the judges of the supreme criminal court, or high
court of justiciary, form also three separate circuit courts,
consisting of two judges each; and the country, with the ex-
ception of the Lothians, is divided into corresponding districts,
called the Northern, Western and Southern circuits. On the
Northern circuit, courts are held at Inverness, Perth, Dundee
and Aberdeen; on the Western, at Glasgow, Stirling and
Inveraray; and on the Southern, at Dumfries, Jedburgh and Ayr.

Ireland is divided into the North-East and the North-West
circuits, and those of Leinster, Connaught and Munster.

CIRCULAR NOTE, a documentary request by a bank to its
foreign correspondents to pay a specified sum of money to a
named person. The person in whose favour a circular note is
issued is furnished with a letter (containing the signature of an
official of the bank and the person named) called a letter of
indication, which is usually referred to in the circular note,
and must be produced on presentation of the note. Circular
notes are generally issued against a payment of cash to the
amount of the notes, but the notes need not necessarily be
cashed, but may be returned to the banker in exchange for the
amount for which they were originally issued. A forged signature
on a circular note conveys no right, and as it is the duty of the
payer to see that payment is made to the proper person, he
cannot recover the amount of a forged note from the banker
who issued the note. (See also LETTER OF CREDIT.)

CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO (Lat. for " circle in proving "),
in logic, a phrase used to describe a form of argument in which
the very fact which one seeks to demonstrate is used as a premise,
i.e. as part of the evidence on which the conclusion is based.
This argument is one form of the fallacy known as petitio
principii, " begging the question." It is most common in
lengthy arguments, the complicated character of which enables
the speaker to make his hearers forget the data from which he
began. (See FALLACY.)

CIRCUMCISION (Lat. circum, round, and caedere, to cut),
the cutting off of the foreskin. This surgical operation, which is
commonly prescribed for purely medical reasons, is also an
initiation or religious ceremony among Jews and Mahommedans,
and is a widespread institution in many Semitic races. It
remains, with Jews, a necessary preliminary to the admission of
proselytes, except in some Reformed communities. The origin
of the rite among the Jews is in Genesis (xvii.) placed in the age
of Abraham, and at all events it must have been very ancient,
for flint stones were used in the operation (Exodus iv. 25;
Joshua v.2). The narrative in Joshua implies that the custom
was introduced by him, not that it had merely been in abeyance
in the Wilderness. At Gilgal he " rolled away the reproach of
the Egyptians " by circumcising the people. This obviously
means that whereas the Egyptians practised circumcision the
Jews in the land of the Pharaohs did not, and hence were regarded
with contempt. It was an old theory (Herodotus ii. 36) that
circumcision originated in Egypt; at all events it was practised
in that country in ancient times (Ebers, Egypten und die Bucher
Mosis, i. 278-284), and the same is true at the present day.
But it is not generally thought probable that the Hebrews
derived the rite directly from the Egyptians. As Driver puts it
(Genesis, p. 190) : " It is possible that, as Dillmann and Nowack

suppose, the peoples of N. Africa and Asia who practised the rite
adopted it from the Egyptians, but it appears in so many parts
of the world that it must at any rate in these cases have originated
independently." In another biblical narrative (Exodus iv. 25)
Moses is subject to the divine anger because he had not made
himself " a bridegroom of blood," that is, had not been circum-
cised before his marriage.

The rite of circumcision was practised by all the inhabitants
of Palestine with the exception of the Philistines. It was an
ancient custom among the Arabs, being presupposed in the
Koran. The only important Semitic peoples who most probably
did not follow the rite were the Babylonians and Assyrians
(Sayce, Babyl. and Assyrians, p. 47). Modern investigations have
brought to light many instances of the prevalence of circumcision
in various parts of the world. These facts are collected by Andree
and Ploss, and go to prove that the rite is not only spread through
the Mahommedan world (Turks, Persians, Arabs, &c.), but also is
practised by the Christian Abyssinians and the Copts, as well
as in central Australia and in America. In central Australia
(Spencer and Gillen, pp. 212-386) circumcision with a stone knife
must be undergone by every youth before he is reckoned a full
member of the tribe or is permitted to enter on the married state.
In other parts, too (e.g. Loango), no uncircumcised man may
marry. Circumcision was known to the Aztecs (Bancroft,
Native Races, vol. iii.), and is still practised by the Caribs of
the Orinoco and the Tacunas of the Amazon. The method and
period ,of the operation vary in important particulars. Among
the Jews it is performed in infancy, when the male child is eight
days old. The child is named at the same time, and the ceremony
is elaborate. The child is carried in to the godfather (sandek,
a hebraized form of the Gr. avvTtKvos, " godfather," post-class.),
who places the child on a cushion, which he holds on his knees
throughout the ceremony. The operator (mohel) uses a steel
knife, and pronounces various benedictions before and after the
rite is performed (see S. Singer, Authorized Daily Prayer Book,
pp. 304-307; an excellent account of the domestic festivities
and spiritual joys associated with the ceremony among medieval
and modern Jews may be read in S. Schechter's Studies in
Judaism, first series, pp. 351 seq.). Some tribes in South America
and elsewhere are said to perform the rite on the eighth day,
like the Jews. The Mazequas do it between the first and second
months. Among the Bedouins the rite is performed on children
of three years, amid dances and the selection of brides(Doughty,
Arabia Deserta, i. 340); among the Somalis the age is seven
(Reinisch, Somalisprache, p. no). But for the most part the
tribes who perform the rite carry it out at the age of puberty.
Many facts bearing on this point are given by B. Stade in Zeit-
schriftfur die alttest. Wissenschaft, vi. (1886) pp. 132 seq.

The significance of the rite of circumcision has been much
disputed. Some see in it a tribal badge. If this be the true
origin of circumcision, it must go back to the time when men
went about naked. Mutilations (tattooing, removal of teeth
and so forth) were tribal marks, being partly sacrifices and
partly means of recognition (see MUTILATION). Such initiatory
rites were often frightful ordeals, in which the neophyte's
courage was severely tested (Robertson Smith, Religion of tfa
Semites, p. 310). Some regard circumcision as a substitute for
far more serious rites, including even human sacrifice. Utilitarian
explanations have also been suggested. Sir R. Burton (Memoirs
Anthrop. Soc. i. 318) held that it was introduced to promote
fertility, and the claims of cleanliness have been put forward
(following Philo's example, see ed. Mangey, ii. 210). Most
probably, however, circumcision (which in many tribes is per-
formed on both sexes) was connected with marriage, and was a
preparation for connubium. It was in Robertson Smith's words
" originally a preliminary to marriage, and so a ceremony of
introduction to the full prerogative of manhood," the trans-
ference to infancy among the Jews being a later change. On
this view, the decisive Biblical reference would be the Exodus
passage (iv. 25), in which Moses is represented as being in danger
of his life because he had neglected the proper preliminary to
marriage. In Genesis, on the other hand, circumcision is an

39°

CIRCUMVALLATION— CIRCUS

external sign of God's covenant with Israel, and later Judaism
now regards it in this symbolical sense. Barton (Semitic Origins,
p. too) declares that " the circumstances under which it is per-
formed in Arabia point to the origin of circumcision as a sacrifice
to the goddess of fertility, by which the child was placed under
her protection and its reproductive powers consecrated to her
service." But Barton admits that initiation to the connubium
was the primitive origin of the rite.

As regards the non-ritual use of male circumcision, it may be
added that in recent years the medical profession has been
responsible for its considerable extension among other than
Jewish children, the operation being recommended not merely
in cases of malformation, but generally for reasons of health.

AUTHORITIES.- — On the present diffusion of circumcision see H.
Ploss, Das Kind im Branch und Sitte der Volker, i. 342 seq., and his
researches in Deutsches Archiv fur Geschichte der Medizin, viii.
312-344; Andree, "Die Beschneidung " in Archiv fur Anthrp-
pologie, xiii. 76; and Spencer and Gillen, Tribes of Central Australia.
The articles in the Encyclopaedia Biblica and Dictionary of the Bible
contain useful bibliographies as well as historical accounts of the
rite and its ceremonies, especially as concerns the Jews. The Jewish
Encyclopedia in particular gives an extensive list of books on the
Jewish customs connected with circumcision, and the various articles
in that work are full of valuable information (vol. iv. pp. 92-102).
On the rite among the Arabs, see Wellhausen, Reste arabischen
Heidentums, 154. (I. A.)

CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF (from Lat. circum, round,
and vallum, a rampart), in fortification, a continuous circle of
entrenchments surrounding a besieged place. " Liaes of
Contravallation " were similar works by which the besieger pro-
tected himself against the attack of a relieving army from any
quarter. These continuous lines of circumvallation and contra-
vallation were used only in the days of small armies and small
fortresses, and both terms are now obsolete.

CIRCUS (Lat. circus, Gr. dpKos or KP'LKOS, a ring or circle;
probably " circus " and " ring " are of the same origin), a space,
in the strict sense circular, but sometimes oval or even oblong,
intended for the exhibition of races and athletic contests gener-
ally. The circus differs from the theatre inasmuch as the
performance takes place in a central circular space, not on a stage
at one end of the building.

i. In Roman antiquities the circus was a building for the
exhibition of horse and chariot races and other amusements.
It consisted of tiers of seats running parallel with the sides of
the course, and forming a crescent round one of the ends. The
other end was straight and at right angles to the course, so that
the plan of the whole had nearly the form of an ellipse cut in
half at its vertical axis. Along the transverse axis ran a fence
(spina) separating the return course from the starting one. The
straight end had no seats, but was occupied by the stalls (carceres)
where the chariots and horses were held in readiness. This end
constituted also the front of the building with the main entrance.
At each end of the course were three conical pillars (metae) to
mark its limits.

The oldest building of this kind in Rome was the Circus
Maximus, in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine
hills, where, before the erection of any permanent structure,
races appear to have been held beside the altar of the god
Consus. The first building is assigned to Tarquin the younger,
but for a long time little seems to have been done to complete
its accommodation, since it is not till 329 B.C. that we hear
of stalls being erected for the chariots and horses. It was not
in fact till under the empire that the circus became a conspicuous
public resort. Caesar enlarged it to some extent, and also made
a canal 10 ft. broad between the lowest tier of seats (podium)
and the course as a precaution for the spectators' safety when
exhibitions of fighting with wild beasts, such as were afterwards
confined to the amphitheatre, took place. When these exhibi-
tions were removed, and the canal (euripus) was no longer
necessary, Nero had it filled up. Augustus is said to have placed
an obelisk on the spina between the metae, and to have built a
new pulvinar, or imperial box; but if this is taken in connexion
with the fact that the circus had been partially destroyed by
fire in 31 B.C., it may be supposed that besides this he had

restored it altogether. Only the lower tiers of seats were of
stone, the others being of wood, and this, from the liability to
fire, may account for the frequent restorations to which the circus
was subject; it would also explain the falling of the seats by
which a crowd of people were killed in the time of Antoninus
Pius. In the reign of Claudius, apparently after a fire, the
carceres of stone (tufa) were replaced by marble, and the metae
of wood by gilt bronze. Under Domitian, again, after a fire, the
circus was rebuilt and the carceres increased to 12 instead
of 8 as before. The work was finished by Trajan. See further
for seating capacity, &c., ROME: Archaeology, § " Places of
Amusement."

The circus was the only public spectacle at which men and
women were not separated. The lower seats were reserved for
persons of rank; there were also various state boxes, e.g. for
the giver of the games and his friends (called cubicula or suggestus).
The principal object of attraction apart from the racing must
have been the spina or low wall which ran down the middle
of the course, with its obelisks, images and ornamental shrines.
On it also were seven figures of dolphins and seven oval objects,
one of which was taken down at every round made in a race,
so that spectators might see readily how the contest proceeded.
The chariot race consisted of seven rounds of the course. The
chariots started abreast, but in an oblique line, so that the outer
chariot might be compensated for the wider circle it had to make
at the other end. Such a race was called a missus, and as many
as 24 of these would take place in a day. The competitors
wore different colours, originally white and red (albata and
russata), to which green (prasina) and blue (veneta) were added.
Domitian introduced two more colours, gold and purple (pur-
pureus et auratus pannus), which probably fell into disuse after
his death. To provide the horses and large staff of attendants
it was necessary to apply to rich capitalists and owners of studs,
and from this there grew up in time four select companies
(factiones) of circus purveyors, which were identified with the
four colours, and with which those who organized the races had
to contract for the proper supply of horses and men. The drivers
(aurigae, agitator es), who were mostly slaves, were sometimes
held in high repute for their skill, although their calling was
regarded with contempt. The horses most valued were those of
Sicily, Spain and Cappadocia, and great care was taken in train-
ing them. Chariots with two horses (bigae) or four (quadrigae)
were most common, but sometimes also they had three (trigae),
and exceptionally more than four horses. Occasionally there
was combined with the chariots a race of riders (desultores) ,
each rider having two horses and leaping from one to the other
during the race. At certain of the races the proceedings were
opened by a pompa or procession in which images of the gods
and of the imperial family deified were conveyed in cars drawn
by horses, mules or elephants, attended by the colleges of priests,
and led by the presiding magistrate (in some cases by the
emperor himself) seated in a chariot in the dress and with the
insignia of a triumphator. The procession passed from the
capitol along the forum, and on to the circus, where it was re-
ceived by the people standing and clapping their hands. The
presiding magistrate gave the signal for the races by throwing
a white flag (mappa) on to the course.

Next in importance to the Circus Maximus in Rome was the
Circus Flaminius, erected 221 B.C., in the censorship of C.
Flaminius, from whom it may have taken its name; cr the
name may have been derived from Prata Flaminia, where it
was situated, and where also were held plebeian meetings.
The only games that are positively known to have been celebrated
in this circus were the Ludi Taurii and Plebeii. There is no
mention of it after the ist century. Its ruins were identified
in the i6th century at S. Catarina dei Funari and the Palazzo
Mattei.

A third circus in Rome was erected by Caligula in the gardens
of Agrippina, and was known as the Circus Neronis, from the
notoriety which it obtained through the Circensian pleasures of
Nero. A fourth was constructed by Maxentius outside the
Porta Appia near the tomb of Caecilia Metella, where its ruins

CIRENCESTER

391

are still, and now afford the only instance from which an idea
of the ancient circi in Rome can be obtained. It was traced to
Caracalla, till the discovery of an inscription in 1825 showed
it to be the work of Maxentius. Old topographers speak of six
circi, but two of these appear to be imaginary, the Circus Florae
and the Circus Sallustii.

Circus races were held in connexion with the following public
festivals, and generally on the last day of the festival, if it
extended over more than one day: — (i) The Consualia,
August 2ist, December isth; (2) Equirria, February 27th,
March I4th; (3) Ludl Romani, September 4th-igth; (4) Ludi
Plebeii, November 4th-i7th; (5) Cerialia, April i2th-igth;
(6) Ludi Apollinares, July 6th-i3th; (7) Ludi Megalenses,
April 4th-ioth; (8) Flordia, April 28th-May 3rd.

In addition to Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890),
see articles in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites,
Pauly-Wissowa's Realcncyclopddie der classischen Altertumswissen-
schaft, iii. 2 (1899), and Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii.
(2nd ed., 1885), p. 504. For existing remains see works quoted
under ROME: Archaeology.

2. The Modern Circus. — The " circus " in modern times is
a form of popular entertainment which has little in common
with the institution of classical Rome. It is frequently nomadic
in character, the place of the permanent building known to the
ancients as the circus being taken by a tent, which is carried
from place to place and set up temporarily on any site procurable
at country fairs or in provincial towns, and in which spectacular
performances are given by a troupe employed by the proprietor.
The centre of the tent forms an arena arranged as a horse-ring,
strewn with tan or other soft substance, where the performances
take place, the seats of the spectators being arranged in ascending
tiers around the central space as in the Romaa circus. The
traditional type of exhibition in the modern travelling circus
consists of feats of horsemanship, such as leaping through hoops
from the back of a galloping horse, standing with one foot on
each of two horses galloping side by side, turning somersaults
from a springboard over a number of horses standing close
together, or accomplishing acrobatic trjcks on horseback. These
performances, by male and female riders, are varied by the
introduction of horses trained to perform tricks, and by drolleries
on the part of the clown, whose place in the circus is as firmly
established by tradition as in the pantomime.

The popularity of the circus in England may be traced to that
kept by Philip Astley (d. 1814) in London at the end of the i8th
century. Astley was followed by Ducrow, whose feats of horse-
manship had much to do with establishing the traditions of the
circus, which were perpetuated by Hengler's and Sanger's
celebrated shows in a later generation. In America a circus-actor
named Ricketts is said to have performed before George Washing-
ton in 1780, and in the first half of the igth century the establish-
ments of Purdy, Welch & Co., and of van Amburgh gave a
wide popularity to the circus in the United States. All former
circus-proprietors were, however, far surpassed in enterprise and
resource by P. T. Barnum (q.v.), whose claim to be the possessor
of " the greatest show on earth " was no exaggeration. The
influence of Barnum, however, brought about a considerable
change in the character of the modern circus. In arenas too
large for speech to be easily audible, the traditional comic dialogue
of the clown assumed a less prominent place than formerly,
while the vastly increased wealth of stage properties relegated
to the background the old-fashioned equestrian feats, which
were replaced by more ambitious acrobatic performances, and
by exhibitions of skill, strength and daring, requiring the
employment of immense numbers of performers and often of
complicated and expensive machinery. These tendencies are,
as is natural, most marked in shows given in permanent buildings
in large cities, such as the London Hippodrome, which was built
as a combination of the circus, the 'menagerie and the variety
theatre, where wild animals such as lions and elephants from
time to time appeared in the ring, and where convulsions of
nature such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have
been produced with an extraordinary wealth of realistic display,
t the Hippodrome in Paris — unlike its London namesake, a

circus of the true classical type in which the arena is entirely
surrounded by the seats of the spectators — chariot races after
the Roman model were held in the latter part of the igth
century, at which prizes of considerable value were given by the
management.

CIRENCESTER (traditionally pronounced Ciceter), a market
town in the Cirencester parliamentary division of Gloucestershire,
England, on the river Churn, a tributary of the Thames, 93 m.
W.N.W. of London. Pop. of urban district (1001) 7536. It is
served by a branch of the Great Western railway, and there is
also a station on the Midland and South-Western Junction
railway. This is an ancient and prosperous market town of
picturesque old houses clustering round a fine parish church,
with a high embattled tower, and a remarkable south porch with
parvise. The church is mainly Perpendicular, and among its
numerous chapels that of St Catherine has a beautiful roof of
fan-tracery in stone dated 1508. Of the abbey founded in
1117 by Henry I. there remain a Norman gateway and a few
capitals. There are two good museums containing mosaics,
inscriptions, carved and sculptured stones, and many smaller
remains, for the town was the Roman Corinium or Durocornovium
Dobunorum. Little trace of Corinium, however, can be seen
in situ, except the amphitheatre and some indications of the walls.
To the west of the town is Cirencester House, the seat of Earl
Bathurst. The first Lord Bathurst (1684-1775) devoted himself
to beautifying the fine demesne of Oakley Park, which he
planted and adorned with remarkable artificial ruins. This
nobleman, who became baron in 1711 and earl in 1772, was a
patron of art and literature no less than a statesman-; and Pope,
a frequent visitor here, was allowed to design the building known
as Pope's Seat, in the park, commanding a splendid prospect
of woods and avenues. Swift was another appreciative visitor.
The house contains portraits by Lawrence, Gainsborough,
Romney, Lely, Reynolds, Hoppner, Kneller and many others.
A mile west of the town is the Royal Agricultural College,
incorporated by charter in 1845. Its buildings include a chapel,
a dining hall, a library, a lecture theatre, laboratories, class-
rooms, private studies and dormitories for the students, apart-
ments for resident professors, and servants' offices; also a
museum containing a collection of anatomical and pathological
preparations, and mineralogical, botanical and geological speci-
mens. The college farm comprises 500 acres, 450 of which
are arable; and on it are the well-appointed farm-buildings
and the veterinary hospital. Besides agriculture, the course of
instruction at the college includes chemistry, natural and
mechanical philosophy, natural history, mensuration, surveying
and drawing, and other subjects of practical importance to the
farmer, proficiency in which is tested by means of sessional
examinations. The industries of Cirencester comprise various
branches of agriculture. It has connexion by a bfanch canal
with the Thames and Severn canal.

Corinium was a flourishing Romano-British town, at first
perhaps a cavalry post, but afterwards, for the greater part of
the Roman period, purely a civilian city. At Chedworth, 7 m.
N.E., is one of the most noteworthy Roman villas in England.
Cirencester (Cirneceaster, Cyrenceaster , Cyringceaster) is described
in Domesday as ancient demesne of the crown. The manor was
granted by William I. to William Fitzosbern; on reverting to
the crown it was given in 1189, with the township, to the Augus-
tinian abbey founded here by Henry I. The struggle of the
townsmen to prove that Cirencester was a borough probably
began in the same year, when they were amerced for a false
presentment. Four inquisitions during the I3th century sup-
ported the abbot's claims, yet in 1343 the townsmen declared
in a chancery bill of complaint that Cirencester was a borough
distinct from the manor, belonging to the king but usurped by
the abbot, who since 1308 had abated their court of provostry.
Accordingly they produced a copy of a forged charter from
Henry I. to the town; the court ignored this and the abbot
obtained a new charter and a writ of superseded*. For their
success against the earls of Kent and Salisbury Henry IV. in
1403 gave the townsmen a gild merchant, although two

392

CIRILLO— CISSEY

inquisitions reiterated the abbot's rights. These were confirmed
in 1408-1409 and 1413; in 1418 the charter was annulled, and
in 1477 parliament declared that Cirencester was not corporate.
After several unsuccessful attempts to re-establish the gild
merchant, the government in 1592 was vested in the bailiff of the
lord of the manor. Cirencester became a parliamentary borough
in 1572, returning two members, but was deprived of repre-
sentation in 1885. Besides the " new market " of Domesday
Book the abbots obtained charters in 1215 and 1253 for fairs
during the octaves of All Saints and St Thomas the Martyr.
The wool trade gave these great importance; in 1341 there
Were ten wool merchants in Cirencester, and Leland speaks of
the abbots' cloth-mill, while Camden calls it the greatest market
for wool in England.

See Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological
Society, vols. ii., ix., xviii.

CIRILLO, DOHENICO (1739-1799), Italian physician and
patriot, was bom at Grumo in the kingdom of Naples. Appointed
while yet a young man to a botanical professorship, Cirillo went
some years afterwards to England, where he was elected fellow
of the Royal Society, and to France. On his return to Naples
he was appointed successively to the chairs of practical and
theoretical medicine. He wrote voluminously and well on
scientific subjects and secured an extensive medical practice.
On the French occupation of Naples and the proclamation of
the Parthenopean republic (1799), Cirillo, after at first refusing
to take part in the new government, consented to be chosen a
representative of the people and became a member of the
legislative commission, of which he was eventually elected
president. On the abandonment of the republic by the French
(June 1799), Cardinal Ruffo and the army of King Ferdinand
IV. returned to Naples, and the Republicans withdrew, ill-armed
and inadequately provisioned, to the forts. After a short siege
they surrendered on honourable terms, life and liberty being
guaranteed them by the signatures of Ruffo, of Foote, and of
Micheroux. But the arrival of Nelson changed the complexion
of affairs, and he refused to ratify the capitulation. Secure
under the British flag, Ferdinand and his wife, Caroline of
Austria, showed themselves eager for revenge, and Cirillo was
involved with the other republicans in the vengeance of the
royal family. He asked Lady Hamilton (wife of the British
minister to Naples) to intercede on his behalf, but Nelson wrote
in reference to the petition: " Domenico Cirillo, who had been
the king's physician, might have been saved, but that he chose
to play the fool and lie, denying that he had ever made any
speeches against the government, and saying that he only took
care of the poor in the hospitals " (Nelson and the Neapolitan
Jacobins, Navy Records Society, 1903). He was condemned
and hanged on the 2gth of October 1799. Cirillo, whose favourite
study was botany, and who was recognized as an entomologist
by Linnaeus, left many books, in Latin and Italian, all of them
treating of medical and scientific subjects, and all of little value
now. Exception must, however, be made in favour of the
Virtu morali dell' Asino, a pleasant philosophical pamphlet
remarkable for its double charm of sense and style. He in-
troduced many medical innovations into Naples, particularly
inoculation for smallpox.

See C. Giglioli, Naples in IJQQ (London, 1903) ; L. Conforti, Napoli
nel I??? (Naples, 1889); C. Tivaroni, L' Italia durante il dominio

. ,

francese, vol. ii. pp. 179-204. Also under NAPLES; NELSON and
FERDINAND IV. OF NAPLES.

CIRQUE (Lat. circus, ring), a French word used in physical
geography to denote a semicircular crater-like amphitheatre
at the head of a valley, or in the side of a glaciated mountain.
The valley cirque is characteristic of calcareous districts. In
the Chiltern Hills especially, and generally along the chalk
escarpments, a flat-bottomed valley with an intermittent
stream winds into the hill and ends suddenly in a cirque. There
is an excellent example at Ivinghoe, Buckinghamshire, where
it appears as though an enormous flat-bottomed scoop had been
driven into the hillside and dragged outwards to the plain. In
all cases it is found that the valley floor consists of hard or

impervious rock above which lies a permeable or soluble stratum
of considerable thickness. In the case of the chalk hills the
upper strata are very porous, and the descending water with
atmospheric and humous acids in solution has great solvent
power. During the winter this upper layer becomes saturated
and some of the water drains away along joints in the escarpment.
An underground stream is thus developed carrying away a great
deal of material in solution, and in consequence the ground above
slowly collapses over the stream, while the cirque at the head,
where the stream issues, gradually works backward and may
pass completely through the hills, leaving a gap of which another
drainage system may take possession. In the limestone country
of the Cotteswold Hills, many small intermittent tributary
streams are headed by cirques, and some of the longer dry valleys
have springs issuing from beneath their lower ends, the dry
valleys being collapsed areas above underground streams not
yet revealed. In this case the pervious limestone is underlain
by beds of impervious clay. There are many of these in the
Jura Mountains. The Cirque de St Sulpice is a fine example
where the impervious bed is a marly clay. |H

The origin of the glacial cirque is entirely different and is
said by W. D. Johnson (Journal of Geology, xii. No. 7, 1904) to
be due to basal sapping and erosion under the bergschrund of
the glacier. In this he is supported by G. K. Gilbert in the same
journal, who produces some remarkable examples from the
Sierra Nevada in California, where the mountain fragments
have been left behind " like a sheet of dough upon a board after
the biscuit tin has done its work "; so that above the head
of the glaciers " the rock detail is rugged and splintered but its
general effect is that of a great symmetrical arc." Descending
one of the bergschrunds of Mt. Lyell to a depth of 150 ft.,
Johnson found a rock floor cumbered with ice and blocks of
rock and the rock face a literally vertical cliff " much riven, its
fracture planes outlining sharp angular masses in all stages of
displacement and dislodgment." Judging from these facts,
he interprets the deep valleys with cirques at their head in
formerly glaciated regions where at the head there is a " reversed
grade " of slope, as due to ice-erosion at valley-heads where
scour is impossible at the sides of the mountain but strongest
under the glacier head where the ice is deepest. The opponents
of ice-erosion nevertheless recognize the very frequent occurrence
of glacial cirques often containing small lakes such as that
under Cader Idris in Wales, or at the head of Little Timber
Creek, Montana, and numerous examples in Alpine districts.

CIRTA (mod. Constantine, g.ii.), an ancient city of Numidia,
in Africa, in the country of the Massyli. It was regarded by
the Romans as the strongest position in Numidia, and was made
by them1 the converging point of all their great military roads
in that country. By the early emperors it was allowed to fall
into decay, but was afterwards restored by Constantine, from
whom it took its modern name.

CISSEY, ERNEST LOUIS OCTAVE COURTOT DE (1810-1882),
French general, was born at Paris on the 23rd of September
1810, and after passing through St Cyr, entered the army in
1832, becoming captain in 1839. He saw active service in Algeria,
and became chef d'escadron in 1849 and lieutenant-colonel in
1850. He took part as a colonel in the Crimean War, and after
the battle of Inkerman received the rank of general of brigade.
In 1863 he was promoted general of division. When the Franco-
German War broke out in 1870, de Cissey was given a divisional
command in the Army of the Rhine, and he was included in
the surrender of Bazaine's army at Metz. He was released from
captivity only at the end of the war, and on his return was at
once appointed by the Versailles government to a command
in the army engaged in the suppression of the Commune, a task
in the execution of which he displayed great rigour. From July
1871 de Cissey sat as a deputy, and he had already become
minister of war. He occupied this post several times during the
critical period of the reorganization of the French army. In
1880, whilst holding the command of the XI. corps at Nantes,
he was accused of having relations with a certain Baroness
Kaula, who was said to be a spy in the pay of Germany, and

CISSOID— CISTERCIANS

393

he was in consequence relieved from duty. An inquiry subse-
quently held resulted in de Cissey's favour (1881). He died on
the i sth of June 1882 at Paris.

CISSOID (from the Gr. Karate, ivy, and eKos, form), a
curve invented by the Greek mathematician Diocles about
180 B.C., for the purpose of constructing two mean proportionals
between two given lines, and in order to solve the problem of
duplicating the cube. It was further investigated by John Wallis,
Christiaan Huygens (who determined the length of any arc in
1657), and Pierre de Fermat (who evaluated the area between
the curve and its asymptote in 1661). It is constructed in the
following manner. Let APB be a semicircle, BT the tangent
at B, and APT a line cutting the circle in P and BT at T; take
a point Q on AT so that AQ always equals
PT; then the locus of Q is the cissoid.
Sir Isaac Newton devised the following
mechanical construction. Take a rod LMN
bent at right angles at M, such that
MN = AB; let the leg LM always pass
through a fixed point O on AB produced
such that OA=CA, where C is the middle
point of AB, and cause N to travel along
the line perpendicular to AB at C; then
the midpoint of MN traces the cissojd.
The curve is symmetrical about the axis
of x, and consists of two infinite branches
asymptotic to the line BT and forming a
cusp at the origin. The cartesian equation,
when A is the origin and AB = 20, is
y\ia— x)=xs; the polar equation is r=2o sin 0 tan 0, The
cissoid is the first positive pedal of the parabola y*+8ax=o
for the vertex, and the inverse of the parabola y*=&ax, the
vertex being the centre of inversion, and the semi-latus rectum
the constant of inversion. The area between the curve and its
asymptote is 3ira2, i.e. three times the area of the generating
circle.

The term cissoid has been given in modern times to curves
generated in similar manner from other figures than the circle,
and the form described above is distinguished as the cissoid of
Diocles.

A cissoid angle is the angle included between the concave sides
of two intersecting curves; the convex sides include the sistroid
angle.

See John Wallis, Collected Works, vol. i. ; T. H. Eagles, Plane
Curves (1885).

CIS-SUTLEJ STATES, the southern portion of the Punjab,
India. The name, now obsolete, came into use in 1809, when the
Sikh chiefs south of the Sutlej passed under British protection,
and was generally applied to the country south of the Sutlej
and north of the Delhi territory, bounded on the E. by the
Himalayas, and on the W. by Sirsa district. Before 1846 the
greater part of this territory as independent, the chiefs being
subject merely to control from a political officer stationed at
Umballa, and styled the agent of the governor-general for the
Cis-Sutlej states. After the first Sikh War the full administration
of the territory became vested in this officer. In 1849 occurred
the annexation of the Punjab, when the Cis-Sutlej states com-
missionership, comprising the districts of Umballa, Ferozepore,
Ludhiana, Thanesar and Simla, was incorporated with the new
province. The name continued to be applied to this division
until 1862, when, owing to Ferozepore having been transferred
to the Lahore, and a part of Thanesar to the Delhi division, it
ceased to be appropriate. Since then, the tract remaining has
been known as the Umballa division. Patiala, Jind and Nabha
were appointed a separate political agency in 1901. Excluding
Bahawalpur, for which there is no political agent, and Chamba,
the other states are grouped under the commissioners of Jullunder
and Delhi, and the superintendent of the Simla hill states.

CIST (Gr. Kio-rn, Lat. cisla, a box; cf. Ger. Kiste, Welsh kist-
vaen, stone-coffin, and also the other Eng. form " chest"), in
Greek archaeology, a wicker-work receptacle used in the Eleu-
sinian and other mysteries to carry the sacred vessels; also,

in the archaeology of prehistoric man, a coffin formed of flat
stones placed edgeways with another flat stone for a cover.
The word is also used for a sepulchral chamber cut in the rock
(see COFFIN).

" Cistern," the common term for a water-tank, is a derivation
of the same word (Lat. cisterna; cf. "cave" and "cavern").

CISTERCIANS, otherwise GREY or WHITE MONKS (from the
colour of the habit, over which is worn a black scapular or apron).
In 1098 St Robert, born of a noble family in Champagne, at first
a Benedictine monk, and then abbot of certain hermits settled at
Molesme near Chatillon, being dissatisfied with the manner of
life and observance there, migrated with twenty of the monks
to a swampy place called Clteaux in the diocese of Chalons, not
far from Dijon. Count Odo of Burgundy here built them a
monastery, and they began to live a life of strict observance
according to the letter of St Benedict's rule. In the following
year Robert was compelled by papal authority to return to
Molesme, and Alberic succeeded him as abbot of Citeaux and
held the office till his death in 1 109, when the Englishman St
Stephen Harding became abbot, until 1134. For some years
the new institute seemed little likely to prosper; few novices
came, and in the first years of Stephen's abbacy it seemed
doomed to failure. In 1112, however, St Bernard and thirty
others offered themselves to the monastery, and a rapid and
wonderful development at once set in. The next three years
witnessed the foundation of the four great " daughter-houses of
Citeaux " — La Fertfi, Pontigny, Clairvaux and Morimond.
At Stephen's death there were over 30 Cistercian houses; at
Bernard's (1154) over 280; and by the end of the century over
500; and the Cistercian influence in the Church more than kept
pace with this material expansion, so that St Bernard saw one of
his monks ascend the papal chair as Eugenius III.

The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observ-
ance of St Benedict's rule — how literal may be seen from the con-
troversy between St Bernard and Peter the Venerable, abbot of
Cluny (see Maitland, Dark Ages, § xxii.). The Cistercians rejected
alike all mitigations and all developments, and tried to reproduce
the life exactly as it had been in St Benedict's time, indeed in
various points they went beyond it in austerity. The most
striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour,
and especially to field-work, which became a special characteristic
of Cistercian life. In order to make time for this work they cut
away the accretions to the divine office which had been steadily
growing during three centuries, and in Cluny and the other
Black Monk monasteries had come to exceed greatly in length
the regular canonical office: one only of these accretions did
they retain, the daily recitation of the Office of the Dead (Edm.
Bishop, Origin of the Primer, Early English Text Society, original
series, 109, p. xxx.).

It was as agriculturists and horse and cattle breeders that,
after the first blush of their success and before a century had
passed, the Cistercians exercised their chief influence on the
progress of civilization in the later middle ages: they were the
great farmers of those days, and many of the improvements in
the various farming operations were introduced and propagated
by them; it is from this point of view that the importance of
their extension in northern Europe is to be estimated. The
Cistercians at the beginning renounced all sources of income
arising from benefices, tithes, tolls and rents, and depended for
their income wholly on the land. This developed an organized
system for selling their farm produce, cattle and horses, and
notably contributed to the commercial progress of the countries
of western Europe. Thus by the middle of the I3th century the
export of wool by the English Cistercians had become a feature
in the commerce of the country. Farming operations on so
extensive a scale could not be carried out by the monks alone,
whose choir and religious duties took up a considerable portion
of their time; and so from the beginning the system of lay
brothers was introduced on a large scale. The lay brothers
were recruited from the peasantry and were simple uneducated
men, whose function consisted in carrying out the various field-
works and plying all sorts of useful trades; they formed a body

394

CISTERCIANS

of men who lived alongside of the choir monks, but separate
from them, not taking part in the canonical office, but having
their own fixed round of prayer and religious exercises. A lay
brother was never ordained, and never held any office of
superiority. It was by this system of lay brothers that the
Cistercians were able to play their distinctive part in the progress
of European civilization.. But it often happened that the number
of lay brothers became excessive and out of proportion to the
resources of the monasteries, there being sometimes as many
as 200, or even 300, in a single abbey. On the other hand, at
any rate in some countries, the system of lay brothers in course
of time worked itself out; thus in England by the close of the
1 4th century it had shrunk to relatively small proportions, and
in the i5th century the regime of the English Cistercian houses
tended to approximate more and more to that of the Black
Monks.

The Cistercian polity calls for special mention. Its lines were
adumbrated by Alberic, but it received its final form at a meeting
of the abbots in the time of Stephen Harding, when was drawn
up the Carlo, Caritatis (Migne, Patrol. Lat. clxvi. 1377), a
document which arranged the relations between the various
houses of the Cistercian order, and exercised a great influence
also upon the future course of western monachism. From one
point of view, it may be regarded as a compromise between
the primitive Benedictine system, whereby each abbey was
autonomous and isolated, and the complete centralization of
Cluny, whereby the abbot of Cluny was the only true superior
in the body. Citeaux, on the one hand, maintained the in-
dependent organic life of the houses — each abbey had its own
abbot, elected by its own monks; its own community, belong-
ing to itself and not to the order in general; its own property
and finances administered by itself, without interference from
outside. On the other hand, all the abbeys were subjected to
the general chapter, which met yearly at Citeaux, and consisted
of the abbots only; the abbot of Citeaux was the president of
the chapter and of the order, and the visitor of each and every
house, with a predominant influence and the power of enforcing
everywhere exact conformity to Citeaux in all details of the
exterior life — observance, chant, customs. The principle was
that Citeaux should always be the model to which all the other
houses had to conform. In case of any divergence of view at
the chapter, the side taken by the abbot of Citeaux was always
to prevail (see F. A. Gasquet, Sketch of Monastic Constitutional
History, pp. xxxv-xxxviii, prefixed to English trans, of Montalem-
bert's Monks of the West, ed. 1895).

By the end of the 1 2th century the Cistercian houses numbered
500; in the i3th a hundred more were added; and in the isth,
when the order attained its greatest extension, there were close
on 750 houses: the larger figures sometimes given are now
recognized as apocryphal. Nearly half of the houses had been
founded, directly or indirectly, from Clairvaux, so great was
St Bernard's influence and prestige: indeed he has come almost
to be regarded as the founder of the Cistercians, who have often
been called Bernardines. The order was spread all over western
Europe, — chiefly in France, but also in Germany, England,
Scotland, Ireland, Sweden, Poland, Hungary, Italy and Sicily,
Spain and Portugal, — where some of the houses, as Alcobaca,
were of almost incredible magnificence. In England the first
foundation was Furness (1127), and many of the most beautiful
monastic buildings of the country, beautiful in themselves and
beautiful in their sites, were Cistercian, — as Tintern, Rievaulx,
Byland, Fountains. A hundred were established in England in
the next hundred years, and then only one more up to the
Dissolution (for list, see table and map in F. A. Gasquet's English
Monastic Life, or Catholic Dictionary, art. " Cistercians ")•

For a hundred years, till the first quarter of the i3th century,
the Cistercians supplanted Cluny as the most powerful order
and the chief religious influence in western Europe. But then
in turn their influence began to wane, chiefly, no doubt, because
of the rise of the mendicant orders, who ministered more directly
to the needs and ideas of the new age. But some of the reasons
of Cistercian decline were internal. In the first place, there was

the permanent difficulty of maintaining in its first fervour a
body embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of
monks, spread all over Europe; and as the Cistercian very
raison d'etre consisted in its being a " reform," a return to
primitive monachism, with its field-work and severe simplicity,
any failures to live up to the ideal proposed worked more
disastrously among Cistercians than among mere Benedictines,
who were intended to live a life of self-denial, but not of great
austerity. Relaxations were gradually introduced in regard to
diet and to simplicity of life, and also in regard to the sources
of income, rents and tolls being admitted and benefices incor-
porated, as was done among the Benedictines; the farming
operations tended to produce a commercial spirit; wealth and
splendour invaded many of the monasteries, and the choir
monks abandoned field-work.

The later history of the Cistercians is largely one of attempted
revivals and reforms. The general chapter for long battled
bravely against the invasion of relaxations and abuses. In 1335
Benedict XII., himself a Cistercian, promulgated a series of
regulations to restore the primitive spirit of the order, and in
the 1 5th century various popes endeavoured to promote reforms.
All these efforts at a reform of the great body of the order proved
unavailing; but local reforms, producing various semi-inde-
pendent offshoots and congregations, were successfully carried
out in many parts in the course of the 15th and i6th centuries.
In the 1 7th another great effort at a general reform was made,
promoted by the pope and the king of France; the general
chapter elected Richelieu (commendatory) abbot of Citeaux,
thinking he would protect them from the threatened reform.
In this they were disappointed, for he threw himself wholly on
the side of reform. So great, however, was the resistance, and
so serious the disturbances that ensued, that the attempt to
reform Citeaux itself and the general body of the houses had
again to be abandoned, and only local projects of reform could
be carried out. In 1598 had arisen the reformed congregation
of the Feuillants, which spread widely in France and Italy, in
the latter country, under the name of " Improved Bernardines."
The French congregation of Sept-Fontaines (1654) also deserves
mention. In 1663 de Ranee reformed La Trappe (see TRAPPISTS).

The Reformation, the ecclesiastical policy of Joseph II., the
French Revolution, and the revolutions of the igth century,
almost wholly destroyed the Cistercians; but some survived,
and since the beginning of the last half of the i9th century
there has been a considerable recovery. They are at present
divided into three bodies: (i) the Common Observance, with
about 30 monasteries and 800 choir monks, the large majority
being in Austria-Hungary; they represent the main body of
the order and follow a mitigated rule of life; they do not carry
on field-work, but have large secondary schools, and are in
manner of life little different from fairly observant Benedictine
Black monks; of late years, however, signs are not wanting
of a tendency towards a return to older ideas; (2) the Middle
Observance, embracing some dozen monasteries and about 150
choir monks; (3) the Strict Observance, or Trappists (<?.».), with
nearly 60 monasteries, about 1600 choir monks and 2000 lay
brothers.

In all there are about 100 Cistercian monasteries and about
4700 monks, including lay brothers. There have always been a
large number of Cistercian nuns; the first nunnery was founded
at Tart in the diocese of Langres, 1125; at the period of their
widest extension there are said to have been 900 nunneries,
and the communities were very large. The nuns were devoted
to contemplation and also did field-work. In Spain and France
certain Cistercian abbesses had extraordinary privileges. Numer-
ous reforms took place among the nuns. The best known of
all Cistercian convents was probably Port-Royal (q.v.), reformed
by Angelique Arnaud, and associated with the story of the
Jansenist controversy. After all the troubles of the igth century
there still exist 100 Cistercian nunneries with 3000 nuns, choir
and lay; of these, 15 nunneries with 900 nuns are Trappist.

Accounts of the beginnings of the Cistercians and of the primitive
life and spirit will be found in the lives of St Bernard, the best

CITATION— CITHARA

395

whereof is that of Abb6 E. Vacandard (1895); also in the Life of
St Stephen Harding, in the English Saints. See also Henry Collins
(one of the Oxford Movement, who became a Cistercian), Spirit and
Mission of the Cistercian Order (1866). The facts are related in
Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1792), v. cc. 33-46, vi. cc. I, 2.
Useful sketches, with references to the literature, are supplied in
Herzog, Realencyklopddie (ed. 3), art. " Cistercienser " ; Wetzer
und Welte, Kirchenlexikon (ed. 2), art. " Cistercienserorden " ;
Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i. §§ 33, 34.
Prof. Brewer's discriminating, yet on the whole sympathetic,
Preface to vol. iv. of the Works of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls Series
of Chronicles and Memorials) is very instructive. Denis Murphy's
Triumphalia Monasterii S. Cruets (1891) contains a general eketch,
with a particular account of the Irish Cistercians. (E. C. B.)

CITATION (Lat. cilare, to cite), in law, a summons to appear,
more particularly applied in England to process in the probate
and divorce division of the high court. In the ecclesiastical
courts, citation was a method of commencing1 a probate suit,
answering to a writ of summons at common law, and it is now
in English probate practice an instrument issuing from the
principal probate registry, chiefly used when a person, having
the superior right to take a grant, delays or declines to do so,
and another having an inferior right desires to obtain a grant;
the party having the prior right is cited to appear and either to
renounce the grant or show cause why it should not be decreed
to the citator. In divorce practice, when a petitioner has filed his
petition and affidavit, he extracts a citation, i.e. a command
drawn in the name of the sovereign and signed by one of the
registrars of the court, calling upon the alleged offender to appear
and make answer to the petition. In Scots law, citation is used
in the sense of a writ of summons. The word in its more general
literary sense means the act of quoting, or the referring to an
authority in support of an argument.

CITEAUX, a village of eastern France, in the department of
C6te d'Or, 16 m. S.S.E. of Dijon by road. It is celebrated
for the great abbey founded by Robert, abbot of Molesme,
in 1098, which became the headquarters of the Cistercian
order. The buildings which remain date chiefly from the i8th
century and are of little interest. The church, destroyed
in 1792, used to contain the tombs of the earlier dukes of
Burgundy.

• CITHAERON, now called from its pine forests Elatea, a famous
mountain range (4626) ft.) in the south of Boeotia, separating
that state from Megaris and Attica. It was famous in Greek
mythology, and is frequently mentioned by the great poets,
especially by Sophocles. It was on Cithaeron that Actaeon
was changed into a stag, that Pentheus was torn to pieces by
the Bacchantes whose orgies he had been watching, and that the
infant Oedipus was exposed. This mountain, too, was the scene
of the mystic rites of Dionysus, and the festival of the Daedala
in honour of Hera. The carriage-road from Athens to Thebes
crosses the range by a picturesque defile (the pass of Dryos-
cephalae, " Oak-heads "), which was at one time guarded on the
Attic side by a strong fortress, the ruins of which are known as
Ghyphto-kastro (" Gipsy Castle ")• Plataea is situated on the
north slope of the mountain, and the strategy of the battle of
479 B.C. was considerably affected by the fact that it was necessary
for the Greeks to keep their communications open by the passes
(see PLATAEA). The best known of these is that of Dryos-
cephalae, which must then, as now, have been the direct route
from Athens to Thebes. Two other passes, farther to the west,
were crossed by the roads from Plataea to Athens and to Megara
respectively. (E. GR.)

CITHARA (Assyrian chetarah; Gr. Kifi&pa; Lat. cithara; per-
haps Heb. kinura, kinnor), one of the most ancient stringed
instruments, traced back to 1700 B.C. among the Semitic races,
in Egypt, Assyria, Asia Minor, Greece and the Roman empire,
whence the use of it spread over Europe. The main feature of
the Greek kilhara, its shallow sound-chest, being the most
important part of it, is also that in which developments are most
noticeable; its contour varied considerably during the many
musical ages, but the characteristic in respect of which it fore-
shadowed the precursors of the violin family, and by which they
were distinguished from other contemporary stringed instruments

of the middle ages, was preserved throughout in all European
descendants bearing derived names. This characteristc box
sound-chest (fig. i) consisted of two resonating tables, either flat
or delicately arched, connected by ribs or sides of equal width.
The cithara may be regarded as an attempt by a more skilful
craftsman or race to improve upon the lyre (q.v.), while retaining
some of its features. The construction of the cithara can fortu-
nately be accurately studied from two actual specimens found in
Egypt and preserved in the
museums of Berlin and
Leiden. The Leiden cithara
(fig. 2), which forms part of
the d'Anastasy Collection in
the Museum of Antiquities,
is in a very good state of
preservation. The sound-
chest, in the form of an
irregular square (17 cm. X 17
cm.), is hollowed out of a
solid block of wood from
the base, which is open;
the little bar, seen through
the open base and measur-
ing 25 cm. (i in.), is also of
the same piece of wood.
The arms, one short and
one long, are solid and are
fixed to the body by means
of wooden pins; they are
glued as well for greater
strength. W. Pleyte, through
whose courtesy the sketch FIG. i.— Nero Citharoedus (Mus.
was revised and corrected, Pio-Clementino), showing back of a

.,. Roman Cithara.

states that there are no

indications on the instrument of any kind of bridge or attach-
ment for strings except the little half-hoop of iron wire which
passes through the base from back to front. To this the strings
were probably attached, and the little bar performed the double
duty of sound-post and support for strengthening the tail-piece
and enabling it to resist the tension of the strings. The oblique
transverse bar, rendered necessary by the increasing length of
the strings, was characteristic of the
Egyptian cithara,1 whereas the Asiatic
and Greek instruments were generally
constructed with horizontal bars resting
on arms of equal length, the pitch of the
strings being varied by thickness and
tension, instead of by length. (For the
Berlin cithara see LYRE.)

The number of strings with which the
cithara was strung varied from 4 to 19
or 20 at different times; they were
added less for the purpose of increasing
the compass in the modern sense than
to enable the performer to play in the
different modes of the Greek musical
system. Terpander is credited with hav-
ing increased the number of strings «*•»' s%%m. -OIKt
to seven; Euclid, quoting him as his FIG. 2. — Ancient
authority, states that "loving no more Egyptian Cithara
the tetrachordal chant, we will sing aloud from Thebes. Museum
new hymns to a seven-toned phorminx." of Antiquities, Leiden.

What has been said of the scale of the lyre applies also to the
cithara, and need therefore not be repeated here. The strings
were vibrated by means of the fingers or plectrum (ir\fJKTpov,
from ir\r]<iaeu>, to strike; Lat. plectrum, from plango, I strike).
Twanging with the fingers for strings of gut, hemp or silk was
undoubtedly the more artistic method, since the player was able
to command various shades of expression which are impossible

1 A drawing of an Egyptian cithara, similar to the Leiden specimen,
may be seen in Champollion, Monuments de I'Egypte et dela Nubie,
". pi. 175-

39°

CITHARA

with a rigid plectrum.1 Ix>odness of accent and great brilhancy
oftooe, however, can only be obtaii^ by the use of the plectrum.
Quotations bom the classics abound to show what was the
practice of the Greeks and Romans in this respect. The plectrum
was hdd in the right hand, with dbow outstretched and palm
beat inwards, and the strings were plucked with the straightened

fingers of the left hand.* Both methods were used with
according to the dictates of an for the sake of the variation- in
tone colour obtainable thereby.*

The strings of the chhara were either knotted round the
transverse tuning bar itself (agra) or to rings threaded over
the bar, which fa^l^ the performer to increase or decrease
the tension by shifting the knots or rings; or else they, were
wound round pegs,4 knobs* or pins* fixed to the zogon. The
other end of the strings was secured to a tail-piece after passing
over a fiat bridge, or the two were combined in the curious
high box tail-piece whkh acted as a bridge. Plutarch7 states
that this contrivance was added to the tithara in the days of
Cepioo. pupQ of Terpander. These boxes were hinged in order
to allow the lid to be opened for the purpose of securing the

that no sculptured dthara pro-
vided with this box tail-piece is

jnany cases neve H>M^FI never haie
been any, far the hand and arm*

would be fiDed by the strings,
which are always carved in a solid
block.

Like the lyre the

FIG. 3.— Apollo <

r-:,- - i _.:.".

hnnr tail-pieces.

the

the double purpose

placed by the Gre

by

the pettu, far ••«*»»"; is declared
by Sappho (22nd fragment} to
have been small and shriD; the
ptttfwuMXf on the other hand, seems
to have been irfmtiral with the
ckhara.'

irista (mtamn j»), ai
I aujumuuHmg the

and (*) of

playing solos at the national g
and «t trials of skffl. The
citharista was rich and rec
varied but fittk thronghoot t

and on a Greek rase of the b

consisted of a ffOa or long

with gold and girt high above the waist, fau

folds to the feet. This taflc must not be

mande of the same name worn by

the back, was the
a golden wreath of
of the type
of the lyre type.
thin thirteen

divisions: (i) The mythological period,
1 3th century nx. to the first Oiympiad, 776 BJC.; and (2) the
historical period to the days of Ptolemy, AJ>. 161. One of the
very few anthmtir Greek odes extant is a Pythian ode by Pindar,
in which the phmmmiof ApoloisnwntkMrd; the solo is!
by a i

aMedPt
ofthegc

Fi •ill il HI (c. 540 BJC_), and the ™***~**i** made to :
contests of singers and instmmentansts, »»«-i»»ttn«^ of
of the Iliad and Odyssey, such as are ii|»iM»t«»f on the :
of tie Parthenon (in the "g^ Room at the British
and later on friezes by Pbeidias. It was at the same period that
the Cot contests far sokvphving on tW tilhin (t6*ftrnH
and for solo ••fat-phying woe imtirnted at the 8th Pythian
Games." One of the
principal items at these

for

the .V«m«
fjrt itur, desajptur of
the victory of ApoBo
over the python and

Of *W A-faa^ of the

.1

The Pythian Games

Greek period and

Roman sway until
about AOfc. 304. Not

held at Delphi, bat

Pytma,

the great Pythian, i

ally in Asia Minor.

The games lasted far several days, the

to music. To the games at Delphi

aD parts of the crrmaed world; and the

karat to know from the Phoenician colonists before the <

so charmed with the musk of the Spanish competitors that he

of oorropt
end of the 4th

the theatres, and the great

, Immgima, Xo. 7. -

Hope.
Edward Bokle, Die
M

•See VI
the same work that of
•SeeOrf. L 153. 155

itmmlimt, pL 22. Erato's ckkan,

-- '--

Jfm*. Co. Sbd. i. (1901). 2. p- 177.

CITIUM— CITRIC ACID

397

the middle ages must be sought among the unconverted bar-
barians of northern and western Europe, who kept alive the
traditions taught them by conquerors and colonists; but as
civilization was in its infancy with them the instruments sent
out from their workshops must have been crude and primitive.
Asia, the cradle of the tithara, also became its foster-mother;
it was among the Greeks of Asia Minor that the several steps
in the transition from cithara into guitar1 (g.r.) took place.

The first of these steps produced the rotta (9.*.), by the
construction of body, arms and transverse bar in one piece.
The Semitic races used the rotta at a very remote period (1700
B.C.). as we know from a fresco at Beni-Hasan. dating from the
reign of Senwosri II., which depicts a procession of strangers
bringing tribute; among them is a bearded musician of Semitic
type bearing a rotta which he holds horizontally in front of him
in the Assyrian manner, and quite unlike the Greeks, who always
played the lyre and cithara in an upright position. A unique
specimen of this rectangular rotta was found in an Alamannic
tomb of the sth or 6th century at Oberflacht in the Black Forest .
The instrument was clasped in the arms of an armed knight;
it is now preserved in the Volker Museum in Berlin. This old
German rotta is an exact counterpart of instruments pictured in
illuminated MSS. of the Sth century, and is derived from the

cithara with rect-
angular body, while
from the cithara with
a body having the
curve of the lower
half of the violin was
produced a rotta with
the outline of the
body of the guitar.
Both types were
common in Europe
until the I4th cen-
tury, some played
with a bow, others
twanged by the
fingers, and bearing
indifferently both
names, cithara. and
rotta. The addi-
tion of a finger-

FIG. 5. — Asiatic
Cithara in transition
(or rotta). From a
fresco at Beni-Hasan

(C. I7OO B.C.).

FIG. 6. — Roman
Cithara in transi-
tion, of the Lycian
Apollo (Rome M us.
Capit.).

board, stretching like a short neck from body to transverse bar.
leaving on each side of the finger-board space for the hand to pass
through in order to stop the strings, produced the crwth or crowd
(q.t.), and brought about the reduction in the number of the
strings to three or four. The conversion of the rotta into the
guitar (q.r.) was an easy transition effected by the addition of a
long neck to a body derived from the oval rotta. When the bow
was applied the result was the guitar or troubadour fiddle. At
first the instrument called dtkara in the Latin versions of the
Psalms was glossed citron, dire in Anglo-Saxon, but in the nth
century the same instrument was rendered kearpan, and in
French and English harpe or harp, and our modern versions
have retained this translation. The cittern (9.*.), a later de-
scendant of the cithara, although preserving the characteristic
features of the cithara, the shallow sound-chest with ribs, adopted
the pear-shaped outline of the Eastern instruments of the lute
tribe. (K. S.)

CmUM (Gr. Kition), the principal Phoenician city in Cyprus,
situated at the north end of modern Larnaca, on the bay of the
same name on the S.E. coast of the island. Converging currents
from E. and W. meet and pass seawards off Cape Kit! a few miles
south, and greatly facilitated ancient trade. To S. and W. the
site is protected by lagoons, the salt from which was one of the
> of its prosperity. The earliest remains near the site go

'For a di«-|i»iim of this question see Kathleen Schlesinger,
The Instruments of Ike Orchestra, part iL. and especially chapters on
the cithara in transition daring the middle ages, and the question

of the origin of the Utrecht Psalter, in whictTthe
cithara is traced at some length.

back to the Mycenaean age (c. 1400-1 too B.C.") and seem to mark
an Aegean colony:* but in historic times Citium is the chief
centre of Phoenician influence in Cyprus. That this was still a
recent settlement in the ;th century is suggested by an allusion
in a list of the allies of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668 B.C. to a
King Damasu of Kartihadasti (Phoenician for " New-town "),
where Citium would be expected. A Phoenician dedication to
'• Baal of Lebanon " found here, and dated also to the 7th
century, suggests that Citium may have belonged to Tyre. The
biblical name Kittim, derived from Citium, is in fact used quite
generally for Cyprus as a whole;* later also for Greeks and
Romans in general.4 The discovery here of an official monument
of Sargon IL suggests that Citium was the administrative centre
of Cyprus during the Assyrian protectorate (700-668 B.C.).*
During the Greek revolts of 500, 386 folL and 352 B.C., Citium
led the side loyal to Persia and was besieged by an Athenian
force in 449 B.C.; its extensive necropolis proves that it remained
a considerable city even after the Greek cause triumphed with
Alexander. But like other cities of Cyprus, it suffered repeatedly
from earthquake, and in medieval times when its harbour became
silted the population moved to Larnaca. on the open roadstead,
farther south. Harbour and citadel have now quite disappeared,
the latter having been used to fill up the former shortly after the
British occupation; some gain to health resulted, but an
irreparable loss to science. Traces remain of the circuit wall,
and of a sanctuary with copious terra-cotta offerings; the large
necropolis yields constant loot to illicit excavation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — W. H. Engel, Kypros (Berlin, 1841), (rfa coral
allusions); J. L. Myres, J<na-n. Hellenic Studies, xvii. 147 ff.
(excavations); Cyprus Museum Catalogue (Oxford, 1899), p. 5-6;
153-155; Index (Antiquities); G. F. Hill, Brit. ilus. Cat. Cairns tf
Cyprus (London, 1904), (Coins). (J- L. M.)

CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng.. apparently by analogy
with " denizen," from O. Fr. attain, mod. Fr. citoyen), etymologk-
ally the inhabitant of a city, cite or ctribu (see CITY), and in
England the term still used primarily of persons possessing
civic rights in a borough; thus used also of a townsman as
opposed to a countryman. The more extended use of the word,
however, corresponding to cmfau, gives " citizen " the meaning
of one who is a constituent member of a state in international
relations and as such has full national rights and owes a certain
allegiance ($.t.) as opposed to an " alien "; in republican countries
the term is then commonly employed as the equivalent of
'• subject " in monarchies of feudal origin. For the rules govern-
ing the obtaining of citizenship in this latter sense in the United
States and elsewhere see NATURALIZATION.

CITOLE, also spelled SYTOLE, CYTHOLE, GYTOLIX, &c. (prob-
ably a Fr. diminutive form of dtkara, and not from Lat. cisia,
a box), an obsolete musical instrument of which the exact form
is uncertain. It is frequently mentioned by poetical writers of
the I3th to the I5th centuries, and is found in Wydiffe's Bible
(1360) in 2 Samuel vL 5, " Harpis and sitols and tympane."
The Authorized Version has '' psaltiries," and the Vulgate
'• lyrae." It has been supposed to be another name for the
psaltery (9-*.), a box-shaped instrument often seen in the
illuminated mksals of the middle ages.

CITRIC ACID, Acidum dtricum, or OXYTBICAKBAIXYLIC Aero,
C,H,(OH) (CO-OH)». a tetrahydroiytribasic add, first obtained
in the solid state by Karl Wilhelm Scheele,in 1784, from the juice
of lemons. It is present also in oranges, citrons, currants, goose-
berries and many other fruits, and in several bulbs and tubers.
It is made on a large scale from lime or lemon juice, and also by
the fermentation of glucose under the influence of Ciiromycetts
pfefferiaims, C. glaber and other ferments. Lemon juice is
fermented for some time to free it from mucilage, then boiled

1 Cf . the name Kathian in a Ramessid list of cities of Cyprus,
Oberhummer, Die Inset Cypem (Munich, 1903), p. 4.

'Gen. x. 4; Num. xxiv. 24; Is. xxiiL I, 12; Jer. iL 10; Erek.
xxvii. 6.

4 Dan. xL 30; I Mace. L l; viii. 5.

* Schrader, " Die Sargonstele des Berliner Museums," in Atk.
a. k. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. (1881); Zur Geofr. d. cssyr. Racket
(Berlin, 1890), pp. 337-344-

398

CITRON— CITTA DELLA PIEVE

and filtered, and neutralized with powdered chalk and a little
milk of lime; the precipitate of calcium citrate so obtained
is decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, the solution filtered,
evaporated to remove calcium sulphate and concentrated, pre-
ferably in vacuum pans. The acid is thus obtained in colourless
rhombic prisms of the composition CeHgOy+HjO. Crystals
of a different form are deposited from a strong boiling solution
of the acid. About 20 gallons of lemon juice should yield about
10 Ib of crystallized citric acid. The acid may also be prepared
from the juice of unripe gooseberries. Calcium citrate must be
manufactured with care to avoid an excess of chalk or lime,
which would precipitate constituents of the juice that cause the
fermentation of the citrate and the production of calcium acetate
and butyrate.

The synthesis of citric acid was accomplished by L. E.
Grimaux and P. Adam in 1881. Glycerin when treated with
hydrochloric acid gives propenyl dichlorhydrin, which may be
oxidized to s-dichloracetone. This compound combines with
hydrocyanic acid to form a nitrile which hydrolyses to dichlor-
hydroxy iso-butyric acid. Potassium cyanide reacts with this
acid to form the corresponding dinitrile, which is converted by
hydrochloric acid into citric acid. This series of operations
proves the constitution of the acid. A. Haller and C. A. Held
synthesized the acid from ethyl chlor-acetoacetate (from chlorine
and acetoacetic ester) by heating with potassium cyanide and
saponifying the resulting nitrile. The acetone dicarboxylic
acid, CO(CH2CO2H)2, so obtained combines with hydrocyanic
acid, and this product yields citric acid on hydrolysis.

Citric acid has an agreeable sour taste. It is soluble in |ths
of its weight of cold, and in half its weight of boiling water, and
dissolves in alcohol, but not in ether. At 1 50° C. it melts, and on
the continued application of heat boils, giving off its water of
crystallization. At 175° C. it is resolved into water and aconitic
acid, C6H6O6, a substance found in Equisetum flimiatile, monks-
hood and other plants. A higher temperature decomposes this
body into carbon dioxide and itaconic acid, CcHeC^, which,
again, by the expulsion of a molecule of water, yields citraconic
anhydride, C6H4O3. Citric acid digested at a temperature
below 40° C. with concentrated sulphuric acid gives off carbon
monoxide and forms acetone dicarboxylic acid. With fused
potash it forms potassium oxalate and acetate. It is a strong
acid, and dissolved in water decomposes carbonates and attacks
iron and zinc.

The citrates are a numerous class of salts, the most soluble
of which are those of the alkaline metals; the citrates of the
alkaline earth metals are insoluble. Citric acid, being tribasic,
forms either acid monometallic, acid dimetallic or neutral
trimetallic salts; thus, mono-, di- and tri-potassium and sodium
citrates are known. On warming citric acid with an excess of
lime-water a precipitate of calcium citrate is obtained which is
redissolved as the liquid cools.

The impurities occasionally present in commercial citric acid
are salts of potassium and sodium, traces of iron, lead and copper
derived from the vessels used for its evaporation and crystalliza-
tion, and free sulphuric, tartaric and even oxalic acid. Tartaric
acid, which is sometimes present in large quantities as an adulter-
ant in commercial citric acid, may be detected in the presence
of the latter, by the production of a precipitate of acid potassium
tartrate when potassium acetate is added to a cold solution.
Another mode of separating the two acids is to convert them
into calcium salts, which are then treated with a perfectly
neutral solution of cupric chloride, soluble cupric citrate and
calcium chloride being formed, while cupric tartrate remains
undissolved. Citric acid is also distinguished from tartaric
acid by the fact that an ammonia solution of silver tartrate
produces a brilliant silver mirror when boiled, whereas silver
citrate is reduced only after prolonged ebullition.

Citric acid is used in calico printing, also in the preparation
of effervescing draughts, as a refrigerant and sialogogue, and
occasionally as an antiscorbutic, instead of fresh lemon juice.
In the form of lime juice it has long been known as an antidote for
scurvy. Several of the citrates are much employed as medicines,

the most important being the scale preparations of iron. Of
these iron and ammonium citrate is much used as a haematinic,
and as it has hardly any tendency to cause gastric irritation or
constipation it can be taken when the ordinary forms of iron are
inadmissible. Iron and quinine citrate is used as a bitter
stomachic and tonic. In the blood citrates are oxidized into
carbonates; they therefore act as remote alkalis, increasing the
alkalinity of the blood and thereby the general rate of chemical
change within the body (see ACETIC ACID).

CITRON, a species of Citrus (C. medico), belonging to the tribe
Aurantieae, of the botanical natural order Rutaceae; the same
genus furnishes also the orange, lime and shaddock. The citron
is a small evergreen tree or shrub growing to a height of about
10 ft.; it has irregular straggling spiny branches, large pale-green
broadly oblong, slightly serrate leaves and generally unisexual
flowers purplish without and white within. The large fruit is
ovate or oblong, protuberant at the tip, and from 5 to 6 in. long,
with a rough, furrowed, adherent rind, the inner portion of which
is thick, white and fleshy, the outer, thin, greenish-yellow and
very fragrant. The pulp is sub-acid and edible, and the seeds
are bitter. There are many varieties of the fruit, some of them
of great weight and size. The Madras citron has the form of an
oblate sphere; and in the " fingered citron " of China the lobes
are separated into finger-like divisions formed by separation
of the constituent carpels, as occurs sometimes in the orange.

The citron-tree thrives in the open air in China, Persia, the
West Indies, Madeira, Sicily, Corsica, and the warmer parts of
Spain and Italy; and in conservatories it is often to be seen
in more northerly regions. Sir Joseph Hooker (Flora of British
India, i. 514) regards it as a native of the valleys at the
foot of the Himalaya, and of the Khasia hills and the Western
Ghauts; Dr Bonavia, however, considers it to have originated
in Cochin China or China, and to have been introduced into
India, whence it spread to Media and Persia. It was described
by Theophrastus as growing in Media, three centuries before
Christ, and was early known to the ancients, and the fruit was
held in great esteem by them; but they seem to have been ac-
quainted with no other member of the Auranlieae, the introduction
of oranges and lemons into the countries of the Mediterranean
being due to the Arabs, between the loth and isth centuries.
Josephus tells us that " the law of the Jews required that at the
feast of tabernacles every one should have branches of palm-
tree and citron-tree" (Antiq. xiii. 13. 5); and the Hebrew
word tappuach, rendered " apples " and " apple-tree " in Cant. ii.
3, 5, Prov. xxv. n, &c., probably signifies the citron- tree and
its fruit. Oribasius in the 4th century describes the fruit,
accurately distinguishing the three parts of it. About the 3rd
century the tree was introduced into Italy; and, as Gallesio in-
forms us, it was much grown at Salerno in the nth century.
In China citrons are placed in apartments to make them fragrant.
The rind of the citron yields two perfumes, oil of cedra and oil
of citron, isomeric with oil of turpentine; and when candied it
is much esteemed as a dessert and in confectionery. The lemon
(q.i>.) is now generally regarded as a subspecies Limonum of
Citrus medico.

Oribasii Sardiani, . Collectorum Medicinalium Libri X VII. i. 64
(De citrio); Gallesio, Traite du citrus (1811); Darwin, Animals
and Plants under Domestication, i. 334-336 (1868); Brandis,
Forest Flora of North- West and Central India, p. 51 (1874); E.
Bonavia, The Cultivated Oranges and Lemons, &c., of India and
Ceylon (1890).

CITTADELLA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
Padua, 20 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Padua; 160 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1001) town, 3616; commune, 9686. The
town was founded in 1220 by the Paduans to counterbalance
the fortification of Castelfranco, 8 m. to the E., in 1218 by the
Trevisans, and retains its well-preserved medieval walls, sur-
rounded by a wet ditch. It was always a fortress of importance,
and in modern times is a centre for the agricultural produce of
the district, being the junction of the lines from Padua to Bassano
and from Vicenza to Treviso.

CITTA DELLA PIEVE, a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
Italy, in the province of Perugia, situated 1666 ft. above the sea,

CITTA DI CASTELLO— CITTERN

399

3 m. N.E. of its station on the railway between Chiusi and
Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 8381. Etruscan tombs have been found
in the neighbourhood, but it is not certain that the present town
stands on an ancient site. It was the birthplace of the painter
Pietro Vannucci (Perugino), and possesses several of his works,
but none of the first rank.

CITTA DI CASTELLO, a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
Italy, in the province of Perugia, 38 m. E. of Arezzo by rail
(18 m. direct), situated on the left bank of the Tiber, 945 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, 6096; of commune,
26,885. It occupies, as inscriptions show, the site of the ancient
Tifernum Tiberinum, near which Pliny had a villa (Epist. v. 6;
cf. H. Winnefeld in Jahrbuch des deutschen archdologischen
Instituts, vi. Berlin, 1891, 203), but no remains exist above
ground. The town was devastated by Totila, but seems to have
recovered. We find it under the name of Castrum Felicitatis
at the end of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from the
7th century. The town went through various political vicissi-
tudes in the middle ages, being subject now to the emperor,
now to the Church, until in 1468 it came under the Vitelli:
but when they died out it returned to the allegiance of the
Church. It is built in the form of a rectangle and surrounded
by walls of 1518. It contains fine buildings of the Renaissance,
especially the palaces of the Vitelli, and the cathedral, originally
Romanesque. The 12th-century altar front of the latter in
silver is fine. The Palazzo Comunale is of the i4th century.
Some of Raphael's earliest works were painted for churches in
this town, but none of them remains there. There is, however,
a small collection of pictures.

See Magherini Graziani, L'Arte a Citta di Castetto (1897).

CITTA VECCHIA, or CITTA NOTABILE, a fortified city of
Malta, 7 m. W. of Valletta, with which it is connected by railway.
Pop. (1901) 7515. It lies on high, sharply rising ground which
affords a view of a large part of the island. It is the seat of a
bishop, and contains an ornate cathedral, overthrown by an
earthquake in 1693, but rebuilt, which is said by an acceptable
tradition to occupy the site of the house of the governor Publius,
who welcomed the apostle Paul. It contains some rich stalls
of the 1 5th century and other objects of interest. In the rock
beneath the city there are some remarkable catacombs in part
of pre-Christian origin, but containing evidence of early Christian
burial; and a grotto, reputed to have given shelter to the apostle,
is pointed out below the church of San Paolo. Remains of
Roman buildings have been excavated in the town. About
2 m. E. of the town is the residence of the English governor,
known as the palace of S. Antonio; and at a like distance to
the south is the ancient palace of the grand masters of the order
of St John, with an extensive public garden called II Boschetto.
Citta Vecchia was called Civitas Melita by the Romans and
oldest writers, Medina (i.e. the city) by the Saracens, Notabile
(locale notabile, et insigne coronae regiae, as it is called
in a charter by Alphonso, 1428) under the Sicilian rule,
and Citta Vecchia (old city) by the knights. It was the
capital of the island till its supersession by Valletta in 1570.
(See also MALTA.)

CITTERN (also CITHERN, CITHRON, CYTHREN, CITHAREN, &c.;
Fr. cilre, cislre, cithre, guitare allemande or anglaise; Ger. Cither,
Zither (mil Hals, with neck); Ital. cetera, cetra), a medieval
stringed instrument with a neck terminating in a grotesque and
twanged by fingers or plectrum. The popularity of the cittern
was at its height in England and Germany during the i6th and

f,^ — _ —. __^__^___ 1 7th centuries. The cittern con-
a> S^. =: sisted of a pear-shaped body
i 3 4 similar to that of the lute but

treble mean bass tenor ... „ , . . .

with a flat back and sound-board

joined by ribs. The neck was provided with a fretted finger-
board; the head was curved and surmounted by a grotesque
head of a woman or of an animal.1 The strings were of wire in

1 See Shakespeare, Love's Labour's Lost, act v. sc. 2, where Boyet
compares the countenance of Holofernes to a cittern head; John
Forde, Lovers' Melancholy (1629), act ii. sc. I, " Barbers shall wear
thee on their citterns."

pairs of unisons, known as courses, usually four in number in
England. A peculiarity of the cittern lay in the tuning of the
courses, the third course known as bass being lower than the
fourth styled tenor.

According to Vincentio Galilei (the father of the great astro-
nomer) England was the birthplace of the cittern.1 Several
lesson books for this popular instrument were published during
the 1 7th century in England. A very rare book (of which the
British Museum does not possess a copy), The Ciltharn Schoole,
written by Anthony Holborne in 1597, is mentioned in Sir
P. Leycester's manuscript commonplace book' dated 1656,
" For the little Instrument called a Psittyrne Anthony Holborne
and Tho. Robinson were most famous of any before them and
have both of them set out a booke of Lessons for this Instrument.
Holborne has composed a Basse-parte for the Viole to play unto
the Psittyrne with those Lessons set out in his booke. These
lived about Anno Domini 1600." Thomas Robinson's New
Citharen Lessons with perfect tunings for the same from Foure course
of strings to Fourteene course, &c. (printed London, 1609, by
William Barley), contains illustrations of both kinds of instru-
ments. The fourteen-course cittern was also known in England
as Bijuga; the seven courses in pairs were stretched over the

From Thomas Robinson's New Citharen Lessons, 1609.
Four-course Cittern.

finger-board, and the seven single strings, fastened to the grot-
esque head, were stretched as in the lyre a vide alongside the
neck; all the strings rested on the one flat bridge near the tail-
piece. Robinson gives instructions for learning to play the
cittern and for reading the tablature. John Playford's Mustek's
Delight on the Cithren (London, 1666) also contains illustrations
of the instrument as well as of the viol da Gamba and Pochette;
he claims to have revived the instrument and restored it to what
it was in the reign of Queen Mary.

The cittern probably owed its popularity at this time to the
ease with which it might be mastered and used to accompany
the voice; it was one of four instruments generally found in
barbers' shops, the others being the gittern, the lute and the
virginals. The customers while waiting took down the instru-
ment from its peg and played a merry tune to pass the time.4
We read that when Konstantijn Huygens came over to England
and was received by James I. at Bagshot, he played to the
king on the cittern (cithara), and that his performance was
duly appreciated and applauded. He tells us that, although he
learnt to play the barbiton in a few weeks with skill, he had
lessons from a master for two years on the cittern.6 On the
occasion of a third visit he witnessed the performance of some
fine musicians and was astonished to hear a lady, mother of
twelve, singing in divine fashion, accompanying herself on the
cittern; one of these artists he calls Lanivius, the British
Orpheus, whose performance was really enchanting.

Michael Praetorius 6 gives various tunings for the cittern as

! Dialogo della musica (Florence, 1581), p. 147.

3 The musical extracts from the commonplace book were prepared
by Dr Rimbault for the Early English Text Society. Holbprne's
work is mentioned in his Bibliotheca Madrigaliana. The descriptive
list of the musical instruments in use in England during Leycester's
lifetime (about 1656) has been extracted and published by Dr F. J.
Furnivall, in Captain Cox, his Ballads and Books, or Robert Laneham's
Letter (1575), (London, 1871), pp. 65-68.

4 See Knight's London, i. 142.

* See De Vita propria sermonum inter liberos libri duo (Haarlem,
1817) and E. van der Straeten, La Musique aux Pays-Bas, ii.
348-350.

'Syntagma Musicum (1618). See also M. Mersenne, Harmonie
universelle (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop, xv., who gives different
accordances.

400

CITY

well as an illustration (sounded an octave higher than the
notation).

French Italian 4 course Italian 6 course

eii

During the i8th century the cittern, citra or English guitar,
had twelve wire strings in six pairs of unisons tuned thus:

The introduction of the Spanish guitar, which at once leapt
into favour, gradually displaced the English variety. The
Spanish guitar had gut strings twanged by the fingers. The
last development of the cittern before its disappearance was the
addition of keys. The keyed cithara1 was first made by Claus
& Co. of London in 1783. The keys, six in number, were
placed on the left of the sound-board, and on being depressed
they acted on hammers inside the sound-chest, which rising
through the rose sound-hole struck the strings. Sometimes
the keys were placed in a little box right over the strings, the
hammers striking from above. M. J. B. Vuillaume of Paris
possessed an Italian cetera (not keyed) by Antoine Stradivarius,2
1700 (now in the Museum of the Conservatoire, Paris), with
twelve strings tuned in pairs of unisons to E, D, G, B, C, A,
which was exhibited in London in 1871.

The cittern of the i6th century was the result of certain
transitions which took place during the evolution of the violin
from the Greek kithara (see CITHARA).

Genealogical Table of the Cittern.
Assyrian Ketharah

Persian Rebab

Persian and Arabic
Kithara

Moorish Guitra,
Cuitra or Guitarra

Greek Kithara

Roman Cithara
or Fidicula

Arab Rebab
European Rebec

Cithara in transition or Rotta
I

Cithara in transition
or Guitar

Spanish Guitar

Guitarra Latina
or Vihuela de Mano

Ghittern

Cittern

The cittern has retained the following characteristics of the
archetype, (i) The derivation of the name, which after the
introduction of the bow was used to characterize various instru-
ments whose strings were twanged by fingers or plectrum, such
as the harp and the rotta (both known as cithara), the citola and
the zither. In an interlinear Latin and Anglo-Saxon version
of the Psalms, dated A.D. 700 (Brit. Mus., Vesp. A. i), cithara
is translated citran, from which it is not difficult to trace the
English cithron, citteran, cittarn, of the i6th century. (2) The
construction of the sound-chest with flat back and sound-board
connected by ribs. The pear-shaped outline was possibly
borrowed from the Eastern instruments, both bowed as the
rebab and twanged as the lute, so common all over Europe
during the middle ages, or more probably derived from the
kithara of the Greeks of Asia Minor, which had the corners
rounded. These early steps in the transition from the cithara
may be seen in the miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter,3 a unique
and much-copied Carolingian MS. executed at Reims (gth
century), the illustrations of which were undoubtedly adapted
from an earlier psalter from the Christian East. The instruments
which remained true to the prototype in outline as well as in

1 See Carl Engel, Catalogue of the Exhibition of Ancient Musical
Instruments (London, 1872), Nos. 280 and 290.

1 See note above. Illustration in A. J. Hipkins, Musical Instru-
ments; Historic, Rare and Unique (Edinburgh, 1888).

' For a re'sume' of the question of the origin of this famous
psalter, and an inquiry into its bearing on the history of musical in-
struments with illustrations and facsimile reproductions, see Kathleen
Schlesinger, The Instruments of the Orchestra, part ii. " The Pre-
cursors of the Violin Family," pp. 127-166 (London, 1908-1909).

construction and in the derivation of the name were the ghittern
and the guitar, so often confused with the cittern. It is evident
that the kinship of cittern and guitar was formerly recognized,
for during the i8th century, as stated above, the cittern was
known as the English guitar to distinguish it from the Spanish
guitar. The grotesque head, popularly considered the character-
istic feature of the cittern, was probably added in the I2th
century at a time when this style of decoration was very notice-
able in other musical instruments, such as the cornet or Zinck, the
Platerspiel, the chaunter of the bagpipe, &c. The cittern of the
middle ages was also to be found in oval shape. From the I3th
century representations of the pear-shaped instrument abound in
miniatures and carvings.4

A very clearly drawn cittern of the I4th century occurs in a MS.
treatise on astronomy (Sloane MS. 3983, Brit. Mus.) translated from
the Persian of Albumazar into Latin by Georgius Zothari Zopari
Fenduli, priest and philosopher, with a prologue and numerous
illustrations by his own hand; the cittern is here called giga in an
inscription at the side of the drawing.

References to the cittern are plentiful in the literature of the
i6th and I7th centuries. Robert Fludd ' describes it thus:
" Cistrona quae quatuor tantum chordas duplicates habet easque
cupreas et ferreas de quibus aliquid dicemus quo loco." Others are
given in the New English Dictionary, " Cittern," and in Godefroy's
Diet, de Vane, langue franc,, du IX* au XV' siecle. (K. S.)

CITY (through Fr. citt, from Lat. civitas). In the United
Kingdom, strictly speaking, " city " is an honorary title, offici-
ally applied to those towns which, in virtue of some pre-eminence
(e.g. as episcopal sees, or great industrial centres), have by
traditional usage or royal charter acquired the right to the
designation. In the United Kingdom the official style of " city "
does not necessarily involve the possession of municipal power
greater than those of the ordinary boroughs, nor indeed the
possession of a corporation at all (e.g. Ely). In the United
States and the British colonies, on the other hand, the official
application of the term " city " depends on the kind and extent
of the municipal privileges possessed by the corporations, and
charters are given raising towns to the rank of cities. Both in
France and England the word is used to distinguish the older
and central nucleus of some of the large towns, e.g. the Cite in
Paris, and the " square mile " under the jurisdiction of the lord
mayor which is the " City of London."

In common usage, however, the word implies no more than a
somewhat vague idea of size and dignity, and is loosely applied
to any large centre of population. Thus while, technically,
the City of London is quite small, London is yet properly de-
scribed as the largest city in the world. In the United States
this use of the word is still more loose, and any town, whether
technically a city or not, is usually so designated, with little
regard to its actual size or importance.

It is clear from the above that the word " city " is incapable
of any very clear and inclusive definition, and the attempt to
show that historically it possesses a meaning that clearly differ-
entiates it from " town " or " borough " has led to some contro-
versy. As the translation of the Greek TroXis or Latin civitas
it involves the ancient conception of the state or " city-state,"
i.e. of the state as not too large to prevent its government
through the body of the citizens assembled in the agora, and is
applied not to the place but to the whole body politic. From
this conception both the word and its dignified connotation are
without doubt historically derived. On the occupation of Gaul
the Gallic states and tribes were called civitates by the Romans,

4 An oval cittern and a ghittern, side by side, occur in the beautiful
13th-century Spanish MS. known as Cantigas de Santa Maria in the
Escorial. For a fine facsimile in colours see marquis de Valmar,
Real. Acad. ESQ., publ. by L. Aguado (Madrid, 1889). Repro-
ductions in black and white in Juan F. Riano, Critical and Bibliog.
Notes on Early Spanish Music (London, 1887). See also K.
Schlesinger, op. cit. fig. 167, p. 223, also boat-shaped citterns,
figs. 155 and 156, p. 197. Cittern with woman's head, I5th century,
on one of six bas-reliefs on the under parts of the seats of the choir
of the Priory church, Great Malvern, reproduced in J. Carter's
Ancient Sculptures, &c., vol. ii. pi. following p. 12. Another without
a head, ibid. pi. following p. 16, from a brass monumental plate
in St Margaret's, King's Lynn.

6 Historia utriusque Cosmi (Oppenheim, ed. 1617), i. 226.

CIUDAD BOLIVAR— CIUDAD REAL

401

and subsequently the name was confined to the chief towns of
the various administrative districts. These were also the seats
of the bishops. It is thus affirmed that in France from the sth
to the i sth century the name civitas or citt was confined to such
towns as were episcopal sees, and Du Cange (Gloss, s.v. civilas)
defines that word as urbs episcopalis, and states that other
towns were termed castra or oppida. How far any such distinc-
tion can be sharply drawn may be doubted. With regard to
England no definite line can be drawn between those towns
to which the name civitas or citl is given in medieval documents
and those . called burgi or boroughs (see J. H. Round, Feudal
England, p. 338; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and After,
p. 183). It was, however, maintained by Coke and Blackstone
that a city is a town incorporate which is or has been the see
of a bishop. It is true, indeed, that the actual sees in England
all have a formal right to the title; the boroughs erected into
episcopal sees by Henry VIII. thereby became " cities "; but
towns such as Thetford, Sherborne and Dorchester are never
so designated, though they are regularly incorporated and were
once episcopal sees. On the other hand, it has only been since
the latter part of the iQth century that the official style of "city"
has, in the United Kingdom, been conferred by royal authority
on certain important towns which were not episcopal sees,
Birmingham in 1889 being the first to be so distinguished. It
is interesting to note that London, besides 27 boroughs, now
contains two cities, one (the City of London) outside, the other
(the City of Westminster) included in the administrative county.
For the history of the origin and development of modern city
government see BOROUGH and COMMUNE : Medieval.

CIUDAD BOLfVAR, an inland city and river port of Venezuela,
capital of the state of Bolivar, on the right bank of the Orinoco
river, 240 m. above its mouth. Pop. (1891)11,686. It stands
upon a small hill about 187 ft. above sea-level, and faces the
river where it narrows to a width of less than half a mile. The
city is largely built upon the hillside. It is the seat of the
bishopric of Guayana (founded in 1790), and is the commercial
centre of the great Orinoco basin. Among its noteworthy edifices
are the cathedral, federal college, theatre, masonic temple,
market, custom-house, and hospital. The mean temperature
is 83°. The city has a public water-supply, a tramway line,
telephone service, subfluvial cable communication with Soledad
near the mouth of the Orinoco, where connexion is made with the
national land lines, and regular steamship communication with
the lower and upper Orinoco. Previous to the revolution of
1901-3 Ciudad Bolivar ranked fourth among the Venezuelan
custom-houses, but the restrictions placed upon transit trade
through West Indian ports have made her a dependency of the
La Guaira custom-house to a large extent. The principal exports
from this region include cattle, horses, mules, tobacco, cacao,
rubber, tonka beans, bitters, hides, timber and many valuable
forest products. The town was founded by Mendoza in 1764 as
San Tomas de la Nueva Guayana, but its location at this particu-
lar point on the river gave to it the popular name of Angostura,
the Spanish term for " narrows." This name was used until
1849, when that of the Venezuelan liberator was bestowed upon
it. Ciudad Bolivar played an important part in the struggle for
independence and was for a time the headquarters of the revolu-
tion. The town suffered severely in the struggle for its possession,
and the political disorders which followed greatly retarded its
growth.

CIUDAD DE CURA, an inland town of the state of Aragua,
Venezuela, 55 m. S.W. of Caracas, near the Lago de Valencia.
Pop. (1891) 12,198. The town stands in a broad, fertile valley,
between the sources of streams running southward to the Guarico
river and northward to the lake, with an elevation above sea-level
of 1598 ft. Traffic between Puerto Cabello and the Guarico
plains has passed through this town since early colonial times,
and has made it an important commercial centre, from which
hides, cheese, coffee, cacao and beans are sent down to the coast
for export ; it bears a high reputation in Venezuela for commercial
enterprise. Ciudad de Cura was founded in 1730, and suffered
severely in the war of independence.

CIUDAD JUAREZ, formerly EL PASO DEL NORTE, a northern
frontier town of Mexico, in the state of Chihuahua, 1223 m. by
rail N.N.W. of Mexico City. Pop. (1895) 6917. Ciudad Juarez
stands 3800 ft. above sea-level on the right bank of the Rio
Grande del Norte, opposite the city of El Paso, Texas, with which
it is connected by two bridges. It is the northern terminus of
the Mexican Central railway, and has a large and increasing
transit trade with the United States, having a custom-house
and a United States consulate. It is also a military post with a
small garrison. The town has a straggling picturesque appear-
ance, a considerable part of the habitations being small adobe
or brick cabins. In the fertile neighbouring district cattle are
raised, and wheat, Indian corn, fruit and grapes are grown, wine
and brandy being made. The town was founded in 1681-1682;
its present importance is due entirely to the railway. It was the
headquarters of President Juarez in 1865, and was renamed
in 1885 because of its devotion to his cause.

CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ, formerly PIEDRAS NEGRAS, a
northern frontier town of Mexico in the state of Coahuila, 1008 m.
N. by W. from Mexico City, on the Rio Grande del Norte, 720 ft.
above sea-level, opposite the town of Eagle Pass, Texas. Pop.
(1900, estimate) 5000. An international bridge connects the two
towns, and the Mexican International railway has its northern
terminus in Mexico at this point. The town has an important
transfer trade with the United States, and is the centre of a
fertile district devoted to agriculture and stock-raising. Coal is
found in the vicinity. The Mexican government maintains a
custom-house and military post here. The town was founded
in 1849.

CIUDAD REAL, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833
of districts taken from New Castile, and bounded on the N.
by Toledo, E. by Albacete, S. by Jaen and Cordova and W. by
Badajoz. Pop. (1900) 321,580; area, 7620 sq. m. The surface
of Ciudad Real consists chiefly of a level or slightly undulating
plain, with low hills in the north-east and south-west; but along
the south-western frontier the Sierra de Alcudia rises in two
parallel ridges on either side of the river Alcudia, and is continued
in the Sierra Madrona on the east. The river Guadiana drains
almost the entire province, which it traverses from east to west ;
only the southernmost districts being watered by tributaries of
the Guadalquivir. Numerous smaller streams flow into the
Guadiana, which itself divides near Herencia into two branches, —
the northern known as the Giguela, the southern as the Zancara.
The eastern division of Ciudad Real forms part of the region
known as La Mancha, a flat, thinly-peopled plain, clothed with
meagre vegetation which is often ravaged by locusts. La Mancha
(q.i>.) is sometimes regarded as coextensive with the whole pro-
vince. Severe drought is common here, although some of the
rivers, such as the Jabalon and Azuer, issue fully formed from
the chalky soil, and from their very sources give an abundant
supply of water to the numerous mills. Towards the west, where
the land is higher, there are considerable tracts of forest.

The climate is oppressively hot in summer, and in winter the
plains are exposed to violent and bitterly cold winds; while the
cultivation of grain, the vine and the olive is further impeded
by the want of proper irrigation, and the general barrenness of
the soil. Large flocks of sheep and goats find pasture in the
plains; and the swine which are kept in the oak and beech
forests furnish bacon and hams of excellent quality. Coal is
mined chiefly at Puertollano, lead in various districts, mercury
at Almaden. There are no great manufacturing towns. The
roads are insufficient and ill-kept, especially in the north-east
where they form the sole means of communication ; and neither
the Guadiana nor its tributaries are navigable. The main railway
from Madrid to Lisbon passes through the capital, Ciudad Real,
and through Puertollano; farther east, the Madrid-Linares line
passes through Manzanares and Valdepenas. Branch railways
also connect the capital with Manzanares, and Valdepenas with
the neighbouring town of La Calzada.

The principal towns, Alcazar de San Juan (11,499), Almaden
(7375), Almod6var del Campo (12,525), Ciudad Real (15,255),
Manzanares (11,229) and Valdepenas (21,015), are described in

402

CIUDAD REAL— CIVILIS

separate articles. Almagro (7974) and Daimiel (11,825), in the
district of La Mancha known as the Campo de Calatrava, be-
longed in the later middle ages to the knightly Order of Calatrava,
which was founded in n 58 to keep the Moors in check. Almagro
was long almost exclusively inhabited by monks and knights, and
contains several interesting churches and monasteries, besides
the castle of the knights, now used as barracks. Almagro is
further celebrated for its lace, Daimiel for its medicinal salts.
Tomelloso (13,929) is one of the chief market towns of La Mancha.
Education is very backward, largely owing to the extreme poverty
which has frequently brought the inhabitants to the verge of
famine. (See also CASTILE.)

CIUDAD REAL, the capital formerly of La Mancha, and
since 1833 of the province described above; 107 m. S.of Madrid,
on the Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon and Ciudad Real-Manzanares
railways. Pop. (1900) 15,255. Ciudad Real lies in the midst
of a wide plain, watered on the north by the river Guadiana,
and on the south by its tributary the Jabalon. Apart from the
remnants of its 13th-century fortifications, and one Gothic
church of immense size, built without aisles, the town contains
little of interest; its public buildings — town-hall, barracks,
churches, hospital and schools— being in no way distinguished
above those of other provincial capitals. There are no important
local manufactures, and the trade of the town consists chiefly
in the weekly sales of agricultrual produce and live-stock.
Ciudad Real was founded by AlphonsoX. of Castile (1252-1284),
and fortified by him as a check upon the Moorish power. Its
original name of Villarreal was changed to Ciudad Real by John
VI. in 1420. During the Peninsular War a Spanish force was
defeated here by the French, on the 27th of March 1809.

CIUDAD RODRIGO, a town of western Spain, in the province
of Salamanca, situated 8 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier, on
the right bank of the river Agueda, and the railway from
Salamanca to Coimbra in Portugal. Pop. (1900) 8930. Ciudad
Rodrigo is an episcopal see, and was for many centuries an
important frontier fortress. Its cathedral dates from 1190,
but was restored in the 1 5th century. The remnants of a Roman
aqueduct, the foundations of a bridge across the Agueda, and
other remains, seem to show that Ciudad Rodrigo occupies the
site of a Roman settlement. It was founded in the I2th century
by Count Rodrigo Gonzalez, from whom its name is derived.
During the Peninsular War, it was captured by the French
under Marshal Ney, in 1810; but on the igth of January 1812
it was retaken by the British under Viscount Wellington, who,
for this exploit, was created earl of Wellington, duke of Ciudad
Rodrigo, and marquess of Torres Vedras, in Portugal.

CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO, an early 16th-century Italian painter,
born at Crema. There are altar-pieces by him at Brescia, and
at Crema the altar-piece at the duomo (1509). His "Birth of
Christ" is in the Brera, Milan; and at Lovere are other of
his works dating from 1539 and 1540.

CIVET, or properly CIVET-CAT, the designation of the more
typical representatives of the mammalian family Viverridae
(see CARNIVORA). Civets are characterized by the possession
of a deep pouch in the neighbourhood of the genital organs,
into which the substance known as civet is poured from the
glands by which it is secreted. This fatty substance is at first
semifluid and yellow, but afterwards acquires the consistency
of pomade and becomes darker. It has a strong musky odour,
exceedingly disagreeable to those unaccustomed to it, but " when
properly diluted and combined with other scents it produces
a very pleasing effect, and possesses a much more floral fragrance
than musk, indeed it would be impossible to imitate some
flowers without it." The African civet (Viverra civetta) is from
2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the tail, which is half the length
of the body, and stands from 10 to 12 in. high. It is covered
with long hair, longest on the middle line of the back, where it
is capable of being raised or depressed at will, of a dark-grey
colour, with numerous transverse black bands and spots. In
habits it is chiefly nocturnal, and by preference carnivorous,
feeding on birds and the smaller quadrupeds, in pursuit of which
it climbs trees, but it is said also to eat fruits, roots and other

vegetable matters. In a state of captivity the civet is never
completely tamed, and only kept for the sake of its perfume,
which is obtained in largest quantity from the male, especially
wKen in good condition and subjected to irritation, being scraped
from the pouch with a small spoon usually twice a week. The
zibeth ( Viverra zibetha) is a widely distributed species extending
from Arabia to Malabar, and throughout several of the larger
islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is smaller than the true
civet, and wants the dorsal crest. In the wild state it does
great damage among poultry, and frequently makes off with
the young of swine and sheep. When hunted it makes a deter-
mined resistance, and emits a scent so strong as even to sicken
the dogs, who nevertheless are exceedingly fond of the sport,
and cannot be got to pursue any other game while the stench
of the zibeth is in their nostrils. In confinement, it becomes
comparatively tame, and yields civet in considerable quantity.
In preparing this for the market it is usually spread out on the
leaves of the pepper plant in order to free it from the hairs that
have become detached from the pouch. On the Malabar coast
this species is replaced by V. civettina. The small Indian civet
or rasse (Viverricula malaccensis) ranges from Madagascar
through India to China, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands
of the Archipelago. It is almost 3 ft. long including the tail,
and prettily marked with dark longitudinal stripes, and spots
which have a distinctly linear arrangement. The perfume,
which is extracted in the same way as in the two preceding
species, is highly valued and much used by the Javanese. Al-
though this animal is said to be an expert climber it usually
inhabits holes in the ground. It is frequently kept in captivity
in the East, and becomes tame. Fossil remains of extinct
civets are found in the Miocene strata of Europe.

CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI (anc. Forum Iulii),a. town of Venetia,
Italy, in the province of Udine, 10 m. E. by N. by rail from the
town of Udine; 453 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 4143;
commune, 9061. It is situated on the river Natisone, which
forms a picturesque ravine here. It contains some interesting
relics of the art of the 8th century. The cathedral of the isth
century contains an octagonal marble canopy with sculptures
in relief, with a font below it belonging to the 8th century, but
altered later. The high altar has a fine silver altar front of 1 185.
The museum contains various Roman and Lombard antiquities,
and valuable MSS. and works of art in gold, silver and ivory
formerly belonging to the cathedral chapter. The small church
of S. Maria in Valle belongs to the 8th century, and contains
fine decorations in stucco which probably belong to the nth
or 1 2th century. The fine isth-century Ponte del Diavolo
leads to the church of S. Martino, which contains an altar of
the 8th century with reliefs executed by order of the Lombard
king Ratchis. At Cividale were born Paulus Diaconus, the
historian of the Lombards in the time of Charlemagne, and the
actress Adelaide Ristori (1822-1906).

The Roman town (a municipium) of Forum lulii was founded
either by Julius Caesar or by Augustus, no doubt at the same
time as the construction of the Via lulia Augusta, which passed
through Utina (Udine) on its way north. After the decay of
Aquileia and lulium Camicum (Zuglio) it became the chief town
of the district of Friuli and gave its name to it. The patriarchs
of Aquileia resided here from 773 to 1031, when they returned
to Aquileia, and finally in 1238 removed to Udine. This last
change of residence was the origin of the antagonism between
Cividale and Udine, which was only terminated by their sur-
render to Venice in 1419 and 1420 respectively.

CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS, or more correctly, JULIUS, leader of the
Batavian revolt against Rome (A.D. 60-70). He was twice
imprisoned .on a charge of rebellion, and narrowly escaped
execution. During the disturbances that followed the death
of Nero, he took up arms under pretence of siding with Vespasian
and induced the inhabitants of his native country to rebel.
The Batavians, who had rendered valuable aid under the early
emperors, had been well treated in order to attach them to the
cause of Rome. They were exempt from tribute, but were
obliged to supply a large number of men for the army, and the

CIVILIZATION

403

burden of conscription and the oppressions of provincial governors
were important incentives to revolt. The Batavians were
immediately joined by several neighbouring German tribes,
the most important of whom were the Frisians. The Roman
garrisons near the Rhine were driven out, and twenty-four ships
captured. Two legions under Mummius Lupercus were defeated
at Castra Vetera (near the modern Xanten) and surrounded.
Eight cohorts of Batavian veterans joined their countrymen,
and the troops sent by Vespasian to the relief of Vetera threw in
their lot with them. The result of these accessions to the forces of
Civilis was a rising in Gaul. Hordeonius Flaccus was murdered
by his troops (70), and the whole of the Roman forces were in-
duced by two commanders of the Gallic auxiliaries — Julius
Classicus and Julius Tutor — to revolt from Rome and join
Civilis. The whole of Gaul thus practically declared itself
independent, and the foundation of a new kingdom of Gaul
was contemplated. The prophetess Velleda predicted the com-
plete success of Civilis and the fall of the Roman Empire. But
disputes broke out amongst the different tribes and rendered
co-operation impossible; Vespasian, having successfully ended
the civil war, called upon Civilis to lay down his arms, and on
his refusal resolved to take strong measures for the suppression
of the revolt. The arrival of Petillius Cerialis with a strong force
awed the Gauls and mutinous troops into submission; Civilis was
defeated at Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Treves) and Vetera,
and forced to withdraw to the island of the Batavians. He
finally came to an agreement with Cerialis whereby his country-
men obtained certain advantages, and resumed amicable
relations with Rome. From this time Civilis disappears from

history.

The chief authority for the history of the insurrection is Tacitus,
Historiae, iv., v. , whose account breaks off at the beginning of Civilis' s
speech to Cerialis; see also Josephus, Bellum Judaicum, vii. 4.
There is a monograph by E. Meyer, Der Freiheitskrieg der Bataver
unler Civilis (1856); see also Merivale, Hist, of the Romans under
the Empire, ch. 58; H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit,
bk. ii. ch. 2, §54(1883).

CIVILIZATION. The word " civilization " is an obvious
derivative of the Lat. civis, a citizen, and civilis, pertaining to
a citizen. Etymologically speaking, then, it would be putting no
undue strain upon the word to interpret it as having to do with
the entire period of human progress since mankind attained
sufficient intelligence and social unity to develop a system of
government. But in practice " civilization " is usually inter-
preted in a somewhat narrower sense, as having application
solely to the most recent and comparatively brief period of time
that has elapsed since the most highly developed races of men
have used systems of writing. This restricted usage is probably
explicable, in part at least, by the fact that the word, though
distinctly modern in origin, is nevertheless older than the inter-
pretation of social evolution that now finds universal acceptance.
Only very recently has it come to be understood that primitive
societies vastly antedating the historical period had attained
relatively high stages of development and fixity, socially and
politically. Now that this is understood, however, nothing but
an arbitrary and highly inconvenient restriction of meanings
can prevent us from speaking of the citizens of these early
societies as having attained certain stages of civilization. It will
be convenient, then, in outlining the successive stages of human
progress here, to include under the comprehensive term " civiliza-
tion " those long earlier periods of " savagery " and " barbarism "
as well as the more recent period of higher development to which
the word " civilization " is sometimes restricted.

Adequate proof that civilization as we now know it is the
result of a long, slow process of evolution was put forward not

long after the middle of the ipth century by the
•savagery students of palaeontology and of prehistoric archaeo-
barism. l°8y- A recognition of the fact that primitive man

used implements of chipped flint, of polished stone,
and of the softer metals for successive ages, before he attained
a degree of technical skill and knowledge that would enable
him to smelt iron, led the Danish archaeologists to classify the
stages of human progress under these captions: the Rough

Stone Age; the Age of Polished Stone; the Age of Bronze;
and the Age of Iron. These terms acquired almost universal
recognition, and they retain popularity as affording a very broad
outline of the story of human progress. It is obviously desirable,
lowever, to fill in the outlines of the story more in detail.
To some extent it has been possible to do so, largely through
the efforts of ethnologists who have studied the social condi-
tions of existing races of savages. A recognition of the principle
that, broadly speaking, progress has everywhere been achieved
along the same lines and through the same sequence of changes,
makes it possible to interpret the past history of the civilized
races of to-day in the light of the present-day conditions of other
races that are still existing under social and political conditions
of a more primitive type. Such races as the Maoris and the
American Indians have furnished invaluable information to
the student of social evolution; and the knowledge thus gained
has been extended and fortified by the ever-expanding researches
of the palaeontologist and archaeologist.

Thus it has become possible to present with some confidence
a picture showing the successive stages of human development
during the long dark period when our prehistoric ancestor was
advancing along the toilsome and tortuous but on the whole
always uprising path from lowest savagery to the stage of relative
enlightenment at which we find him at the so-called "dawnings
of history." That he was for long ages a savage before he
attained sufficient culture to be termed, in modern phraseology,
a barbarian, admits of no question. Equally little in doubt is It
that other long ages of barbarism preceded the final ascent
to civilization. The precise period of time covered by these
successive " Ages " is of course only conjectural; but something
like one hundred thousand years may perhaps be taken as a
safe minimal estimate. At the beginning of this long period,
the most advanced race of men must be thought of as a pro-
miscuous company of pre-troglodytic mammals, at least partially
arboreal in habit, living on uncooked fruits and vegetables, and
possessed of no arts and crafts whatever — nor even of the know-
ledge of the rudest implement. At the end of the period, there
emerges into the more or less clear light of history a large-
brained being, living in houses of elaborate construction, supply-
ing himself with divers luxuries through the aid of a multitude
of elaborate handicrafts, associated with his fellows under the
sway of highly organized governments, and satisfying aesthetic
needs through the practice of pictorial and literary arts of a
high order. How was this amazing transformation brought
about?

If an answer can be found to that query, we shall have a clue
to all human progress, not only during the prehistoric but also
during the historic periods; for we may well believe
that recent progress has not departed from the scheme
of development impressed on humanity during that
long apprenticeship. Ethnologists believe that an
answer can be found. They believe that the metamorphosis from
beast-like savage to cultured civilian may be proximally ex-
plained (certain potentialities and attributes of the species being
taken for granted) as the result of accumulated changes that
found their initial impulses in a half-dozen or so of practical
inventions. Stated thus, the explanation seems absurdly simple.
Confessedly it supplies only a proximal, not a final, analysis
of the forces impelling mankind along the pathway of progress.
But it has the merit of tangibility; it presents certain highly
important facts of human history vividly: and it furnishes a
definite and fairly satisfactory basis for marking successive stages
of incipient civilization.

In outlining the story of primitive man's advancement, upon
such a basis, we may follow the scheme of one of the most
philosophical of ethnologists, Lewis H. Morgan, who made a
provisional analysis of the prehistoric period that still remains
among the most satisfactory attempts in this direction. Morgan '
divides the entire epoch of man's progress from bestiality to
civilization into six successive periods, which he names respec-
tively the Older, Middle and Later periods of Savagery, and
the Older, Middle and Later periods of Barbarism.

404

CIVILIZATION

The first of these periods, when mankind was in the lower
status of savagery, comprises the epoch when articulate speech
A was being developed. Our ancestors of this epoch
inhabited a necessarily restricted tropical territory,
and subsisted upon raw nuts and fruits. They had no know-
ledge of the uses of fire. All existing races of men had advanced
beyond this condition before the opening of the historical period.

The Middle Period of Savagery began with a knowledge of the
uses of fire. This wonderful discovery enabled the developing
„. race to extend its habitat almost indefinitely, and to

include flesh, and in particular fish, in its regular
dietary. Man could now leave the forests, and wander along
the shores and rivers, migrating to climates less enervating
than those to which he had previously been confined. Doubtless
he became an expert fisher, but he was as yet poorly equipped
for hunting, being provided, probably, with no weapon more
formidable than a crude hatchet and a roughly fashioned spear.
The primitive races of Australia and Polynesia had not advanced
beyond this middle status of savagery when they were discovered
a few generations ago. It is obvious, then, that in dealing with
the further progress of nascent civilization we have to do with
certain favoured portions of the race, which sought out new
territories and developed new capacities while many tribes of
their quondam peers remained static and hence by comparison
seemed to retrograde.

The next great epochal discovery, in virtue of which a portion
of the race advanced to the Upper Status of Savagery, was that
of the bow and arrow, — a truly wonderful implement.
arrow!"* The possessor of this device could bring down the
fleetest animal and could defend himself against the
most predatory. He could provide himself not only with food
but with materials for clothing and for tent-making, and thus
could migrate at will back from the seas and large rivers, and
far into inhospitable but invigorating temperate and sub-Arctic
regions. The meat diet, now for the first time freely available,
probably contributed, along with the stimulating climate, to
increase the physical vigour and courage of this highest savage,
thus urging him along the paths of progress. Nevertheless
many tribes came thus far and no further, as witness the Atha-
pascans of the Hudson's Bay Territory and the Indians of the
valley of the Columbia.

We now come to the marvellous discovery that enabled our
ancestor to make such advances upon the social conditions of
Pottery hk forbears as to entitle him, in the estimate of his
remote descendants, to be considered as putting
savagery behind him and as entering upon the Lower Status of
Barbarism. The discovery in question had to do with the
practice of the art of making pottery (see CERAMICS). Hitherto
man had been possessed of no permanent utensils that could
withstand the action of fire. He could not readily boil water
except by some such cumbersome method as the dropping of
heated stones into a wooden or skin receptacle. The effect
upon his dietary of having at hand earthen vessels in which
meat and herbs could be boiled over a fire must have been
momentous. Various meats and many vegetables become
highly palatable when boiled that are almost or quite inedible
when merely roasted before a fire. Bones, sinews and even
hides may be made to give up a modicum of nutriment in this
way; and doubtless barbaric man, before whom starvation
always loomed threateningly, found the crude pot an almost
perennial refuge. And of course its use as a cooking utensil
was only one of many ways in which the newly discovered
mechanism exerted a civilizing influence.

The next great progressive movement, which carried man
into the Middle Status of Barbarism, is associated with the
Domestic domes.ticati°n of animals in the Eastern hemisphere,
animals. and ^h the use °f irrigation in cultivating the soil and
of adobe bricks and stone in architecture in the Western
hemisphere. The dog was probably the first animal to be
domesticated, but the sheep, the ox, the camel and the horse
were doubtless added in relatively rapid succession, so soon
as the idea that captive animals could be of service had been

Iron.

clearly conceived. Man now became a herdsman, no longer
dependent for food upon the precarious chase of wild animals.
Milk, procurable at all seasons, made a highly important addition
to his dietary. With the aid of camel and horse he could traverse
wide areas hitherto impassable, and come in contact with
distant peoples. Thus commerce came to play an extended
r61e in the dissemination of both commodities and ideas. In
particular the nascent civilization of the Mediterranean region
fell heir to numerous products of farther Asia, — gums, spices,
oils, and most important of all, the cereals. The cultivation of
the latter gave the finishing touch to a comprehensive and
varied diet, while emphasizing the value of a fixed abode. For
the first time it now became possible for large numbers of people
to form localized communities. A natural consequence was
the elaboration of political systems, which, however, proceeded
along lines already suggested by the experience of earlier epochs.
All this tended to establish and emphasize the idea of nation-
ality, based primarily on blood-relationship; and at the same
time to develop within the community itself the idea of property,
— that is to say, of valuable or desirable commodities which have
come into the possession of an individual through his enterprise
or labour, and which should therefore be subject to his voluntary
disposal. At an earlier stage of development, all property had
been of communal, not of individual, ownership. It appears, then,
that our mid-period barbarian had attained — if the verbal con-
tradiction be permitted — a relatively high stage of civilization.

There remained, however, one master craft of which he had
no conception. This was the art of smelting iron. When,
ultimately, his descendants learned the wonderful
secrets of that art, they rose in consequence to the
Upper Status of Barbarism. This culminating practical inven-
tion, it will be observed, is the first of the great discoveries
with which we have to do that was not primarily concerned
with the question of man's food supply. Iron, to be sure, has
abundant uses in the same connexion, but its most direct and
obvious utilities have to do with weapons of war and with
implements calculated to promote such arts of peace as house-
building, road-making and the construction of vehicles. Wood
and stone could now be fashioned as never before. Houses
could be built and cities walled with unexampled facility; to
say nothing of the making of a multitude of minor implements
and utensils hitherto quite unknown, or at best rare and costly.
Nor must we overlook the aesthetic influence of edged imple-
ments, with which wood and stone could readily be sculptured
when placed in the hands of a race that had long been accustomed
to scratch the semblance of living forms on bone or ivory and to
fashion crude images of clay. In a word, man, the " tool-making
animal," was now for the first time provided with tools worthy
of his wonderful hands and yet more wonderful brain.

Thus through the application of one revolutionary invention
after another, the most advanced races of men had arrived,
after long ages of effort, at a relatively high stage of development.
A very wide range of experiences had enabled man to evolve
a complex body politic, based on a fairly secure social basis,
and his brain had correspondingly developed into a relatively
efficient and stable organ of thought. But as yet he had devised
no means of communicating freely with other people at a distance
except through the medium of verbal messages; nor had he
any method by which he could transmit his experiences to
posterity more securely than by fugitive and falh'ble oral tradi-
tions. A vague symbolization of his achievements was preserved
from generation to generation in myth-tale and epic, but he
knew not how to make permanent record of his history. Until
he could devise a means to make such record, he must remain,
in the estimate of his descendants, a barbarian, though he might
be admitted to have become a highly organized and even in
broad sense a cultured being.

At length, however, this last barrier was broken. Some rac
or races devised a method of symbolizing events and ultimately
of making even abstruse ideas tangible by means of writing.
graphic signs. In other words, a system of writing
was developed. Man thus achieved a virtual conquest over time

CIVILIZATION

405

as he had earlier conquered space. He could now transmit
the record of his deeds and his thoughts to remote posterity.
Thus he stood at the portals of what later generations would term
secure history. He had graduated out of barbarism, and become
in the narrower sense of the word a civilized being. Henceforth,
his knowledge, his poetical dreamings, his moral aspirations
might be recorded in such form as to be read not merely by his
contemporaries but by successive generations of remote posterity.
The inspiring character of such a message is obvious. The validity
of making this great culminating intellectual achievement the
test of " civilized " existence need not be denied. But we should
ill comprehend the character of the message which the earlier
generations of civilized beings transmit to us from the period
which we term the " dawning of history " did we not bear
constantly in mind the long series of progressive stages of
" savagery " and ", barbarism " that of necessity preceded the
final stage of " civilization " proper. The achievements of
those earlier stages afforded the secure foundation for the pro-
gress of the future. A multitude of minor arts, in addition
to the important ones just outlined, had been developed; and
for a long time civilized man was to make no other epochal
addition to the list of accomplishments that came to him as a
heritage from his barbaric progenitor. Indeed, even to this
day the list of such additions is not a long one, nor, judged in
the relative scale, so important as might at first thought be
supposed. Whoever considers the subject carefully must admit
the force of Morgan's suggestion that man's achievements as a
barbarian, considered in their relation to the sum of human
progress, " transcend, in relative importance, all his subsequent
works."

Without insisting on this comparison, however, let us ask
what discoveries and inventions man has made within the
historical period that may fairly be ranked with the half-dozen
great epochal achievements that have been put forward as
furnishing the keys to all the progress of the prehistoric periods.
In other words, let us sketch the history of progress during the ten
thousand years or so that have elapsed since man learned the
art of writing, adapting our sketch to the same scale which we
have already applied to the unnumbered millenniums of the pre-
historic period. The view of world-history thus outlined will be
a very different one from what might be expected by the student
of national history; but it will present the essentials of the
progress of civilization in a suggestive light.

Without pretending to fix an exact date, — which the historical
records do not at present permit, — we may assume that the
most advanced race of men elaborated a system of
vUiza- wrjt;ng not iess tnan sjx thousand years before the
beginning of the Christian era. Holding to the
terminology already suggested for the earlier periods,
we may speak of man's position during the ensuing generations
as that of the First or Lowest Status of civilization. If we review
the history of this period we shall find that it extends unbroken
over a stretch of at least four or five thousand years. During
the early part of this period such localized civilizations as those
of the Egyptians, the Sumerians, the Babylonians and the Hittites
rose, grew strong and passed beyond their meridian. This sug-
gests that we must now admit the word " civilization " to yet
another definition, within its larger meaning: we must speak
of " a civilization," as that of Egypt, of Babylonia, of Assyria,
and we must understand thereby a localized phase of society bear-
ing the same relation to civilization as a 'whole that a wave bears
to the ocean or a tree to the forest. Such other localized civiliza-
tions as those of Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece, Rome, Byzantium,
the Sassanids, in due course waxed and waned, leaving a tre-
mendous imprint on national history, but creating only minor
and transitory ripples in the great ocean of civilization . Progress
the elaboration of the details of earlier methods and inventions
took place as a matter of course. Some nation, probably the
Phoenicians, gave a new impetus to the art of writing by develop-
a phonetic alphabet; but this achievement, remarkable as
it was in itself, added nothing fundamental to human capacity.
Literatures had previously flourished through the use of hiero-

tlon
proper.

glyphic and syllabic symbols; and the Babylonian syllables
continued in vogue throughout western Asia for a long time
after the Phoenician alphabet had demonstrated its intrinsic
superiority.

Similarly the art of Egyptian and Assyrian and Greek was but
the elaboration and perfection of methods that barbaric man
had practised away back in the days when he was a cave-dweller.
The weapons of warfare of Greek and Roman were the spear
and the bow and arrow that their ancestors had used in the period
of savagery, aided by sword and helmet dating from the upper
period of barbarism. Greek and Roman government at their
best were founded upon the system of gentes that barbaric man
had profoundly studied, — as witness, for example, the federal
system of the barbaric Iroquois Indians existing in America
before the coming of Columbus. And if the Greeks had better
literature, the Romans better roads and larger cities, than their
predecessors, these are but matters of detailed development,
the like of which had marked the progress of the more important
arts and the introduction of less important ancillary ones in
each antecedent period. The axe of steel is no new implement,
but a mere perfecting of the axe of chipped flint. The Iliad
represents the perfecting of an art that unnumbered generations
of barbarians practised before their camp-fires.

Thus for six or seven thousand years after man achieved
civilization there was rhythmic progress in many lines, but there
came no great epochal invention to usher in a new Onat
ethnic period. Then, towards the close of what inventions
historians of to-day are accustomed to call the middle of the
ages, there appeared in rapid sequence three or four
inventions and a great scientific discovery that, taken
together, were destined to change the entire aspect of European
civilization. The inventions were gunpowder, the mariner's
compass, paper and the printing-press, three of which appear to
have been brought into Europe by the Moors, whether or not
they originated in the remote East. The scientific discovery
which must be coupled with these inventions was the Copernican
demonstration that the sun and not the earth is the centre of our
planetary system. The generations of men that found them-
selves (i) confronted with the revolutionary conception of the
universe given by the Copernican theory; (2) supplied with the
new means of warfare provided by gunpowder; (3) equipped
with an undreamed-of guide across the waters of the earth; and
(4) enabled to promulgate knowledge with unexampled speed and
cheapness through the aid of paper and printing-press — such
generations of men might well be said to have entered upon a new
ethnic period. The transition in their mode of thought and in
their methods of practical life was as great as can be supposed
to have resulted, in an early generation, from the introduction
of iron, or in a yet earlier from the invention of the bow and
arrow. So the Europeans of about the isth century of the
Christian era may be said to have entered upon the Second or
Middle Status of civilization.

The new period was destined to be a brief one. It had com-
passed only about four hundred years when, towards the close
of the i8th century, James Watt gave to the world
the perfected steam-engine. Almost contemporane-
ously Arkwright and Hargreaves developed revolu-
tionary processes of spinning and weaving by machinery.
Meantime James Hutton and William Smith and their successors
on the one hand, and Erasmus Darwin, Francois Lamarck, and
(a half-century later) Charles Darwin on the other, turned men's
ideas topsy-turvy by demonstrating that the world as the
abiding-place of animals and man is enormously old, and that
man himself instead of deteriorating from a single perfect pair
six thousand years removed, has ascended from bestiality through
a slow process of evolution extending over hundreds of centuries.
The revolution in practical life and in the mental life of our race
that followed these inventions and this new presentation of
truth probably exceeded in suddenness and in its far-reaching
effects the metamorphosis effected at any previous transition
from one ethnic period to another. The men of the igth century,
living now in the period that may be termed the Upper Status

406

CIVILIZATION

of civilization, saw such changes effected in the practical affairs
of their everyday lives as had not been wrought before during the
entire historical period. Their fathers had travelled in vehicles
drawn by horses, quite as their remoter ancestors had done since
the time of higher barbarism. It may be doubted whether
there existed in the world in the year 1800 a postal service that
could compare in speed and efficiency with the express service
of the Romans of the time of Caesar; far less was there a tele-
graph service that could compare with that of the ancient
Persians. Nor was there a ship sailing the seas that a Phoenician
trireme might not have overhauled. But now within the
lifetime of a single man the world was covered with a network
of steel rails on which locomotives drew gigantic vehicles, laden
with passengers at an hourly speed almost equalling Caesar's
best journey of a day; over the land and under the seas were
stretched wires along which messages coursed from continent
to continent literally with the speed of lightning; and the waters
of the earth were made to teem with gigantic craft propelled
without sail or oar at a speed which the Phoenician captain of
three thousand years ago and the English captain of the i8th
century would alike have held incredible.

There is no need to give further details here of the industrial
revolutions that have been achieved in this newest period of
Soclalaad civilization, since in their broader outlines at least
political they are familiar to every one. Nor need we dwell
organize- upon the revolution in thought whereby man has for
the first time been given a clear inkling as to his
origin and destiny. It suffices to point out that such periods
of fermentation of ideas as this suggests have probably always
been concomitant with those outbursts of creative genius that
gave the world the practical inventions upon which human
progress has been conditioned. The same attitude of receptivity
to new ideas is pre-requisite to one form of discovery as to the
other. Nor, it may be added, can either form of idea become
effective for the progress of civilization except in proportion as a
large body of any given generation are prepared to receive it.
Doubtless here and there a dreamer played with fire, in a literal
sense, for generations before the utility of fire as a practical aid
to human progress came to be recognized in practice. And —
to seek an illustration at the other end of the scale — we know
that the advanced thinkers of Greece and Rome believed in the
antiquity of the earth and in the evolution of man two thousand
years before the coming of Darwin. We have but partly solved
the mysteries of the progress of civilization, then, when we have
pointed out that each tangible stage of progress owed its initiative
to a new invention or discovery of science. To go to the root
of the matter we must needs explain how it came about that a
given generation of men was in mental mood to receive the new
invention or discovery.

The pursuit of this question would carry us farther into the
realm of communal and racial psychology — to say nothing of
the realm of conjecture — than comports with the purpose of
this article. It must suffice to point out that alertness of mind — •
that all mentality — is, in the last analysis, a reaction to the
influences of the environment. It follows that man may subject
himself to new influences and thus give his mind a new stimulus
by changing his habitat. A fundamental secret of progress is
revealed in this fact. Man probably never would have evolved
from savagery had he remained in the Tropics where he doubtless
originated. But successive scientific inventions enabled him,
as has been suggested, to migrate to distant latitudes, and thus
more or less involuntarily to become the recipient of new creative
and progressive impulses. After migrations in many directions
had resulted in the development of divers races, each with
certain capacities and acquirements due to its unique environ-
ment, there was opportunity for the apph'cation of the principle
of environmental stimulus in an indirect way, through the
mingling and physical intermixture of one race with another.
Each of the great localized civilizations of antiquity appears
to have owed its prominence in part at least — perhaps very
largely— to such intermingling of two or more races. Each
of these civilizations began to decay so soon as the nation had

remained for a considerable number of generations in its localized
environment, and had practically ceased to receive accretions
from distant races at approximately the same stage of develop-
ment. There is a suggestive lesson for present-day civiliza-
tion in that thought-compelling fact. Further evidence of the
application of the principle of environmental stimulus, operating
through changed habitat and racial intermixture, is furnished
by the virility of the colonial peoples of our own day. The
receptiveness to new ideas and the rapidity of material progress
of Americans, South Africans and Australians are proverbial.
No one doubts, probably, that one or another of these countries
will give a new stimulus to the progress of civilization, through
the promulgation of some great epochal discovery, in the not
distant future. Again, the value of racial intermingling is
shown yet nearer home in the long-continued vitality of the
British nation, which is explicable, hi some measure at least', by
the fact that the Celtic element held aloof from the Anglo-Saxon
element century after century sufficiently to maintain racial
integrity, yet mingled sufficiently to give and receive the fresh
stimulus of " new blood." It is interesting in this connexion
to examine the map of Great Britain with reference to the
birthplaces of the men named above as being the originators
of the inventions and discoveries that made the close of the i8th
century memorable as ushering in a new ethnic era. It may be
added that these names suggest yet another element in the
causation of progress: the fact, namely, that, however necessary
racial receptivity may be to the dynamitic upheaval of a new
ethnic era, it is after all individual genius that applies its
detonating spark.

Without further elaboration of this aspect of the subject
it may be useful to recapitulate the analysis of the evolution
of civilization above given, prior to characterizing
it from another standpoint. It appears that the entire Nlae

. , . , periods of

period of human progress up to the present may be progress.
divided into nine periods which, if of necessity more
or less arbitrary, yet are not without certain warrant of logic.
They may be defined as follows: (i) The Lower Period of
Savagery, terminating with the discovery and application of the
uses of fire. (2) The Middle Period of Savagery, terminating
with the invention of the bow and arrow. (3) The Upper Period
of Savagery, terminating with the invention of pottery. (4) The
Lower Period of Barbarism, terminating with the domestication
of animals. (5) The Middle Period of Barbarism, terminating
with the discovery of the process of smelting iron ore. (6) The
Upper Period of Barbarism, terminating with the development
of a system of writing meeting the requirements of literary
composition. (7) The First Period of Civilization (proper)
terminating with the introduction of gunpowder. (8) The Second
Period of Civilization, terminating with the invention of a
practical steam-engine. (9) The Upper Period of Civilization,
which is still in progress, but which, as will be suggested hi a
moment, is probably nearing its termination.

It requires but a glance at the characteristics of these successive
epochs to show the ever-increasing complexity of the inventions
that delimit them and of the conditions of life that they
connote. Were we to attempt to characterize in a few phrases the
entire story of achievement thus outlined, we might say that
during the three stages of Savagery man was attempting to make
himself master of the geographical climates. His unconscious
ideal was, to gain a foothold and the means of subsistence in
every zone. During the three periods of Barbarism the ideal
of conquest was extended to the beasts of the field, the vegetable
world, and the mineral contents of the earth's crust. During the
three periods of Civilization proper the ideal of conquest has
become still more intellectual and subtle, being now extended
to such abstractions as an analysis of speech-sounds, and to such
intangibles as expanding gases and still more elusive electric
currents: in other words, to the forces of nature, no less than
to tangible substances. Hand in hand with this growing
complexity of man's relations with the external world has
gone a like increase of complexity in the social and political
organizations that characterize man's relations with his fellow-

CIVILIZATION

407

men. In savagery the family expanded into the tribe; in
barbarism the tribe developed into the nation. The epoch of
civilization proper is aptly named, because it has been a time in
which citizenship, in the narrower national significance, has
probably been developed to its apogee. Throughout this period,
in every land, the highest virtue has been considered to be
patriotism, — by which must be understood an instinctive
willingness on the part of every individual to defend even with
his life the interests of the nation into which he chances to be
born, regardless of whether the national cause in which he struggles
be in any given case good or bad, right or wrong. The communal
judgment of this epoch pronounces any man a traitor who will
not uphold his own nation even in a wrong cause — and the word
" traitor " marks the utmost brand of ignominy.

But while the idea of nationality has thus been accentuated,
there has been a never-ending struggle within the bounds of the
Nation- nat'on itself to adjust the relations of one citizen to
aiity and another. The ideas that might makes right, that the
cosmo- strong man must dominate the weak, that leadership
jn jjjg communjty properly belongs to the man who is
physically most competent to lead — these ideas were
a perfectly natural, and indeed an inevitable, outgrowth of the
conditions under which man fought his way up through savagery
and barbarism. Man in the first period of civilization inherited
these ideas, along with the conditions of society that were their
concomitants. So throughout the periods when the oriental
civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia and Assyria and Persia
were dominant, a despotic form of government was accepted
as the natural order of things. It does not appear that any other
form was even considered as a practicality. A despot might
indeed be overthrown, but only to make way for the coronation
of another despot. A little later the Greeks and Romans modified
the conception of a heaven-sent individual monarch; but they
went no further than to substitute a heaven-favoured community,
with specially favoured groups (Patricii) within the community.
With this, national egoism reached its climax; for each people
regarded its own citizens as the only exemplars of civilization,
openly branding all the rest of the world as "barbarians," fit
subjects for the exaction of tribute or for the imposition of the
bonds of actual slavery. During the middle ages there was a
reaction towards individualism as opposed to nationalism:
but the entire system of feudalism, with its clearly recognized
conditions of over-lordship and of vassaldom, gave expression,
no less clearly than oriental despotism and classical "demo-
cracy " had done, to the idea of individual inequality; of
divergence of moral and legal status based on natural inheritance.
Thus this idea, a reminiscence of barbarism, maintained its
dominance throughout the first period of civilization.

But gunpowder, marking the transition to the second period
of civilization, came as a great levelling influence. With its aid
the weakest peasant might prove more than a match for the most
powerful knight. Before its assaults the castle of the lord ceased
to be an impregnable fortress. And while gunpowder thus
levelled down the power of the mighty, the printing-press levelled
up the intelligence, and hence the power and influence of the
lowly. Meantime the mariner's compass opened up new terri-
tories beyond the seas, and in due course men of lowly origin were
seen to attain to wealth and power through commercial pursuits,
thus tending to break in upon the established social order. In
the colonial territories themselves all men were subjected more
or less to the same perils and dependent upon their own efforts.
Success and prominence in the community came not as a birth-
right, but as the result of demonstrated fitness. The great
lesson that the interests of all members of a community are,
in the last analysis, mutual could be more clearly distinguished
in these small colonies than in larger and older bodies politic.
Through various channels, therefore, in the successive genera-
tions of this middle period of civilization, the idea gained ground
that intelligence and moral worth, rather than physical prowess,
should be the test of greatness; that it is incumbent on the strong
in the interests of the body politic to protect the weak; and that,
in the long run, the best interests of the community are conserved

if all its members, without exception, are given moral equality
before the law. This idea of equal rights and privileges for all
members of the community — for each individual " the greatest
amount of liberty consistent with a like liberty of every other
individual " — first found expression as a philosophical doctrine
towards the close of the i8th century; at which time also tenta-
tive efforts were made to put it into practice. It may be said
therefore to represent the culminating sociological doctrine of
the middle period of civilization, — the ideal towards which all
the influences of the period had tended to impel the race.

It will be observed, however, that this ideal of individual
equality within the body politic in no direct wise influences the
status of the body politic itself as the centre of a localized
civilization that may be regarded as in a sense antagonistic to
all other similarly localized civilizations. If there were any such
influence, it would rather operate in the direction of accentuating
the patriotism of the member of a democratical community, as
against that of the subject of a despot, through the sense of
personal responsibility developed in the former. The develop-
ments of the middle period of civilization cannot be considered,
therefore, to have tended to decrease the spirit of nationality,
with its concomitant penalty of what is sometimes called pro-
vincialism. The history of this entire period, as commonly
presented, is largely made up of the records of international
rivalries and jealousies, perennially culminating in bitterly
contested wars. It was only towards the close of the epoch that
the desirability of free commercial intercourse among nations
began to find expression as a philosophical creed through the
efforts of Quesnay and his followers; and the doctrine that both
parties to an international commercial transaction are gainers
thereby found its first clear expression in the year 1776 in the
pages of Condillac and of Adam Smith.

But the discoveries that ushered in the third period of civiliza-
tion were destined to work powerfully from the outset for the
breaking down of international barriers, though, of course,
their effects would not be at once manifest. Thus the substitu-
tion of steam power for water power, besides giving a tremendous
impetus to manufacturing in general, mapped out new industrial
centres in regions that nature had supplied with coal but not
always with other raw materials. To note a single result,
England became the manufacturing centre of the world, drawing
its raw materials from every corner of the globe; but in so
doing it ceased to be self-supporting as regards the production
of food-supplies. While growing in national wealth, as a result
of the new inventions, England has therefore lost immeasurably
in national self-sufficiency and independence; having become
in large measure dependent upon other countries both for the
raw materials without which her industries must perish and for
the foods to maintain the very life of her people.

What is true of England in this regard is of course true in
greater or less measure of all other countries. Everywhere,
thanks to the new mechanisms that increase industrial efficiency,
there has been an increasing tendency to specialization; and
since the manufacturer must often find his raw materials in one
part of the world and his markets in another, this implies
an ever-increasing intercommunication and interdependence
between the nations. This spirit is obviously fostered by the
new means of transportation by locomotive and steamship, and
by the electric communication that enables the Londoner, for
example, to transact business in New York or in Tokio with
scarcely an hour's delay; and that puts every one in touch at
to-day's breakfast table with the happenings of the entire world.
Thanks to the new mechanisms, national isolation is no longer
possible; globe-trotting has become a habit with thousands of
individuals of many nations; and Or'.ent and Occident, repre-
senting civilizations that for thousands of years were almost
absolutely severed and mutually oblivious of each other, have
been brought again into close touch for mutual education and
betterment. The Western mind has learned with amazement
that the aforetime Terra Incognita of the far East has nurtured
a gigantic civilization having ideals in many ways far different
from our own. The Eastern mind has proved itself capable, in

408

CIVILIZATION

self-defence, of absorbing the essential practicalities of Western
civilization within a single generation. Some of the most
important problems of world-civilization of the immediate
future hinge upon the mutual relations of these two long-severed
communities, branched at some early stage of progress to
opposite hemispheres of the globe, but now brought by the new
mechanisms into daily and even hourly communication.

While the new conditions of the industrial world have thus

tended to develop a new national outlook, there has come about,

as a result of the scientific discoveries already referred

Modem . & nQ jegs sjgnificant broadening of the mental and

Humanism. f *• *

spiritual horizons. Here also the trend is away from
the narrowly egoistic and towards the cosmopolitan view.
About the middle of the ipth century Dr Pritchard declared
that many people debated whether it might not be permissible
for the Australian settlers to shoot the natives as food for their
dogs; some of the disputants arguing that savages were without
the pale of human brotherhood. To-day the thesis that all
mankind are one brotherhood needs no defence. The most
primitive of existing aborigines are regarded merely as brethren
who, through some defect or neglect of opportunity, have lagged
behind in the race. Similarly the defective and criminal classes
that make up so significant a part of the population of even
our highest present-day civilizations, are no longer regarded
with anger or contempt, as beings who are suffering just punish-
ment for wilful transgressions, but are considered as pitiful
victims of hereditary and environmental influences that they
could neither choose nor control. Insanity is no longer thought
of as demoniac possession, but as the most lamentable of diseases.

The changed attitude towards savage races and defective
classes affords tangible illustrations of a fundamental transforma-
tion of point of view which doubtless represents the most import-
ant result of the operation of new scientific knowledge in the
course of the igth century. It is a transformation that is only
partially effected as yet, to be sure; but it is rapidly making
headway, and when fully achieved it will represent, probably,
the most radical metamorphosis of mental view that has taken
place in the entire course of the historical period. The essence
of the new view is this: to recognize the universality and the
invariability of natural law; stated otherwise, to understand
that the word " supernatural " involves a contradiction of
terms and has in fact no meaning. Whoever has grasped the
full import of this truth is privileged to sweep mental horizons
wider by far than ever opened to the view of any thinker of an
earlier epoch. He is privileged to forecast, as the sure heritage
of the future, a civilization freed from the last ghost of supersti-
tion— an Age of Reason in which mankind shall at last find
refuge from the hosts of occult and invisible powers, the fearsome
galaxies of deities and demons, which have haunted him thus
far at every stage of his long journey through savagery, barbar-
ism and civilization. Doubtless here and there a thinker, even in
the barbaric eras, may have realized that these ghosts that so
influenced the everyday lives of his fellows were but children
of the imagination. But the certainty that such is the case
could not have come with the force of demonstration even to
the most clear-sighted thinker until igth-century science had
investigated with penetrating vision the realm of molecule
and atom; had revealed the awe-inspiring principle of the
conservation of energy; and had offered a comprehensible
explanation of the evolution of one form of life from another,
from monad to man, that did not presuppose the intervention of
powers more " supernatural " than those that operate about
us everywhere to-day.

The stupendous import of these new truths could not, of
course, make itself evident to the generality of mankind in a
single generation, when opposed to superstitions of a thousand
generations' standing. But the new knowledge has made its
way more expeditiously than could have been anticipated;
and its effects are seen on every side, even where its agency is
scarcely recognized. As a single illustration, we may note the
familiar observation that the entire complexion of orthodox
teaching of religion has been more altered in the past fifty

years than in two thousand years before. This of course is not
entirely due to the influence of physical and biological science;
no effect has a unique cause, in the complex sociological scheme.
Archaeology, comparative philology and textual criticism have
also contributed their share; and the comparative study of
religions has further tended to broaden the outlook and to make
for universality, as opposed to insularity, of view. It is coming
to be more and more widely recognized that all theologies are
but the reflex of the more or less faulty knowledge of the times
in which they originate; that the true and abiding purpose of
religion should be the practical betterment of humanity — the
advancement of civilization in the best sense of the word; and
that this end may perhaps be best subserved by different systems
of theology, adapted to the varied genius of different times and
divers races. Wherefore there is not the same enthusiastic
desire to-day that found expression a generation ago, to impose
upon the cultured millions of the East a religion that seems to
them alien to their manner of thought, unsuited to their needs
and less distinctly ethical in teaching than their own religions.

Such are but a few of the illustrations that might be cited from
many fields to suggest that the mind of our generation is becom-
ing receptive to a changed point of view that augurs the coming
of a new ethnic era. If one may be permitted to enter very
tentatively the field of prophecy, it seems not unlikely that the
great revolutionary invention which will close the third period
of civilization and usher in a new era is already being evolved.
It seems not over-hazardous to predict that the air-ship, in one
form or another, is destined to be the mechanism that will give
the new impetus to human civilization; that the next era will
have as one of its practical ideals the conquest of the air; and
that this conquest will become a factor in the final emergence of
humanity from the insularity of nationalism to the broad view
of cosmopolitanism, towards which, as we have seen, the tend-
encies of the present era are verging. That the gap to be
covered is a vastly wide one no one need be reminded who recalls
that the civilized nations of Europe, together with America and
Japan, are at present accustomed to spend more than three
hundred million pounds each year merely that they may keep
armaments in readiness to fly at one another's throats should
occasion arise. Formidable as these armaments now seem,
however, the developments of the not very distant future will
probably make them quite obsolete; and sooner or later, as
science develops yet more deadly implements of destruction,
the time must come when communal intelligence will rebel at
the suicidal folly of the international attitude that characterized,
for example, the opening decade of the 2oth century. At some
time, after the first period of cosmopolitanism shall be ushered
in as a tenth ethnic period, it will come to be recognized that
there is a word fraught with fuller meanings even than the word
patriotism. That word is humanitarianism. The enlightened
generation that realizes the full implications of that word will
doubtless marvel that their ancestors of the third period of
civilization should have risen up as nations and slaughtered one
another by thousands to settle a dispute about a geographical
boundary. Such a procedure will appear to have been quite as
barbarous as the cannibalistic practices of their yet more remote
ancestors, and distinctly less rational, since cannibalism might
sometimes save its practiser from starvation, whereas warfare
of the civilized type was a purely destructive agency.

Equally obvious must it appear to the cosmopolite of some
generation of the future that quality rather than mere numbers
must determine the efficiency of an> given community. Race
suicide will then cease to be a bugbear; and it will no longer be
considered rational to keep up the census at the cost of pro-
pagating low orders of intelligence, to feed the ranks of paupers,
defectives and criminals. On the contrary it will be thought
fitting that man should become the conscious arbiter of his own
racial destiny to the extent of applying whatever laws of heredity
he knows or may acquire in the interests of his own species, as
he has long applied them in the case of domesticated animals.
The survival and procreation of the unfit will then cease to be
a menace to the progress of civilization. It does not follow that

CIVILIZATION

409

all men will be brought to a dead level of equality of body and
mmd, nor that individual competition will cease; but the average
physical mental status of the race will be raised immeasurably
through the virtual elimination of that vast company of defectives
which to-day constitutes so threatening an obstacle to racial
progress. There are millions of men in Europe and America
to-day whose whole mental equipment — despite the fact that they
have been taught to read and write — is far more closely akin to
the average of the Upper Period of Barbarism than to the highest
standards of their own time| and these undeveloped or atavistic
persons have on the average more offspring than are produced
by the more highly cultured and intelligent among their con-
temporaries. " Race suicide " is thereby prevented, but the pro-
gress of civilization is no less surely handicapped. We may well
believe that the cosmopolite of the future, aided by science,
will find rational means to remedy this strange illogicality. In so
doing he will exercise a more consciously purposeful function,
and perhaps a more directly potent influence, in determining
the line of human progress than he has hitherto attempted to
assume, notwithstanding the almost infinitely varied character
of the experiments through which he has worked his way from
savagery to civilization.

All these considerations tend to define yet more clearly the
ultimate goal towards which the progressive civilization of past
and present appears to be trending. The contempla-
t'on °f this 8oal brinS8 into view the outlines of a vastly
suggestive evolutionary cycle. For it appears that
the social condition of cosmopolite man, so far as the present-day
view can predict it, will represent a state of things, magnified
to world-dimensions, that was curiously adumbrated by the social
system of the earliest savage. At the very beginning of the
journey through savagery, mankind, we may well believe, con-
sisted of a limited tribe, representing no great range or variety
of capacity, and an almost absolute identity of interests. Thanks
to this community of interests, — which was fortified by the
recognition of blood-relationship among all members of the tribe,
— a principle which we now define as " the greatest ultimate
good to the greatest number " found practical, even if unwitting,
recognition; and therein lay the germs of all the moral develop-
ment of the future. But obvious identity of interests could be
recognized only so long as the tribe remained very small. So
soon as its numbers became large, patent diversities of interest,
based on individual selfishness, must appear, to obscure the
larger harmony. And as savage man migrated hither and thither,
occupying new regions and thus developing new tribes and
ultimately a diversity of " races," all idea of community of
interests, as between race and race, must have been absolutely
banished. It was the obvious and patent fact that each race was
more or less at rivalry, in disharmony, with all the others. In
the hard struggle for subsistence, the expansion of one race meant
the downfall of another. So far as any principle of " greatest
good " remained in evidence, it applied solely to the members of
one's own community, or even to one's particular phratry or
gens.

Barbaric man, thanks to his conquest of animal and vegetable
nature, was able to extend the size of the unified community,
and hence to develop through diverse and intricate channels
the application of the principle of " greatest good " out of which
the idea of right and wrong was elaborated. But quite as little
as the savage did he think of extending the application of the
principle beyond the bounds of his own race. The laws with
which he gave expression to his ethical conceptions applied,
of necessity, to his own people alone. The gods with which his
imagination peopled the world were locaf in habitat, devoted
to the interests of his race only, and at enmity with the gods of
rival peoples. As between nation and nation, the only principle
of ethics that ever occurred to him was that might makes right.
Civilized man for a long time advanced but slowly upon this view
of international morality. No Egyptian or Babylonian or
Hebrew or Greek or Roman ever hesitated to attack a weaker
nation on the ground that it would be wrong to do so. And
few indeed are the instances in which even a modern nation has

judged an international question on any other basis than that
of self-interest. It was not till towards the close of the ipth
century that an International Peace Conference gave tangible
witness that the idea of fellowship of nations was finding recogni-
tion; and in the same recent period history has recorded the first
instance of a powerful nation vanquishing a weaker one without
attempting to exact at least an " indemnifying " tribute.

But the citizen of the future, if the auguries of the present
prove true, will be able to apply principles of right and wrong
without reference to national boundaries. He will understand
that the interests of the entire human family are, in the last
analysis, common interests. The census through which he
attempts to estimate " the greatest good of the greatest number "
must include, not his own nation merely, but the remotest
member of the human race. On this universal basis must be
founded that absolute standard of ethics which will determine
the relations of cosmopolite man with his fellows. When this
ideal is attained, mankind will again represent a single family,
as it did in the day when our primeval ancestors first entered
on the pathway of progress; but it will be a family whose habitat
has been extended from the narrow glade of some tropical forest
to the utmost habitable confines of the globe. Each member of
this family will be permitted to enjoy the greatest amount of
liberty consistent with the like liberty of every other member;
but the interests of the few will everywhere be recognized as
subservient to the interests of the many, and such recognition
of mutual interests will establish the practical criterion for the
interpretation of international affairs.

But such an extension of the altruistic principle by no means
presupposes the elimination of egoistic impulses — of individual-
ism. On the contrary, we must suppose that man at
the highest stages of culture will be, even as was the
savage, a seeker after the greatest attainable degree of
comfort for the least necessary expenditure of energy.
The pursuit of this ideal has been from first to last the ultimate
impelling force in nature urging man forward. The only change
has been a change hi the interpretation of the ideal, an altered
estimate as to what manner of things are most worth the purchase-
price of toil and self-denial. That the things most worth the
having cannot, generally speaking, be secured without such toil
and self-denial, is a lesson that began to be inculcated while man
was a savage, and that has never ceased to be reiterated genera-
tion after generation. It is the final test of progressive civiliza-
tion that a given effort shall produce a larger and larger modicum
of average individual comfort. That is why the great inventions
that have increased man's efficiency as a worker have been the
necessary prerequisites to racial progress. Stated otherwise, that
is why the industrial factor is everywhere the most powerful
factor in civilization; and why the economic interpretation is
the most searching interpretation of history at its every stage.
It is the basal fact that progress implies increased average
working efficiency — a growing ratio between average effort and
average achievement — that gives sure warrant for such a prog-
nostication as has just been attempted concerning the future
industrial unification of our race. The efforts of civilized man
provide him, on the average, with a marvellous range of comforts,
as contrasted with those that rewarded the most strenuous
efforts of savage or barbarian, to whom present-day necessaries
would have been undreamed-of luxuries. But the ideal ratio
between effort and result has by no means been achieved;
nor will it have been until the inventive brain of man has pro-
vided a civilization in which a far higher percentage of citizens
will find the life-vocations to which they are best adapted by
nature, and in which, therefore, the efforts of the average worker
may be directed with such vigour, enthusiasm and interest as can
alone make for true efficiency; a civilization adjusted to such
an economic balance that the average man may live in reasonable
comfort without heart-breaking strain, and yet accumulate a
sufficient surplus to ensure ease and serenity for his declining
days. Such, seemingly, should be the normal goal of progressive
civilization. Doubtless mankind in advancing towards that
goal will institute many changes that could by no possibility be

CIVIL LAW— CIVIL LIST

foretold; but (to summarize the views just presented) it seems a
safe augury from present-day conditions and tendencies that the
important lines of progress will include (i) the organic better-
ment of the race through wise application of the laws of heredity;
(2) the lessening of international jealousies and the consequent
minimizing of the drain upon communal resources that attends
a military regime; and (3) an ever-increasing movement towards
the industrial and economic unification of the world. (H.S.Wi.)

AUTHORITIES. — A list of works dealing with the savage and
barbarous periods of human development will be found appended
to the article ANTHROPOLOGY. Special reference may here be made
to E. B. Tylor's Early History of Mankind (1865), Primitive Culture
(1871) and Anthropology (1881); Lord Avebury's Prehistoric Times
(new edition, 1900) and Origin of Civilization (new edition, 1902) ;
A. H. Keane's Man Past and Present (1899) ; and Lewis H. Morgan's
Ancient Society (1877). The earliest attempt at writing a history
of civilization which has any value for the 20th-century reader
was F. Guizot's in 1828-1830, a handy English translation by
William Hazlitt being included in Bphn's Standard Library under
the title of The History of Civilization. The earlier lectures, de-
livered at the Old Sorbonne, deal with the general progress ol
European civilization, whilst the greater part of the work is an
account of the growth of civilization in France. Guizot's attitude
is somewhat antiquated, but this book still has usefulness as a store-
house of facts. T. H. Buckle's famous work, The History of Civiliza-
tion in England (1857-1861), though only a gigantic unfinished
introduction to the author's proposed enterprise, holds an important
place in historical literature on account of the new method which
it introduced, and has given birth to a considerable number of
valuable books on similar lines, such as Lecky's History of European
Morals (1869) and Rise and Influence of Rationalism in Europe
(1865). J. W. Draper's History of the Intellectual Development of
Europe (1861) undertook, from the American stand-point, " the
labour of arranging the evidence offered by the intellectual history
of Europe in accordance with physiological principles, so as to
illustrate the orderly progress of civilization." Its objective treat-
ment and wealth of learning still give it great value to the student.
Since the third quarter of the igth century it may be said that all
serious historical work has been more or less a history of civilization
as displayed in all countries and ages, and a bibliography of the
works bearing on the subject would be coextensive with the cata-
logue of a complete historical library. Special mention, however,
may be made of such important and suggestive works as C. H.
Pearson's National Life and Character (1893); Benjamin Kidd's
Social Evolution (1894) and Principles of Western Civilization
(1902); Edward Eggleston's Transit of Civilization (1901); C.
Seignobos's Histoire de la. civilisation (1887); C. Faulmann's Illus-
trirte Culturgeschichte (1881); G. Ducoudray's Histoire de la
civilisation (1886); J. von Hellwald's Kulturgeschichte (1896);
I Lippert's Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit (1886); O. Henne-am-
Rhyn's Die Kultur der Vergangenheit, Gegentvart und'Zukunft (1890) ;
G. Kurth's Origines de la civilisation moderns (1886), &c. The vast
collection of modern works on sociology, from Herbert Spencer
onwards, should also be consulted; see bibliography attached to
the article SOCIOLOGY. The historical method on which practically
all the articles of the present edition of the Ency. Brit, are planned,
makes the whole work itself in essentials the most comprehensive
history of civilization in existence.

CIVIL LAW, a phrase which, with its Latin equivalent jus
civile, has been used in a great variety of meanings. Jus civile
was sometimes used to distinguish that portion of the Roman
law which was the proper or ancient law of the city or state of
Rome from tiiejus gentium, or the law common to all the nations
comprising the Roman world, which was incorporated with
the former through the agency of the praetorian edicts. This
historical distinction remained as a permanent principle of division
in the body of the Roman law. One of the first propositions of
the Institutes of Justinian is the following: — " Jus autem civile
vel gentium ita dividitur. Omnes populi qui legibus et moribus
reguntur partim suo proprio, partim communi omnium hominum
jure utuntur; nam quod quisque populus ipsi sibi jus constituit,
id ipsius civitatis proprium est, vocaturque jus civile quasi jus
proprium ipsius civitatis. Quod vero naturalis ratio inter omnes
homines constituit, id apud omnes peraeque custoditur, voca-
turque jus gentium quasi quo jure omnes gentes utuntur." The
jus gentium of this passage is elsewhere identified with ./MS naturale,
so that the distinction comes to be one between civil law and
natural or divine law. The municipal or private law of a state
is sometimes described as civil law in distinction to public or
international law. Again, the municipal law of a state may be
divided into civil law and criminal law. The phrase, however,

is applied par excellence to the system of law created by the
genius of the Roman people, and handed down by them to the
nations of the modern world (see ROMAN LAW). The civil law
in this sense would be distinguished from the local or national
law of modern states. The civil law in this sense is further to
be distinguished from that adaptation of its principles to ecclesi-
astical purposes which is known as the canon law (q.v.).

CIVIL LIST, the English term for the account in which are
contained all the expenses immediately applicable to the sup-
port of the British sovereign's household and the honour and
dignity of the crown. An annual sum is settled by the British
parliament at the beginning of the reign on the sovereign, and is
charged on the consolidated fund. But it is only from the reign
of William IV. that the sum thus voted has been restricted solely
to the personal expenses of the crown. Before his accession
many charges properly belonging to the ordinary expenses of
government had been placed on the civil list. The history
of the civil list dates from the reign of William and HM
Mary. Before the Revolution no distinction had
been made between the expenses of government in time of
peace and the expenses relating to the personal dignity and
support of the sovereign. The ordinary revenues derived from
the hereditary revenues of the crown, and from certain taxes
voted for life to the king at the beginning of each reign, were
supposed to provide for the support of the sovereign's dignity
and the civil government, as well as for the public defence in
time of peace. Any saving made by the king in the expenditure
touching the government of the country or its defence would go to
swell his privy purse. But with the Revolution a step forward
was made towards the establishment of the principle that the
expenses relating to the support of the crown should be separated
from the ordinary expenses of the state. The evils of the old
system under which no appropriation was made of the ordinary
revenue granted to the crown for life had been made manifest
in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.; it was their control
of these large revenues that made them so independent of
parliament. Moreover, while the civil government and the de-
fences suffered, the king could use these revenues as he liked. The
parliament of William and Mary fixed the revenue of the crown
in time of peace at £1,200,000 per annum; of this sum about
£700,000 was appropriated towards the " civil list." But from
this the sovereign was to defray the expenses of the civil service
and the payment of pensions, as well as the cost of the support
of the royal household and his own personal expenses. It was
from this that the term " civil list " arose, to distinguish it from
the statement of military and naval charges. The revenue voted
to meet the civil list consisted of the hereditary revenues of the
crown and a part of the excise duties. Certain changes and addi-
tions were made in the sources of revenue thus appropriated
between the reign of William and Mary and the accession of
George III., when a different system was adopted. Generally
speaking, however, the sources of revenue remained as settled
at the Revolution.

Anne had the same civil list, estimated to produce an annual
income of £700,000. During her reign a debt of £1,200,000 was
incurred. This debt was paid by parliament and ^aae,
charged on the civil list itself. George I. enjoyed the George I.
same revenue by parliamentary grant, in addition to and
an annual sum of £120,000 on the aggregate fund. Oeorsel1-
A debt of £1,000,000 was incurred, and discharged by parliament
in the same manner as Anne's debt had been. To George II.
a civil list of £800,000 as a minimum was granted, parliament
undertaking to make up any deficiency if the sources of income
appropriated to its service fell short of that sum. Thus in 1 746
a debt of £456,000 was paid by parliament on the civil list.
On the accession of George III. a change was made in the system
of the civil list. Hitherto the sources of revenue appropriated
to the service of the civil list had been settled on
the crown. If these revenues exceeded the sum they
were computed to produce annually, the surplus went to the king.
George III., however, surrendered the life-interest in the heredi-
tary revenues and the excise duties hitherto voted to defray

CIVIL LIST

411

the civil list expenditure, and any claim to a surplus for a fixed
amount. The king still retained other large sources of revenue
which were not included in the civil list, and were free from the
control of parliament. The revenues from which the civil list
had been defrayed were henceforward to be carried into, and
made part of, the aggregate fund. In their place a fixed civil
list was granted — at first of £723,000 per annum, to be increased
to £800,000 on the falling in of certain annuities to members
of the royal family. From this £800,000 the king's household
and the honour and dignity of the crown were to be supported,
as well as the civil service offices, pensions and other charges
still laid on the list.

During the reign of George III. the civil list played an import-
ant part in the history of the struggle on the part of the king
to establish the royal ascendancy. From the revenue appropri-
ated to its service came a large portion of the money employed
by the king in creating places and pensions for his supporters
in parliament, and, under the colour of the royal bounty, bribery
was practised on a large scale. No limit was set to the amount
applicable to the pensions charged on the civil list, so long as the
sum granted could meet the demand ; and there was no principle
on which the grant was regulated. Secret pensions at the king's
pleasure were paid out of it, and in every way the independence
of parliament was menaced; and though the more legitimate
expenses of the royal household were diminished by the king's
penurious style of living, and though many charges not directly
connected with the king's personal expenditure were removed,
the amount was constantly exceeded, and applications were
made from time to time to parliament to pay off debts incurred;
and thus opportunity was given for criticism. In 1769 a debt
of £513,511 was paid off in arrears; and in spite of the demand
for accounts and for an inquiry into the cause of the debt, the
ministry succeeded in securing this vote without
ness of " Srant;ing such information. All attempts to investigate
civiiiist. the civil list were successfully resisted, though Lord
Chatham went so' far as to declare himself convinced
that the funds were expended in corrupting members of parlia-
ment. Again, in 1777, an application was made to parliament
to pay off £618,340 of debts; and in view of the growing dis-
content Lord North no longer dared to withhold accounts. Yet,
in spite of strong opposition and free criticism, not only was the
amount voted, but also a further £100,000 per annum, thus
raising the civil list to an annual sum of £900,000.

In 1779, at a time when the expenditure of the country and
the national debt had been enormously increased by the Ameri-
can War, the general dissatisfaction found voice in parliament,
and the abuses of the civil list were specially singled out for
attack. Many petitions were presented to the House of Commons
praying for its reduction, and a motion was made in the House
of Lords in the same sense, though it was rejected. In 1780
Burke brought forward his scheme of economic reform, but his
name was already associated with the growing desire to remedy
the evils of the civil list by the publication in 1 769 of his pamphlet
on " The Causes of the Present Discontent." In this scheme
Burke freely animadverts on the profusion and abuse of the
civil list, criticizing the useless and obsolete offices and the
offices performed by deputy. In every department he discovers
jobbery, waste and peculation. His proposal was that the many
offices should be reduced and consolidated, that the pension
list should be brought down to a fixed sum of £60,000 per annum,
and that pensions should be conferred only to reward merit or
fulfil real public charity. All pensions were to be paid at the
exchequer. He proposed also that the civil list should be
divided into classes, an arrangement which later was carried
into effect. In 1 780 Burke succeeded in bringing in his Establish-
ment Bill; but though at first it met with considerable support,
and was even read a second time, Lord North's government
defeated it in committee. The next year the bill was again
introduced into the House of Commons, and Pitt made his
first speech in its favour. The bill was, however, lost on the
second reading.

In 1782 the Rockingham ministry, pledged to economic

reform, came into power; and the Civil List Act 1782 was
introduced and carried with the express object of limiting the
patronage and influence of ministers, or, in other
words, the ascendancy of the crown over parliament,
Not only did the act effect the abolition of a
number of useless offices, but it also imposed restraints on the
issue of secret service money, and made provision for a more
effectual supervision of the royal expenditure. As to the pension
list, the annual amount was to be limited to £95,000; no pension
to any one person was to exceed £i 200, and all pensions were to
be paid at the exchequer, thus putting a stop to the secret
pensions payable during pleasure. Moreover, pensions were
only to be bestowed in the way of royal bounty for persons in
distress or as a reward for merit. Another very important
change was made by this act: the civil list was divided into
classes, and a fixed amount was to be appropriated to each
class. The following were the classes: —

1. Pensions and allowances of the royal family.

2. Payment of salaries of lord chancellor, speaker and judges.

3. Salaries of ministers to foreign courts resident at the same.

4. Approved bills of tradesmen, artificers and labourers for any

article supplied and work done for His Majesty's service.

5. Menial servants of the household.

6. Pension list.

7. Salaries of all other places payable out of the civil list revenues.

8. Salaries and pensions of treasurer or commissioners of the

treasury and of the chancellor of the exchequer.

Yet debt was still the condition of the civil list down to the
end of the reign, in spite of the reforms established by the
Rockingham ministry, and notwithstanding the removal from
the list of many charges unconnected with the king's personal
expenses. The debts discharged by parliament between 1782,
the date of the passing of the Civil List Act, and the end of
George III.'s reign, amounted to £2,300,000. In all, during
his reign £3,398,061 of debt owing by the civil list was paid off.

With the regency the civil list was increased by £70,000 per
annum, and a special grant of £100,000 was settled on the prince
regent. In 1816 the annual amount was settled at £1,083,727,
including the establishment of the king, now insane; though
the civil list was relieved from some annuities payable to the
royal family. Nevertheless, the fund still continued charged
with such civil expenses as the salaries of judges, ambassadors
and officers of state, and with pensions granted for public
services. Other reforms were made as regards the definition
of the several classes of expenditure, while the expenses of the
royal household were henceforth to be audited by a treasury
official — the auditor of the civil list. On the accession of George
IV. the civil list, freed from the expenses of the late king, was
settled at £845,727. On William IV. coming to the throne a
sum of £510,000 per annum was fixed for the service of the civil
list. The king at the same time surrendered all the sources of
revenue enjoyed by his predecessors, apart from the civil list,
represented by the hereditary revenues of Scotland — the Irish
civil list, the droits of the crown and admiralty, the 45% duties,
the West India duties, and other casual revenues hitherto vested
in the crown, and independent of parliament. The revenues
of the duchy of Lancaster were still retained by the crown.
In return for this surrender and the diminished sum voted,
the civil list was relieved from all the charges relating rather
to the civil government than to the support of the dignity of the
crown and the royal household. The future expenditure was
divided into five classes, and a fixed annual sum was appropriated
to each class. The pension list was reduced to £75,000. The
king resisted an attempt on the part of the select committee to
reduce the salaries of the officers of state on the grounds that
this touched his prerogative, and the ministry of Earl Grey
yielded to his remonstrance.

The civil list of Queen Victoria was settled on the same prin-
ciples as that of William IV. A considerable reduc-
tion was made in the aggregate annual sum voted, vtaorfa's
from £510,000 to £385,000, and the pension list was civiiiist.
separated from the ordinary civil list. The civil list
proper was divided into the following five classes, with a fixed
sum appropriated to each: —

412

CIVIL SERVICE

Privy purse £60,000

Salaries of household .... 131,260

Expenses of household .... 172,500

Royal bounty, &c 13,200

Unappropriated . . . 8,040

In addition the queen might, on the advice of her ministers
grant pensions up to £1200 per annum, in accordance with i
resolution of the House of Commons of February i8th, 1834
" to such persons as have just claims on the royal beneficenci
or who, by their personal services to the crown, by the perform
ance of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in
science and attainments in literature and art, have merited the
gracious consideration of the sovereign and the gratitude o
their country." The service of these pensions increased the
annual sum devoted to support the dignity of the crown and the
expenses of the household to about £409,000. The list of pensions
must be laid before parliament within thirty days of 2oth June
Thus the civil list was reduced in amount, and relieved from the
very charges which gave it its name as distinct from the state-
ment of military and naval charges. It now really only dealt
with the support of the dignity and honour of the crown anc
the royal household. The arrangement was most successful
and during the last three reigns there was no application to
parliament for the discharge of debts incurred on the civil list.

The death of Queen Victoria rendered it necessary that
a renewed provision should be made for the civil list; and King
Civil List Edwafd VII., following former precedents, placed
Act 1901. unreservedly at the disposal of parliament his heredi-
tary revenues. A select committee of the House of
Commons was appointed to consider the provisions of the civil
list for the crown, and to report also on the question of grants
for the honourable support and maintenance of Her Majesty the
Queen and the members of the royal family. The committee in
their conclusions were guided to a considerable extent by the
actual civil list expenditure during the last ten years of the last
reign, and made certain recommendations which, without undue
interference with the sovereign's personal arrangements, tended
towards increased efficiency and economy in the support of the
sovereign's household and the honour and dignity of the crown.
On their report was based the Civil List Act 1901, which estab-
lished the new civil list. The system that the hereditary revenues
should as before be paid into the exchequer and be part of the
consolidated fund was maintained. The amount payable for
the civil list was increased from £385,000 to £470,000. In the
application of this sum the number of classes of expenditure
to which separate amounts were to be appropriated was increased
from five to six. The following was the new arrangement of
classes: — ist class, Their Majesties' privy purse, £110,000;
2nd class, salaries of His' Majesty's household and retired allow-
ances, £125,800; 3rd class, expenses of His Majesty's household,
£193,000; 4th class, works (the interior repair and decoration
of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle), £20,000; sth class,
royal bounty, alms and special services, £13,200; 6th class,
unappropriated, £8000. The system relating to civil list pensions,
established by the Civil List Act 1837, continued to apply, but
the pensions were not regarded as chargeable on the sum paid
for the civil list. The committee also advised that the mastership
of the Buckhounds should not be continued; and the king, on
the advice of his ministers, agreed to accept their recommenda-
tion. The maintenance of the royal hunt thus ceased to be a
charge on the civil list. The annuities of £20,000 to the prince
of Wales, of £10,000 to the princess of Wales, and of £18,000 to
His Majesty's three daughters, were not included in the civil
list, though they were conferred by the same act. Other grants
made by special acts of parliament to members of the royal
family were also excluded from it; these were £6000 to the
princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, £6000 to the princess
Louise (duchess of Argyll), £25,000 to the duke of Connaught,
£6000 to the duchess of Albany, £6000 to the princess Beatrice
(Henry of Battenberg), and £3000 to the duchess of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz.

It may be interesting to compare with the British civil list the
corresponding figures in other countries. These are as follows,

the figures being those, for convenience, of 1905. Spain, £280,000
exclusive of allowances to members of the royal family ; Portugal'
£97.333. >n addition to £1333 to the queen-consort—total c,
grant to the royal family, £116,700; Italy, £602,000, '
from which was deducted £16,000 for the children of the
deceased Prince Amedeo, duke of Aosta, £16,000 to Prince *

Tommaso, duke of Genoa, and £40,000 to Queen Margherita;
Belgium, £140,000; Netherlands, £50,000, with, in addition,
£4000 for the maintenance of the royal palaces ; Germany, £770,500
(Krondotations Rente), the sovereign also possessing large private
property (Kronfideikommiss and SchatullguUr), the revenue from
which contributed to the expenditure of the court and the members
of the royal family; Denmark, £55,500, in addition to £6600 to
the heir-apparent; Norway, £38,888; Sweden, £72,700; Greece,
£52,000, which included £4000 each from Great Britain, France
and Russia; Austria-Hungary, £941,666, made up of £387,500 as
emperor of Austria out of the revenues of Austria, and £554,166 as
king of Hungary out of the revenues of Hungary; Japan, £300,000;
Rumania, £47,000, in addition to revenues from certain crown lands;
Servia, £48,000; Bulgaria, £40,000, besides £30,000 for maintenance
of palaces, &c. ; Montenegro, £8300; Russia had no civil list, the
sovereign having all the revenue from the crown domains (actual
amount unknown, but supposed to amount to over £4,000,000);
the president of the French Republic had a salary of £24,000 a
year, with a further £24,000 for expenses; and the president of the
United States had a salary of $50,000 (from 1909, $75,000).

CIVIL SERVICE, the generic name given to the aggregate of
all the public servants, or paid civil administrators and clerks,
of a state. It is the machinery by which the executive, through
the various administrations, carries on the central government
of the country.

British Empire. — The appointments to the civil service until
the year 1855 were made by nomination, with an examination
not sufficient to form an intellectual or even a physical test.
It was only after much consideration and almost years of dis-
cussion that the nomination system was abandoned. Various
commissions reported on the civil service, and orders in council
were issued. Finally in 1855 'a qualifying examination of a
stringent character was instituted, and in 1870 the principle
of open competition was adopted as a general rule. On the
report of the Playfair Commission (1876), an order in council
was issued dividing the civil service into an upper and lower
division. The order in council directed that a lower division
should be constituted, and men and boy clerks holding per-
manent positions replaced the temporary assistants and writers.
The " temporary " assistant was not found to be advantageous
to the service. In December 1886 a new class of assistant
clerks was formed to replace the men copyists. In 1887 the
Ridley Commission reported on the civil service estabb'shment.
In 1890 two orders in council were issued based on the reports
of the Ridley Commission, which sat from 1886 to 1890. The
first order constituted what is now known as the second division
of the civil service. The second order in council concerned the
officers of the ist class, and provision was made for the possible
promotion of the second division clerks to the first division after
eight years' service.

The whole system is under the administration of the civil
service commissioners, and power is given to them, with the
approval of the treasury, to prescribe the subjects of examina-
tion, limits of age, &c. The age is fixed for compulsory retire-
ment at sixty-five. In exceptional cases a prolongation of five
years is within the powers of the civil service commissioners.
The examination for ist class clerkships is held concurrently
with that of the civil service of India and Eastern cadetships
n the colonial service. Candidates can compete for all three
or for two. In addition to the intellectual test the candidate
must fulfil the conditions of age (22 to 24), must present re-
commendations as to character, and pass a medical examination.
This examination approximates closely to the university type
of education. Indeed, there is little chance of success except
or candidates who have had a successful university career,
md frequently, in addition, special preparation by a private
eacher. The subjects include the language and literature of
Cngland, France, Germany, Italy, ancient Greece and Rome,
Sanskrit and Arabic, mathematics (pure and applied), natural
cience (chemistry, physics, zoology, &c.), history (English,
""•reek, Roman and general modern), political economy and

CIVIL SERVICE

economic history, mental and moral philosophy, Roman and
English law and political science. The candidate is obliged to
reach a certain standard of knowledge in each subject before
any marks at all are allowed him. This rule was made to prevent
success by mere cramming, and to ensure competent knowledge
on the basis of real study.

The maximum scale of the salaries of clerks of Class I. is as
follows: — 3rd class, £200 a year, increasing by £20 a year to
£500; and class, £600, increasing by £25 a year to £800; ist
class, £850, increasing by £50 a year to £1000. Their pensions
are fixed by the Superannuation Act 1859, 22 Viet. c. 26: —

"To any person who shall have served ten years and upwards,
and under eleven years, an annual allowance of ten-sixtieths of
the annual salary and emoluments of his office:

" For eleven years and under twelve years, an annual allowance
of eleven-sixtieths of such salary and emoluments:

" And in like manner a further addition to the annual allow-
ance of one-sixtieth in respect of each additional year of such service,
until the completion of a period of service of forty years, when the
annual allowance of forty-sixtieths may be granted; and no ad-
ditions shall be made in respect of any service beyond forty years."

The " ordinary annual holidays allowed to officers " (ist class)
" shall not exceed thirty-six week-days during each of their first
ten years of service and forty-eight week-days thereafter." Order
in Council, isth August 1890.

" Within that maximum heads of departments have now, as
they have hitherto had, an absolute discretion in fixing the annual
leave."

Sick leave can be granted on full salary for not more than six
months, on half-salary for another six months.

The scale of salary for 2nd division clerks begins at £70 a year,
increasing by £5 to £100; then £100 a year, increasing by £7, IDS.
to £190; and then £190 a year, increasing by £10 to £250. The
highest is £300 to £500. Advancement in the 2nd division to the
higher ranks depends on merit, not seniority. The ordinary
annual holiday of the 2nd division clerks is 14 working days for
the first five years, and 21 working days afterwards. They can
be allowed sick leave for six months on full pay and six months
on half-pay. The subjects of their examination are: (i) hand-
writing and orthography, including copying MS.; (2) arithmetic;

(3) English composition; (4) precis, including indexing and digest
of returns; (5) book-keeping and shorthand writing; (6) geo-
graphy and English history; (7) Latin; (8) French; (9) Ger-
man; (10) elementary mathematics; (n) inorganic chemistry
with elements of physics. Not more than four of the subjects

(4) to (n) can be taken. The candidate must be between the
ages of 17 and 20. A certain number of the places in the 2nd
division were reserved for the candidates from the boy clerks
appointed under the old system. The competition is severe, only
about one out of every ten candidates being successful. Candi-
dates are allowed a choice of departments subject to the exigencies
of the services.

There is also a class of boy copyists who are almost entirely
employed in London, a few in Dublin and Edinburgh, and, very
seldom, in some provincial towns. The subjects of their examination
are: Obligatory- — handwriting and orthography, arithmetic and
English composition. Optional — (any two of the following): (l)
copying MS.; (2) geography; (3) English history; (4) translation
from one of the following languages — Latin, French or German;

(5) Euclid, bk. i. and ii., and algebra, up to and including simple
equations; (6) rudiments of chemistry and physics. Candidates
must be between the ages of 15 and 18. They have no claims to
superannuation or compensation allowance. Boy copyists are not
retained after the age of 20.

Candidates for the civil service of India take the same ex-
amination as for ist class clerkships. Candidates successful in
the examination must subsequently spend one year in England.
They receive for that year £150 if they elect to live at one of the
universities or colleges approved by the secretary of state for
Ind:a. They are submitted to a final examination in the following
subjects — Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure,
the principal vernacular language of the province to which they
are assigned, the Indian Evidence Act (these three subjects are
compulsory), either Hindu and Mahommedan Law, or Sanskrit,
Arabic or Persian, Burmese (for Burma only). A candidate may
not take J-, rabic or Sanskrit both in the first examination and in
the final. They must also pass a thorough examination in riding.

On reaching India their salary begins at 400 rupees a month.
They may take, as leave, one-fourth of the time on active
service in periods strictly limited by regulation. After 25 years'
service (of which 2 1 must be active service) they can retire on a
pension of £1000 a year. The unit of administration is the district.
At the head of the district is an executive officer called either
collector-magistrate or deputy-commissioner. In most provinces
he is responsible to the commissioner, who corresponds directly
with the provincial government. The Indian civilian after four
years' probation in both branches of the service is called upon
to elect whether he will enter the revenue or judicial department,
and this choice as a rule is held to be final for his future work.

Candidates for the Indian Forest Service have to pass a com-
petitive examination, one of the compulsory subjects being German
or French. They have also to pass a severe medical examination,
especially in their powers of vision and hearing. They must be
between the ages of 18 and 22. Successful candidates are required
to pass a three years' course, with a final examination, seven
terms of the course at an approved school of forestry, the rest of
the time receiving practical instruction in continental European
forests. On reaching India they start as assistant conservators at
380 rupees a month. The highest salary, that of inspector-general
of forests, in the Indian Forest Service is 2650 rupees a month.

The Indian Police Service is entered by a competitive examination
of very much the same kind as for the forest service, except that
special subjects such as German and botany are not included. The
candidates are jimited in age to 19 and 21. They must pass a
riding examination. A free passage out is given them. They are
allotted as probationers, their wishes being consulted as far as
possible as to their province. A probationer receives 300 rupees
a month. A district superintendent can rise to 1200 rupees a
month, while there are a few posts with a salary of 3000 rupees a
month in the police service. The leave and pension in both these
departments follow the general rules for Indian services.

The civil service also includes student interpreterships for
China, Japan and Siam, and for the Ottoman dominions, Persia,
Greece and Morocco. Both these classes of student interpreters
are selected by open competition. Their object is to supply the
consular service in the above-named countries with persons
having a thorough knowledge of the language of the country
in which they serve.

In the first case, China, Japan, &c., they learn their language in
the country itself, receiving £200 as probationers. Then they be-
come assistants in a consulate. The highest post is that of consul-
general. In the case of student interpreters for the Ottoman do-
minions, Persia, Greece and Morocco, the successful candidates learn
their languages at Oxford. Turkish is taught gratuitously, but
they pay the usual fees for other languages. At Oxford they receive
£200 a year for two years. On leaving Oxford they become assistants
under the embassy at Constantinople, the legations at Teheran,
Athens or Morocco, or at one of H.B.M. consulates. As assistants
they receive £300 a year. The consuls, the highest post to which
they can reach, receive in the Levant from £500 to £1600 a year.
The civil services of Ceylon, Hong-Kong, the Straits Settlements,
and the Malay Peninsula are supplied by the Eastern cadetships.
The limits of age for the examination are 1 8 and 24. The cadets
are required to learn the native language of the colony or
dependency to which they are assigned. In the case of the Straits
Settlements and Malay cadets they may have to learn Chinese or
Tamil, as well as the native language. The salaries are: passed
cadets, 3500 rupees per annum, gradually increasing until first-class
officers receive from 12,000 to 18,000 rupees per annum. They are
allowed three months' vacation on full pay in two years, and leave
of absence on half-pay after six years service, or before that if
urgently needed. They can retire for ill-health after ten years with
fifteen-sixtieths of their annual salary. Otherwise they can add
one-sixtieth of their annual salary to their pension for every
additional year's service up to thirty-five years' service.

In spite of the general rule of open competition, there are still
a few departments where the system of nomination obtains,
accompanied by a severe test of knowledge, either active or
implied. Such are the foreign office, British Museum, and board
of education.

The employment of women in the civil service has been
principally developed in the post office. Women are employed
in the post office as female clerks, counter clerks, telegraphists,
returners, sorters and post-mistresses all over the United King-
dom. The board of agriculture, the customs and the India office
employ women. The department of agriculture, the board of
education generally, the local government board, all to a certain

CIVIL SERVICE

extent employ women, whilst in the home office there are an
increasing number of women inspectors of workshops and
factories.

In 1881 the postmaster-general took a decided step in favour of
female employment, and with the consent of the treasury instituted
female clerkships. Female clerks dp not come in contact with the
public. Their duties are purely clerical, and entirely in the account-
ant-general's department at the sayings bank. Their leave is one
month per annum; their pension is on the ordinary civil service
scale. The examination is competitive; the subjects are hand-
writing and spelling, arithmetic, English composition, geography,
English history, French or German. Candidates must be between
the ages of 18 and 20. Whether unmarried or widows they must
resign on marriage. The class of girl clerks take the same subjects
in a competitive examination. They must be between the ages of
16 and 18; they serve only in the Savings Bank department. If
competent they can pass on later to female clerkships. The salaries
of the female clerkships range from £200 to £500 in the higher
grade, £55 to £190 in the 2nd class, whilst girl clerks are paid from
£35 to £40, with the chance of advancement to higher posts.

United States. — Civil service reform, like other great adminis-
trative reforms, began in America in the latter half of the igth
century. Personal and partisan government, with all the en-
tailed evils of the patronage system, culminated in Great Britain
during the reign of George III., and was one of the efficient
causes of the American revolution. Trevelyan characterizes the
use of patronage to influence legislation, and the giving of colonial
positions as sinecures to the privileged classes and personal
favourites of the administration, by saying, " It was a system
which, as its one achievement of the first order, brought about
the American War, and made England sick, once and for all,
of the very name of personal government." It was natural that
the founders of the new government in America, after breaking
away from the mother-country, should strive to avoid the evils
which had in a measure brought about the revolution. Their
intention that the administrative officers of the government
should hold office during good behaviour is manifest, and was
given thorough and practical effect by every administration
during the first forty years of the life of the government. The
constitution fixed no term of office in the executive branch of
the government except those of president and vice-president;
and Madison, the expounder of the constitution, held that the
wanton removal of a meritorious officer was an impeachable
offence. Not until nine years after the passage of the Four Years'
Tenure of Office Act in 1820 was there any material departure
from this traditional policy of the government. This act
(suggested by an appointing officer who wished to use the
power it gave in order to secure his own nomination for the
presidency, and passed without debate and apparently without
any adequate conception of its full effect) opened the doors of
the service to all the evils of the " spoils system." The foremost
statesmen of the time were not slow to perceive the baleful
possibilities of this legislation, Jefferson,1 Webster, Clay, Calhoun,
Benton and many others being recorded as condemning and
deploring it in the strongest terms. The transition to the
" spoils system " was not, however, immediate, and for the next
nine years the practice of reappointing all meritorious officers
was practically universal; but in 1829 this practice ceased,
and the act of 1820 lent the sanction of law to the system of
proscriptions which followed, which was a practical
"spoils application of the theory that " to the victor belong
system." the spoils of the enemy." In 1836 the provisions of
this law, which had at first been confined mainly to
officers connected with the collection of revenue, were extended
to include also all postmasters receiving a compensation of $1000
per annum or more. It rapidly became the practice to regard all
these four years' tenure offices as agencies not so much for the
transaction of the public business as for the advancement of
political ends. The revenue service from being used for political
purposes merely came to be used for corrupt purposes as well,
with the result that in one administration frauds were practised
upon the government to the extent of $7 5 ,000,000. The corrupt-
1 See letter to Monroe, November 29th, 1820, Jefferson's Writings,
vii. 190. A quotation from this letter is given at p. 454 of the
Fifteenth Report of tlte U.S. Civil Service Commission.

"'

ing influences permeated the whole body politic. Political re-
tainers were selected for appointment not on account of their
ability to do certain work but because they were followers of
certain politicians; these " public servants " acknowledged
no obligation except to those politicians, and their public duties,
if not entirely disregarded, were negligently and inefficiently
performed. Thus grew a saturnalia of spoils and corruption
which culminated in the assassination of a president.

Acute conditions, not theories, give rise to reforms. In
the congressional election of November 1882, following the
assassination of President Garfield as an incident in the opera-
tion of the spoils system, the voice of the people commanding
reform was unmistakable. Congress assembled in December 1882,
and during the same month a bill looking to the improvement
of the civil service, which had been pending in the Senate for
nearly two years, was finally taken up and considered by that
body. In the debate upon this bill its advocates declared that
it would " vastly improve the whole civil service of the country,"
which they characterized as being at that time " inefficient,
expensive and extravagant, and in many instances corrupt." J
This bill passed the Senate on the 27th of December

1882, and the House on the 4th of January 1883, and
was signed by the president on the i6th of January

1883, coming into full operation on the i6th of July 1883.
It is now the national civil service law. The fundamental prin-
ciples of this law are: — (i) selection by competitive examina-
tion for all appointments to the " classified service," with a
period of probationary service before absolute appointment;
(2) apportionment among the states and territories, according
to population, of all appointments in the departmental service
at Washington; (3) freedom of all the employees of the govern-
ment from any necessity to contribute to political campaign
funds or to render political services. For putting these principles
into effect the Civil Service Commission was created, and penalties
were imposed for the solicitation or collection from government
employees of contributions for political purposes, and for the
use of official positions in coercing political action. The com-
mission, in addition to its regular duties of aiding in the prepara-
tion of civil service rules, of regulating and holding examinations,
and certifying the results thereof for use in making appointments,
and of keeping records of all changes in the service, was given
authority to investigate and report upon any violations of the
act or rules.' The " classified " service to which the act applies
has grown, by the action of successive presidents in progressively
including various branches of tne service within it, from 13,924
positions in 1883 to some 80,000 (in round numbers) in 1900,
constituting about 40 % of the entire civil service of the govern-
ment and including practically all positions above the grade of
mere labourer or workman to which appointment is not made
directly by the president with the consent of the Senate.3 A
very large class to which the act is expressly applicable, and
which has been partly brought within its provisions by executive
action, is that of fourth-class postmasters, of whom there are
between 70,000 and 80,000 (about 15,000 classified in 1909).

In order to provide registers of eligibles for the various grades
of positions in the classified service, the United States Civil
Service Commission holds annually throughout the country
about 300 different kinds of examinations. In the work of
preparing these examinations and of marking the papers of
competitors in them the commission is authorized by law
to avail itself, in addition to its own corps of trained men, of
the services of the scientific and other experts in the various
executive departments. In the work of holding the examina-
tions it is aided by about 1300 local boards of examiners, which
are its local representatives throughout the country and are

2 See Senate Report No. 576, 47th Congress, 1st session ; also U.S.
Civil Service Commission's Third Report, p. 1 6 et seq., Tenth Report,
pp. 136, 137, and Fifteenth Report, pp. 483, 484.

3 The progressive classification of the executive civil service,
showing the growth of the merit system, is discussed, with statistics,
in the U.S. Civil Service Commission's Sixteenth Report, pp. 129-137.
A revision of this discussion, with important additions, appears in
the Seventeenth Report.

CIVIL SERVICE

located at the principal post offices, custom houses and other
government offices, being composed of three or more Federal
employees in those offices. About 50,000 persons annually
compete in these examinations, and about 10,000 of those who
are successful receive appointments through regular certification.
Persons thus appointed, however, must serve six months " on
probation " before their appointment can be made absolute.
At the end of this probation, if his service has not been satis-
factory, the appointee is simply dropped; and the fact that less
than i % of those appointed prove thus deficient on trial is high
testimony to the practical nature of the examinations held by
the commission, and to their aptness for securing persons qualified
for all classes of positions.

The effects of the Civil Service Act within the scope of its
actual operation have amply justified the hopes and promises of
its advocates. After its passage, absentee holders of lucrative
appointments were required to report for duty or to sever their
connexion with the service. Improved methods were adopted
in the departments, and superfluous and useless work was no
longer devised in order to provide a show of employment and a
locus standi for the parasites upon the public service. Individual
clerks were required, and by reason of the new conditions were
enabled, to do more and better work; and this, coupled with
the increase in efficiency in the service on account of new blood
coming in through the examinations, made possible an actual
decrease in the force required in many offices, notwithstanding
the natural growth in the amount of work to be done.1 Ex-
perience proves that the desire to create new and unnecessary
positions was in direct proportion to the power to control them,
for where the act has taken away this power of control the desire
had disappeared naturally. There is no longer any desire on
the part of heads of departments to increase the number or
salaries of classified positions which would fall by law within the
civil service rules and be subject to competitive examinations.
Thus the promises of improvement and economy in the service
have been fulfilled.

The chief drawback to the full success of the act within its
intended scope of operation has been the withholding of
certain positions in the service from the application of the
vital principle of competition. The Civil Service Act contem-
plated no exceptions, within the limits to which it was made
applicable, to the general principle of competition upon merit
for entrance to the service. In framing the first civil service
rules, however, in 1883, the president, yielding to the pressure
of the heads of some of the departments, and against the
urgent protest of the Civil Service Commission, excepted from
the requirement of examination large numbers of positions in the
higher grades of the service, chiefly fiduciary and administrative
positions such as cashiers, chief clerks and chiefs of division.
These positions being thus continued under the absolute control
of the appointing officer, the effect of their exception from
examination was to retain just that much of the old or " spoils "
system within the nominal jurisdiction of the new or " merit "
system. Even more: under the old system, while appointments
from the outside had been made regardless of fitness, still those
appointments had been made in the lower grades, the higher
positions being filled by promotion within the service, usually of
the most competent, but under the new system with its exceptions,
while appointments to the lower grades were filled on the basis of
merit, the pressure for spoils at each change of administration
forced inexperienced, political or personal favourites in at the top.
This blocked promotions and demoralized the service. Thus, while
the general effect of the act was to limit very greatly the number
of vicious appointments, at the same time the effect of these
exceptions was to confine them to the upper grades, where the
demoralizing effect of each upon :he service would be a maximum.
By constant efforts the Civil Service Commission succeeded in
having position after position withdrawn from this excepted
class, until by the action of the president, on the 6th of May 1896,
it was finally reduced almost to a minimum. By subsequent

1 For details justifying these statements, see U.S. Civil Service
Commission's Fourteenth Report, pp. 12-14.

presidential action, however, on the agth of May 1809, the
excepted class was again greatly extended.1

A further obstacle to the complete success of the merit system,
and one which prevents the carrying forward of the reform to
the extent to which it has been carried in Great Britain, is
inherent in the Civil Service Act itself. All postmasters who
receive compensation of $1000 or more per annum, and all
collectors of customs and collectors of internal revenue, are
appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, and
are therefore, by express provision of the act, not " required
to be classified." The universal practice of treating these
offices as political agencies instead of as administrative business
offices is therefore not limited by the act. Such officers are
active in political work throughout the country, and their
official position adds greatly to their power to affect the political
prospects of the leaders in their districts. Accordingly the
Senate, from being, as originally intended, merely a confirming
body as to these officers, has become in a large measure, actually
if not formally, a nominating body, and holds with tenacity
to the power thus acquired by the individual senators. Thorough
civil service reform requires that these positions also, and all
those of fourth-class postmasters (partly classified by order of
ist Dec. 1908), be made subject to the merit system, for in
them is the real remaining stronghold of the spoils system. Even
though all their subordinates be appointed through examination,
it will be impossible to carry the reform to ultimate and complete
success so long as the officers in charge are appointed mainly
for political reasons and are changed with every change of
administration.

The purpose of the act to protect the individual employees
in the service from the rapacity of the " political barons " has
been measurably, if not completely, successful. The power
given the Civil Service Commission, to investigate and report
upon violations of the law, has been used to bring to light such
abuses as the levying of political contributions, and to set the
machinery of the law in motion against them. While compara-
tively few actual prosecutions have been brought about, and
although the penalties imposed by the act for this offence have
been but seldom inflicted, still the publicity given to all such
cases by the commission's investigations has had a wholesome
deterrent effect. Before the passage of the act, positions were
as a general rule held upon a well-understood lease-tenure, the
political contributions for them being as securely and as certainly
collected as any rent. Now, however, it can be said that these
forced contributions have almost entirely disappeared. The
efforts which are still made to collect political funds from govern-
ment employees in evasion of the law are limited in the main
to persuasion to make " voluntary " contributions, and it has
been possible so to limit and obstruct these efforts that their
practical effect upon the character of the service is now very
small.

The same evils that the Federal Civil Service Act was designed
to remedy exist to a large degree in many of the state govern-
ments, and are especially aggravated in the administra-
tion of the local governments of some of the larger State
cities. The chief, if not the only, test of fitness for tiaa?
office in many cases has been partly loyalty, honesty
and capacity being seldom more than secondary considerations.
The result has been the fostering of dishonesty and extravagance,
which have brought weakness and gross corruption into the
administration of the local governments. In consequence of
this there has been a constantly growing tendency, among the
more intelligent class of citizens, to demand that honest business
methods be applied to local public service, and that appointments
be made on the basis of intelligence and capacity, rather than
of party allegiance. The movement for the reform of the civil
service of cities is going hand in hand with the movement for
general municipal reform, those reformers regarding the merit

2 For the scope of these exceptions, see Civil Service Rule VI.,
at p. 57 of the U.S. Civil Service Commission's Fifteenth and Sixteenth
Reports. A statement of the number of positions actually affected
by this action of the president appears in the Seventeenth Report.

416

CIVITA CASTELLANA— CIVITA VECCHIA

system of appointments as not merely the necessary and only
safe bulwark to preserve the results of their labours, but also as
the most efficient means for bringing about other reforms.
Hence civil service reform is given a leading position in all
programmes for the reform of state and municipal governments.
This has undoubtedly been due, in the first instance, at least, to
the success which attended the application of the merit system
to the Federal service, municipal and state legislation following
in the wake of the national civil service law. In New York an act
similar to the Federal Civil Service Act was passed on the 4th
of May 1883, and in 1894 the principles of the merit system
were introduced by an amendment into the state constitution,
and made applicable to cities and villages as well. In Massa-
chusetts an act was passed on the 3rd of June 1884 which in
its general features was based upon the Federal act and the
New York act. Similar laws were passed in Illinois and Wisconsin
in 1895, and in New Jersey in 1908; the laws provide for the
adoption of the merit system in state and municipal govern-
ment. In New Orleans, La., and in Seattle, Wash., the merit
system was introduced by an amendment to the city charter
in 1896. The same result was accomplished by New Haven,
Conn., in 1897, and by San Francisco, Cal., in 1899. In still
other cities the principles of the merit system have been enacted
into law, in some cases applying to the entire service and in
others to only a part of it.

The application of the merit system to state and municipal
governments has proved successful wherever it has been given
a fair trial.1 As experience has fostered public confidence in the
system, and at the same time shown those features of the law
which are most vulnerable, and the best means for fortifying
them, numerous and important improvements upon the pioneer
act applying to the Federal service have been introduced in
the more recent legislation. This is particularly true of the acts
now in force in New York (passed in 1899) and in Chicago.
The power of the commission to enforce these acts is materially
greater than the power possessed by the Federal commission.
In .making investigations they are not confined to taking the
testimony of voluntary witnesses, but may administer oaths,
and compel testimony and the production of books and papers
where necessary; and in taking action they are not confined
to the making of a report of the findings in their investigations,
but may themselves, in many cases, take final judicial action.
Further than this, the payment of salaries is made dependent
upon the certificate of the commission that the appointments
of the recipients were made in accordance with the civil service
law and rules. Thus these commissions have absolute power
to prevent irregular or illegal appointments by refractory
appointing officers. Their powers being so much greater than
those of the national commission, their action can be much
more drastic in most cases, and they can go more directly to the
heart of an existing abuse, and apply more quickly and effectually
the needed remedy.

Upon the termination of the Spanish-American War, the
necessity for the extension of the principles of the merit system
to the new territories, the responsibility for whose government
the results of this war had thrown upon the United States, was
realized. By the acts providing for civil government in Porto
Rico (April izth, 1900) and Hawaii (April 3oth, 1900), the
provisions of the Civil Service Act and Rules were applied to
those islands. Under this legislation the classification applies
to all positions which are analogous to positions in the Federal
service, those which correspond to positions in the municipal
and state governments being considered as local in character,
and not included in the classification.

On the 1 9th of September 1900 the United States Philippine
Commission passed an act " for the establishment and mainten-
ance of an efficient and honest civil service in the Philippine
Islands." This act, in its general features, is based upon the
national civil service law, but includes also a number of the

1 In the U. S. Civil Service Commission's Fifteenth Report, pp. 489-
502, the " growth of the civil service reform in states and cities" is
historically treated, briefly, but with some thoroughness.

stronger points to be found in the state and municipal law
mentioned above. Among these are the power given the civil
service board to administer oaths, summon witnesses, and require
the production of official records; and the power to stop pay-
ment of salaries to persons illegally appointed. Promotions are
determined b> competitive examinations, and are made through-
out the service, as there are no excepted positions. A just
right of preference in local appointments is given to natives.
The president of the Philippine commission in introducing this
bill said: " The purpose of the United States government . . .
in these islands is to secure for the Filipino people as honest
and as efficient a government as may be possible. ... It is the
hope of the commission to make it possible for one entering the
lowest ranks to reach the highest, under a tenure based solely
upon merit." Judging by past experience it is believed that
this law is well adapted to accomplish the purpose above stated.

For fuller information upon the details of the present workings
of the merit system in the Federal service, recourse should be had
to the publications of the U.S. Civil Service Commission, which are
to be found in the public libraries in all the principal cities in the
United States, or which may be had free of charge upon application
to the commission. The Manual of Examinations, published semi-
annually, gives full information as to the character of the examina-
tions held by the commission, together with the schedule of dates
and places for the holding of those examinations. The Annual
Reports of the commission contain full statistics of the results of its
work, together with comprehensive statements as to the difficulties
encountered in enforcing the law, and the means used to overcome
them. In the Fifteenth Report, pp. 443-485, will be found a very
valuable historical compilation from original sources, upon the
" practice of the presidents in appointments and removals in the
executive civil service, from 1789 to 1883." In the same report,
pp. 511-517, is a somewhat comprehensive bibliography of "civil
service " in periodical literature in the I9th century, brought down
to the end of 1898. See also C. R. Fish, The Civil Service and the
Patronage (New York, 1905).

In most European countries the civil service is recruited on much
the same lines as in the United Kingdom and the United States,
that is, either by examination or by nomination or by both. In
some cases the examination is purely competitive, in other cases,
as in France, holders of university degrees get special privileges, such
as being put at the head of the list, or going up a certain number of
places; or, as in Germany, many departmental posts are filled by
nomination, combined with the results of general examinations,
either at school or university. In the publications of the United
States Department of Labour and Commerce for 1904-1905 will
be found brief details of the systems adopted by the various foreign
countries for appointing their civil service employees.

CIVITA CASTELLANA (anc. Falerii, q.v.), a town and episcopal
see of the province of Rome, 45 m. by rail from the city of Rome
(the station is 5 m. N.E. of the town). Population (1901) 5265.
The cathedral of S. Maria possesses a fine portico, erected in
1 2 10 by Laurentius Romanus, his son Jacobus and his grandson
Cosmas, in the cosmatesque style, with ancient columns and
mosaic decorations: the interior was modernized in the i8th
century, but has some fragments of cosmatesque ornamentation.
The citadel was erected by Pope Alexander VI. from the designs
of Antonio da Sangallo the elder, and enlarged by Julius II.
and Leo X. The lofty bridge by which the town is approached
belongs to the i8th century. Mount Soracte lies about 6 m.
to the south-east.

CIVITA VECCHIA, a seaport town and episcopal see of Italy,
in the province of Rome, 50 m. N.W. by rail and 35 m. direct
from the city of Rome. Pop. (1871)8143; (1901) 17,589. It
is the ancient Centum Cellae, founded by Trajan. Interesting
descriptions of it are given by Pliny the Younger (Epist. vi. 31)
and Rutilius Namat. i. 237. The modern harbour works rest
on the ancient foundations, and near it the cemetery of detach-
ments of the Classes Misenensis and Ravennas has been found
(Corp. Inscr. Lat. vol. xi., Berlin, 1888, pp. 3520 seq.). Remains
of an aqueduct and other Roman buildings are preserved; the
imperial family had a villa her z. Procopius mentions it in the
6th century as a strong and populous place, but it was destroyed
in 813 by the Saracens. Leo IV. erected a new city for the
inhabitants on the site where th^y had taken refuge, about 8 m.
N.N.E. of Civita Vecchia towards the hills, near La Farnesina,
where its ruins may still be seen; the city walls and some of
the streets and buildings may be traced, and an inscription

CLACKMANNAN— CLACKMANNANSHIRE

(which must have stood over one of the city gates) recording
its foundation has been discovered. It continued to exist under
the name Cencelle as a feudal castle until the isth century.
In the meantime, however, the inhabitants returned to the old
town by the shore in 889 and rebuilt it, giving it the name
Civitas Vetus, the modern Civita Vecchia (see O. Marucchi in
Nuovo Bullettino di archeologia cristiana, vi., 1900, p. 195 seq.).
In 1 508 Pope Julius II. began the construction of the castle
from the designs of Bramante, Michelangelo being responsible
for the addition of the central tower. It is considered by Burck-
hardt the finest building of its kind. Pius IV. added a convict
prison. The arsenal was built by Alexander VII. and designed
by Bernini. Civita Vecchia was the chief port of the Papal
State and has still a considerable trade. There are cement
factories in the town, and calcium carbide is an important article
of export. The principal imports are coal, cattle for the home
markets, and fire-bricks from the United Kingdom. Three
miles N.E. were the Aquae Tauri, warm springs, now known
as Bagni della F errata: considerable remains of the Roman
baths are still preserved. About i m. W. of these are other
hot springs, those of the Ficoncella, also known in Roman times.

CLACKMANNAN, the county town of Clackmannanshire,
Scotland. Pop. 1505. It lies near the north bank of the Forth,
2 m. E. of Alloa, with two stations on the North British railway.
Among the public buildings are the parish church, the tower of
which, standing on a commanding eminence, is a conspicuous
landmark. Clackmannan Tower is now a picturesque ruin,
but at one time played an important part in Scottish history,
and was the seat of a lineal descendant of the Bruce family
after the failure of the male line. The old market cross still
exists, and close to it stands the stone that gives the town its
name (Gaelic, clack, stone; Manann, the name of the district).
A large spinning-mill and coalpits lend a modern touch in
singular contrast with the quaint, old-world aspect of the place.
About i m. to the S.E. is Kennet House, the seat of Lord Balfour
of Burleigh, another member of the Bruce family.

CLACKMANNANSHIRE, the smallest county in Scotland,
bounded S.W. by the Forth, W. by Stirlingshire, N.N.E. and
N.W. by Perthshire, and E. by Fifeshire. It has an area of
35,160 acres, or about 55 sq. m. An elevated ridge starting on
the west, runs through the middle of the county, widening
gradually till it reaches the eastern boundary, and skirting
the alluvial or carse lands in the valleys of the Forth and Devon.
Still farther to the N. the Ochil hills form a picturesque feature
in the landscape, having their generally verdant surface broken
by bold projecting rocks and deeply indented ravines. The
principal summits are within the limits of the shire, among
them Ben Cleuch (2363 ft.), King's Seat (2111 ft.), Whitewisp
(2110 ft.), the Law (above Tillicoultry, 2094 ft.) and Blairdenon
(2072 ft.), on the northern slope, in which the river Devon takes
its rise. The rivers of importance are the Devon and the Black
or South Devon. The former, noted in the upper parts for its
romantic scenery and its excellent trout-fishing, runs through the
county near the base of the Ochils, and falls into the Forth at
the village of Cambus, after a winding course of 33 m., although
as the crow flies its source is only s| m. distant. The Black
Devon, rising in the Cleish Hills, flows westwards in a direction
nearly parallel to that of the Devon, and falls into the Forth
near Clackmannan. It supplies motive power to numbers of
mills and collieries; and its whole course is over coal strata.
The Forth is navigable as far as it forms the boundary of the
county, and ships of 500 tons burden run up as far as Alloa.
The only lake is Gartmorn, i m. long by about % of a mile broad,
which has been dammed in order to furnish water to Alloa and
power to mills. The Ochils are noted for the number of their
glens. Though these are mostly small, they are well wooded
and picturesque, and those at Menstrie, Alva, Tillicoultry and
Dollar are particularly beautiful.

Geology. — This county is divided geologically into two areas, the
boundary line skirting the southern margin of the Ochils and running
westwards from a point north of Dollar by Alva in the direction of
Airthrey in Stirlingshire. The northern portion forms part of the

volcanic range of the Ochils which belongs to the Old Red Sandstone
period, and consists of a great succession of lavas — basalts and
andesites — with intercalations of tuff and agglomerate. As the
rocks dip gently towards the north and form the highest ground
in the county they must reach a great thickness. They are pierced
by small intrusive masses of diorite, north of Tillicoultry House.
The well-marked feature running E. and W. along the southern
base of the Ochils indicates a line of fault or dislocation which
abruptly truncates the Lower Old Red volcanic rocks and brings
down an important development of Carboniferous strata occupying
the southern part of the county. These belong mainly to the Coal-
measures and comprise a number of valuable coal-seams which
have been extensively worked. The Clackmannan field is the
northern continuation of the great Lanarkshire basin which extends
nprthwards by Slamannan, Falldrk and the Carron Ironworks to
Alloa. Along the eastern margin between Cairnmuir and Bruce-
field the underlying Millstone Grit, consisting mainly of false-
bedded sandstones, comes to the surface. Close to the nver Devon
south of Dollar the Vicars Bridge Limestone, which there marks the
top of the Carboniferous Limestone series, rises from beneath the
Millstone Grit. The structure of the Clackmannan field is interesting.
The strata are arranged in synclinal form, the highest seams being
found near the Devon ironworks, and they are traversed by a series
of parallel east and west faults each with a downthrow to the south,
whereby the coals are repeated and the field extended. During
mining operations evidence has been obtained of the existence of
a buried river-channel, filled with boulder clay and stratified de-
posits along the course of the Devon, which extends below the
present sea-level and points to greater elevation of the land in
pre-glacial time. An excellent example of a dolerite dyke trending
slightly north of west occurs in the north part of the county where
it traverses the volcanic rocks of Lower Old Red Sandstone age.

Industries. — The soil is generally productive and well culti-
vated, though the greater part of the elevated range which is
interposed between the carse lands on the Forth and the vale
of Devon at the base of the Ochils on the north consists of inferior
soils, often lying upon an impervious clay. Oats are the chief
crop, but wheat and barley are profitably grown. Sheep-
farming is successfully pursued, the Ochils affording excellent
pasturage, and cattle, pigs and horses are also raised. There is
a small tract of moorland in the east, called the Forest, bounded
on its northern margin by the Black Devon. Iron-ore (haema-
tite), copper, silver, lead, cobalt and arsenic have all been
discovered in small quantity in the Ochils, between Alva and
Dollar. Ironstone — found either in beds, or in oblate balls
embedded in slaty clay, and yielded from 25 to 30 % of iron —
is mined for the Devon iron-works, near Clackmannan. Coal
has been mined for a long period. The strata which compose the
field are varieties of sandstone, shale, fire-clay and argillaceous
ironstone. There is a heavy continuous output of coal at the
mines at Sauchie, Fishcross, Coalsnaughton, Devonside, Clack-
mannan and other pits. The spinning-mills at Alloa, Tillicoultry
and Alva are always busy, Alloa yarns and fingering being widely
famous. The distilleries at Glenochil and Carsebridge and the
breweries in Alloa and Cambus do a large export business.
The minor trades include glass-blowing, pottery, coopering,
tanning, iron-founding, electrical apparatus making, ship-
building and paper-making.

The north British railway serves the whole county, while the
Caledonian has access to Alloa.

Population and Government. — The population was 33,140
in 1891 and 32,029 in 1901, when 170 persons spoke Gaelic and
English and one person Gaelic only. The county unites with
Kinross-shire in returning one member to parliament. Clack-
mannan (pop. 1505) is the county town, but Alloa (14,458),
Alva (4624), and Tillicoultry (3338) take precedence in popula-
tion and trade. Menstrie (pfep. 898) near Alloa has a large
furniture factory and the great distillery of Glenochil. To the
north-east of Alloa is the thriving mining village of Sauchie.
Clackmannan forms a sheriffdom with Stirling and Dumbarton
shires, and a sheriff-substitute sits at Alloa. Most of the schools
in the shire are under school-board control, but there are a
few voluntary schools, besides an exceptionally well-equipped
technical school in Alloa and a well-known academy at Dollar.

See James Wallace, The Sheriffdom of Clackmannan: a Sketch
of its History (Edinburgh, 1890); D. Beveridge, Between the Ochils
and the Forth (Edinburgh, 1888); John Crawford, Memorials of
Alloa (1885) ; William Gibson, Reminiscences of Dollar, Tillicoultry,

vi. 14

CLACTON-ON-SEA— CLAIRVOYANCE

CLACTON-OK-SEA, a watering-place in the Harwich parlia-
mentary division of Essex, England; 71 m. E.N.E. from London
by a branch from Colchester of the Great Eastern railway;
served also by steamers from London in the summer months.
P6p. of urban district (1901) 7456. Clay cliffs of slight altitude
rise from the sandy beach and face south-eastward. In the
neighbourhood, however, marshes fringe the shore. The church
of Great Clacton, at the village ij m. inland, is Norman and
later, and of considerable interest. Clacton is provided with
a pier, promenade and marine parade; and is the seat of various
convalescent and other homes.

CLADEL, LEON (1835-1892), French novelist, was bom at
Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne) on the I3th of March 1835.
The son of an artisan, he studied law at Toulouse and became
a solicitor's clerk in Paris. He made a reputation in a limited
circle by his first book, Les Martyrs ridicules (1862), a novel for
which Charles Baudelaire, whose literary disciple Cladel was,
wrote a preface. He then returned to his native district of
Quercy, where he produced a series of pictures of peasant life in
Eral le dompteur (1865), Le Nomme Qouael (1868) and other
volumes. Returning to Paris he published the two novels
which are generally acknowledged as his best work, Le Bouscassie
(1869) and La File votive de Saint Bartholomee Porte-glaive (1872).
Une Maudile (1876) was judged dangerous to the public morals
and cost its author a month's imprisonment. Other works by
Cladel are Les Va-nu-pieds (1873), a volume of short stories;
N'a qu'un ceil (1882), Urbains el ruraux (1884), Gueux de marque
(1887), and the posthumous Juive errante (1897). He died at
Sevres on the 2oth of July 1892.

See La Vie de Leon Cladel (Paris, 1905), by his daughter Judith
Cladel, containing also an article on Cladel by Edmond Picard, a
complete list of his works, and of the critical articles on his work.

CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM (1811-1885), American
merchant, was born in Milford, Massachusetts, on the i8th of
December 1 81 1. He was educated at Milford Academy, became
a clerk in his father's store in Milford, and in 1831, with his
brother Aaron and his brother-in-law Samuel Daniels, succeeded
to his father's business. In 1832 the firm opened a branch store
in Worcester, Mass., and in 1833 Horace B. Claflin and Daniels
secured the sole control of this establishment and restricted their
dealing to dry goods. In 1843 Claflin removed to New York
City and became a member of the firm of Bulkley & Claflin,
whosesale dry goods merchants. In 1851 and in 1864 the firm
was reorganized, being designated in these respective years
as Claflin, Mellin & Company and H. B. Claflin & Company.
Under Claflin's management the business increased so rapidly
that the sales for a time after 1865 probably exceeded those
of any other mercantile house in the world. Though the firm
was temporarily embarrassed at the beginning of the Civil War,
on account of its large business interests in the South, and during
the financial panic of 1873, the promptness with which Mr
Claflin met these crises and paid every dollar of his liabilities
greatly increased his reputation for business ability and integrity.
He died at Fordham, New York, on the i4th of November 1885.

CLAIRAULT (or CLAIRAUT), ALEXIS CLAUDE (1713-1765),
French mathematician, was born on the i3th or 7th of May 1713,
at Paris, where his father was a teacher of mathematics. Under
his father's tuition he made such rapid progress in mathematical
studies that in his thirteenth year he read before the French
Academy an account of the properties of four curves which he
had then discovered. When only sixteen he finished a treatise,
Recherches sur les courbes d double courbure, which, on its publica-
tion in 1731, procured his admission into the Academy of
Sciences, although even then he was below the legal age. In
1736, together with Pierre Louis Maupertuis, he took part in the
expedition to Lapland, which was undertaken for the purpose
of estimating a degree of the meridian, and on his return he
published his treatise Theorie de la figure de la terre (1743). In
this work he promulgated the theorem, known as " Clairault's
theorem," which connects the gravity at points on the surface
of a rotating ellipsoid with the compression and the centrifugal
force at the equator (see EARTH, FIGURE OF THE). He obtained

an ingenious approximate solution of the problem of the three
bodies; in 1750 he gained the prize of the St Petersburg Academy
for his essay Theorie de la lune; and in 1759 he calculated the
perihelion of Halley's comet. He also detected singular solutions
in differential equations of the first order, and of the second and
higher degrees. Clairault died at Paris, on the I7th of May 1765.

CLAIRON, LA (1723-1803), French actress, whose real name
was CLAIRE JOSEPH HIPPOLYTE LERIS, was born at Conde sur
1'Escaut, Hainaut, on the 25th of January 1723, the natural
daughter of any army sergeant. In 1736 she made her first stage
appearance at the Comedie Italienne, in a small part in Mariv a,ux's
fie des esclaves. After several years in the provinces she returned
to Paris. Her life, meanwhile, had been decidedly irregular,
even if not to the degree indicated by the libellous pamphlet
Histoire de la demoiselle Cronel, dile Fretillon, actrice de la Comedie
de Rouen, ecrite par elle-meme (The Hague, 1 746), or to be inferred
from the disingenuousness of her own Memoires d'Hippolyte
Clairon (1798); and she had great difficulty in obtaining an
order to make her debut at the Come'die Francaise. Succeeding,
however, at last, she had the courage to select the title-r&le of
Phedre (1743), and she obtained a veritable triumph. During
her twenty-two years at this theatre, dividing the honours
•with her rival Mile Dumesnil, she filled many of the classical
r61es of tragedy, and created a great number of parts in the plays
of Voltaire, Marmontel, Saurin, de Belloy and others. She
retired in 1766, and trained pupils for the stage, among them
Mile Raucourt. Goldsmith called Mile Clairon " the most perfect
female figure I have ever seen on any stage " (The Bee, 2nd No.);
and Garrick, while recognizing her unwillingness or inability
to make use of the inspiration of the instant, admitted that
" she has everything that art and a good understanding with
great natural spirit can give her."

CLAIRVAUX, a village of north-eastern France, in the depart-
ment of Aube, 40 m. E.S.E. of Troyes on the Eastern railway to
Belfort. Clairvaux (Clara Vallis) is situated in the valley of the
Aube on the eastern border of the Forest of Clairvaux. Its
celebrity is due to the abbey founded in 1115 by St Bernard,
which became the centre of the Cistercian order. The buildings
(see ABBEY) belong for the most part to the i8th century, but
there is a large storehouse which dates from the I2th century.
The abbey, suppressed at the Revolution, now serves as a prison,
containing on an average 800 inmates, who are employed in
agricultural and industrial occupations. Clairvaux has iron-
works of some importance.

CLAIRVOYANCE (Fr. for " clear-seeing "), a technical term in
psychical research, properly equivalent to lucidity, a super-
normal power of obtaining knowledge in which no part is played
by (a) the ordinary processes of sense-perception or (b) super-
normal communication with other intelligences, incarnate, or
discarnate. The word is also used, sometimes qualified by the
word telepathic, to mean the power of gaining supernormal
knowledge from the mind of another (see TELEPATHY). It is
further commonly used by spiritualists to mean the power of
seeing spirit f >rms, or, more vaguely, of discovering facts by some
supernormal means.

Lucidity. — Few experiments have been made to test the
existence of this faculty. If communications from discarnate
minds are regarded as possible, there are no means of distinguish-
ing facts obtained in this way from facts obtained by independent
clairvoyance. In practice no evidence has been obtained
pointing to the possession by a discarnate spirit of knowledge not
possessed by any living person (see MEDIUM). As explanation of
the few successful experiments in independent clairvoyance we
have the choice of three explanations: (i) lucidity; (2) telepathy
from living persons; (3) hyperr esthesia. The second possibility
was overlooked in Richet's diagram experiments; it cannot be
assumed that a picture put into an envelope and not consciously
recalled has been in reality forgotten. Similarly the clairvoyant
diagnosis of diseases may depend on knowledge gained tele-
pathically from the patient, who may be subliminaLy aware of
diseased states of the body. The most elaborate experiments are
by Prof. Richet with a hypnotized subject who succeeded in

CLAMECY— CLAN

419

naming twelve cards out of sixty-eight. But no precautions were
taken against hyperaesthesia further than enclosing the card in a
second envelope. There is a power possessed by a certain number
of people, of naming a card drawn by them or held in the hand
face downwards, so that there is no normal knowledge of its suit
and number. Few thorough trials have been made; but it seems
to point to some kind of hyperaesthesia rather than to clair-
voyance; in the Richet experiments even if the envelopes
excluded hyperaesthesia of touch on the part of the medium,
there may have been subliminal knowledge on Prof. Richet's
part of the card which he put in the envelope. The experience
known as the deja vu has sometimes been explained as due to
clairvoyance.

Telepathic Clairvoyance. — For a discussion of this see TELE-
PATHY and CRYSTAL-GAZING. It may be noted here that some
curious relation seems to exist between apparently telepathic
acquisition of knowledge and the arrival of a letter, newspaper,
&c., from which the same knowledge could be directly gained.
We are confronted with a similar problem in attempting an
explanation of the power of mediums to state correctly facts
delating to objects placed in their hands. Of a somewhat
different character is retrocognition (q.v.), where the knowledge in
many cases, if telepathic, must be derived from a discarnate mind.

Clairvoyance, as a term of spiritualism, with its correlative
clairaudience, is the name given to the power of seeing and hearing
discarnate spirits of dead relatives and others, with whom the
living are said to be surrounded. More vaguely it includes the
power of gaining knowledge, either through the spirit world or by
means of psychometry (i.e. the supernormal acquisition of
knowledge about owners of objects, writers of letters, &c.).
Some evidence for these latter powers has been accumulated by
the Society for Psychical Research, but in many cases the
piecing together of normally acquired knowledge, together with
shrewd guessing, suffices to explain the facts, especially where the
investigator has had no special training for his task.

See Richet, Experimentelle Studien (1891); also in Proc. S.P.R.
vi. 66. For a criticism see N. W. Thomas, Thought Transference,
pp. 44-48. For Clairvoyance in general see F. W. H. Myers, Human
Personality, and in Proc. S.P.R. xi. 334 et sec]. For a criticism of the
evidence see Mrs Sidgwick in Proc. S.P.R. vii. 30, 356. (N. W. T.)

CLAMECY, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Nievre, at the confluence of the Yonne
and Beuvron and on the Canal du Nivernais, 46 m. N.N.E. of
Nevers on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4455. Its
principal building is the church of St Martin, which dates chiefly
from the I3th, i4th and isth centuries. The tower and facade
are of the i6th century. The chevet, which is surrounded by an
aisle, is rectangular — a feature found in few French churches.
Of the old castle of the counts of Nevers, vaulted cellars alone
remain. A church in the suburb of Bethlehem, dating from the
1 2th and i3th centuries, now serves as part of an hotel. The
public institutions include the Bub-prefecture, tribunals of first
instance and of commerce and a communal college. Among the
industrial establishments are saw-mills, fulling-mills and flour-
mills, tanneries and manufactories of boots and shoes and
chemicals; and there is considerable trade in wine and cattle and
in wood and charcoal, which is conveyed principally to Paris, by
way of the Yonne.

In the early middle ages Clamecy belonged to the abbey of St
Julian at Auxerre; in the nth century it passed to the counts of
Nevers, one of whom, Herve, enfranchised the inhabitants in
1213. After the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1188,
Clamecy became the seat of the bishops of Bethlehem, who till the
Revolution resided in the hospital of Panthenor, bequeathed by
William IV., count of Nevers. On the coup d'etat of 1851 an
insurrection broke out in the town, and was repressed by the new
authorities with great severity.

CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. eland, connected with Lat. planta,
shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p) ,
a group of people united by common blood, and usually settled in
a common habitat. The clan system existed in Ireland and the
Highlands of Scotland from early times. In its strictest sense the

system was peculiar to those countries, but, in its wider meaning
of a group of kinsmen forming a self-governing community, the
system as represented by the village community has been shown
by Sir H. Maine and others to have existed at one time or
another in all lands.

Before the use of surnames and elaborate written genealogies,
a tribe in its definite sense was called in Celtic a tuath, a word
of wide affinities, from a root tu, to grow, to multiply, existing
in all European languages. When the tribal system began to
be broken up by conquest and by the rise of towns and of terri-
torial government, the use of a common surname furnished a
new bond for keeping up a connexion between kindred. The
head of a tribe or smaller group of kindred selected some ancestor
and called himself his Ua, grandson, or as it has been anglicized
O', e.g. Ua Conchobair (O' Conor), Ua Suilleabhain (O'Sullivan).
All his kindred adopted the same name, the chief using no
fore-name however. The usual mode of distinguishing a person
before the introduction of surnames was to name his father and
grandfather, e.g. Owen, son of Donal, son of Dermot. This
naturally led some to form their surnames with Mac, son, instead
of Ua, grandson, e.g. MacCarthaigh, son of Carthach (Mac Carthy) ,
Mac Ruaidhri, son of Rory (Macrory). Both methods have been
followed in Ireland, but in Scotland Mac came to be exclusively
used. The adoption of such genealogical surnames fostered the
notion that all who bore the same surname were kinsmen, and
hence the genealogical term clann, which properly means the
descendants of some progenitor, gradually became synonymous
with tuath, tribe. Like all purely genealogical terms, clann may
be used in the limited sense of a particular tribe go'verned by a
chief, or in that of many tribes claiming descent from a common
ancestor. In the latter sense it was synonymous with sll, siol,
seed e.g. Siol Alpine, a great clan which included the smaller
clans of the Macgregors, Grants, Mackinnons,Macnabs,Macphies,
Macquarries and Macaulays.

The clan system in the most archaic form of which we have
any definite information can be best studied in the Irish tuath,
or tribe.1 This consisted of two classes: (i) tribesmen, and
(2) a miscellaneous class of slaves, criminals, strangers and their
descendants. The first class included tribesmen by blood in the
male line, including all illegitimate children acknowledged by
their fathers, and tribesmen by adoption or sons of tribeswomen
by strangers, foster-sons, men who had done some signal service
to the tribe, and lastly the descendants of the second class after
a certain number of generations. Each tuath had a chief called
a rig, king, a word cognate with the Gaulish rig-s or rix, the
Latin reg-s or rex, and the Old Norse rik-ir. The tribesmen
formed a number of communities, each of which, like the tribe
itself, consisted of a head, ceann fine, his kinsmen, slaves and
other retainers. This was the fine, or sept. Each of these
occupied a certain part of the tribe-land, the arable part being
cultivated under a system of co-tillage, the pasture land co-
grazed according to certain customs, and the wood, bog and
mountains forming the marchland of the sept being the un-
restricted common land of the sept. The sept was in fact a
village community.

What the sept was to the tribe, the homestead was to the sept.
The head of a homestead was an aire, a representative freeman
capable of acting as a witness, compurgator and bail. These
were very important functions, especially when it is borne in
mind that the tribal homestead was the home of many of the
kinsfolk of the head of the family as well as of his own children.
The descent of property being according to a gavel-kind custom,
it constantly happened that when an aire died the share of his
property which each member of his immediate family was en-
titled to receive was not sufficient to qualify him to be an aire.
In this case the family did not divide the inheritance, but
remained together as " a joint and undivided family," one of the
members being elected chief of the family or household, and in

1 The following account of the Irish clan-system differs in some
respects from that in the article on BREHON LAWS (q.v.); but it is
retained here in view of the authority of the writer and the admitted
obscurity of the whole subject. (Eo. E.B.)

420

CLAN

this capacity enjoyed the rights and privileges of an aire. Sir
H. S. Maine directed attention to this kind of family as an
important feature of the early institutions of all Indo-European
nations. Beside the " joint and undivided family," there was
another kind of family which we might call " the joint family."
This was a partnership composed of three or four members of a
sept whose individual wealth was not sufficient to qualify each
of them to be an aire, but whose joint wealth qualified one of the
co-partners as head of the joint family to be one.

So long as there was abundance of land each family grazed
its cattle upon the tribe-land without restriction; unequal
increase of wealth and growth of population naturally led to its
limitation, each head of a homestead being entitled to graze
an amount of stock in proportion to his wealth, the size of his
homestead, and his acquired position. The arable land was no
doubt applotted annually at first; gradually, however, some
of the richer families of the tribe succeeded in evading this
exchange of allotments and converting part of the common land
into an estate in sevralty. Septs were at first colonies of the
tribe which settled on the march -land; afterwards the conversion
of part of the common land into an estate in sevralty enabled
the family that acquired it to become the parent of a new sept.
The same process might, however, take place within a sept
without dividing it; in other words, several members of the
sept might hold part of the land of the sept as separate estate.
The possession of land in sevralty introduced an important
distinction into the tribal system — it created an aristocracy.
An aire whose family held the same land for three generations
was called a flaith, or lord, of which rank there were several
grades according to their wealth in land and chattels. The aires
whose wealth consisted in cattle only were called b6-aires, or
cow-aires, of whom there were also several grades, depending
on their wealth in stock. When a b6-aire had twice the wealth
of the lowest class of flaith he might enclose part of the land
adjoining his house as a lawn; this was the first step towards
his becoming a flaith. The relations which subsisted between
the flaiths and the b6-aires formed the most curious part of the
Celtic tribal system, and throw a flood of light on the origin
of the feudal system. Every tribesman without exception owed
ceilsinne to the rig, or chief, that is, he was bound to become
his ceile. or vassal. This consisted in paying the rig a tribute
in kind, for which the ceile was entitled to receive a proportionate
amount of stock without having to give any bond for their
return, giving him service, e.g. in building his dun, or stronghold,
reaping his harvest, keeping his roads clean and in repair, killing
wolves, and especially service in the field, and doing him homage
three times while seated every time he made his return of tribute.
Paying the " calpe " to the Highland chiefs represented this
kind of vassalage, a colpdach or heifer being in many cases the
amount of food-rent paid by a free or saer ceile. A tribesman
might, however, if he pleased, pay a higher rent on receiving
more stock together with certain other chattels for which no
rent was chargeable. In this case he entered into a contract,
and was therefore a bond or doer ceile. No one need have
accepted stock on these terms, nor could he do so without the
consent of his sept, and he might free himself at any time from
his obligation by returning what he had received, and the rent
due thereon.

What every one was bound to do to his rig, or chief, he might
do voluntarily to the flaith of his sept, to any flaith of the tribe,
or even to one of another tribe. He might also become a bond
ceile. In either case he might renounce his ceileship by returning
a greater or lesser amount of stock than what he had received
according to the circumstances under which he terminated his
vassalage. In cases of disputed succession to the chiefship of a
tribe the rival claimants were always anxious to get as many
as possible to become their vassals. Hence the anxiety of minor
chieftains, in later times in the Highlands of Scotland, to induce
the clansmen to pay the " calpe " where there happened to be a
doubt as to who was entitled to be chief.

The effect of the custom of gavel-kind was to equalize the
wealth of each and leave no one wealthy enough to be chief.

The " joint and undivided family " and the formation of " joint
families," or gilds, was one way of obviating this result; another
way was the custom of tanistry. The headship of the tribe was
practically confined to the members of one family; this was
also the case with the headship of a sept. Sometimes a son
succeeded his father, but the rule was that the eldest and most
capable member of the geilfine, that is, the relatives of the actual
chief to the fifth degree,1 was selected during his lifetime to be
his successor — generally the eldest surviving brother or son of
the preceding chief. The man selected as successor to a chief
of a tribe, or chieftain of a sept, was called the tanist, and
should be " the most experienced, the most noble, the most
wealthy, the wisest, the most learned, the most truly popular,
the most powerful to oppose, the most steadfast to sue for
profits and (be sued) for losses." In addition to these qualities
he should be free from personal blemishes and deformities and
of fit age to lead his tribe or sept, as the case may be, to battle.1
So far as selecting the man of the geilfine who was supposed to
possess all those qualities, the office of chief of a tribe or chieftain
of a sept was elective, but as the geilfine was represented by four
persons, together with the chief or chieftain, the election was
practically confined to one of the four. In order to support
the dignity of the chief or chieftain a certain portion of the tribe
or sept land was attached as an apanage to the office; this land,
with the duns or fortified residences upon it, went to the suc-
cessor, but a chief's own property might be gavelled. This
custom of tanistry applied at first probably to the selection of
the successors of a rig, but was gradually so extended that even
a b&-aire bad a tanist.

A sept might have only one flaith, or lord, connected with
it, or might have several. It sometimes happened, however,
that a sept might be so broken and reduced as not to have even
one man qualified to rank as a flaith. The rank of a flaith
depended upon the number of his ceiles, that is, upon his wealth.
The flaith of a sept, and the highest when there was more than
one, was ceann fine, or head of the sept, or as he was usually
called in Scotland, the chieftain. He was also called the flaith
geilfine, or head of the geilfine, that is, the kinsmen to the fifth
degree from among whom should be chosen the tanist, and who,
according to the custom of gavel-kind, were the immediate heirs
who received the personal property and were answerable for the
liabilities of the sept. The flaiths of the different septs were the
vassals of the rig, or chief of the tribe, and performed certain
functions which were no doubt at first individual, but in time
became the hereditary right of the sept. One of those was the
office of maer, or steward of the chief's rents, &c. ; 3 and another
that of aire tuisi, leading aire, or taoisech, a word cognate with
the Latin duc-s or dux, and Anglo-Saxon here-tog, leader of the
" here," or army. The taoisech was leader of the tribe in battle;
in later times the term seems to have been extended to several
offices of rank. The cadet of a Highland clan was always called
the taoisech, which has been translated captain; after the
conquest of Wales the same term, tywysaug, was used for a ruling
prince. Slavery was very common in Ireland and Scotland;

1 The explanation here given of geilfine is different from that given
in the introduction to the third volume of the Ancient Laws of
Ireland, which was followed by Sir H. S. Maine in his account of it
in his Early History of Institutions, and which the present writer
believes to be erroneous.

2 It should also be mentioned that illegitimacy was not a bar.
The issue of " handfast" marriages in Scotland were eligible to be
chiefs, and even sometimes claimed under feudal law.

3 This office is of considerable importance in connexion with early
Scottish history. In the Irish annals the rig , or chief of a great tribe
(mor tuath), such as of Ross, Moray, Marr, Buchan, &c., is called a
mor maer, or great maer. Sometimes the same person is called king
also in these annals. Thus Findlaec, or Finlay, son of Ruadhri, the
father of Shakespeare's Macbeth, is called king of Moray in the
Annals of Ulster, and mor maer in the Annals of Tighernach. The
term is never found in Scottish charters, but it occurs in the Book
of the Abbey of Deir in Buchan, now in the library of the university
of Cambridge. The Scotic kings and their successors obviously
regarded the chiefs of the great tribes in question merely as their
maers, while their tribesmen only knew them as kings. From these
" mor-maerships," which corresponded with the ancient mor tuatha,
came most, if not all, the ancient Scottish earldoms.

CLANRICARDE

421

in the former slaves constituted a common element in the
stipends or gifts which the higher kings gave their vassal sub-
reguli. Female slaves, who were employed in the houses of
chiefs and flaiths in grinding meal with the hand-mill or quern,
and in other domestic work, must have been very common, for
the unit or standard for estimating the wealth of a bd-aire, blood-
fines, &c., was called a cumhal, the value of which was three
cows, but which literally meant a female slave. The descendants
of those slaves, prisoners of war, forfeited hostages, refugees
from other tribes, broken tribesmen, &c., gathered round the
residence of the rig and flaiths, or squatted upon their march-
lands, forming a motley band of retainers which made a consider-
able element in the population, and one of the chief sources of
the wealth of chiefs and flaiths. The other principal source of
their income was the food-rent paid by ceiles, and especially
by the daer or bond ceiles, who were hence called biathachs,
from biad, food. Aflaith, but not a rig, might, if he liked, go to
the house of his ceile and consume his food-rent in the house of
the latter.

Under the influence of feudal ideas and the growth of the
modern views as to ownership of land, the chiefs and other
lords of clans claimed in modern times the right of best owing
the tribe-land as turcrec, instead of stock, and receiving rent not
for cattle and other chattels as in former times, but proportionate
to the extent of land given to them. The turcrec-land seems to
have been at first given upon the same terms as turcrec-stock.,
but gradually a system of short leases grew up; sometimes,
too, it was given on mortgage. In the Highlands of Scotland
ceiles who received turcrec-\a.nd were called " taksmen." On the
death. of the chief or lord, his successor either bestowed the
land upon the same person or gave it to some other relative.
In this way in each generation new families came into possession
of land, and others sank into the mass of mere tribesmen. Some-
times a "taksmaii" succeeded in acquiring his land in perpetuity,
by gift, marriage or purchase, or CVCD by the " strong hand."
The universal prevalence of exchangeable allotments, or the
rundale system, shows that down to even comparatively modern
times some of the land was still recognized as the property of
the tribe, and was cultivated in village communities.

The chief governed the clan by the aid of a council called
the sabaid (sab, a prop), but the chief exercised much power,
especially over the miscellaneous body of non-tribesmen who
lived on his own estate. This power seems to have extended
to life and death. Several of the flaiths, perhaps, all heads of
septs, also possessed somewhat extensive powers of the same
kind.

The Celtic dress, at least in the middle ages, consisted of a
kind of shirt reaching to a little below the knees called a lenn,
a jacket called an inar, and a garment called a brat, consisting
of a single piece of cloth. This was apparently the garb of the
aires, who appear to have been further distinguished by the
number of colours in their dress, for we are told that while a
slave had clothes of one colour, a reg tuatha, or chief of a tribe,
had five, and an ollamh and a superior king six. The breeches
was also known, and cloaks with a cowl or hood, which buttoned
up tight in front. The lenn is the modern kilt, and the brat the
plaid, so that the dress .of the Irish and Welsh in former times
was the same as that of the Scottish Highlander.

By the abolition of the heritable jurisdiction of the Highland
chiefs, and the general disarmament of the clans by the acts
passed in 1747 after the rebellion of 1745, the clan system was
practically broken up, though its influence still lingers in the
more remote districts. An act was also passed in 1747 for-
bidding the use of the Highland garb; but the injustice and
impolicy of such a law being generally felt it was afterwards
repealed. (W. K. S.)

CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE),
ist EARL or (d. 1544), styled MacWilliam, and Ne-gan or Na-
gCeann (i.e. " of the Heads," " having made a mount of the
heads of men slain in battle which he covered up with earth "),
was the son of Richard or Rickard de Burgh, lord of Clanricarde,
by a daughter of Madden of Portumna, and grandson of Ulick de

Burgh, lord of Clanricarde (1467-1487), the collateral heir male of
the earls of Ulster. On the death of the last earl in 1333, his only
child Elizabeth had married Lionel, duke of Clarence, and the
earldom became merged in the crown, in consequence of which
the de Burghs abjured English laws and sovereignty, and chose
for their chiefs the sons of Sir William, the " Red " earl of
Ulster's brother, the elder William taking the title of MacWilliam
Eighter (Uachtar, i.e. Upper), and becoming the ancestor of the
earls of Clanricarde, and his brother Sir Edmond that of Mac-
William Oughter (Ochtar, i.e. Lower), and founding the family
of the earls of Mayo. In 1361 the duke of Clarence was sent over
as lord-lieutenant to Ireland to enforce his claims as husband of
the heir general, but failed, and the chiefs of the de Burghs
maintained their independence of English sovereignty for several
generations. Ulick de Burgh succeeded to the headship of his
clan, exercised a quasi-royal authority and held vast estates in
county Galway,in Connaught, including Loughry, Dunkcllin, Kil-
tartan (Hilltaraght) and Athenry, as well as Clare and Leitrim.
In March 1541, however, he wrote to Henry VIII., lamenting the
degeneracy of his family, " which have been brought to Irish and
disobedient rule by reason of marriage and nurseing with those
Irish, sometime rebels, near adjoining to me," and placing
himself and his estates in the king's hands. The same year he was
present at Dublin, when the act was passed making Henry VIII.
king of Ireland. In 1543, in company with other Irish chiefs, he
visited the king at Greenwich, made full submission, undertook to
introduce English manners and abandon Irish names, received a
regrant of the greater part of his estates with the addition of
other lands, was confirmed in the captainship and rule of Clanri-
carde, and was created on the ist of July 1543 earl of Clanricarde
and baron of Dunkellin in the peerage of Ireland; with unusual
ceremony. " The making of McWilliam earl of Clanricarde
made all the country during his time quiet and obedient," states
Lord Chancellor Cusake in his review of the state of Ireland in
I553-1 He did not live long, however, to enjoy his new English
dignities, but died shortly after returning to Ireland about March
1544. He is called by the annalist of Loch Ce " a haughty and
proud lord," who reduced many under his yoke, and by the Four
Masters " the most illustrious of the English in Connaught."

Clanricarde married (i) Grany or Grace, daughter of Mulrone
O'Carroll, " prince of Ely," by whom he had Richard or Rickard
" the Saxon," who succeeded him as 2nd earl of Clanricarde
(grandfather of the 4th earl, whose son became marquess of
Clanricarde), this alliance being the only one declared valid.
After parting with his first wife he married (2) Honora, sister
of Ulick de Burgh, from whom he also parted. He married
(3) Mary Lynch, by whom he had John, who claimed the
earldom in 1568. Other sons, according to Burke's Peerage,
were Thomas " the Athlete," shot in 1545, Redmond " of the
Broom " (d. 1595), and Edmund (d. 1597).

See also A nnals of Ireland by the Four Masters (ed. by O. Connellan,
1846), p. 132 note, and reign of Henry VIII.; Annals of Loch Ce
(Rerum Brit. Medii Aevi Scriptores) (54) (1871); Hist. Mem. of the
O'Briens, by J. O. Donoghue (1860), pp 159, 519; Ireland under the
Tudors, by R. Bagwell, vol. i. ; State Papers, Ireland, Carew MSS.
and Gairdner's Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Cotton MSS.
Brit. Mus., Titus B xi. f. 388. (P. C. Y.)

CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE),
MARQUESS OF (1604-1657 or 1658), son of Richard, 4th earl of
Clanricarde, created in 1628 earl of St Albans, and of Frances,
daughter and heir of Sir Francis Walsingham, and widow of Sir
Philip Sidney and of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, was born in
1604. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Burgh in
1628, and succeeded his father as 5th earl in 1635. He sat in the
Short Parliament of 1640 and attended Charles I. in the Scottish
expedition. On the outbreak of the Irish rebellion Clanricarde
had powerful inducements for joining the Irish — the ancient
greatness and independence of his family, his devotion to the
Roman Catholic Church, and strongest of all, the ungrateful
treatment meted out by Charles I. and Wentworth to his father,
one of Elizabeth's most stanch adherents in Ireland, whose lands
were appropriated by the crown and whose death, it was popularly
1 Cal. of State Pap., Carew MSS. 1515-1574, p. 246.

422

CLANVOWE— CLAPARfcDE

asserted, was hastened by the harshness of the lord-lieutenant.
Nevertheless at the crisis his loyalty never wavered. Alone of the
Irish Roman Catholic nobility to declare for the king, he returned
to Ireland, took up his residence at Portumna, kept Galway, of
which he was governor, neutral, and took measures for the
defence of the county and for the relief of the Protestants,
making " his house and towns a refuge, nay, even a hospital for
the distressed English."1 In 1643 he was one of the com-
missioners appointed by the king to confer with the Irish con-
federates, and urged the wisdom of a cessation of hostilities in a
document which he publicly distributed. He was appointed
commander of the English forces in Connaught in 1644, and in
1646 was created a marquess and a privy councillor. He sup-
ported the same year the treaty between Charles I. and the
confederates, and endeavoured after its failure to persuade
Preston, the general of the Irish, to agree to a peace; but the
latter, being advised by Rinuccini, the papal nuncio, refused in
December. Together with Ormonde, Clanricarde opposed the
nuncio's policy; and the royalist inhabitants of Galway
having through the latter's influence rejected the cessation of
hostilities, arranged with Lord Inchiquin in 1648, he besieged the
town and compelled its acquiescence. In 1649 he reduced Sligo.
On Ormonde's departure in December 1650 Clanricarde was
appointed deputy lord-lieutenant, but he was not trusted by the
Roman Catholics, and was unable to stem the tide of the parlia-
mentary successes. In 1651 he opposed the offer of Charles, duke
of Lorraine, to supply money and aid on condition of being
acknowledged " Protector " of the kingdom. In May 1652
Galway surrendered to the parliament, and in June Clanricarde
signed articles with the parliamentary commissioners which
allowed his departure from Ireland. In August he was excepted
from pardon for life and estate, but by permits, renewed from
time to time by the council, he was enabled to remain in England
for the rest of his life, and in 1653 £500 a year was settled upon
him by the council of state in consideration of the protection
which he had given to the Protestants in Ireland at the time of
the rebellion. He died at Somerhill in Kent in 1657 or 1658 and
was buried at Tunbridge.

The " great earl," as he was called, supported Ormonde in his
desire to unite the English royalists with the more moderate
Roman Catholics on the basis of religious toleration under the
authority of the sovereign, against the papal scheme advocated by
Rinuccini, and in opposition to the parliamentary and Puritan
policy. By the author of the Aphorismical Discovery, who
represents the opinion of the native Irish, he is denounced as the
" masterpiece of the treasonable faction," " a foe to his king,
nation and religion," and by the duke of Lorraine as " a traitor
and a base fellow "; but there is no reason to doubt Clarendon's
opinion of him as " a person of unquestionable fidelity . . . and
of the most eminent constancy to the Roman Catholic religion of
any man in the three kingdoms," or the verdict of Hallam, who
describes him " as perhaps the most unsullied character in the
annals of Ireland."

He married Lady Anne Compton, daughter of William
Compton, ist earl of Northampton, but had issue only one
daughter. On his death, accordingly, the marquessate and the
English peerages became extinct, the Irish titles reverting to his
cousin Richard, 6th earl, grandson of the 3rd earl of Clanricarde.
Henry, the I2th earl (1742-1797), was again created a marquess in
1789, but the marquessate expired at his death without issue, the
earldom going to his brother. In 1825 the I4th earl (1802-1874)
was created a marquess; he was ambassador at St Petersburg,
and later postmaster-general and lord privy seal, and married
George Canning's daughter. His son (b. 1832), who achieved
notoriety in the Irish land agitation, succeeded him as 2nd
marquess.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— See the article " Burgh, Ulick de," in the Diet,
of Nat. Biography, and authorities there given; Hist, of the Irish
Confederation, by R. Sellings, ed. by I. T. Gilbert (1882); Aphoris-
mical Discovery (Irish Archaeological Society, 1879); Memoirs of
the Marquis of Clanricarde (1722, repr. 1744); Memoirs of Ulick,

1 Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of Earl of Egmont, i. 223.

Marquis of Clanricarde, by John, nth earl (1757) ; Life of Ormonde,
by T. Carte (1851); S. R. Gardiner's Hist, of the Civil War and
of the Commonwealth; Thomason Tracts (Brit. Mus.) E 371 (11),
456 (10); Col. of State Papers, Irish, esp. Introd. 1633-1647 and
Domestic; Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Ormonde and Earl
of Egmont. (P. C. Y.)

CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS, the name of an English poet first
mentioned in the history of English literature by F. S. Ellis in
1896, when, in editing the text of The Book of Cupid, God of Love,
or The Cuckoo and the Nightingale, for the Kelmscott Press, he
stated that Professor Skeat had discovered that at the end of the
best of the MSS. the author was called Clanvowe. In 1897 this
information was confirmed and expanded by Professor Skeat in
the supplementary volume of his Clarendon Press Chaucer (1894-
1 897) . The beautiful romance of The Cuckoo and the Nightingale
was published by Thynne in 1 53 2, and was attributed by him, and
by successive editors down to the days of Henry Bradshaw, to
Chaucer. It was due to this error that for three centuries
Chaucer was supposed to be identified with the manor of Wood-
stock, and even painted, in fanciful pictures, as lying

"Under a maple that is fair and green,
Before the chamber-window of the Queen •
At Wodestock, upon the greene lea."

But this queen could only be Joan of Navarre, who arrived
in 1403, three years after Chaucer's death, and it is to the
spring of that year that Professor Skeat attributes the composi-
tion of the poem. Sir Thomas Clanvowe was of a Herefordshire
family, settled near Wigmore. He was a prominent figure in the
courts of Richard II. and Henry IV., and is said to have been a
friend of Prince Hal. He was one of those who " had begun to
mell of Lollardy, and drink the gall of heresy." He was one of the
twenty-five knights who accompanied John Beaufort (son of
John of Gaunt) to Barbary in 1390.

The date of his birth is unknown, and his name is last mentioned
in 1404. The historic and literary importance of The Cuckoo and
the Nightingale is great. It is the work of a poet who had studied
the prosody of Chaucer with more intelligent care than either
Occleve or Lydgate, and who therefore forms an important link
between the I4th and 1 5th centuries in English poetry. Clanvowe
writes with a surprising delicacy and sweetness, in a five-line
measure almost peculiar to himself. Professor Skeat points out a
unique characteristic of Clanvowe's versification, namely, the
unprecedented freedom with which he employs the suffix of the
final -e, and rather avoids than seeks elision. The Cuckoo and the
Nightingale was imitated by Milton in his sonnet to the Nightin-
gale, and was rewritten in modern English by Wordsworth. It is
a poem of so much individual beauty, that we must regret the
apparent loss of everything else written by a poet of such unusual
talent.

See also a critical edition of the Bake of Cupide by Dr Erich
Vollmer (Berlin, 1898). (E. G.)

CLAPAREDE, JEAN LOUIS RENfi ANTOINE EDOUARD

(1832-1870), Swiss naturalist, was born at Geneva on the 24th of
April 1832. He belonged to a French family, some members of
which had taken refuge in that city after the revocation of the
Edict of Nantes. In i8s2he began to study medicine and natural
science at Berlin, where he was greatly influenced by J. Miiller
and C. G. Ehrenberg, the former being at that period engaged in
his important researches on the Echinoderms. In 1855 he
accompanied Miiller to Norway, and there spent two months on a
desolate reef that he might obtain satisfactory observations.
The latter part of his stay at Berlin he devoted, along with J.
Lachmann, to the study of the Infusoria and Rhizopods. In 1857
lie obtained the degree of doctor, and in 1862 he was chosen
professor of comparative anatomy at Geneva. In 1859 he
visited England, and in company with W. B. Carpenter made a
voyage to the Hebrides; and in 1863 he spent some months in the
Bay of Biscay. On the appearance of Darwin's work on the
Origin of Species, he adopted his theories and published a
valuable series of articles on the subject in the Revue Germanique
'1861). During 1865 and 1866 ill-health rendered him incapable
of work, and he determined to pass the winter of 1866-1867 in

CLAPPERTON— CLARE

423

Naples. The change of climate produced some amelioration, and
his energy was attested by two elaborate volumes on the
Annelidae of the gulf. He again visited Naples with advantage
in 1868; but in 1870, instead of recovering as before, he grew
worse, and on the 3 ist of May he died at Siena on his way home.
His Recherches sur la structure des annelides sedentaires were
published posthumously in 1873.

CLAPPERTON, HUGH (1788-1827), Scottish traveller in West-
Central Africa, was born in 1 788 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, where
his father was a surgeon. He gained some knowledge of practical
mathematics and navigation, and at thirteen was apprenticed on
board a vessel which traded between Liverpool and North
America. After having made several voyages across the Atlantic
he was impressed for the navy, in which he soon rose to the rank
of midshipman. During the Napoleonic wars he saw a good deal
of active service, and at the storming of Port Louis, Mauritius, in
November 1810, he was first in the breach and hauled down the
French flag. In 1814 he went to Canada, was promoted to the
rank of lieutenant, and to the command of a schooner on the
Canadian lakes. In 1817, when the flotilla on the lakes was
dismantled, he returned home on half-pay.

In 1820 Clapperton removed to Edinburgh, where he made
the acquaintance of Walter Oudney, M.D., who aroused in him an
interest in African travel. Lieut. G. F. Lyon, R.N., having
returned from an unsuccessful attempt to reach Bornu from
Tripoli, the British government determined on a second expedi-
tion to that country. Dr Oudney was appointed by Lord
Bathurst, then colonial secretary, to proceed to Bornu as consul
with the object of promoting trade, and Clapperton and Major
Dixon Denham (q.v.) were added to the party. From Tripoli,
early in 1822, they set out southward to Murzuk, and from this
point Clapperton and Oudney visited the Ghat oasis. Kuka, the
capital of Bornu, was reached in February 1823, and Lake Chad
seen for the first time by Europeans. At Bornu the travellers
were well received by the sultan; and after remaining in the
country till the i4th of December they again set out for the
purpose of exploring the course of the Niger. At Murmur, on the
road to Kano, Oudney died (January 1824). Clapperton con-
tinued his journey alone through Kano to Sokoto, the capital of
the Fula empire, where by order of Sultan Bello he was obliged to
stop, though the Niger was only five days' journey to the west.
Worn out with his travel he returned by way of Zaria and
Katsena to Kuka, where he again met Denham. The two
travellers then set out for Tripoli, reached on the 26th of January
1825. An account of the travels was published in 1826 under the
title of Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and
Central Africa in the years 1822-1824.

Immediately after his return Clapperton was raised to the rank
of commander, and sent out with another expedition to Africa,
the sultan Bello of Sokoto having professed his eagerness to open
up trade with the west coast. Clapperton landed at Badagry in
the Bight of Benin, and started overland for the Niger on the 7th
of December 1825, having with him his servant Richard Lander
(q.v.), Captain Pearce, R.N., and Dr Morrison, navy surgeon and
naturalist. Before the month was out Pearce and Morrison were
dead of fever. Clapperton continued his journey, and, passing
through the Yoruba country, in January 1826 he crossed the
Niger at Bussa, the spot where Mungo Park had died twenty years
before. In July he arrived at Kano. Thence he went to Sokoto,
intending afterwards to go to Bornu. The sultan, however,
detained him, and being seized with dysentery he died near
Sokoto on the I3th of April 1827.

Clapperton was the first European to make known from
personal observation the semi-civilized Hausa countries, which he
visited soon after the establishment of the Sokoto empire by the
Fula. In 1829 appeared the Journal of a Second Expedition into
the Interior of Africa, &c., by the late Commander Clapperton,
to which was prefaced a biographical sketch of the explorer by his
uncle, Lieut. -colonel S. Clapperton. Lander, who had brought
back the journal of his master, also published Records of Captain
Clapperton's Last Expedition to Africa . . . with the subsequent
Adventures of the Author (2 vols., London, 1830).

CLAQUE (Fr. claquer, to clap the hands), an organized body
of professional applauders in the French theatres. The hiring
of persons to applaud dramatic performances was common in
classical times, and the emperor Nero, when he acted, had his
performance greeted by an encomium chanted by five thousand
of his soldiers, who were called Angustals. The recollection of
this gave the 16th-century French poet, Jean Daurat, an idea
which has developed into the modern claque. Buying up a
number of tickets for a performance of one of his plays, 'he dis-
tributed them gratuitously to those who promised publicly to
express their approbation. It was not, however, till 1820 that
a M. Sauton seriously undertook the systematization of the
claque, and opened an office in Paris for the supply of claqueurs.
By 1830 the claque had become a regular institution. The
manager of a theatre sends an order for any number of claqueurs.
These people are usually under a chef de claque, whose duty it is
to judge where their efforts are needed and to start the demonstra-
tion of approval. This takes several forms. Thus there are
commissaires, those who learn the piece by heart, and call the
attention of their neighbours to its good points between the
acts. The rieurs are those who laugh loudly at the jokes. The
pleureurs, generally women, feign tears, by holding their hand-
kerchiefs to their eyes. The chalouilleurs keep the audience in a
good humour, while the bisseurs simply clap their hands and cry
bis I bis! to secure encores.

CLARA, SAINT (1194-1253), foundress of the Franciscan
nuns, was born of a knightly family in Assisi in 1194. At
eighteen she was so impressed by a sermon of St Francis that
she was filled with the desire to devote herself to the kind of life
he was leading. She obtained an interview with him, and to
test her resolution he told her to dress in penitential sackcloth
and beg alms for the poor in the streets of Assisi. Clara readily
did this, and Francis, satisfied as to her vocation, told her to
come to the Portiuncula arrayed as a bride. The friars met her
with lighted candles, and at the foot of the altar Francis shore
off her hair, received her vows of poverty, chastity and obedience,
and invested her with the Franciscan habit, 1212. He placed
her for a couple of years in a Benedictine convent in Assisi,
until the convent at St Damian's, close to the town, was ready.
Her two younger sisters, and, after her father's death, her
mother and many others joined her, and the Franciscan nuns
spread widely and rapidly (see CLARES, POOR). The relations
of friendship and sympathy between St Clara and St Francis
were very close, and there can be no doubt that she was one of
the truest heirs of Francis's inmost spirit. After his death
Clara threw herself wholly on the side of those who opposed
mitigations in the rule and manner of life, and she was one of
the chief upholders of St Francis's primitive idea of poverty
(see FRANCISCANS). She was the close friend of Brother Leo
and the other " Companions of St Francis," and they assisted
at her death. For forty years she was abbess at St Damian's,
and the great endeavour of her life was that the rule of the nuns
should be purged of the foreign elements that had been intro-
duced, and should become wholly conformable to St Francis's
spirit. She lived just long enough to witness the fulfilment of
her great wish, a rule such as she desired being approved by the
pope two days before her death on the nth of August 1253.

The sources for her life are to be found in the Bollandist Ada
Sanctorum on the nth of August, and sketches in such Lives of the
Saints as Alban Butler's. See also Wetzer und Welte, Kirchen-
lexicon (2nd ed.), art. " Clara." (E. C. B.)

CLARE, the name of a famous English family. The ancestor
of this historic house, " which played," in Freeman's words,
" so great a part alike in England, Wales and Ireland," was
Count Godfrey, eldest of the illegitimate sons of Richard the
Fearless, duke of Normandy. His son, Count Gilbert of Brionne,
had two sons, Richard, lord of Bienfaite and Orbec, and Baldwin,
lord of Le Sap and Meulles, both of whom accompanied the
Conqueror to England. Baldwin, knowji as " De Meulles " or
" of Exeter," received the hereditary shrievalty of Devon with
great estates in the West Country, and left three sons, William,
Robert and Richard, of whom the first and last were in turn

424

sheriffs of Devon. Richard, known as " de Bienfaite," or
" of Tunbridge," or " of Clare," was the founder of the house
of Clare.

Richard derived his English appellation from his strongholds
at Tunbridge and at Clare, at both of which his castle-mounds
still remain. The latter, on the borders of Essex and Suffolk,
was the head of his great "honour" which lay chiefly in the
eastern counties. Appointed joint justiciar in the king's absence
abroad, he took a leading part in suppressing the revolt of 1075.
By his wife, Rohese, daughter of Walter Giffard, through whom
great Giffard estates afterwards came to his house, he left five
sons and two daughters. Roger was his heir in Normandy,
Walter founded Tintern Abbey, Richard was a monk, and
Robert, receiving the forfeited fief of the Baynards in the eastern
counties, founded, through his son Walter, the house of Fitz-
Walter (extinct 1432), of whom the most famous was Robert
FitzWalter, the leader of the barons against King John. Of
this house, spoken of by Jordan Fantosme as " Clarreaus,"
the Daventrys of Daventry (extinct 1380) and Fawsleys of
Fawsley (extinct 1392) were cadets. One of Richard's two
daughters married the famous Walter Tirel.

Gilbert, Richard's heir in England, held his castle of Tunbridge
against William Rufus, but was wounded and captured. Under
Henry I., who favoured the Clares, he obtained a grant of
Cardigan, and carried his arms into Wales. Dying about 1115,
he left four sons, of whom Gilbert, the second, inherited Chep-
stow, with Nether-Gwent, from his uncle, Walter, the founder
of Tintern, and was created earl of Pembroke by Stephen about
1138; he was father of Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke
(q.v.). The youngest son Baldwin fought for Stephen at the
battle of Lincoln (1141) and founded the priories of Bourne
and Deeping on lands acquired with his wife. The eldest son
Richard, who was slain by the Welsh on his way to Cardigan
in 1135 or 1136, left two sons Gilbert and Roger, of whom
Gilbert was created earl of Hertfordshire by Stephen.

It was probably because he and the Clares had no interests in
Hertfordshire that they were loosely and usually styled the
earls of (de) Clare. Dying in 1152, Gilbert was succeeded by
his brother Roger, of whom Fitz-Stephen observes that " nearly
all the nobles of England were related to the earl of Clare, whose
sister, the most beautiful woman in England, had long been
desired by the king " (Henry II.). He was constantly fighting
the Welsh for his family possessions in Wales and quarrelled
with Becket over Tunbridge Castle. In 1173 or 1174 he was
succeeded by his son Richard as third earl, whose marriage
with Amicia, daughter and co-heir of William, earl of Gloucester,
was destined to raise the fortunes of his house to their highest
point. He and his son Gilbert were among the " barons of the
Charter," Gilbert, who became fourth earl in 1217, obtained
also, early in 1218, the earldom of Gloucester, with its great
territorial " Honour," and the lordship of Glamorgan, in right
of his mother; " from this time the house of Clare became the
acknowledged head of the baronage." Gilbert had also inherited
through his father his grandmother's " Honour of St Hilary "
and a moiety of the Giffard fief; but the vast possessions of
his house were still further swollen by his marriage with a
daughter of William (Marshal), earl of Pembroke, through
whom his son Richard succeeded in 1245 to a fifth of the Marshall
lands including the Kilkenny estates in Ireland. Richard's
successor, Gilbert, the "Red" earl, died in 1295, the most
powerful subject in the kingdom.

On his death his earldoms seem to have been somewhat
mysteriously deemed to have passed to his widow Joan, daughter
of Edward I.; for her second husband, Ralph de Monthermer,
was summoned to parliament in right of them from 1299 to 1306.
After her death, however, in 1307, Earl Gilbert's son and name-
sake was summoned in 1308 as earl of Gloucester and Hertford,
though only sixteen. A nephew of Edward II. and brother-in-
law of Gaveston, he played a somewhat wavering part in the
struggle between the king and the barons. Guardian of the
realm in 1311 and regent in 1313, he fell gloriously at Bannock-
burn (June 24th, 1314), when only twenty-three, rushing on

CLARE, J.

the enemy " like a wild boar, making his sword drunk with
their blood."

The earl was the last of his mighty line, and his vast posses-
sions in England (in over twenty counties), Wales and Ireland
fell to his three sisters, of whom Elizabeth, the youngest, wife
of John de Burgh, obtained the "Honour of Clare" and trans-
mitted it to her son William de Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster, whose
daughter brought it to Lionel, son of King Edward III., who
was thereupon created duke of Clarence, a title associated ever
since with the royal house. The " Honour of Clare," vested in
the crown, still preserves a separate existence, with a court and
steward of its own.

Clare College, Cambridge, derived its name from the above
Elizabeth, "Lady of Clare," who founded it as Clare Hall in

1347-

Clare County in Ireland derives its name from the family,
though whether from Richard Strongbow, or from Thomas de
Clare, a younger son, who had a grant of Thomond in 1276, has
been deemed doubtful.

Clarenceux King of Arms, an officer of the Heralds' College,
derives his style, through Clarence, from Clare.

See J. H. Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville, Feudal England, Com-
mune of London, and Peerage Studies; also his " Family of Clare "
in Arch. Journ. Ivi., and " Origin of Armorial Bearings " in Ib. li. ;
Parkinson's " Clarence, the origin and bearers of the title," in The
Antiquary, v. ; Clark's "Lords of Glamorgan" in Arch. Journ.
xxxy. ; Planche's "Earls of Gloucester" in Journ. Arch. Assoc.
xxvi. ; Dugdale's Baronage, vol. i., and Monasticon Anglicanum;
G. E. C[okayne]'s Complete Peerage. (J. H. R.)

CLARE, JOHN (1793-1864), English poet, commonly known
as " the Northamptonshire Peasant Poet," the son of a farm
labourer, was born at Helpstone near Peterborough, on the
I3th of July 1793. At the age of seven he was taken from
school to tend sheep and geese; four years later he began to
work on a farm, attending in the winter evenings a school where
he is said to have learnt some algebra. He then became a pot-boy
in a public-house and fell in love with Mary Joyce, but her
father, a prosperous farmer, forbade her to meet him. Subse-
quently he was gardener at Burghley Park. He enlisted in the
militia, tried camp life with gipsies, and worked as a lime burner
in 1817, but in the following year he was obliged to accept
parish relief. Clare had bought a copy of Thomson's Seasons
out of his scanty earnings and had begun to write poems. In
1819 a bookseller at Stamford, named Drury, lighted on one of
Clare's poems, The Setting Sun, written on a scrap of paper
enclosing a note to his predecessor in the business. He be-
friended the author and introduced his poems to the notice
of John Taylor, of the publishing firm of Taylor & Hussey,
who issued the Poems Descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery
in 1820. This book was highly praised, and in the next year
his Village Minstrel and other Poems were published. He was
greatly patronized; fame, in the shape of curious visitors, broke
the tenor of his life, and the convivial habits that he had formed
were indulged more freely. He had married in 1820, and an
annuity of 15 guineas from Lord Exeter, in whose service he had
been, was supplemented by subscription, and he became pos-
sessed of £45 annually, a sum far beyond what he had ever
earned, but new wants made his income insufficient, and in
1823 he was nearly penniless. The Shepherd's Calendar (1827)
met with little success, which was not increased by his hawking
it himself. As he worked again on the fields his health tem-
porarily improved; but he soon became seriously ill. Lord
Fitzwilliam presented him with a new cottage and a piece of
ground, but Clare could not settle in his new home. Gradually
his mind gave way. His last and best work, the Rural Muse
(1835), was noticed by " Christopher North " alone. He had
for some time shown symptoms of insanity; and in July 1837 he
was removed to a private asylum, and afterwards to the North-
ampton general lunatic asylum, where he died on the 2oth of
May 1864. Clare's descriptions of rural scenes show a keen and
loving appreciation of nature, and his love-songs and ballads
charm by their genuine feeling; but his vogue was no doubt
largely due to the interest aroused by his humble position in life.

CLARE, LORD

425

See the Life of John Clare, by Frederick Martin (1865); and Life
and Remains of John Clare, by J. L. Cherry (1873), which, though
not so complete, contains some of the poet's asylum verses and prose
fragments.

CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON, IST EARL OF (1749-1802), lord
chancellor of Ireland, was the second son of John Fitzgibbon,
who had abandoned the Roman Catholic faith in order to
pursue a legal career. He was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, where he was highly distinguished as a classical scholar,
and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1770. In
1772 he was called to the Irish bar, and quickly acquired a very
lucrative practice; he also inherited his father's large fortune
on the death of his elder brother. In 1778 he entered the Irish
House of Commons as member for Dublin University, and at
first gave a general support to the popular party led by Henry
Grattan (q.v.). He was, however, from the first hostile to that
part of Grattan's policy which aimed at removing the disabilities
of the Roman Catholics; he endeavoured to impede the Relief
Bill of 1778 by raising difficulties about its effect on the Act of
Settlement. He especially distrusted the priests, and many
years later explained that his life-long resistance to all concession
to the Catholics was based on his " unalterable opinion " that
" a conscientious Popish ecclesiastic never will become a well-
attached subject to a Protestant state, and that the Popish
clergy must always have a commanding influence on every
member of that communion." As early as 1780 Fitzgibbon
began to separate himself from the popular or national party,
by opposing Grattan's declaration of the Irish parliament's
right to independence. There is no reason to suppose that in
this change of view he was influenced by corrupt or personal
motives. His cast of mind naturally inclined to authority
rather than to democratic liberty; his hostility to the Catholic
claims, and his distrust of parliamentary reform as likely to
endanger the connexion of Ireland with Great Britain, made him
a sincere opponent of the aims which Grattan had in view.
In reply, however, to a remonstrance from his constituents
Fitzgibbon promised to support Grattan's policy in the future,
and described the claim of Great Britain to make laws for Ireland
as " a daring usurpation of the rights of a free people."

For some time longer there was no actual breach between him
and Grattan. Grattan supported the appointment of Fitzgibbon
as attorney-general in 1783, and in 1785 the latter highly eulo-
gized Grattan's character and services to the country in a speech
in which he condemned Flood's volunteer movement. He also
opposed Flood's Reform Bill of 1784; and from this time
forward he was in fact the leading spirit in the Irish government,
and the stiffest opponent of all concession to popular demands.
In 1784 the permanent committee of revolutionary reformers in
Dublin, of whom Napper Tandy was the most conspicuous,
invited the sheriffs of counties to call meetings for the election of
delegates to attend a convention for the discussion of reform; and
when the sheriff of the county of Dublin summoned a meeting for
this purpose Fitzgibbon procured his imprisonment for contempt
of court, and justified this procedure in parJiament, though Lord
Erskine declared it grossly illegal. In the course of the debates
on Pitt's commercial propositions in 1785, which Fitzgibbon
supported in masterly speeches, he referred to Curran in terms
which led to a duel between the two lawyers, when Fitzgibbon
was accused of a deliberation in aiming at his opponent that was
contrary to etiquette. His antagonism to Curran was life-long
and bitter, and after he became chancellor his hostility to the
famous advocate was said to have driven the latter out of
practice. In January 1787 Fitzgibbon introduced a stringent
bill for repressing the Whiteboy outrages. It was supported by
Grattan, who, however, procured the omission of a clause
enacting that any Roman Catholic chapel near which an illegal
oath had been tendered should be immediately demolished. His
influence with the majority in the Irish parliament defeated
Pitt's proposed reform of the tithe system in Ireland, Fitzgibbon
refusing even to grant a committee to investigate the subject.
On the regency question in 1789 Fitzgibbon, in opposition to
Grattan, supported the doctrine of Pitt in a series of powerful

speeches which proved him a great constitutional lawyer; he
intimated that the choice for Ireland might in certain eventu-
alities rest between complete separation from England and
legislative union; and, while he exclaimed as to the latter
alternative, " God forbid that I should ever see that day!" he
admitted that separation would be the worse evil of the two.

In the same year Lord Lifford resigned the chancellorship, and
Fitzgibbon was appointed in his place, being raised to the peerage
as Baron Fitzgibbon. His removal to the House of Lords
greatly increased his power. In the Commons, though he had
exercised great influence as attorney-general, his position had
been secondary; in the House of Lords and in the privy council
he was little less than despotic. " He was," says Lecky, " by far
the ablest Irishman who had adopted without restriction the
doctrine that the Irish legislature must be maintained in a
condition of permanent and unvarying subjection to the English
executive." But the Engh'sh ministry were now embarking on a
policy of conciliation in Ireland. The Catholic Relief Bill of 1 793
was forced on the Irish executive by the cabinet in London, but
it passed rapidly and easily through the Irish parliament.
Lord Fitzgibbon, while accepting the bill as inevitable under the
circumstances that had arisen, made a most violent though
exceedingly able speech against the principle of concession,
which did much to destroy the conciliatory effect of the measure;
and as a consequence of this act he began persistently to urge the
necessity for a legislative union. From this date until the union
was carried, the career of Fitzgibbon is practically the history of
Ireland. True to his inveterate hostility to the popular claims,
he was opposed to the appointment of Lord Fitzwilliam (q.v.) as
viceroy in 1795, and was probably the chief influence in procuring
his recall; and it was Fitzgibbon who first put it into the head of
George III. that the king would violate his coronation oath if he
consented to the admission of Catholics to parliament. When
Lord Camden, Fitzwilliam's successor in the viceroyalty, arrived
in Dublin on the 3ist of March 1795, Fitzgibbon's carriage was
violently assaulted by the mob, and he himself was wounded;
and in the riots that ensued his house was also attacked. But as
if to impress upon the Catholics the hopelessness of their case, the
government who had made Fitzgibbon a viscount immediately
after his attack on the Catholics in 1793 now bestowed on him a
further mark of honour. In June 1795 he was created earl of
Clare. On the eve of the rebellion he warned the government
that while emancipation and reform might be the objects aimed
at by the better classes, the mass of the disaffected had in view
" the separation of the country from her connexion with Great
Britain, and a fraternal alliance with the French Republic."
Clare advocated stringent measures to prevent an outbreak; but
he was neither cruel nor immoderate, and was inclined to mercy
in dealing with individuals. He attempted to save Lord Edward
Fitzgerald (q.v.) from his fate by giving a friendly warning to his
friends, and promising to facilitate his escape from the country;
and Lord Edward's aunt, Lady Louisa Conolly, who was con-
ducted to his death-bed in prison by the chancellor in person,
declared that " nothing could exceed Lord Clare's kindness."
His moderation and humanity after the rebellion was extolled by
Cornwallis. He threw his great influence on the side of clemency,
and it was through his intervention that Oliver Bond, when
sentenced to death, was reprieved; and that an arrangement was
made by which Arthur O'Connor, Thomas Emmet and other
State prisoners were allowed to leave the country.

In October 1798 Lord Clare, who since 1793 had been con-
vinced of the necessity for a legislative union if the connexion
between Great Britain and Ireland was to be maintained, and
who was equally determined that the union must be unaccom-
panied by Catholic emancipation, crossed to England and
successfully pressed his views on Pitt. In 1799 he induced the
Irish House of Lords to throw out a bill for providing a permanent
endowment of Maynooth. On the loth of February 1800 Clare in
the House of Lords moved the resolution approving the union in
a long and powerful speech, in which he reviewed the history of
Ireland since the Revolution, attributing the evils of recent years
to the independent constitution of 1782, and speaking of Grattan

426

CLARE

in language of deep personal hatred. He was not aware of the
assurance which Cornwallis had been authorized to convey to the
Catholics that the union was to pave the way for emancipation,
and when he heard of it after the passing of the act he bitterly
complained that Pitt and Castlereagh had deceived him. After
the union Clare became more violent than ever in his opposition
to any policy of concession in Ireland. He died on the 28th of
January 1802; his funeral in Dublin was the occasion of a riot
organized " by a gang of about fourteen persons under orders of
a leader." His wife, in compliance with his death-bed request,
destroyed all his papers. His two sons, John (1792-1851) and
Richard Hobart (1793-1864), succeeded in turn to the earldom,
which became extinct on the death of the latter, whose only
son, John Charles Henry, Viscount Fitzgibbon (1829-1854), was
killed in the charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava.

Lord Clare was in private life an estimable and even an amiable
man; many acts of generosity are related of him; the determina-
tion of his character swayed other wills to his purpose, and his
courage was such as no danger, no obloquy, no public hatred or
violence could disturb. Though not a great orator like Flood or
Grattan, he was a skilful and ready debater, and he -was by far
the ablest Irish supporter of the union. He was, however,
arrogant, overbearing and intolerant to the last degree. He was
the first Irishman since the Revolution to hold the office of lord
chancellor of Ireland. " Except where his furious personal anti-
pathies and his ungovernable arrogance were called into action,
he appears to have been," says Lecky, " an able, upright and
energetic judge "; but as a politician there can be little question
that Lord Clare's bitter and unceasing resistance to reasonable
measures of reform did infinite mischief in the history of Ireland,
by inflaming the passions of his countrymen, driving them into
rebellion, and perpetuating their political and religious divisions.

See W. E. H. Lecky, History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century
(5 vols., London, 1892); J. R. O'Flanagan, The Lives of the Lord
Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal in Ireland (2 vols., London,
1870) ; Cornwallis Correspondence, ed. by C. Ross (3 vols., London,
1859): Charles Phillips, Recollections of Curran and some of his
Contemporaries (London, 1822); Henry Grattan, Memoirs of the
Life and Times of the Right Honble. Henry Grattan (5 vols., London,
1839-1846); Lord Auckland, Journal and Correspondence (4 vols.,
London, 1861) ; Charles Coote, History of the Union of Great Britain
and Ireland (London, 1802). (R. J. M.)

CLARE, a county in the province of Munster, Ireland, bounded
N. by Galway Bay and Co. Galway, E. by Lough Derg, the river
Shannon, and counties Tipperary and Limerick, S. by the estuary
of the Shannon, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is
852,389 acres, or nearly 1332 sq. m. Although the surface of the
county is hilly, and in some parts even mountainous, it nowhere
rises to a great elevation. Much of the western baronies of
Moyarta and Ibrickan is composed of bog land. Bogs are
frequent also in the mountainous districts elsewhere, except in
the limestone barony of Burren, the inhabitants of some parts of
which supply themselves with turf from the opposite snores of
Connemara. Generally speaking, the eastern parts of the county
are mountainous, with tracts of rich pasture-land interspersed;
the west abounds with bog; and the north is rocky and best
adapted for grazing sheep. In the southern part, along the banks
of the Fergus and Shannon, are the bands of rich low grounds
called corcasses, of various breadth, indenting the land in a great
variety of shapes. They are composed of deep rich loam, and are
distinguished as the black corcasses, adapted for tillage, and the
blue, used more advantageously as meadow land. The coast is
in general rocky, and occasionally bold and precipitous in the
extreme, as may be observed at the picturesque cliffs of Moher
within a few miles of Ennistimon and Lisdoonvarna, which rise
perpendicularly at O'Brien's Tower to an elevation of 580 ft.
The coast of Clare is indented with several bays, the chief of
which are Ballyvaghan, Liscannor and Malbay; but from
Black Head to Loop Head, that is, along the entire western
boundary of the county formed by the Atlantic, there is no safe
harbour except Liscannor Bay. Malbay takes its name from its
dangers to navigators, and the whole coast has been the scene of
many fatal disasters. The county possesses only one large river,

the Fergus; but nearly 100 m. of its boundary-line are washed by
the river Shannon, which enters the Atlantic Ocean between this
county and Kerry. The numerous bays and creeks on both sides
of this great river render its navigation safe in every wind; but
the passage to and from Limerick is often tedious, and the port of
Kilrush has from that cause gained in importance. The river
Fergus is navigable from the Shannon to the town of Clare, which
is the terminating point of its natural navigation, and the port of
all the central districts of the county.

There are a great number of lakes and tarns in the county, of
which the largest are Loughs Muckanagh, Graney, Atedaun and
Dromore; but they are more remarkable for beauty than for
size or utility, with the exception of the extensive and navigable
Lcugh Derg, formed by the river Shannon between this county
and Tipperary. The salmon fishery of the Shannon, both as a
sport and as an industry, is famous; the Fergus also holds
salmon, and there is much good trout-fishing in the lakes for
which Ennis is a centre, and in the streams of the Atlantic sea-
board. Clare is a county which, like all the western counties of
Ireland, repays visitors in search of the pleasures of seaside
resorts, sport, scenery or antiquarian interest. Yet, again like
other western counties, it was long before it was rendered
accessible. Communications, however, are now satisfactory.

Geology. — Upper Carboniferous strata cover the county west of
Ennis, the coast-sections in them being particularly fine. Shales
and sandstones alternate, now horizontal, as in the Cliffs of Mc5her,
now thrown into striking folds. The Carboniferous Limestone forms
a barren terraced country, often devoid of soil, through the Burren
in the north, and extends to the estuary of the Fergus and the
Shannon. On the east, the folding has brought up two bold masses
of Old Red Sandstone, with Silurian cores. Slieve Bernagh, the more
southerly of these, rises to 1746 ft. above Killaloe, and the hilly
country here traversed by the Shannon is in marked contrast with
the upper course of the river through the great limestone plain.

Minerals. — Although metals and minerals have been found in
many places throughout the county, they do not often show
themselves in sufficient abundance to induce the application of
capital for their extraction. The principal metals are lead, iron
and manganese. The Milltown lead mine in the barony of Tulla
is probably one of the oldest mines in Ireland, and formerly, if the
extent of the ancient excavations may be taken as a guide, there
must have been a very rich deposit. Copper pyrites occurs in
several parts of Burren, but in small quantity. Coal exists at
Labasheeda on the right bank of the Shannon, but the few and
thin seams are not productive. The nodules of clay-ironstone in
the strata that overlie the limestone were mined and smelted
down to 1750. Within half a mile of the Milltown lead mine are
immense natural vaulted passages of limestone, through which
the river Ardsullas winds a singular course. The lower limestone
of the eastern portion of the county has been found to contain
several very large deposits of argentiferous galena. Flags, easily
quarried, are procured near Kilrush, and thinner flags near
Ennistimon. Slates are quarried in several places, the best being
those of Broadford and Killaloe, which are nearly equal to the
finest procured in Wales. A species of very fine black marble is
obtained near Ennis; jt takes a high polish, and is free from the
white spots with which the black Kilkenny marble is marked. '

The mineral springs, which are found in many places, are
chiefly chalybeate. That of Lisdoonvarna, a sulphur spa, about
8 m. from Ennistimon, has been celebrated since the i8th century
for its medicinal qualities, and now attracts a large number of
visitors annually. It lies 9 m. by road N. of Ennistimon. There
are chalybeate springs of less note at Kilkishen, Burren, Broad-
foot, Lehinch, Kilkee, Kilrush, Killadysart, and near Milltown
Malbay. Springs called by the people " holy " or " blessed "
wells, generally mineral waters, are common; but the belief in
their power of performing cures in inveterate maladies is nearly
extinct.

Watering-places. — The Atlantic Ocean and the estuary of the
Shannon afford many situations admirably adapted for summer
bathing-places. Among the most frequented of these localities
are Milltown Malbay, with one of the best beaches on the western
coast; and the neighbouring Spanish Point (named from the
scene of the wreck of two ships of the Armada) ; Lehinch, about

CLAREMONT— CLARENCE

427

2 m. from Ennistimon on Liscannor Bay, and near the interesting
cliffs of Moher, has a magnificent beach. Kilkee is the most
fashionable watering-place on the western coast of Ireland; and
Kilrush on the Shannon estuary is also favoured.

Industries. — The soil and surface of the county are in general
better adapted for grazing than for tillage, and the acreage
devoted to the former consequently exceeds three times that of
the latter. Agriculture is in a backward state, and not a fifth of
the total area is under cultivation, while the acreage shows a
decrease even in the principal crops of oats and potatoes. Cattle,
sheep, poultry and pigs, however, all receive considerable
attention. Owing to the mountainous nature of the county nearly
one-seventh of the total area is quite barren.

There are no extensive manufactures, although flannels and
friezes are made for home use, and hosiery of various kinds,
chiefly coarse and strong, is made around Ennistimon and other
places. There are several fishing stations on the coast, and cod,
haddock, ling, sole, turbot, ray, mackerel and other fish abound,
but the rugged nature of the coast and the tempestuous sea
greatly hinder the operations of the fishermen. Near Pooldoody
is the great Burren oyster bed called the Red Bank, where a
large establishment is maintained, from which a constant supply
of the excellent Red Bank oysters is furnished to the Dublin
and other large markets. Crabs and lobsters are caught on the
shores of the Bay of Galway in every creek from Black Head to
Ardfry. In addition to the Shannon salmon fishery mentioned
above, eels abound in every rivulet, and form an important
article of consumption.

The Great Southern & Western railway line from Limerick to
Sligo intersects the centre of the county from north to south.
From Ennis on this line the West Clare railway runs to Ennis-
timon on the coast, where it turns south and follows the coast by
Milltown Malbay to Kilkee and Kilrush. Killaloe in the east of
the county is the terminus of a branch of the Great Southern
& Western railway.

Population and Administration. — The population (126,244
in 1891; 112,334 in 1901; almost wholly Roman Catholic and
rural) shows a decrease among the most serious of the Irish
counties, and the emigration returns are proportionately heavy.
The principal towns, all of insignificant size, are Ennis (pop.
5093, the county town), Kilrush (4179), Kilkee (1661) and
Killaloe (885); but several of the smaller settlements, as resorts,
are of more than local importance. The county, which is divided
into ii baronies, contains 79 parishes, and includes the Protest-
ant diocese of Kilfenora, the greater part of Killaloe, and a
very small portion of the diocese of Limerick. It is within the
Roman Catholic dioceses of Killaloe and Limerick. The assizes
are held at Ennis, and quarter sessions here and at Ennistimon,
Killaloe, Kilrush and Tulla. The county is divided into the
East and West parliamentary divisions, each returning one
member.

History. — This county, together with part of the neighbouring
district, was anciently called Thomond, that is, North Munster,
and formed part of the monarchy of the celebrated Brian
Boroihme, who held his court at Kincora near Killaloe, where
his palace was situated on the banks of the Shannon. The site
is still distinguished by extensive earthen ramparts. Settle-
ments were effected by the Danes, and in the I3th century by
the Anglo-Normans, but without permanently affecting the
possession of the district by its native proprietors. In 1543
Murrogh O'Brien, after dispossessing his nephew and vainly
attempting a rebellion against the English rule, proceeded
to England and submitted to Henry VIII., resigning his name
and possessions. He soon received them back by an English
tenure, together with the title of earl of Thomond, on condition
of adopting the English dress, manners and customs. In 1565
this part of Thomond (sometimes called O'Brien's country)

»was added to Connaught, and made one of the six new counties
into which that province was divided by Sir Henry Sidney.
It was named Clare, the name being traceable either to Richard
de Clare (Strongbow), earl of Pembroke, or to his younger
brother, Thomas de Clare, who obtained a grant of Thomond

from Edward I. in 1276, and whose family for some time main-
tained a precarious position in the district. Towards the close
of the reign of Elizabeth, Clare was detached from the govern-
ment of Connaught and given a separate administration; but
at the Restoration it was reunited to Munster.

Antiquities. — The county abounds with remains of antiquities,
both military and ecclesiastical, especially in the north-western
part. There still exist above a hundred fortified castles, several
of which are inhabited. They are mostly of small extent, a
large portion being fortified dwellings. The chief of them is
Bunratty Castle, built in 1277, once inhabited by the earls of
Thomond, 10 m. W. of Limerick, on the Shannon. Those of
Ballykinvarga, Ballynalackan and Lemaneagh, all in the north-
west, should also be mentioned. Raths or encampments are
to be found in every part. They are generally circular, com-
posed either of large stones without mortar or of earth thrown
up and surrounded by one or more ditches. The list of abbeys
and other religious houses formerly flourishing here (some now
only known by name, but many of them surviving in ruins)
comprehends upwards of twenty. The most remarkable are —
Quin, considered one of the finest and most perfect specimens
of ancient monastic architecture in Ireland; Corcomroe; Ennis,
in which is a very fine window of uncommonly elegant workman-
ship; and those on Inniscattery or Scattery Island, in the
Shannon, said to have been founded by St Senan (see KILRUSH).
Kilfenora, 5 m. N.E. of Ennistimon, was until 1752 a separate
diocese, and its small cathedral is of interest, with several
neighbouring crosses and a holy well. The ruined churches
of Kilnaboy, Nouhaval and Teampul Cronan are the most
noteworthy of many in the north-west. Five round towers are
to be found in various stages of preservation — at Scattery
Island, Drumcliffe, Dysert O'Dea, Kilnaboy and Inniscaltra
(Lough Derg). The cathedral of the diocese of Killaloe is at
the town of that name. Cromlechs are found, chiefly in the
rocky limestone district of Burren in the N.W., though there
are some in other baronies. That at Ballygannor is formed of a
stone 40 ft. long and 10 broad.

See papers by T. J. Westropp in Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy — " Distribution of Cromlechs in County Clare" (1897);
and " Churches of County Clare, and Origin of Ecclesiastical
Divisions " (1900).

CLAREMONT, a city of Sullivan county, New Hampshire,
U.S.A., situated in the W. part of the state, bordering on the
Connecticut river. Pop. (1890) 5565; (1900) 6498 (1442 for-
eign-born); (1910) 7529. Area, 6 sq. m. It is served by two
branches of the Boston & Maine railway. In Claremont is the
Fiske free library (1873), housed in a Carnegie building (1904).
The Stevens high school is richly endowed by the gift of Paran
Stevens, a native of Claremont. The city contains several
villages, the principal being Claremont, Claremont Junction
and West Claremont. Sugar river, flowing through the city
into the Connecticut and falling 223 ft.within the city limits,
furnishes good water-power. Among the manufactures are
woollen and cotton goods, paper, mining and quarrying
machinery, rubber goods, linens, shoes, wood trim and pearl
buttons. The first settlement here was made in 1762, and a
township was organized in 1764; in 1908 Claremont was
chartered as a city. It was named from Claremont, Lord
Clive's country place.

CLARENCE, DUKES OF. The early history of this English
title is identical with that of the family of Clare (</.».), earls of
Gloucester, who are sometimes called earls of Clare, of which
word Clarence is a later form. The first duke of Clarence was
Lionel of Antwerp (see below), third son of Edward III., who
was created duke in 1362, and whose wife Elizabeth was a
direct descendant of the Clares, the " Honour of Clare " being
among the lands which she brought to her husband. When
Lionel died without sons in 1368 the title became extinct; but
in 1412 it was revived in favour of Thomas (see below), the
second son of Henry IV. The third creation of a duke of Clarence
took place in 1461, and was in favour of George (see below),
brother of the King Edward IV. When this duke, accused by

428

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

the king, was attainted and killed in 1478, his titles and estates
were forfeited. There appears to have been no other creation
of a duke of Clarence until 1789, when William, third son of
George III., was made a peer under this title. Having merged
in the crown when William became king of Great Britain and
Ireland in 1830, the title of duke of Clarence was again revived
in 1890 in favour of Albert Victor (1864-1892), the elder son of
King Edward VII., then prince of Wales, only to become extinct
for the fifth time on his death in 1892.

LIONEL OF ANTWERP, duke of Clarence (1338-1368), third
son of Edward III., was born at Antwerp on the 29th of November
1338. Betrothed when a child to Elizabeth (d. 1363), daughter
and heiress of William de Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster (d. 1332),
he was married to her in 1352; but before this date he had
entered nominally into possession of her great Irish inheritance.
Having been named as his father's representative in England
in 1345 and again in 1346, Lionel was created earl of Ulster, and
joined an expedition into France in 1355, but his chief energies
were reserved for the affairs of Ireland. Appointed governor
of that country, he landed at Dublin in 1361, and in November
of the following year was created duke of Clarence, while his
father made an abortive attempt to secure for him the crown
of Scotland. His efforts to secure an effective authority over
his Irish lands were only moderately successful; and after
holding a parliament at Kilkenny, which passed the celebrated
statute of Kilkenny in 1367, he threw up his task in disgust
and returned to England. About this time a marriage was
arranged between Clarence and Violante, daughter of Galeazzo
Visconti, lord of Pavia (d. 1378); the enormous dowry which
Galeazzo promised with his daughter being exaggerated by the
rumour of the time. Journeying to fetch his bride, the duke
was received in great state both in France and Italy, and was
married to Violante at Milan in June 1368. Some months were
then spent in festivities, during which Lionel was taken ill at
Alba, where he died on the 7th of October 1368. His only child
Philippa, a daughter by his first wife, married in 1368 Edmund
Mortimer, 3rd earl of March (1351-1381), and through this
union Clarence became the ancestor of Edward IV. The poet
Chaucer was at one time a page in Lionel's household.

THOMAS, duke of Clarence (c. 1388-1421), who was nominally
lieutenant of Ireland from 1401 to 1413, and was in command of
the English fleet in 1405, acted in opposition to his elder brother,
afterwards King Henry V., and the Beauforts during the later
part of the reign of Henry IV.; and was for a short time at the
head of the government, leading an unsuccessful expedition
into France in 1412. When Henry V., however, became king
in 1413 no serious dissensions took place between the brothers,
and as a member of the royal council Clarence took part in the
preparations for the French war. He was with the English king
at Harfleur, but not at Agincourt, and shared in the expedition
of 1417 into Normandy, during which he led the assault on Caen,
and distinguished himself as a soldier in other similar undertak-
ings. When Henry V. returned to England in 1421, the duke
remained in France as his lieutenant, and was killed at Beauge
whilst rashly attacking the French and their Scottish allies on
the 22nd of March 1421. He left no legitimate issue, and the
title again became extinct.

GEORGE, duke of Clarence (1440-1478) , younger son of Richard,
duke of York, by his wife Cicely, daughter of Ralph Neville,
ist earl of Westmorland, was born in Dublin on the 2ist of
October 1440. Soon after his elder brother became king as
Edward IV. in March 1461, he was created duke of Clarence,
and his youth was no bar to his appointment as lord-lieutenant
of Ireland in the following year. Having been mentioned as a
possible husband for Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, after-
wards duke of Burgundy, Clarence came under the influence of
Richard Neville, earl of Warwick, and in July 1469 was married
at Calais to the earl's elder daughter Isabella. With his father-
in-law he then acted in a disloyal manner towards the king.
Both supported the rebels in the north of England, and when
their treachery was discovered Clarence was deprived of his
office as lord-lieutenant and fled to France. Returning to

England with Warwick in September 1470, he witnessed the
restoration of Henry VI., when the crown was settled upon
himself in case the male line of Henry's family became extinct.
The good understanding, however, between Warwick and his
son-in-law was not lasting, and Clarence was soon secretly re-
conciled with Edward. The public reconciliation between
the brothers took place when the king was besieging Warwick
in Coventry, and Clarence then fought for the Yorkists at
Barnet and Tewkesbury. After Warwick's death in April 1471
Clarence appears to have seized the whole of the vast estates of
the earl, and in March 1472 was created by right of his wife earl
of Warwick and Salisbury. He was consequently greatly dis-
turbed when he heard that his younger brother Richard, duke of
Gloucester, was seeking to marry Warwick's younger daughter
Anne, and was claiming some part of Warwick's lands. A violent
quarrel between the brothers ensued, but Clarence was unable
to prevent Gloucester from marrying, and in 1474 the king
interfered to settle the dispute, dividing the estates between
his brothers. In 1477 Clarence was again a suitor for the hand
of Mary, who had just become duchess of Burgundy. Edward
objected to the match, and Clarence, jealous of Gloucester's
influence, left the court. At length Edward was convinced
that Clarence was aiming at his throne. The duke was thrown
into prison, and in January 1478 the king unfolded the charges
against his brother to the parliament. He had slandered the
king; had received oaths of allegiance to himself and his heirs;
had prepared for a new rebellion; and was in short incorrigible.
Both Houses of Parliament passed the bill of attainder, and the
sentence of death which followed was carried out on the I7th
or i8th of February 1478. It is uncertain what share Gloucester
had in his brother's death; but soon after the event the rumour
gained ground that Clarence had been drowned in a butt of
malmsey wine. Two of the duke's children survived their
father: Margaret, countess of Salisbury (1473-1541), and
Edward, earl of Warwick (1475-1499), who passed the greater
part of his life in prison and was beheaded in November 1499.

On the last-named see W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. iii.
(Oxford, 1895); Sir J. H. Ramsay, Lancaster and York (Oxford,
1892); C. W. C. Oman, Warwick the Kingmaker (London, 1891).
On the title generally see G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage (1887-
1898).

CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, IST EARL OF (1609-1674),
English historian and statesman, son of Henry Hyde of Dinton,
Wiltshire, a member of a family for some time established at
Norbury, Cheshire, was born on the i8th of February 1609.
He entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in 1622 (having been refused
a demyship at Magdalen College), and graduated B.A. in 1626.
Intended originally for holy orders, the death of two elder
brothers made him his father's heir, and in 1625 he entered the
Middle Temple. At the university his abilities were more
conspicuous than his industry, and at the bar his time was
devoted more to general reading and to the society of eminent
scholars and writers than to the study of law treatises. This
wandering from the beaten track, however, was not without its
advantages. In later years Clarendon declared " next the
immediate blessing and providence of God Almighty " that he
" owed all the little he knew and the little good that was in him
to the friendships and conversation ... of the most excellent
men in their several kinds that lived in that age." l These in-
cluded Ben Jonson, Selden, Waller, Hales, and especially Lord
Falkland; and from their influence and the wide reading in
which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning and
literary talent which afterwards distinguished him.

In 1629 he married his first wife, Anne, daughter of Sir George
Ayliffe, who died six months afterwards; and secondly, in 1634,
Frances, daughter of Sir Thomas Aylesbury, Master of Requests.
In 1633 he was called to the bar, and obtained quickly a good
position and practice. His marriages had gained for him in-
fluential friends, and in December 1634 he was made keeper of
the writs and rolls of the common pleas; while his able conduct
of the petition of the London merchants against Portland earned
Laud's approval. He was returned to the Short Parliament
1 Life, \. 25.

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

429

in 1640 as member for Wootton Bassett. Respect and venera-
tion for the law and constitution of England were already
fundamental principles with Hyde, and the flagrant violations
and perversions of the law which characterized the twelve
preceding years of absolute rule drove him into the ranks of the
popular party. He served on numerous and important com-
mittees, and his parliamentary action was directed chiefly to-
wards the support and restoration of the law. He assailed the
jurisdiction of the earl marshal's court, and in the Long Parlia-
ment, in which he sat for Saltash, renewed his attacks and
practically effected its suppression. In 1641 he served on the
committees for inquiring into the status of the councils of Wales
and of the North, distinguished himself by a speech against the
latter, and took an important part in the proceedings against
the judges. He supported Strafford's impeachment, and did
not vote against the attainder, subsequently making an un-
successful attempt through Essex to avert the capital penalty.1
Hyde's allegiance, however, to the church of England was as
staunch as his support of the law, and was soon to separate
him from the popular faction. In February 1641 he opposed
the reception of the London petition against episcopacy, and in
May the project for unity of religion with the Scots, and the bill
for the exclusion of the clergy from secular office. He showed
special energy in his opposition to the Root and Branch Bill,
and, though made chairman of the committee on the bill on the
nth of July in order to silence his opposition, he caused by his
successful obstruction the failure of the measure. In consequence
he was summoned to the king's presence, and encouraged in his
attitude, and at the beginning of the second session was regarded
as one of the king's ablest supporters in the Commons. He
considered the claims put forward at this time by parliament
as a violation and not as a guarantee of the law and constitution.
He opposed the demand by the parliament to choose the king's
ministers, and also the Grand Remonstrance, to which he wrote
a reply published by the king.

He now definitely though not openly joined the royal cause,
and refused office in January 1642 with Colepeper and Falkland
in order to serve the king's interests more effectually. Charles
undertook to do nothing in the Commons without their advice.
Nevertheless a few days afterwards, without their knowledge and
by the advice of Lord Digby, he attempted the arrest of the five
members, a resort to force which reduced Hyde to despair, and
which indeed seemed to show that things had gone too far for an
appeal to the law. He persevered, nevertheless, in his legal policy,
to which Charles after the failure of his project again returned,
joined the king openly in June, and continued to compose the
king's answers and declarations in which he appealed to the
" known Laws of the land " against the arbitrary and illegal
acts of a seditious majority in the parliament, his advice to the
king being " to shelter himself wholly under the law, . . . pre-
suming that the king and the law together would have been
strong enough for any encounter." Hyde's appeal had great
influence, and gained for the king's cause half the nation. It by no
means, however, met with universal support among the royalists,
Hobbes jeering at Hyde's love for " mixed monarchy," and the
courtiers expressing their disapproval of the " spirit of accommo-
dation " which " wounded the regality." It was destined to
failure owing principally to the invincible distrust of Charles
created in the parliament leaders, and to the fact that Charles was
simultaneously carrying on another and an inconsistent policy,
listening to very different advisers, such as the queen and Digby,
and resolving on measures (such as the attempt on Hull) without
Hyde's knowledge or approval.

War, accordingly, in spite of his efforts, broke out. He was
expelled the House of Commons on the nth of August 1642, and
was one of those excepted later from pardon. He showed great
activity in collecting loans, was present at Edgehill, though not as
a combatant, and followed the king to Oxford, residing at All
Souls College from October 1642 till March 1645. On the 22nd of

1 Hist, of the Rebellion, iii. 164, the account being substantially
accepted by Gardiner, in spite of inaccuracies in details (Hist. ix.
341, note).

February he was made a privy councillor and knighted, and on
the 3rd of March appointed chancellor of the exchequer. He
was an influential member of the " Junto " which met every
week to discuss business before it was laid before the council.
His aim was to gain over some of the leading Parliamentarians
by personal influence and personal considerations, and at the
Uxbridge negotiations in January 1645, where he acted as
principal manager on the king's side, while remaining firm on the
great political questions such as the church and the militia, he
tried to win individuals by promises of places and honours. He
promoted the assembly of the Oxford parliament in December
1643 as a counterpoise to the influence and status of the Long
Parliament. Hyde's policy and measures, however, all failed.
They had been weakly and irregularly supported by the king, and
were fiercely opposed by the military party, who were jealous of
the civil influence, and were urging Charles to trust to force and
arms alone and eschew all compromise and concessions. Charles
fell now under the influence of persons devoid of all legal and
constitutional scruples, sending to Glamorgan in Ireland " those
strange powers and instructions inexcusable to justice, piety and
prudence."2

Hyde's influence was much diminished, and on the 4th of March
1645 ne left the king for Bristol as one of the guardians of the
prince of Wales and governors of the west. Here the disputes
between the council and the army paralysed the proceedings, and
lost, according to Hyde, the finest opportunity since the outbreak
of the war of raising a strong force and gaining substantial
victories in that part of the country. After Hopton's defeat on
the i6th of February 1646, at Torrington, Hyde accompanied the
prince, on the 4th of March, to Stilly, and on the lyth of April, for
greater security, to Jersey. He strongly disapproved of the
prince's removal to France by the queen's order and of the
schemes of assistance from abroad, refused to accompany him,
and signed a bond to prevent the sale of Jersey to the French
supported by Jermyn. He opposed the projected sacrifice of the
church to the Scots and the grant by the king of any but personal
or temporary concessions, declaring that peace was only possible
" upon the old foundations of government in church and state."
He was especially averse to Charles's tampering with the Irish
Romanists. " Oh, Mr Secretary," he wrote to Nicholas, " those
stratagems have given me more sad hours than all the mis-
fortunes in war which have befallen the king and look like the
effects of God's anger towards us." 3 He refused to compound for
his own estate. While in Jersey he resided first at St Helier and
afterwards at Elizabeth Castle with Sir George Carteret. He
composed the first portion of his History and kept in touch with
events by means of an enormous correspondence. In 1648 he
published A Full answer to an infamous and tr ailerons Pamphlet
. . ., a reply to the resolution of the parliament to present no
more addresses to the king and a vindication of Charles.

On the outbreak of the second Civil War Hyde left Jersey
(26th of June 1648) to join the queen and prince at Paris. He
landed at Dieppe, sailed from that port to Dunkirk, and thence
followed the prince to the Thames, where Charles had met the
fleet, but was captured and robbed by a privateer, and only joined
the prince in September after the latter's return to the Hague.
He strongly disapproved of the king's concessions at Newport.
When the army broke off the treaty and brought Charles to trial
he endeavoured to save his life, and after the execution drew up a
letter to the several European sovereigns invoking their assistance
to avenge it. Hyde strongly opposed Charles II. 's ignominious
surrender to the Covenanters, the alliance with the Scots, and
the Scottish expedition, desiring to accomplish whatever was
possible there through Montrose and the royalists, and inclined
rather to an attempt in Ireland. His advice was not followed, and
he gladly accepted a mission with Cottington to Spain to obtain
money from the Roman Catholic powers, and to arrange an
alliance between Owen O'Neill and Ormonde for the recovery of
Ireland, arriving at Madrid on the 26th of November 1649. The
defeat, however, of Charles at Dunbar, and the confirmation of
Cromwell's ascendancy, influenced the Spanish government
1 Clarendon St. Pap. ii. 337. • Ibid.

4-30

against them, and they were ordered to leave in December 1650.
Hyde arrived at Antwerp in January 1651, and in December
rejoined Charles at Paris after the latter's escape from Worcester.
He now became one of his chief advisers, accompanying him in
his change of residence to Cologne in October 1654 and to
Bruges in 1658, and was appointed lord chancellor on the I3th
of January 1658. His influence was henceforth maintained in
spite of the intrigues of both Romanists and Presbyterians, as
well as the violent and openly displayed hostility of the queen,
and was employed unremittingly in the endeavour to keep
Charles faithful to the church and constitution, and in the pre-
vention of unwise concessions and promises which might estrange
the general body of the royalists. His advice to Charles was to
wait upon the turn of events, " that all his activity was to
consist in carefully avoiding to do anything that might do him
hurt and to expect some blessed conjuncture."1 In 1656, during
the war between England and Spain, Charles received offers of
help from the latter power provided he could gain a port in
England, but Hyde discouraged small isolated attempts. He
expected much from Cromwell's death. The same year he made
an alliance with the Levellers, and was informed of their plots to
assassinate the protector, without apparently expressing any
disapproval.2 He was well supplied with information from
England,3 and guided the action of the royalists with great
ability and wisdom during the interval between Cromwell's
death and the Restoration, urged patience, and advocated the
obstruction of a settlement between the factions contending for
power and the fomentation of their jealousies, rather than
premature risings.

The Restoration was a complete triumph for Hyde's policy.
He lays no stress on his own great part in it, but it was owing
to him that the Restoration was a national one, by the consent
and invitation of parliament representing the whole people
and not through the medium of one powerful faction enforcing
its will upon a minority, and that it was not only a restoration
of Charles but a restoration of the monarchy. By Hyde's
advice concessions to the inconvenient demands of special
factions had been avoided by referring the decision to a " free
parliament," and the declaration of Breda reserved for parlia-
ment the settlement of the questions of amnesty, religious
toleration and the proprietorship of forfeited lands.

Hyde entered London with the king, all attempts at effecting
his fall having failed, and immediately obtained the chief place
in the government, retaining the chancellorship of the exchequer
till the I3th of May 1661, when he surrendered it to Lord Ashley.
He took his seat as speaker of the House of Lords and in the
court of chancery on the ist of June 1660. On the 3rd of
November 1660 he was made Baron Hyde of Hindon, and on
the zoth of April 1661 Viscount Combury and earl of Clarendon,
receiving a grant from the king of £20,000 and at different times
of various small estates and Irish rents. The marriage of his
daughter Anne to James, duke of York, celebrated in secret in
September 1660, at first alarmed Clarendon on account of the
public hostility he expected thereby to incur, but finding his
fears unconfirmed he acquiesced in its public recognition in
December, and thus became related in a special manner to the
royal family and the grandfather of two English sovereigns.4

Clarendon's position was one of great difficulties, but at the
same time of splendid opportunities. In particular a rare
occasion now offered itself of settling the religious question on a
broad .principle of comprehension or toleration; for the monarchy
had been restored not by the supporters of the church alone
but largely by the influence and aid of the nonconformists and
also of the Roman Catholics, who were all united at that happy

1 Hist, of the Rebellion, xiii. 140.

2 Clarendon Slate Papers, iii. 316, 325, 341 34-5

» Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F. W. Leyborne-Popkam, 227.

* Anne Hyde (1637-1671), eldest daughter of the chancellor, was
the mother by James of Queen Mary and Queen Anne, besides six
other children, including four sons who all died in infancy. She
became a Roman Catholic in 1670 shortly before her death, and
was buried in the vault of Mary, queen of Scots, in Henry VII.'s
chapel m Westminster Abbey.

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

moment by a common loyalty to the throne. Clarendon appears
to have approved of comprehension but not of toleration. He
had already in April 1660 sent to discuss terms with the leading
Presbyterians in England, and after the Restoration offered
bishoprics to several, including Richard Baxter. He drew up
the royal declaration of October, promising limited episcopacy
and a revised prayer-book and ritual, which was subsequently
thrown out by parliament, and he appears to have anticipated
some kind of settlement from the Savoy Conference which sat
in April 1661. The failure of the latter proved perhaps that the
differences were too great for compromise, and widened the
breach. The parliament immediately proceeded to pass the
series of narrow and tyrannical measures against the dissenters
known as the Clarendon Code. The Corporations Act, obliging
members of corporations to denounce the Covenant and take
the sacrament according to the Anglican usage, became law
on the aoth of December 1661, the Act of Uniformity enforcing
the use of the prayer-book on ministers, as well as a declaration
that it was unlawful to bear arms against the sovereign, on the
i pth of May 1662, and these were followed by the Conventicle Act
in 1664 suppressing conventicles and by the Five-Mile Act in 1665
forbidding ministers who had refused subscription to the Act of
Uniformity to teach or reside within 5 m. of a borough. Clarendon
appears to have reluctantly acquiesced in these civil measures
rather than to have originated them, and to have endeavoured
to mitigate their injustice and severity. He supported the con-
tinuance of the tenure by presbyterian ministers of livings not
held by Anglicans and an amendment in the Lords allowing a
pension to those deprived, earning the gratitude of Baxter and
the nonconformists. On the I7th of March 1662 he introduced
into parliament a declaration enabling the king to dispense
with the Act of Uniformity in the case of ministers of merit.*
But once committed to the narrow policy of intolerance, Claren-
don was inevitably involved in all its consequences. His char-
acteristic respect for the law and constitution rendered him
hostile to the general policy of indulgence, which, though the
favourite project of the king, he strongly opposed in the Lords,
and in the end caused its withdrawal. He declared that he could
have wished the law otherwise, " but when it was passed, he
thought it absolutely necessary to see obedience paid to it
without any connivance."6 Charles was greatly angered. It
was believed in May 1663 that the intrigues of Bennet and
Buckingham, who seized the opportunity of ingratiating them-
selves with the king by zealously supporting the indulgence,
had secured Clarendon's dismissal, and in July Bristol ventured
to accuse him of high treason in the parliament; but the attack,
which did not receive the king's support, failed entirely and only
ended in the banishment from court of its promoter. Clarendon's
opposition to the court policy in this way acquired a personal
character, and he was compelled to identify himself more com-
pletely with the intolerant measures of the House of Commons.
Though not the originator of the Conventicle Act or of the Five-
Mile Act, he has recorded his approval,7 and he ended by taking
alarm at plots and rumours and by regarding the great party
of nonconformists, through whose co-operation the monarchy
had been restored, as a danger to the state whose " faction was
their religion." 8

Meanwhile Clarendon's influence and direction had been
predominant in nearly all departments of state. He supported
the exception of the actual regicides from the Indemnity, but
only ten out of the twenty-six condemned were executed, and
Clarendon, with the king's support, prevented the passing of a
bill in 1 66 1 for the execution of thirteen more. He upheld the
Act of Indemnity against all the attempts of the royalists to
upset it. The conflicting claims to estates were left to be decided
by the law. The confiscations of the usurping government accord-
ingly were cancelled, while the properly executed transactions

'See Hist. MSS. Comm.: Various Collections, ii. 118, and MSS.
of Duke of Somerset, 94.

6 Continuation, 339. ' 76. 511, 776.

8 Lister's Life of Clarendon, ii. 295; Hist. MSS. Comm.: Various
Collections, ii. 379.

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

431

between individuals were necessarily upheld. There can be
little doubt that the principle followed was the only safe
one in the prevailing confusion. Great injustice was indeed
suffered by individuals, but the proper remedy of such injustice
was the benevolence of the king, which there is too much reason
to believe proved inadequate and partial. The settlement of
the church lands which was directed by Clarendon presented
equal difficulties and involved equal hardships. In settling
Scotland Clarendon's aim was to make that kingdom dependent
upon England and to uphold the Cromwellian union. He
proposed to establish a council at Whitehall to govern Scottish
affairs, and showed great zeal in endeavouring to restore episco-
pacy through the medium of Archbishop Sharp. His influence,
however, ended with the ascendancy of Lauderdale in 1663.
He was, to some extent at least, responsible for the settlement
in Ireland, but, while anxious for an establishment upon a
solid Protestant basis, urged " temper and moderation and
justice " in securing it. He supported Ormonde's wise and
enlightened Irish administration, and in particular opposed
persistently the prohibition of the import of Irish cattle into
England, incurring thereby great unpopularity. He showed
great activity in the advancement of the colonies, to whom he
allowed full freedom of religion. He was a member of the council
for foreign plantations, and one of the eight lords proprietors
of Carolina in 1663; and in 1664 sent a commission to settle
disputes in New England. In the department of foreign
affairs he had less influence. His policy was limited to the
maintenance of peace " necessary for the reducing [the king's]
own dominions into that temper of subjection and obedience
as they ought to be in." 1 In 1664 he demanded, on behalf
of Charles, French support, and a loan of £50,000 against dis-
turbance at home, and thus initiated that ignominious system
of pensions and dependence upon France which proved so
injurious to English interests later. But he was the promoter
neither of the sale of Dunkirk on the 27th of October 1662, the
author of which seems to have been the earl of Sandwich,2 nor
of the Dutch War. He attached considerable value to the
possession of the former, but when its sale was decided he con-
ducted the negotiations and effected the bargain. He had
zealously laboured for peace with Holland, and had concluded
a treaty for the settlement of disputes on the 4th of September
1662. Commercial and naval jealousies, however, soon involved
the two states in hostilities. Cape Corso and other Dutch
possessions on the cost of Africa, and New Amsterdam in
America, were seized by squadrons from the royal navy in 1664,
and hostilities were declared on the 22nd of February 1665.
Clarendon now gave his support to the war, asserted the extreme
claims of the English crown over the British seas, and contem-
plated fresh cessions from the Dutch and an alliance with Sweden
and Spain. According to his own account he initiated the policy
of the Triple Alliance,3 but it seems clear that his inclination
towards France continued in spite of the intervention of the
latter state in favour of Holland; and he took part in the
negotiations for ending the war by an undertaking with Louis
XIV. implying a neutrality, while the latter seized Flanders.
The crisis in this feeble foreign policy and in the general official
mismanagement was reached in June 1667, when the Dutch
burnt several ships at Chatham and when " the roar of foreign
guns were heard for the first and last time by the citizens of
London."4

The whole responsibility for the national calamity and disgrace,
and for the ignominious peace which followed it, was unjustly
thrown on the shoulders of Clarendon, though it must be admitted
that the disjointed state of the administration and want of
control over foreign policy were largely the causes of the disaster,
and for these Clarendon's influence and obstruction of official
reforms were to some extent answerable. According to Sir
William Coventry, whose opinion has weight and who acknow-
ledges the chancellor's fidelity to the king, while Clarendon " was

1 Continuation, 1170.

1 Hist. MSS. Comm. : MSS. of F. W. Leyborne-Popham, 250.

1 Continuation, 1066. * Macaulay's Hist, of England, i. 193.

so great at the council board and in the administration of matters,
there was no room for anybody to propose any remedy to what
was remiss . . . he managing all tlu'ngs with that greatness which
will now be removed." * He disapproved of the system of boards
and committees instituted during the Commonwealth, as giving
too much power to the parliament, and regarded the administra-
tion by the great officers of state, to the exclusion of pure men of
business, as the only method compatible with the dignity and
security of the monarchy. The lowering of the prestige of the
privy council, and its subordination first to the parliament and
afterwards to the military faction, he considered as one of the
chief causes of the fall of Charles I. He aroused a strong feeling of
hostility in the Commons by his opposition to the appropriation of
supplies in 1665, and to the audit of the war accounts in 1666, as
" an introduction to a commonwealth " and as " a new encroach-
ment," and by his high tone of prerogative and authority, while
by his advice to Charles to prorogue parliament he incurred their
resentment and gave colour to the accusation that he had advised
the king to govern without parliaments. He was unpopular
among all classes, among the royalists on account of the Act
of Indemnity, among the Presbyterians because of the Act of
Uniformity. It was said that he had invented the maxim " that
the king should buy and reward his enemies and do little for his
friends, because they are his already. " 6 Every kind of mal-
administration was currently ascribed to him, of designs to govern
by a standing army, and of corruption. He was credited with
having married Charles purposely to a barren queen in order to
raise his own grandchildren to the throne, with having sold
Dunkirk to France, and his magnificent house in St James's was
nicknamed " Dunkirk House," while on the day of the Dutch
attack on Chatham the mob set up a gibbet at his gate and broke
his windows. He had always been exceedingly unpopular at
court, and kept severely aloof from the revels and licence which
reigned there. Evelyn names " the buffoons and the misses to
whom he was an eyesore." 7 He was intensely disliked by the
royal mistresses, whose favour he did not condescend to seek, and
whose presence and influence were often the subject of his
reproaches,8 A party of younger men of the king's own age,
more congenial to his temperament, and eager to drive the old
chancellor from power and to succeed him in office, had for some
time been endeavouring to undermine his influence by ridicule and
intrigue. Surrounded by such general and violent animosity,
Clarendon's only hope could be in the support of the king. But
the chancellor had early and accurately gauged the nature and
extent of the king's attachment to him, which proceeded neither
from affection nor gratitude but " from his aversion to be
troubled with the intricacies of his affairs," and in 1661 he had
resisted the importunities of Ormonde to resign the great seal for
the lord treasurership with the rank of " first minister," " a title
newly translated out of French into English," on account of the
obloquy this position would incur and the further dependence
which it entailed upon the inconstant king.9 Charles, long weary
of the old chancellor's rebukes, was especially incensed at this
time owing to his failure in securing Frances Stuart (la Belle
Stuart) for his seraglio, a disappointment which he attributed to
Clarendon, and was now alarmed by the hostility which his
administration had excited. He did not scruple to sacrifice at
once the old adherent of his house and fortunes. " The truth is,"
he wrote Ormonde, " his behaviour and humour was grown so
insupportable to myself and all the world else that I could no
longer endure it, and it was impossible for me to live with it and
do these things with the Parliament that must be done, or the
government will be lost."10 By the direction of Charles, James
advised Clarendon to resign before the meeting of parliament, but
in an interview with the king on the 26th of August Clarendon
refused to deliver up the seal unless dismissed, and urged him not
to take a step ruinous to the interests both of the chancellor

1 Pepys's Diary, Sept. 2, 1667.

• Hist. MSS. Comm., 7th Rep. 162. 7 Diary, iii. 95, 96.

1 Lives from the Clarendon Gallery, by Lady Th. Lewis, i. 39;
Burnet's Hist, of his own Times, i. 209.

* Continuation, 88. 10 Lister's Life of Clarendon, ii. 416.

432

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

himself and of the crown.1 He could not believe his dismissal was
really intended, but on the 3oth of August he was deprived of the
great seal, for which the king received the thanks of the parlia-
ment on the i6th of October. On the I2th of November his im-
peachment, consisting of various charges of arbitrary government,
corruption and maladministration, was brought up to the Lords,
but the latter refused to order his committal, on the ground that
the Commons had only accused him of treason in general without
specifying any particular charge. Clarendon wrote humbly to
the king asking for pardon, and that the prosecution might be
prevented, but Charles had openly taken part against him, and,
though desiring his escape, would not order or assist his departure
for fear of the Commons. Through the bishop of Hereford,
however, on the 2pth of November he pressed Clarendon to fly,
promising that he should not during his absence suffer in his
honour or fortune. Clarendon embarked the same night for
Calais, where he arrived on the 2nd of December. The Lords
immediately passed an act for his banishment and ordered the
petition forwarded by him to parliament to be burnt.

The rest of Clarendon's life was passed in exile. He left
Calais for Rouen on the 25th of December, returning on the
2ist of January 1668, visiting the baths of Bourbon in April,
thence to Avignon in June, residing from July 1668 till June
1671 at Montpellier, whence he proceeded to Moulins and to
Rouen again in May 1674. His sudden banishment entailed
great personal hardships. His health at the time of his flight
was much impaired, and on arriving at Calais he fell dangerously
ill; and Louis XIV., anxious at this time to gain popularity
in England, sent him peremptory and repeated orders to quit
France. He suffered severely from gout, and during the greater
part of his exile could not walk without the aid of two men.
At Evreux, on the 23rd of April 1668, he was the victim of a
murderous assault by English sailors, who attributed to him the
non-payment of their wages, and who were on the point of
despatching him when he was rescued by the guard. For some
time he was not allowed to see any of his children; even corre-
spondence with him was rendered treasonable by the Act of
Banishment; and it was not apparently till 1671, 1673 and 1674
that he received visits from his sons, the younger, Lawrence
Hyde, being present with him at his death.

Clarendon bore his troubles with great dignity and fortitude.
He found consolation in religious duties, and devoted a portion
of every day to the composition of his Contemplations on the
Psalms, and of his moral essays. Removed effectually from
the public scene, and from all share in present politics, he turned
his attention once more to the past and finished his History and
his Autobiography. Soon after reaching Calais he had written,
on the i7th of December 1667, to the university of Oxford,
desiring as his last request that the university should believe
in his innocence and remember him, though there could be no
further mention of him in their public devotions, in their private
prayers.2 In 1668 he wrote to the duke and duchess of York to
remonstrate on the report that they had turned Roman Catholic,
to the former urging " You cannot be without zeal for the
Church to which your blessed father made himself a sacrifice,"
adding that such a change would bring a great storm against
the Romanists. He entertained to the last hopes of obtaining
leave to return to England. He asked for permission in June
1671 and in August 1674. In the dedication of his Brief View
of Mr Hobbes's Book Leviathan he repeats " the hope which
sustains my weak, decayed spirits that your Majesty will at
some time call to your remembrance my long and incorrupted
fidelity to your person and your service "; but his petitions
were not even answered or noticed. He died at Rouen on the
9th of December 1674. He was buried hi Westminster Abbey
at the foot of the steps at the entrance to Henry VII. 's chapel.
He left two sons, Henry, 2nd earl of Clarendon, and Lawrence,
earl of Rochester, his daughter Anne, duchess of York, and a
third son, Edward, having predeceased him. His male descend-
ants became extinct on the death of the 4th earl of Clarendon
and 2nd earl of Rochester in 1753, the title of Clarendon being

1 Continuation, 1137. 2 Clarendon St. Pap. iii. Suppl. xxxvii.

revived in 1776 in the person of Thomas Villiers, who had
married the granddaughter and heir of the last earl.

As a statesman Clarendon had obvious limitations and failings.
He brought to the consideration of political questions an essenti-
ally legal but also a narrow mind, conceiving the law, " that
great and admirable mystery," and the constitution as fixed,
unchangeable and sufficient for all time, in contrast to Pym,
who regarded them as living organisms capable of continual
development and evolution; and he was incapable of compre-
hending and governing the new conditions and forces created
by the civil wars. His character, however, and therefore to
some extent his career, bear the indelible marks of greatness.
He left the popular cause at the moment of its triumph and
showed in so doing a strict consistency. In a court degraded
by licence and self-indulgence, he maintained his self-respect
and personal dignity regardless of consequences, and in an age
of almost universal corruption and self-seeking he preserved a
noble integrity and patriotism. At the Restoration he showed
great moderation in accepting rewards. He refused a grant
of 10,000 acres hi the Fens from the king on the ground that
it would create an evil precedent, and amused Charles and James
by his indignation at the offer of a present of £10,000 from the
French minister Fouquet, the only present he accepted from
Louis XIV. being a set of books printed at the Louvre. His
income, however, as lord chancellor was very large, and Clarendon
maintained considerable state, considering it due to the dignity
of the monarchy that the high officers should carry the external
marks of greatness. The house built by him hi St James's
was one of the most magnificent ever seen in England, and was
filled with a collection of portraits, chiefly those of contemporary
statesmen and men of letters. It cost Clarendon £50,000, in-
volved him deeply in debt and was considered one of the chief
causes of the " gust of envy " that caused his fall.3 He is
described as " a fair, ruddy, fat, middle-statured, handsome
man," and his appearance was stately- and dignified. He
expected deference from his inferiors, and one of the chief
charges which he brought against the party of the young poli-
ticians was the want of respect with which they treated himself
and the lord treasurer. His industry and devotion to public
business, of which proofs still remain in the enormous mass of his
state papers and correspondence, were exemplary, and were
rendered all the more conspicuous by the negligence, inferiority
in business, and frivolity of his successors. As lord chancellor
Clarendon made no great impression hi the court of chancery.
His early legal training had long been interrupted, and his
political preoccupations probably rendered necessary the
delegation of many of his judicial duties to others. According
to Speaker Onslow his decrees were always made with the aid
of two judges. Burnet praises him, however, as " a very good
chancellor, only a little too rough but very . impartial in the
administration of justice," and Pepys, who saw him presiding
in his court, perceived him to be " a most able and ready man." *
According to Evelyn, " though no considerable lawyer " he was
" one who kept up the fame and substance of things in the
nation with . . . solemnity." He made good appointments
to the bench and issued some important orders for the reform
of abuses in his court.6 As chancellor of Oxford University,
to which office he was elected on the 27th of October 1660,
Clarendon promoted ( he restoration of order and various educa-
tional reforms. In 1753 his manuscripts were left to the univer-
sity by his great-grandson Lord Cornbury, and in 1868 the
money gained by publication was spent in erecting the Clarendon
Laboratory, the profits of the History having provided in 1713
a building for the university press adjoining the Sheldonian
theatre, known since the removal of the press to its present
quarters as the Clarendon Building.

Clarendon had risen to high office largely through his literary
and oratorical gifts. His eloquence was greatly admired by

' Evelyn witnessed its demolition in 1683 — Diary, May ipth,

Sept. 1 8th; Lives from the Clarendon Gallery, by Lady Th. Lewis,
i. 40.

4 Diary, July I4th, 1664. ' Lister, ii. 528.

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

433

Evelyn and Pepys, though Burnet criticises it as too copious.
He was a great lover of books and collected a large library, was
well read in the Roman and in the contemporary histories both
foreign and English, and could appreciate Carew, Ben Jonson and
Cowley. As a writer and historian Clarendon occupies a high
place in English literature. His great work, the History of the
Rebellion, is composed in the grand style. A characteristic
feature is the wonderful series of well-known portraits, drawn
with great skill and liveliness and especially praised by Evelyn
and by Macaulay. The long digressions, the lengthy sentences,
and the numerous parentheses do not accord with modern taste
and usage, but it may be observed that these often follow more
closely the natural involutions of the thought, and express the
argument more clearly, than the short disconnected sentences,
now generally employed, while in rhythm and dignity Clarendon's
style is immeasurably superior. The composition, however, of
the work as a whole is totally wanting in proportion, and the
book is overloaded with state papers, misplaced and tedious in the
narrative. In considering the accuracy of the history it is
important to remember the dates and circumstances of the
composition of its various portions. The published History is
mainly a compilation of two separate original manuscripts, the
first being the history proper, written between 1646 and 1648,
with the advantage of a fresh memory and the help of various
documents and authorities, and ending in March 1644, and the
second being the Life, extending from 1609 to 1660, but composed
long afterwards in exile and without the aid of papers between
1668 and 1670. The value of any statement, therefore, in the
published History depends chiefly on whether it is taken from the
History proper or the Life. In 1671 these two manuscripts were
united by Clarendon with certain alterations and modifications
making Books i.-vii.of the published History, while Books viii.-xv.
were written subsequently, and, being composed for the most
part without materials, are generally inaccurate, with the notable
exception of Book ix., made up from two narratives written at
Jersey in 1646, and containing very little from the Life. Sincerity
and honest conviction are present on every page, and the in-
accuracies are due not to wilful misrepresentation, but to failure
of memory and to the disadvantages under which the author
laboured in exile. But they lessen considerably the value of his
work, and detract from his reputation as chronicler of con-
temporary events, for which he was specially fitted by his
practical experience in public business, a qualification declared
by himself to be the " genius, spirit and soul of an historian."
In general, Clarendon, like many of his contemporaries, failed
signally to comprehend the real issues and principles at stake in
the great struggle, laying far too much stress on personalities
and never understanding the real aims and motives of the
Presbyterian party. The work was first published in 1702-1704
from a copy of a transcript made by Clarendon's secretary, with
a few unimportant alterations, and was the object of a violent
attack by John Oldmixon for supposed changes and omissions
in Clarendon and Whitelocke compared (1727) and again in a
preface to his History of England (1730), repelled and refuted by
John Burton in the Genuineness of Lord Clarendon's History
Vindicated (1744). The history was first published from the
original in 1826; the best edition being that of 1888 edited by
W. D. Macray and issued by the Clarendon Press. The Lord
Clarendon's History . . . Compleated, a supplement containing
portraits and illustrative papers, was published in 1717, and An
Appendix to the History, containing a life, speeches and various
pieces, La 1724. The Sutherland Clarendon in the Bodleian
library at Oxford contains several thousand portraits and
illustrations of the History. The Life of Edward, earl of Clarendon
. . .[and the] Continuation of the History . . ., the first consisting
of that portion of the Life not included in the History, and the
second of the account of Clarendon's administration and exile in
France, begun in 1672, was published in 1759, the History of the
Reign of King Charles II. from the Restoration . . ., published
about 1755, being a surreptitious edition of this work, of which
the latest and best edition is that of the Clarendon Press of 1857.
Clarendon was also the author of The Difference and Disparity

between the Estate and Condition of George, duke of Buckingham
and Robert, earl of Essex, a youthful production vindicating
Buckingham, printed in Reliquiae Wottonianae (1672), i. 184;
Animadversions on a Book entitled Fanaticism (1673); A Brief
View . . . of the dangerous . . . errors in . . . Mr Hobbes's
book entitled " Leviathan " (1676); The History of the Rebellion
and Civil War in Ireland (1719); A Collection of Several Pieces of
Edward, earl of Clarendon, containing reprints of speeches from
the journals of the House of Lords and of the History of the
Rebellion in Ireland (1727); A Collection of Several Tracts
containing his Vindication in answer to his impeachment,
Reflections upon several Christian Duties, Two Dialogues on
Education and on the want of Respect due to age, and Contempla-
tions on the Psalms (1727); Religion and Policy (1811); Essays
moral and entertaining on the various faculties and passions of the
human mind (1815, and in British Prose Writers, 1819, vol. i.);
Speeches in Rushworth's Collections (1692), pt. iii. vol. i. 230,
333! Declarations and Manifestos (Clarendon being the author of
nearly all on the king's side between March 1642 and March 1645,
the first being the answer to the Grand Remonstrance in January
1642, but not of the answer to the XIX. Propositions or the
apology for the King's attack upon Brentford) in the published
History, Rushworth's Collections, E. Husband's Collections of
Ordinances and Declarations (1646), Old Parliamentary History
(1751-1762), Somers Tracts, State Tracts, Harleian Miscellany,
Thomasson Tracts (Brit. Mus.),E. 157 (14); and a large number of
anonymous pamphlets aimed against the parliament, including
Transcendent and Multiplied Rebellion and Treason (1645), ^
Letter from a True and Lawful Member of Parliament . . . to one
of the Lords of his Highness's Council (1656), and Two Speeches
made in the House of Peers on Monday igth Dec. [1642] . . .
(Somers Tracts, Scott, vi. 576); Second Thoughts (n.d., in favour
of a limited toleration) is ascribed to him in the Catalogue in the
British Museum; A Letter . . . to one of the Chief Ministers of
the Nonconf arming Party . . . (Saumur, 7th May 1674) has been
attributed to him on insufficient evidence.

Clarendon's correspondence, amounting to over 100 volumes,
is in the Bodleian library at Oxford, and other letters are to be
found in Additional MSS. in the British Museum. Selections
have been published under the title of State Papers Collected by
Edward, earl of Clarendon (Clarendon State Papers) between 1767
and 1786, and the collection has been calendared up to 1657 in
1869, 1872, 1876. Other letters of Clarendon are to be found in
Lister's Life of Clarendon, iii.; Nicholas Papers (Camden Soc.,
1886); Diary of J. Evelyn, appendix; Sir R. Fanshaw's Original
Letters (1724); Warburton's Life of Prince Rupert (1849);
Barwick's Life of Barwick (1724); Hist. MSS. Comm. loth Rep.
pt. vi. pp. 193-216, and in the Harleian Miscellany.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Clarendon's autobiographical works and Letters
enumerated above, and the MS. Collection in the Bodleian library.
The Lives of Clarendon by T. H. Lister (1838), and by C. H. Firth
in the Diet, of Nat. Biography (with authorities there collected),
completely supersede all earlier accounts including that in Lives
of All the Lord Chancellors (1708), in Macdiarmid's Lives of British
Statesmen (1807), and in the different Lives by Wood in Athenae
Oxonienses (Bliss), iii. 1018; while those in J. H. Browne's Lives
of the Prime Ministers of England (1858), in Lodge's Portraits, in
Lord Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors, iii. no (1845), and in
Foss's Judges, supply no further information. In Historical Inquiries
respecting the Character of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, various
charges against Clarendon were collected by G. A. Ellis (1827) and
answered by Lister, vol. ii. 529, and by Lady Th. Lewis in Lives of
the Contemporaries of Lord Clarendon (1852), i. preface pt. i. For
criticisms of the History see Gardiner's Civil Wars (1893), iii. 121;
Ranke's Hist, of England, vi. 3-29; Die Politik Karls des Ersten
. . . und Lord Clarendon's Darstellung, by A. Buff (1868); article
in the Diet, of Nat. Biog. by C. H. Firth, and especially a series of
admirable articles by the same author in the Eng. Hist. Review
(1904). For description of the MS., Macray's edition of the History
(1888), Lady Th. Lewis's Lives from the Clarendon Gallery, i. introd.
pt. ii.; for list of earlier editions, Alh. Oxon. (Bliss) iii. 1017. Lord
Lansdowne defends Sir R. Granville against Clarendon's strictures
in the Vindication (Genuine Works of G. Granville, Lord Lansdowne,
j- 5°3 ['732]). and Lord Ashburnham defends John Ashburnham
in A Narrative by John Ashburnham (1830). See also Notes at
Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and the Earl of
Clarendon (Roxburghe Club, 1896); General Orders of the High
Court of Chancery, by J. Beames (1815), 147-221 ; S. R. Gardiner's

434

Hist, of England, of the Civil War and of the Commonwealth; Lord
Clarendon, by A. Chassant (account of the assault at Evreux) (1891) ;
Annals of the Bodleian Library, by W. D. Macray (1868); Masson's
Life of Milton; Life of Sir G. Savile, by H. C. Fpxcroft (1898);
Col. of St. Pap. Dom., esp. 1667-1668, 58, 354, 370; Hist. MSS. Comm.
SeHes, MSS, of J. M. Heathcote and Various Collections, vol. ii.;
Add. MSS. in the British Museum; Notes and Queries, 6 ser. v. 283,
9 ser. xi. 182, I ser. ix. 7; Pepys's Diary; J. Evelyn's Diary and
Correspondence ; Gen. Catalogue in British Museum ; Edward Hyde,
earl of Clarendon (1909), a lecture delivered at Oxford during the
Clarendon centenary by C. H. Firth. (P. C. Y.)

CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VILLIERS,
4TH EARL or(in the Villiers line) (1800-1870), English diplomatist
and statesman, was born in London on the I2th of January 1800.
He was the eldest son of Hon. George Villiers (1750-1827,
youngest son of the ist earl of Clarendon (second creation), by
Theresa, only daughter of the first Lord Boringdon, and grand-
daughter of the first Lord Grantham. The earldom of the lord
chancellor Clarendon became extinct in the Hyde line by the
death of the 4th earl, his last male descendant. Jane Hyde,
countess of Essex, the sister of that nobleman (she died in 1724),
left two daughters; of these the eldest, Lady Charlotte, became
heiress of the Hyde family. She married Thomas Villiers (1709-
1786), second son of the 2nd earl of Jersey, who served with
distinction as English minister in Germany, and in 1776 the
earldom of Clarendon was revived in his favour. The connexion
with the Hyde family was therefore in the female line and
somewhat remote. But a portion of the pictures and plate of the
great chancellor was preserved to this branch of the family, and
remains at The Grove, their family seat at Hertfordshire. The
2nd and 3rd earls were sons of the ist, and, neither of them
having sons, the title passed, on the death of the 3rd earl (John
Charles) in 1838, to their younger brother's son.

Young George Villiers entered upon life in circumstances
which gave small promise of the brilliancy of his future career.
He was well born; he was heir presumptive to an earldom;
and his mother was a woman of great energy, admirable good
sense, and high feeling. But the means of his family were
contracted; his education was desultory and incomplete; he
had not the advantages of a training either at a public school or
in the House of Commons. He went up to Cambridge at the
early age of sixteen, and entered St John's College on the 2gth
of June 1816. In 1820, as the eldest son of an earl's biother
with royal descent, he was enabled to take his M.A. degree
under the statutes of the university then in force. In the same
year he was appointed attache to the British embassy at St
Petersburg, where he remained three years, and gained that
practical knowledge of diplomacy which was of so much use to
him in after-life. He had received from nature a singularly
handsome person, a polished and engaging address, a ready
command of languages, and a remarkable power of composition.

Upon his return to England in 1823 he was appointed to a
commissionership of customs, an office which he retained for
about ten years. In 1831 he was despatched to France to
negotiate a commercial treaty, which, however, led to no result.
On the 1 6th of August 1833 he was appointed minister at the
court of Spain. Ferdinand VII. died within a month of his
arrival at Madrid, and the infant queen Isabella, then in the
third year of her age, was placed by the old Spanish law of female
inheritance on her contested throne. Don Carlos, the late
king's brother, claimed the crown by virtue of the Salic law of
the House of Bourbon which Ferdinand had renounced before
the birth of his daughter. Isabella II. and her mother Christina,
the queen regent, became the representatives of constitutional
monarchy, Don Carlos of Catholic absolutism. The conflict
which had divided the despotic and the constitutional powers
of Europe since the French Revolution of 1830 broke out into
civil war in Spain, and by the Quadruple Treaty, signed on the
22nd of April 1834, France and England pledged themselves to
the defence of the constitutional thrones of Spain and Portugal.
For six years Villiers continued to give the most active and
intelligent support to the Liberal government of Spain. He
was accused, though unjustly, of having favoured the revolution

CLARENDON, 4TH EARL OF

of La Granja, which drove Christina, the queen mother, out of
the kingdom, and raised Espartero to the regency. He un-
doubtedly supported the chiefs of the Liberal party, such as
Espartero, against the intrigues of the French court; but the
object of the British government was to establish the throne
of Isabella on a truly national and liberal basis and to avert
those complications, dictated by foreign influence, which eventu-
ally proved so fatal to that princess. Villiers received the
grand cross of the Bath in 1 838 in acknowledgment of his services,
and succeeded, on the death of his uncle, to the title of earl of
Clarendon; in the following year, having left Madrid, he married
Katharine, eldest daughter of James Walter, first earl of Verulam.

In January 1840 he entered Lord Melbourne's administration
as lord privy seal, and from the death of Lord Holland in the
autumn of that year Lord Clarendon also held the office of
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster until the dissolution of the
ministry in 1841. Deeply convinced that the maintenance of a
cordial understanding with France was the most essential
condition of peace and of a liberal policy hi Europe, he reluctantly
concurred hi the measures proposed by Lord Palmerston for
the expulsion of the pasha of Egypt from Syria; he strenuously
advocated, with Lord Holland, a more conciliatory policy
towards France; and he was only restrained from sending in
his resignation by the dislike he felt to break up a cabinet he
had so recently joined.

The interval of Sir Robert Peel's great administration (1841-
1846) was to the leaders of the Whig party a period of repose;
but Lord Clarendon took the warmest interest hi the triumph
of the principles of free trade and in the repeal of the corn-laws,
of which his brother, Charles Pelham Villiers (<?.».), had been
one of the earliest champions. For this reason, upon the forma-
tion of Lord John Russell's first administration, Lord Clarendon
accepted the office of president of the Board of Trade. Twice
in his career the governor-generalship of India was offered him,
and once the governor-generalship of Canada; — these he refused
from reluctance to withdraw from the politics of Europe. But
in 1847 a sense of duty compelled him to take a far more laborious
and uncongenial appointment. The desire of the cabinet was
to abolish the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, and Lord Clarendon
was prevailed upon to accept that office, with a view to transform
it ere long into an Irish secretaryship of state. But he had not
been many months in Dublin before he acknowledged that the
difficulties then existing in Ireland could only be met by the
most vigilant and energetic authority, exercised on the spot.
The crisis was one of extraordinary peril. Agrarian crimes of
horrible atrocity had increased threefold. The Cathoh'c clergy
were openly disaffected. This was the second year of the Irish
famine, and extraordinary measures were required to regulate
the bounty of the government and the nation. In 1848 the
revolution in France let loose fresh elements of discord, which
culminated in an abortive insurrection, and for a lengthened
period Ireland was a prey to more than her wonted symptoms
of disaffection and disorder. Lord Clarendon remained viceroy
of Ireland till 1852, and left behind him permanent marks of
improvement. His services were expressly acknowledged in the
queen's speech to both Houses of Parliament on the sth of
September 1848 — this being the first time that any civil services
obtained that honour; and he was made a knight of the Garter
(retaining also the grand cross of the Bath by special order) on
the 23rd of March 1849.

Upon the formation of the coalition ministry between the
Whigs and the Peelites, in 1853, under Lord Aberdeen, Lord
Clarendon became foreign minister. The country was already
" drifting " into the Crimean War, an expression of his own
which was never forgotten. Clarendon was not responsible for
the policy which brought war about; but when it occurred he
employed every means in his power to stimulate and assist the
war departments, and above all he maintained the closest
relations with the French. The tsar Nicholas had speculated
on the impossibility of the sustained joint action of France and
England in council and in the field. It was mainly by Lord
Clarendon at Whitehall and by Lord Raglan before Sevastopol

CLARENDON, 2ND EARL OF

435

that such a combination was rendered practicable, and did
eventually triumph over the enemy. The diplomatic conduct
of such an alliance for three years between two great nations
jealous of their military honour and fighting for no separate
political advantage, tried by excessive hardships and at moments
on the verge of defeat, was certainly one of the most arduous
duties ever performed by a minister. The result was due in the
main to the confidence with which Lord Clarendon had inspired
the emperor of the French, and to the affection and regard of
the empress, whom he had known in Spain from her childhood.

In 1856 Lord Clarendon took his seat at the congress of Paris
convoked for the restoration of peace, as first British pleni-
potentiary. It was the first time since the appearance of Lord
Castlereagh at Vienna that a secretary of state for foreign
affairs had been present in person at a congress on the continent.
Lord Clarendon's first care was to obtain the admission of
Italy to the council chamber as a belligerent power, and to
raise the barrier which still excluded Prussia as a neutral one.
But in the general anxiety of all the powers to terminate the war
there was no small danger that the objects for which it had
been undertaken would be abandoned or forgotten. It is due
entirely to the firmness of Lord Clarendon that the principle
of the neutralization of the Black Sea was preserved, that the
Russian attempt to trick the allies out of the cession in Bessarabia
was defeated, and that the results of the war were for a time
secured. The congress was eager to turn to other subjects,
and perhaps the most important result of its deliberations was
the celebrated Declaration of the Maritime Powers, which
abolished privateering, defined the right of blockade, and
limited the right of capture to enemy's property in enemy's
ships. Lord Clarendon has been accused of an abandonment
of what are termed the belligerent rights of Great Britain, which
were undoubtedly based on the old maritime laws of Europe.
But he acted in strict conformity with the views of the British
cabinet, and the British cabinet adopted those views because it
was satisfied that it was not for the benefit of the country to
adhere to practices which exposed the vast mercantile interests
of Britain to depredation, even by the cruisers of a secondary
maritime power, and which, if vigorously enforced against
neutrals, could not fail to embroil her with every maritime
state in the world.

Upon the reconstitution of the Whig administration in 1859,
Lord John Russell made it a condition of his acceptance of office
under Lord Palmerston that the foreign department should be
placed in his own hands, which implied that Lord Clarendon
should be excluded from office, as it would have been inconsistent
alike with his dignity and his tastes to fill any other post in the
government. The consequence was that from 1859 till 1864
Lord Clarendon remained out of office, and the critical relations
arising out of the Civil War in the United States were left to the
guidance of Earl Russell. But he re-entered the cabinet in May
1864 as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; and upon the
death of Lord Palmerston in 1865, Lord Russell again became
prime minister, when Lord Clarendon returned to the foreign
office, which was again confided to him for the third time upon
the formation of Mr Gladstone's administration in 1868. To
the last moment of his existence, Lord Clarendon continued to
devote every faculty of his mind and every instant of his life
to the public service; and he expired surrounded by the boxes
and papers of his office on the 27th of June 1870. No man owed
more to the influence of a generous, unselfish and liberal dis-
position. If he had rivals he never ceased to treat them with the
consideration and confidence of friends, and he cared but little
for the ordinary prizes of ambition in comparison with the
advancement of the cause of peace and progress.

He was succeeded as sth earl by his eldest son, EDWARD HYDE
VILLIERS (b. 1846), who became lord chamberlain in 1900.

See also the article (by Henry Reeve) in Fraser's Magazine, August
1876.

CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE, 2ND EARL OF (1638-1709),
English statesman, eldest son of the first earl, was born on the
2nd of June 1638. He accompanied his parents into exile and

assisted his father as secretary, returning with them in 1660.
In 1661 he was returned to parliament for Wiltshire as Lord
Cornbury. He became secretary in 1662 and lord chamberlain
to the queen in 1665. He took no part in the life of the court,
and on the dismissal of his father became a vehement opponent
of the administration, defended his father in the impeachment,
and subsequently made effective attacks upon Buckingham
and Arlington. In 1674 he became earl of Clarendon by his
father's death, and in 1679 was made a privy councillor. He
was not included in Sir W. Temple's council of that year, but
was reappointed in 1680. In 1682 he supported Halifax's
proposal of declaring war on France. On the accession of James
in 1685 he was appointed lord privy seal, but shortly afterwards,
in September, was removed from this office to that of lord-
lieutenant of Ireland. Clarendon was embarrassed in bis
estate, and James required a willing agent to carry out his
design by upsetting the Protestant government and the Act of
Settlement. Clarendon arrived in Dublin on the gth of January
1686. He found himself completely in the power of Tyrconnel,
the commander-in-chief; and though, like his father, a staunch
Protestant, elected this year high steward of Oxford University,
and detesting the king's policy, he obeyed his orders to introduce
Roman Catholics into the government and the army and upon the
bench, and clung to office till after the dismissal of his brother,
the earl of Rochester, in January 1687, when he was recalled
and succeeded by Tyrconnel. He now supported the church
in its struggle with James, opposed the Declaration of Indulgence,
wrote to Mary an account of the resistance of the bishops,1 and
visited and advised the latter in the Tower. He had no share,
however, in inviting William to England. He assured James
in September that the Church would be loyal, advised the
calling of the parliament, and on the desertion of his son, Lord
Cornbury, to William on the I4th of November, expressed to
the king and queen the most poignant grief. In the council
held on the 27th, however, he made a violent and unseasonable
attack upon James's conduct, and on the ist of December set
out to meet William, joined him on the 3rd at Berwick near
Salisbury, and was present at the conference at Hungerford
on the Sth, and again at Windsor on the i6th. His wish was
apparently to effect some compromise, saving the crown for
James. According to Burnet, he advised sending James to
Breda, and according to the duchess of Marlborough to the
Tower, but he himself denies these statements.2 He opposed
vehemently the settlement of the crown upon William and Mary,
voted for the regency, and refused to take the oaths of the new
sovereigns, remaining a non-juror for the rest of his life. He
subsequently retired to the country, engaged in cabals against
the government, associated himself with Richard Graham, Lord
Preston, and organizing a plot against William, was arrested on
the 24th of June 1690 by order of his niece, Queen Mary, and
placed in the Tower. Liberated on the isth of August, he im-
mediately recommenced his intrigues. On Preston's arrest on
the 3ist of December, a compromising letter from Clarendon
was found upon him, and he was named by Preston as one of his
accomplices. He was examined before the privy council and
again imprisoned in the Tower on the 4th of January 1691,
remaining in confinement till the 3rd of July. This closed his
public career. In 1702, on Queen Anne's accession, he presented
himself at court, " to talk to his niece," but the queen refused to
see him till he had taken the oaths. He died on the 315! of
October 1709, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

His public career had been neither distinguished nor useful, but
it seems natural to ascribe its failure to small abilities and to the
conflict between personal ties and political convictions which
drew him in opposite directions, rather than, following Macaulay,
to motives of self-interest. He was a man of some literary taste,
a fellow of the Royal Society ( 1 684) , the author of The History and
Antiquities of the Cathedral Church of Winchester . . . continued
by S. Gale (1715), and he collaborated with his brother Rochester
in the publication of his father's History (1702-1704). He

1 Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of (he Duke of Buccleuch, ii. 31.
1 Correspondence and Diary (1828), ii. 286.

436

CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF— CLARI

married (i) in 1660, Theodosia, daughter of Lord Capel, and (2)
in 1670, Flower, daughter of William Backhouse of Swallowfield
in Berkshire, and widow of William Bishopp and of Sir William
Backhouse, Bart. He was succeeded by his only son, Edward
(1661-1724), as 3rd earl of Clarendon; and, the latter having no
surviving son, the title passed to Henry, 2nd earl of Rochester
(1672-1753), at whose death without male heirs it became extinct
in the Hyde line.

CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF, a body of English laws
issued at Clarendon in 1164, by which Henry II. endeavoured to
settle the relations between Church and State. Though they
purported to declare the usages on the subject which prevailed in
the reign of Henry I. they were never accepted by the clergy, and
were formally renounced by the king at Avranches in September
1172. Some of them, however, were in part at least, as they all
purported to be, declaratory of ancient usage and remained in
force after the royal renunciation. Of the sixteen provisions the
one which provoked the greatest opposition was that which
declared in effect that criminous clerks were to be summoned to
the king's court, and from there, after formal accusation and
defence, sent to the proper ecclesiastical court for trial. If found
guilty they were to be degraded and sent back to the king's court
for punishment. Another provision, which in spite of all opposi-
tion obtained a permanent place in English law, declared that all
suits even between clerk and clerk concerning advowsons and
presentations should be tried in the king's court. By other
provisions appeals to Rome without the licence of the king were
forbidden. None of the clergy were to leave the realm, nor were
the king's tenants-in-chief and ministers to be excommunicated or
their lands interdicted without the royal permission. Pleas of
debt, whether involving a question of good faith or not, were to
be in the jurisdiction of the king's courts. Two most interesting
provisions, to which the clergy offered no opposition, were: (i) if
a dispute arose between a clerk and a layman concerning a
tenement which the clerk claimed as free-alms (frankalmoign)
and the layman as a lay-fee, it should be determined by the
recognition of twelve lawful men before the king's justice whether
it belonged to free-alms or lay-fee, and if it were found to belong
to free-alms then the plea was to be held in the ecclesiastical
court, but if to lay-fee, in the court of the king or of one of his
magnates; (2) a declaration of the procedure for election to
bishoprics and royal abbeys, generally considered to state the
terms of the settlement made between Henry I. and Anselm in
1107.

AUTHORITIES. — J. C. Robertson, Materials for History of Thomas
Becket, Rolls Series (1875-1885) ; Sir F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland,
History of English Law before the Time of Ed. I. (Cambridge,
1898), and F. W. Maitland, Roman Canon Law in the Church of
England (1898); the text of the Constitutions is printed by W.
Stubbs in Select Charters (Oxford, 1895). (G. J. T.)

CLARES, POOR, otherwise Clarisses, Franciscan nuns, so
called from their foundress, St Clara (q.v.). She was professed by
St Francis in the Portiuncula in 1212, and two years later she
and her first companions were established in the convent of St
Damian's at Assisi. The nuns formed the " Second Order of St
Francis," the friars being the " First Order," and the Tertiaries
(?.!).) the " Third." Before Clara's death in 1253, the Second
Order had spread all over Italy and into Spain, France and
Germany; in England they were introduced c. 1293 and estab-
lished in London, outside Aldgate, where their name of Minoresses
survives in the Minories; there were only two other English
houses before the Dissolution. St Francis gave the nuns no rule,
but only a " Form of Life " and a " Last Will," each only five
lines long, and coming to no more than an inculcation of his idea
of evangelical poverty. Something more than this became
necessary as soon as the institute began to spread; and during
Francis's absence in the East, 1219, his supporter Cardinal
Hugolino composed a rule which made the Franciscan nuns
practically a species of unduly strict Benedictines, St Francis's
special characteristics being eliminated. St Clara made it her
life work to have this rule altered, and to get the Franciscan
character of the Second Order restored; in 1247 a " Second
Rule " was approved which went a long way towards satisfying

her desires, and finally in 1253 a " Third," which practically gave
what she wanted. This rule has come to be known as the " Rule
of the Clares "; it is one of great poverty, seclusion and austerity
of life. Most of the convents adopted it, but several clung to
that of 1 247. To bring about conformity, St Bonaventura, while
general (1264), obtained papal permission to modify the rule of
1253, somewhat mitigating its austerities and allowing the
convents to have fixed incomes, — thus assimilating them to the
Conventual Franciscans as opposed to the Spirituals. This rule
was adopted in many convents, but many more adhered to the
strict rule of 1 253. Indeed a counter-tendency towards a greater
strictness set in, and a number of reforms were initiated, intro-
ducing an appalling austerity of life. The most important of
these reforms were the Coletines (St Colette, c. 1400) and the
Capucines (c. 1540; see CAPUCHINS). The half-dozen forms of
the Franciscan rule for women here mentioned are still in use in
different convents, and there are also a great number of religious
institutes for women based on the rule of the Tertiaries. By the
term " Poor Clares " the Coletine nuns are now commonly
understood; there are various convents of these nuns, as of other
Franciscans, in England and Ireland. Franciscan nuns have
always been very numerous; there are now about 150 convents of
the various observances of the Second Order, in every part of the
world, besides innumerable institutions of Tertiaries.

See Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1792), vii. cc. 25-28 and
38-42; Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed.), art. " Clara ";
Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i. §§ 47, 48,
who gives references to all the literature. For a scientific study
of the beginnings see Lempp, " Die Anfange des Klarissenordens
in Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte, xiii. (1892), 181 ff. (E. C. B.)

CLARET (from the Fr. vin claret, mod. clairet, wine of a light
clear colour, from Lat. clarus, clear) , the English name for the red
Bordeaux wines. The term was originally used in France for
light-yellow or light-red wines, as distinguished from the vins
rouges and the vins blancs; later it was applied to red wines
generally, but is rarely used in French, and never with the
particular English meaning (see WINE).

CLARETIE, JULES ARSENE ARNAUD (1840- ), French
man of letters and director of the Theatre Franjais, was born at
Limoges on the 3rd of December 1840. After studying at the
lycee Bonaparte in Paris, he became an active journalist, achiev-
ing great success as dramatic critic to the Figaro and to the
Opinion nationale. He was a newspaper correspondent during
the Franco-German War, and during the Commune acted as staff-
officer in the National Guard. In 1885 he became director of the
Theatre Francais, and from that time devoted his time chiefly to
its administration. He was elected a member of the Academy in
1888, and took his seat in Feburary 1889, being received by
Ernest Renan. The long list of his works includes Histoire de la
revolution de 1870-1871 (new ed., 5 vols., 1875-1876); Cinq ans
apres; I' Alsace et la Lorraine depuis I'annexion (1876); some
annual volumes of reprints of his articles in the weekly press,
entitled La Vie <J Paris; La Vie moderne au theatre (1868-1869);
Holier e, sa vie et son auvre (1871); Histoire de la litter alure
fran^aise, QOO-IQOO (2nd ed. 1905); Candidatl (1887), a novel of
contemporary life; Brichanteau, comedien franc.ais (1896);
several plays, some of which are based on novels of his own — Les
Muscadins( 1 8 7 4) , Le Regi ment d e Champagne( 1 8 7 7 ) , Les M ira beau
(1879), Monsieur le ministre (1883), and others; and the opera,
La Naiiarraise, based on his novel La Cigarette, and written with
Henri Cain to the music of Massenet. La Navarraise was first
produced at Covent Garden (June 1894) with Mme Calve in the
part of Anita. His (Euvres completes were published in 1897-
1904.

CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA, Italian musical com-
poser, chapel-master at Pistoia, was born at Pisa about the year
1669. The time of his death is unknown. He was the most
celebrated pupil of Colonna, chapel-master of S. Petronio, at
Bologna. He became maestro di cappella at Pistoia about 1712, at
Bologna in 1720, and at Pisa in 1736. He is supposed to have
died about 1745. The works by which Clari distinguished
himself pre-eminently are his vocal duets and trios, with a basso
continue, published between 1 740 and 1 747. These compositions,

CLARINA— CLARINET

437

which combine graceful melody with contrapuntal learning, were
much admired by Cherubini. They appear to have been admired
by Handel also, since he did not hesitate to make appropriations
from them. Clari composed one opera, 77 Savio delirante,
produced at Bologna in 1695, and a large quantity of church
music, several specimens of which were printed in Novello's
Fitzwilliam Music.

CLARINA, a comparatively new instrument of the wood-wind
class (although actually made of metal), a hybrid possessing
characteristics of both oboe and clarinet. The clarina was
invented by W. Heckel of Biebrich-am-Rhein, and has been used
since 1891 at the Festspielhaus, Bayreuth, in Tristan und Isolde,
as a substitute for the Holztrompete made according to Wagner's
instructions. The clarina has been found more practical and more
effective in producing the desired tone-colour. The clarina is a
metal instrument with the conical bore and fingering of the oboe
and the clarinet single-reed mouthpiece. The compass of the

Notation. tm. Real sounds. g»-

=3=

instrument is as shown, and it stands in the key of Bb. Like the
clarinet, the clarina is a transposing instrument, for which the
music must be written in a key a tone higher than that of the
composition. The timbre resulting from the combination of
conical bore and single-reed mouthpiece has in the lowest
register affinities with the cor anglais, in the middle with the
saxophone, and in the highest with the clarinet. Other
German orchestras have followed the example of Bayreuth.
The clarina has also been found very effective as a solo
instrument. (K. S.)

CLARINET, or CLARIONET (Fr. darinette; Ger. Clarinelte,
Klarinett; Ital. clarinetto, chiarinetto) , a wood-wind instrument
having a cylindrical bore and played by means of a single-reed
mouthpiece. The word " clarinet " is said to be derived from
clarinetto, a diminutive of clarino, the Italian for (i) the soprano
trumpet, (2) the highest register of the instrument, (3) the
trumpet played musically without the blare of the martial
instrument. The word " clarionet " is similarly derived from
" clarion," the English equivalent of clarino. It is suggested that
the name clarinet or clarinetto was bestowed on account of the
resemblance in timbre between the high registers of the clarino
and clarinet. By adding the speaker-hole to the old chalumeau,
J. C. Denner gave it an additional compass based on the over-
blowing of the harmonic twelfth, and consisting of an octave and
a half of harmonics, which received the name of clarino, while
the lower register retained the name of chalumeau. There is
something to be said also in favour of another suggested deriva-
tion from the Italian chiarina, the name for reed instruments and
the equivalent for tibia and aulos. At the beginning of the i8th
century in Italy clarinetto, the diminutive of clarino, would be
masculine, whereas chiarinetta or clarinetta would be feminine,1 as
in Doppelmayr's account of the invention written in 1730. The
word " clarinet " is sometimes used in a generic sense to denote
the whole family, which consists of the clarinet, or discant
corresponding to the violin, oboe, &c.; the alto clarinet in E;
the basset horn in F (q.v.); the bass clarinet (q.v.), and the
pedal clarinet (q.v.).

The modern clarinet consists of five (or four) separate pieces:
(i) the mouthpiece; (2) the bulb; (3) the upper middle joint, or
left-hand joint ; (4) the lower middle joint, or right-hand joint 2 ;
(5) the beU; which (the bell excepted) when joined together, form
a tube with a continuous cylindrical bore, 2 ft. or more in length,
according to the pitch of the instrument. The mouthpiece,
including the beating or single-reed common to the whole
clarinet family, has the appearance of a beak with the point
bevelled off and thinned at the edge to correspond with the end of

1 See Gottfried Weber's objection to this derivation in " tlber
Clarinette und Basset-horn," Caectiia (Mainz, 1829), vol. xi. pp. 36
and 37, note.

* Nos. 3 and 4 are sometimes made in one, as for instance in
Messrs Rudall, Carte & Company's modification, the Klussmann
patent.

the reed shaped like a spatula. The under part of the mouthpiece
(fig. 2) is flattened in order to form a table for the support of the
reed which is adjusted thereon with great nicety, allowing just
the amount of play requisite to set in vibration
the column of air within the tube.

The mouthpiece, which is subject to con-
tinual fluctuations of dampness and dryness,
and to changes of temperature, requires to be
made of a material having great powers of
resistance, such as cocus wood, ivory or
vulcanite, which are mostly used for the
purpose in England. A longitudinal aperture
i in. long and J in. wide, communicating with
the bore, is cut in the table and covered by
the reed. The aperture is thus closed except
towards the point, where, for the distance of
J to J in., the reed is thinned and the table
curves backwards towards the point, leaving
a gap between the ends of the mouthpiece and
of the reed of i mm. or about the thickness of
a sixpence for the B flat clarinet. The curve
of the table and the size of the gap are there-
fore of considerable importance. The reed is
cut from a joint of the Arundo donax or saliva,
which grows wild in the regions bordering on
the Mediterranean. A flat slip of the reed is
cut, flattened on one side and thinned to a
very delicate edge on the other. At first the
reed was fastened to the table by means of
many; turns of a fine waxed cord. The metal
band adjusted by means of two screws, known
as the " ligature," was introduced about 1817
by Ivan Miiller. The reed is set in vibration
by the breath of the performer, and being
flexible it beats against the table, opening
and closing the gap at a rate depending on
the rate of the vibrations it sets up in the
air column, this rate varying according to the
length of the column as determined by opening
the lateral holes and keys. A cylindrical tube
played by means of a reed has the acoustic
properties of a stopped pipe, i.e. the funda-
mental tone produced by the tube is an FIG. i. — Clarinet
octave lower than the corresponding tone of (Albert Model),
an open pipe of the same length, and over-
blows a twelfth; whereas tubes having a conical bore like the
oboe, and played by means of a reed, speak as open pipes and
overblow an octave. This forms the fundamental difference
between the instruments of the oboe and
clarinet families. Wind instruments de-
pending upon lateral holes for the produc-
tion of their scale must either have as
many holes pierced in the bore as they
require notes, or make use of the property
possessed by the air-column of dividing
into harmonics or partials of the funda-
mental tones. Twenty to twenty-two
holes is the number generally accepted as
the practical limit for the clarinet; beyond
that number the fingering and mechanism
become too complicated. The compass of
the clarinet is therefore extended through
the medium of the harmonic overtones.
In stopped pipes a node is formed near
the mouthpiece, and they are therefore only
able to produce the uneven harmonics, such
as the ist, 3rd, sth, 7th, &c., correspond-
ing to the fundamental, and the diatonic intervals of the 5th
one octave above, and of the 3rd and 7th two octaves above the
fundamental. By pressing the reed with the lip near the base
where it is thicker and stiff er, and increasing the pressure of the
breath, the air-column is forced to divide and to sound the

FIG. 2. — Clarinet
Mouthpiece, a, the
mouthpiece showing
the position of the
bore inside; b, the
single or beating
reed.

CLARINET

harmonics, a principle well understood by the ancient Greeks
and Romans in playing upon the aulos and tibia.1 This is
easier to accomplish with the double reed than with the beating
reed; in fact with a tube of wide diameter, such as that of the
modern clarinet, it would not be possible by this means alone
to do justice to the tone of the instrument or to the music now
written for it. The bore of the aulos was very much narrower
than that of the clarinet.

In order to facilitate the production of the harmonic notes
on the clarinet, a small hole, closed by means of a key and called
the " speaker," is bored near the mouthpiece. By means of
this small hole the air-column is placed in communication with
the external atmosphere, a ventral segment is formed, and the
air-column divides into three equal parts, producing a triple
number of vibrations resulting in the third note of the harmonic
series, at an interval of a twelfth above the fundamental.2 In a
wind instrument with lateral holes the fundamental note corre-
sponding to any particular hole is produced when all the holes
below that hole are open and it itself and all above it are closed,
the effective length of the resonating tube being shortened as
each of the closed holes is successively uncovered. In order to
obtain a complete chromatic scale on the clarinet at least eighteen
holes are required. This series produces with the bell-note a
succession of nineteen semitones, giving the range of a twelfth
and known as the fundamental scale or c/talnmeau register, so
called, no doubt, because it was the compass (without chromatic
semitones) of the more primitive predecessor of the clarinet,
known as the chalumeau, which must not be confounded with
the shawm or schalmey of the middle ages.
The fundamental scale of the modern clarinet in C extends from
o .I —
Cff— ^r— lo The next octave and a half is obtained by opening

the speaker key, whereby each of the fundamental notes is repro-
duced a twelfth higher; the bell-note thus jumps from E to BJf,
the first key gives instead of F its twelfth C#, and so on, extending

the compass to JL— j==: , which ends the natural compass of the

instrument, although a skilful performer may obtain another octave
by cross-fingering. The names of the holes and keys on the
clarinet are derived not from the notes of the fundamental
scale, but from the name of the twelfth produced by overblowing
with the speaker key open; for instance, the first key near
the bell is known not as the E key but as the Bif. The use of
the speaker key forms the greatest technical difficulty in learning
to play the clarinet, on account of the thumb having to do double
duty, closing one hole and raising the lever of the speaker key
simultaneously. In a clarinet designed by Richard Carte this
difficulty was ingeniously overcome by placing the left thumb-hole
towards the front, and closing it by a thumb-lever or with a ring
action by the first or second finger of the left hand, thus leaving the
thumb free to work the speaker key alone.

There is good reason to think that the ancient Greeks understood
the advantage of a speaker-hole, which they called Syrinx, for
facilitating the production of harmonics on the aulos. The credit
of the discovery of this interesting fact is due to A. A. Howard,3
of Harvard University; it explains many passages in the classics
which before were obscure (see AULOS). Plutarch relates4 that
Telephanes of Megara was so incensed with the syrinx that he never
allowed his instrument-makers to place one on any of his auloi ; he
even went so far as to absent himself, principally on account of the
syrinx, from the Pythian games. Telephanes was a great virtuoso
who scorned the use of a speaker-hole, being able to obtain his har-
monics on the aulos by the mere control of lips and teeth.

The modern clarinet has from thirteen to nineteen keys, some being
normally open and others closed. In order to understand why,
when once the idea of adding keys to the chalumeau had been
conceived, the number rose so slowly, keys being added one or two
at a time by makers of various nationalities at long intervals, it is

'Aristotle (de Audib. 802 b 18, and 804 a) and Porphyry (ed.
Wallis, pp. 249 and 252) mention that if the performer presses the
zeuge (mouthpiece) or the glottai (reeds) of the pipes, a sharper tone
is produced.

1 Cf. V. C. Mahillon, Elements d'acoustique musicale et instru-
mental? (Brussels, 1874), p. 161; and Fr. Zamminer, Die Musik
und die musikalischen Instrumente in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen
der Akustik . . . (Giessen, 1855), pp. 297 and 298.

* " The Aulos or Tibia," Harvard Studies, iv. (Boston, 1893).

4 De Musica, 1138.

necessary to consider the effect of boring holes in the side of a
cylindrical tube. If it were possible to proceed from an absolute
tneoretical basis, there would be but little difficulty ; there are, how-
ever, practical reasons which make this a matter of great difficulty.
According to V. Mahillon,6 the theoretical length Of a Bt> clarinet
(French pitch diapason normal A =435 vibrations), is 39 cm. when
the internal diameter of the bore measures exactly 1-4 cm. Any
increase in the diameter of the cylindrical bore for a given length
of tube raises the pitch proportionally and in the same way a decrease
lowers it. A bore narrow in proportion to the length facilitates the
production of the harmonics, which is no doubt the reason why the
aulos was made with a very narrow diameter, and produced such
deep notes in proportion to its length. In determining the position
of the holes along the tube, the thickness of the wood to be pierced
must be taken into consideration, for the length of the passage from
the main bore to the outer air adds to the length of the resonating
column; as, however, the clarinet tube is reckonsd as a closed one,
only half the extra length must be taken into account. When placed
in its correct theoretical position, a hole should have its diameter
equal to the diameter of the main bore, which is the ideal condition
for obtaining a full, rich tone; it is, however, feasible to give the
hole a smaller diameter, altering its position by placing it nearer
the mouthpiece. These laws, which were likewise known to the
Greeks and Romans,' had to be rediscovered by experience in the
i8th and I9th centuries, during which the mechanism of the key
system was repeatedly ^improved. Due consideration having been
given to these points, it will also be necessary to remember that
the stopping of the seven open holes leaves only the two little fingers
(the thumb of the right hand being in the ordinary clarinet engaged
in supporting the instrument) free at all times for key service,
the other fingers doing duty when momentarily disengaged. The
fingering of the clarinet is_the most difficult of any instrument in
the orchestra, for it differs in all four octaves of its compass. Once
mastered, however, it is the same for all clarinets, the music being
always written in the key of C.

The actual tonality of the clarinet is determined by the diatonic
scale produced when, starting with keys untouched and finger and
thumb-holes closed, the fingers are raised one by one from the holes.
In the Bl? clarinet, the real sounds thus produced are

being part of the scale of B|> major. By the closing of two open
keys, the lower Eb and D are added.

The following are the various sizes of clarinets with the key proper
to each :

El>, a minor third above the C clarinet.

Bb, a tone below „

The high F, 4 tones above „

The D, i tone above „

The low G, a fourth below „

The A, a minor third below

The Bif I semitone below ,,

The alto clarinet in El>, a fifth below the Bb clarinet.

The tenor or basset horn, in F, a fifth below the C clarinet.

The bass clarinet in B|>, an 8™ below that in B[>.

The pedal clarinet in Bb, an 8Te below the bass clarinet.

The clarinets in Bt> and A are used in the orchestra; those in
C and El> in military bands.

History. — Although the single beating-reed associated with
the instruments of the clarinet family has been traced in ancient
Egypt, the double reed, characteristic of the oboe family, being
of simpler construction, was probably of still greater antiquity.
An ancient Egyptian pipe found in a mummy-case and now
preserved in the museum at Turin was found to contain a beating-
reed sunk 3 in. below the end of the pipe, which is the principle
of the drone. It would appear that the double chalumeau,
called arghoul (q.v.) by the modern Egyptians, was known in
ancient Egypt, although it was not perhaps in common use.
The Musee Guimet possesses a copy of a fresco from the tombs at
Saqqarah (executed under the direction of Mariette Bey) as-
signed to the 4th or sth dynasty, on which is shown a concert
with dancing; the instruments used are two harps, the long
oblique flute " nay," blown from the end without any mouthpiece
or embouchure, and an instrument identified as an arghoul '

5 Op. cit. pp. 160 et seq.; and Wilhelm Altenburg, Die Klarinette
(Heilbronn, 1904), p. 9, who refers to Mahillon.

• See Macrobius, Comm. in somnium Scipionis, ji. 4. 5 " nee
secus probamus in tibiis de quarum foraminibus vicinis inflantis
ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino proximis,
gravior: item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per angusta."

7 See Victor Loret, L'Egypte au temps des Pharaons — la vie, la
science, et I'art (Paris, 1889), illustration p. 139 and p. 143. _ The
author gives no information about this fresco except that it is in the

CLARINET

439

from its resemblance to the modern instrument of the same
name. This is believed to be the only illustration of the ancient
double chalumeau yet found in Egypt, with the single exception
of a hieroglyph occurring also once only, i.e. the sign read As-it,
consisting of a cylindrical pipe with a beak mouthpiece bound
round with a cord tied in a bow. The bow is taken to indicate
the double parallel pipes bound together; the same sign without
the bow occurs frequently and is read Ma-it,1 and is considered
to be the generic name for reed wind instruments. The beating-
reed was probably introduced into classic Greece from Egypt or
Asia Minor. A few ancient Greek instruments are extant, five
of which are in the British Museum. They are as nearly cylindri-
cal as would be the natural growing reed itself. The probability
is that both single and double reeds were at times used with the
Greek aulos and the Roman tibia. V. Mahillon and A. A.
Howard of Harvard have both obtained facsimiles of actual
instruments, some found at Pompeii and now deposited in the
museum at Naples, and others in the British Museum. Experi-
ments made with these instruments, whose original mouthpieces
have perished, show that with pipes of such narrow diameter
the fundamental scale and pitch are the same whether sounded
by means of a single or of a double reed, but the modern combina-
tion of single reed and cylindrical tube alone gives the full
pure tone quality. The subject is more fully discussed in the
article AuLOS.2 The Roman tibia, if monuments can be trusted,
sometimes had a beak-shaped mouthpiece, as for instance that
attached to a pipe discovered at Pompeii, or that shown in a
scene on Trajan's column.3 It is probable that when, at the
decline of the Roman empire, instrumental music was placed
by the church under a ban — and the tibia more especially from
its association with every form of licence and moral depravity —
this instrument, sharing the common fate, survived chiefly among
itinerant musicians who carried it into western Europe, where
it was preserved from complete extinction. An instrument
of difficult technique requiring an advanced knowledge of
acoustics was not, however, likely to flourish or even to be
understood among nations whose culture was as yet in its
infancy.

The tide of culture from the Byzantine empire filtered through
to the south and west, leaving many traces; a fresh impetus
was received from the east through the Arabs; and later, as a
result of the Crusades, the prototype of the clarinet, together
with the practical knowledge necessary for making the instru-
ment and playing upon it, may have been re-introduced through
any one or all of these sources. However this may be, the
instrument was during the Carolingian period identified with
the tibia of the Romans until such time as the new western
civilization ceased to be content to go back to classical Rome for
its models, and began to express itself, at first naively and
awkwardly, as the nth century dawned. The name then
changed to the derivatives of the Greek kalamos, assuming an
almost bewildering variety of forms, of which the commonest
are chalemie, chalumeau, schalmey, scalmeye, shawm, calemel,
kalemele.4 The derivation of the name seems to point to a
Byzantine rather than an Arab source for the revival of the
instruments which formed the prototype of both oboe and
clarinet, but it must not be forgotten that the instruments with
a conical bore — more especially those played by a reed — are
primarily of Asiatic origin. At the beginning of the I3th century
Musee Guimet. It is probably identical with the second of the
mural paintings described on p. 190 of Petit guide illustre au Musee
Guimet, par L. de Milloue.

1 See Victor Loret, " Les flfltes egyptiennes antiques," Journal

asiaiique (Paris, 1889), [8], xiv. pp. 129, 130, 132.

2 See also A. A. Howard, " Study on the Aulos or Tibia," Harvard
Studies, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893) ; F. C. Geyaert, Musique de I'anti-
quite; Carl von Jan, article " Floete " in August Baumeister's
Denkmdler des klassischen Alterthums (Leipzig, 1884-1888), vol. i. ;
Dr Hugo Riemann, Handbuch der Musikgesch. vol. i. p. 90, &c.
(Leipzig, 1904) ; all of whom have not come to the same conclusions.
'Wilhelm Froehner, La Colonne trajane (Paris, 1872), t. ii. pi. 76.
" Aveuc aus ert vestus Guis
Ki leur cante et Kalemele,
En la muse au grant bourdon."

J. A. U. Scheler's Trouveres beiges.

in France, where the instrument remained a special favourite
until it was displaced by the clarinet, the chalumeau is mentioned
in some of the early romances: — " Tabars et chalemiaux et
estrumens sonner " (Aye d' Avignon, v. 4137); " Grelles et
chelimiaus et buisines bruians " (Gui de Bourgogne, v. 1374),
&c. By the end of the I3th century, the German equivalent
Schalmey appears in the literature of that country, — " Pusunen
und Schalmeyen schal moht niemen da gehoeren wal " (Frauen-
diensl, 492, fol. 5, Ulrich von Lichtenstein). The schalmey or
shawm is frequently represented in miniatures from the i3th
century, but it must have been known long before, since it was
at that period in use as the chaunter of the bag-pipe (q.v.),
a fully-developed complex instrument which presupposes a
separate previous existence for its component parts.

We have no reason to suppose that any distinction was drawn
between the single and double reed instruments during the
early middle ages — if indeed the single reed was then known at
all — for the derivatives of kalamos were applied to a variety of
pipes. The first clear and unmistakable drawing yet found of
the single reed occurs in Mersenne's Harmonic unherselle (p. 282),
where the primitive reed pipe is shown with the beating-reed
detached from the tube of the instrument itself, by making a
lateral slit and then splitting back a little tongue of reed towards
a knot. Mersenne calls this the simplest form of chalumeau or
wheat-stalk (tuyau de blf). It is evident that no significance
was then attached to the form of the vibrating reed, whether
single or double, for Mersenne and other writers of his time
call the chaunters of the musette and cornemuse chalumeaux
whether they are of cylindrical or of conical bore. The difference
in timbre produced by the two kinds of reeds was, however,
understood, for Mersenne states that a special kind of cornemuse
was used in concert with the hautbois de Poitou (an oboe whose
double reed was enclosed in an air chamber) and was distinguished
from the shepherd's cornemuse by having double reeds through-
out, whereas the drones of the latter instrument were furnished
with beating reeds. It is therefore evident that as late as 1636
(the date at which Mersenne wrote) in France the word " chalu-
meau " was not applied to the instrument transformed some
sixty years later into the clarinet, nor was it applied exclusively
to any one kind of pipe except when acting as the chaunter of
the bagpipe, and that independently of any structural charac-
teristics. The chaunter was still called chalumeau in 1737.'
Of the instrument which has been looked upon as the chalumeau,
there is but little trace in Germany or in France at the beginning
of the 1 7th century. A chalumeau with beak mouthpiece and
characteristic short cylindrical tube pierced with six holes
figures among the musical instruments used for the triumphal
procession of the emperor Maximilian I., commemorated by a
fine series of plates,6 engraved on wood by Hans Burgkmair,
the friend and colleague of A. Dttrer. On the same plate (No.
79) are five schalmeys with double reeds and five chalumeaux
with single-reed beak mouthpieces; the latter instruments were
in all probability made in the Netherlands, which excelled from
the 1 2th century in the manufacture of all musical instruments.
No single-reed instrument, with the exception of the regal (q.v.),
is figured by S. Virdung,7 M. Agricola8 or M. Praetorius.'

A good idea of the primitive chalumeau may be gained from a
reproduction of one of the few specimens from the i6th or i7th
century still extant, which belonged to Cesare Snoeck and was
exhibited at the Royal Military Exhibition in London in 1890.'°
The tube is stopped at the mouthpiece end by a natural joint of

"See Ernest Thoinan, Les Hotteterre et les Chedevitte, cflebres
facteurs de flutes, hautbois, bassons et musettes (Paris, 1894), p. 15
et seq., and Methode pour la musette, &c., par Hotteterre le Romain
(Paris, 1737).

6 The whole series of 135 plates has been reproduced in Jahrb. d.
Samml. des Allerh. Kaiserhauses (Vienna, 1883-1884).

7 Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel, 1511).

8 Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch (Nuremberg, 1528 and 1545).

• Syntagma Musicum (Wolfenbuttel, 1618). This work and those
mentioned in the two previous notes have been reprinted by the Ges.
f. Musikforschung in vols. xi., xx. and xiii. of Publikationen (Berlin).

10 See Descriptive Catalogue, by Capt. C. R. Day (London, 1891),
pi. iv. A and p. no, No. 221.

440

CLARINET

(a)

the reed, and a tongue has been detached just under the joint ;

there are six finger-holes and one for the thumb. An instrument

almost identical with the above, but with a rudimentary bell,

and showing plainly the detached tongue, is

4 figured by Jost Amman in 1589.' A plate in

Diderot and d'Alembert's Encycloptdie* shows a
less primitive instrument, outwardly cylindrical
and having a separate mouthpiece joint and a
clarinet reed but no keys. A chalumeau without
keys, but consisting apparently of three joints —
mouthpiece, main tube and bell, — is figured on
the title-page of a musical work* dated 1690;
it is very similar to the one represented in fig. 3,
except that only six holes are visible.

In his biographical notice of J. Christian
Denner (1655-1707), J. G. Doppelmayr4 states
that at the beginning of the i8th century
" Denner invented a new kind of pipe, the so-
called clarinet, which greatly delighted lovers of
music; he also made great improvements in the
stock or rackett-fagottos, known in the olden
time and finally also in the chalumeaux." It
is probable that the improvements in the
chalumeau to which Doppelmayr alludes with-
out understanding them consisted (a) in giving
the mouthpiece the shape of a beak and adding
a separate reed tongue as in that of the modern
clarinet, unless this change had already taken
place in the Netherlands, the country which the
unremitting labours of E. van der Straeten6
have revealed as taking the lead in Europe from
the I4th to the i6th century in the construc-
tion of musical instruments of all kinds; (b) in
the boring of two additional holes for A and B
near the mouthpiece and covering them with
two keys; (c) in replacing the long cylindrical
mouthpiece joint by a bulb, thus restoring one
of the characteristic features of the tibia, 6 known
(&) Back view, as the 3X/ws. There are a few of these improved
chalumeaux in existence, two being in the
Bavarian national museum at Munich, the one in high A, in a bad
state of preservation, the second in C, marked J. C. Denner, of
which V. Mahillon has made a facsimile7 for the museum of the
Brussels Conservatoire. There are two keys and eight holes;
the first consists of two small holes on the same level giving a
semitone if only one be closed. If the thumb-key be left open,
the sounds of the fundamental scale (shown in the black notes
below) rise a twelfth to form the second register (the white notes)

(b)

(From Diderot

and d'Alembert's

Encyclopedic.)

FIG. 3.
Chalumeau,

1767.
(a) Front,

This early clarinet or improved chalumeau has a clarinet mouth-
piece, but no bulb; it measures 50 cm. (20 in.), whereas the One in
A mentioned above is only 28 cm. in length, the long cylindrical
tube between mouthpiece and key-joint, afterwards turned into
the bulb, being absent. Mahillon was probably the first to point
out that the so-called invention of the clarinet by J. C. Denner
consisted in providing a device— the speaker-key — to facilitate
the production of the harmonics of the fundamental. Can we be
sure that the same result was not 'obtained on the old chalumeau

1 Wappenbuch, p. ui, " Musica."

' Paris, 1767, vol. v. " Planches," pi. ix. 20, 21, 22.

8 Dr Theofilo Muffat, " Componimenti musicali per il cembalo,"
in Denkmaler d. Tonkunst in Osterreich, Bd. iii.

* Historische Nachricht von den Niirnbergischen Mathematicis u.
Kiinstlern, &c. (Nuremberg, 1730), p. 305.

6 Histoire de la musique aux Pays Bas avant le XIX' sikcle.

' For a facsimile of one of the Pompeii tibiae, see Capt. C. R.
Day, op. cit. pi. iv. C. and p. 109.

7 Catalogue descriptif (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 211, No. 911, where
an illustration is given.' See also Capt. C. R. Day, op. cit, pi. iv.
B and Errata where the description is printed.

before keys were added, by partially uncovering the hole for the
thumb ?

The Berlin museum possesses an early clarinet with two keys,
marked J. B. Oberlender, derived from the Snoeck collection.
Paul de Wit's collection has a similar specimen by Enkelmer.
The Brussels Conservatoire possesses clarinets with two keys by
Flemish makers, G. A. Rottenburgh and J. B. Willems'; the
latter, with a small bulb and bell, is in G a fifth above the C
clarinet. The next improvements in the clarinet, made in 1720,
are due to J. Denner, probably a son of J. C. Denner. They
consisted in the addition of a bell and in the removal of the
speaker-hole and key nearer the mouthpiece, involving the
reduction of the diameter of the hole. The effect of this change of
position was to turn the B^ into Bt>, for J.Denner introduced into
the hole, nearly as far as the axis of the bore, a small metal
drainage tube9 for the moisture of the breath. In the modern
clarinet, the same result is attained by raising this little tube
slightly above the surface of the main tube, placing a key on the
top of it, and bending the lever. In order to produce the missing
B^, J. Denner lengthened the tube and pierced another hole, the
low E, covered by an open key with a long lever which, when
closed, gives the desired B as its twelfth, thus forming a connexion
between the two registers. A clarinet with three keys, of similar
construction (about 1750), marked J. W. Kenigsperger, is pre-
served in the Bavarian national museum, at Munich. Another
in Bb marked Lindner10 belongs to the collection at Brussels.
About the middle of the i8th century, the number of keys was
raised to five, some say11 by Barthold Fritz of Brunswick

(1697-1766), who added keys for C# and D#.

According to Altenburg12 the Eb or D# key is due to the virtuoso
Joseph Beer (1744-1811). The sixth key was added about 1790
by the celebrated French virtuoso Xavier Lefebure (or Lefevre),

and produced G$.

Anton Stadler and his brother,

both clarinettists in the Vienna court orchestra and instrument-
makers, are said to have lengthened the tube of the Bt> clarinet,
extending the compass down to C (real sound Bb). It was for
the Stadler brothers that Mozart wrote his quintet for strings,
with a fine obbligato for the clarinet in A (1789), and the clarinet
concerto with orchestra in 1791.

This, then, was the state of the clarinet in 1810 when Ivan
Muller, then living in Paris, carried the number of keys up to
thirteen, and made several structural improvements already
mentioned, which gave us the modern instrument and in-
augurated a new era in the construction and technique of the
clarinet. Miiller's system is still adopted in principle by most
clarinet makers. The instrument was successively improved
during the igth century by the Belgian makers Bachmann, the
elder Sax, Albert and C. Mahillon, whose invention in 1862 of the
C# key with double action is now generally adopted. In Paris the
labours' of Lefebure, Buffet-Crampon, and Goumas are pre-
eminent. In 1842 H. E. Klose conceived the idea of adapting to
the clarinet the ingenious mechanism of movable rings, invented
by Boehm for the flute, and he entrusted the execution of this
innovation to Buffet-Crampon; this is the type of clarinet
generally adopted in French orchestras. From this adaptation
has sprung the erroneous notion that Klose 's clarinet was
constructed according to the Boehm system; Klose 's lateral
divisions of the tube do not follow those applied by Boehm to
the flute.

In England the clarinet has also passed through several
progressive stages since its introduction about 1770, and first of

8 For a description with illustration see V. Mahillon's Catalogue
descriptif (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 215, No. 916.
" See Wilhelm Altenburg, op. cit. p. 6.

10 See V. Mahillon, Catal. descript. (1896), p. 213, No. 913.

11 H. Welcker von Gontershausen, Die musikalischen Tonwerk-
zeuge (Frankfort-on-Main, 1855), p. 141.

u Op. cit. p. 6.

CLARK, SIR A.— CLARK, F. E.

441

all at the hands of Cornelius Ward. The principal improvements
were due to Richard Carte, who took out a patent in 1858 for an
improved Boehm clarinet which possessed some claim to the
name, since Boehm's principle of boring the holes at theoretically
correct intervals and of venting the holes
by means of open holes below was carried
out. Carte made several modifications of
his original patent, his chief endeavour
being to so dispose the key-work as to
reduce the difficulties in fingering. By the
extension of the principle of the ring
action, the work of the third and little
fingers of the left hand was simplified and
the fingering of certain difficult notes and
shakes greatly facilitated. Messrs Rudall,
Carte & Company have made further
improvements in the clarinet, which are
embodied in KJussmann's patent (fig. 4);
these consist in the introduction of the
duplicate G# key, a note which has
hitherto formed a serious obstacle to
perfect execution. The duplicate key,
operated by the third or second finger of
the right hand, releases the fourth finger
of the left hand. The old G# is still re-
tained and may be used in the usual way
if desired. The body of the instrument
is now made in one joint, and the position
of the Gift hole is mathematically correct,
whereby perfect intonation for C#, G$ and
Ft) is secured. Other improvements were
made in Paris by Messrs Evette & Schaeffer
and by M. Paradis,1 a clarinet-player in
the band of the Garde R6publicaine, and
very great improvements in boring and in
key mechanism were effected by Albert
of Brussels (see fig. i).

The clarinet appears to have received
appreciation in the Netherlands earlier
than in its own native land. According
to W. Altenburg (op. oil. p. n),2 a MS. is
preserved in the cathedral at Antwerp of
a mass written by A. J. Faber in 1720,
which is scored for a clarinet. Johann
Mattheson,3 Kapellmeister at Hamburg,
mentions clarinet music in 1713, although
Handel, whose rival he was, does not appear to have known the
instrument. Joh. Christ. Bach scored for the clarinet in 1763 in
his opera Orione performed in London, and Rameau had already
employed the instrument in 1751 in a theatre for his pastoral
entitled A cante et Cephise* The clarinet was formally introduced
into the orchestra in Vienna in 1767,5 Gluck having contented
himself with the use of the chalumeau in Orfeo (1762) and in
Alceste (1767).' The clarinet had already been adopted in
military bands in France in 1755, where it very speedily com-
pletely replaced the oboe. One of Napoleon Bonaparte's bands
is said to have had no less than twenty clarinets.

For further' information on the clarinet at the beginning of the
igth century, consult the Methods by Ivan Miiller and Xavier
Lef<5bure, and Joseph Froehlich's admirable work on the instruments
of the orchestra; and Gottfried Weber's articles in Ersch and
Gruber's Encyclopaedia. See also BASSET HORN; BASS CLARINET
and PEDAL CLARINET. (K. S.)

CLARK, SIR ANDREW, Bart. (1826-1893), British physician,
was born at Aberdeen on the 28th of October 1826. His father,
who also was a medical man, died when he was only a few years

1 See Capt. C. R. Day, op. cit. p. 106.

* V. Mahillon, Catal. desc. (1880), p. 182, refers his statement to
the Chevalier L. de Burbure.

* Das neu-eroffnete Orchester (Hamburg, 1713).
4 Mahillon, Catal. desc. (1880), vol. i. p. 182.

1 See Chevalier Ludwig von Koechel, Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-
kapelle zu Wien, 1543-1867 (Vienna, 1869).
6 In the Italian edition of 1769 the part is scored for clarinet.

FIG. 4. — Clarinet
(Boehm model, Kluss-
mann's patent).

old. After attending school in Aberdeen, he was sent by his
guardians to Dundee and apprenticed to a druggist; then
returning to Aberdeen he began his medical studies in the uni-
versity of that city. Soon, however, he went to Edinburgh,
where in the extra-academical school he had a student's career of
the most brilliant description, ultimately becoming assistant to
J. Hughes Bennett in the pathological department of the Royal
Infirmary, and assistant demonstrator of anatomy to Robert
Knox. But symptoms of pulmonary phthisis brought his
academic life to a close, and in the hope that the sea might
benefit his health he joined the medical department of the navy in
1848. Next year he became pathologist to the Haslar hospital,
where T. H. Huxley was one of his colleagues, and in 1853 he was
the successful candidate for the newly-instituted post of curator
to the museum of the London hospital. Here he intended to
devote all his energies to pathology, but circumstances brought
him into active medical practice. In 1854, the year in, which he
took his doctor's degree at Aberdeen, the post of 'assistant-
physician to the hospital became vacant and he was prevailed
upon to apply for it. He was fond of telling how his phthisical
tendencies gained him the appointment. " He is only a poor
Scotch doctor," it was said, " with but a few months to live; let
him have it." He had it, and two years before his death publicly
declared that of those who were on the staff of the hospital at the
time of his selection he was the only one remaining alive. In
1854 he became a member of the College of Physicians, and in
1858 a fellow, and then went in succession through all the offices
of honour the college has to offer, ending in 1888 with the
presidency, which he continued to hold till his death". From the
time of his selection as assistant physician to the London
hospital, his fame rapidly grew until he became a fashionable
doctor with one of the largest practices in London, counting
among his patients some of the most distinguished men of the
day. The great number of persons who passed through his
consulting-room every morning rendered it inevitable that to
a large extent his advice should become stereotyped and his
prescriptions often reduced to mere stock formulae, but in really
serious cases he was not to be surpassed in the skill and careful-
ness of his diagnosis and in his attention to detail. In spite
of the claims of his practice he found time to produce a good
many books, all written in the precise and polished style on
which he used to pride himself. Doubtless owing largely to
personal reasons, lung diseases and especially fibroid phthisis
formed his favourite theme, but he also discussed other subjects,
such as renal inadequacy, anaemia, constipation, &c. He died
in London on the 6th of November 1893, after a paralytic stroke
which was probably the result of persistent overwork.

CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD (1851- ), American clergy-
man, was born of New England ancestry at Aylmer, Province of
Quebec, Canada, on the 1 2th of September 1851. He was the son
of Charles C. Symmes, but took the name of an uncle, the Rev.
E. W. Clark, by whom he was adopted after his father's death in
1853. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1873 and at
Andover Theological Seminary in 1876, was ordained in the
Congregational ministry, and was pastor of the Williston Congre-
gational church at Portland, Maine, from 1876 to 1883, and of
the Phillips Congregational church, South Boston, Mass., from
1883 to 1887. On the 2nd of February 1881 he founded at
Portland the Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor,
which, beginning as a small society in a single New England
church, developed into a great interdenominational organiza-
tion, which in 1908 had 70,761 societies and more than 3,500,000
members scattered throughout the United States, Canada, Great
Britain, Australia, South Africa, India, Japan and China.
After 1887 he devoted his time entirely to the extension of this
work, and was president of the United Societies of Christian
Endeavor and of the World's Christian Endeavor Union, and
editor of the Christian Endeavor World (originally The Golden
Ride) . Among his numerous publications are The Children and the
Church (1882); Looking OutonLife (1883); Young People's Prayer
Meetings (1884); Some Christian Endeavor Saints (1889); World
Wide Endeavor (1895); A New Way Round an Old World (1000).

442

See his The Young People's Christian Endeavor, where it began,
&c. (Boston, 1895) ; Christian Endeavor Manual (Boston, 1903) ;
and Christian Endeavor in All Lands: Record of Twenty-five Years
of Progress (Philadelphia, 1907).

CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (1752-1818), American frontier
military leader, was born near Charlottesville, in Albemarle
county, Virginia, on the ipth of November 1752. Early in life
he became a land-surveyor; he took part in Lord Dunmore's
War (1774), and in 1775 went as a surveyor for the Ohio Company
to Kentucky (then a district of Virginia), whither he removed
early in 1776. His iron will, strong passions, audacious courage
and magnificent physique soon made him a leader among his
frontier neighbours, by whom in 1776 he was sent as a delegate
to the Virginia legislature. In this capacity he was instrumental
in bringing about the organization of Kentucky as a county of
Virginia, and also obtained from Governor Patrick Henry a
supply of powder for the Kentucky settlers. Convinced that
the Indians were instigated and supported in their raids against
the American settlers by British officers stationed in the forts
north of the Ohio river, and that the conquest of those forts
would put an end to the evil, he went on foot to Virginia late
in 1777 and submitted to Governor Henry and his council a
plan for offensive operations. On the and of January 1778 he
was commissioned lieutenant-colonel, received' £1200 in de-
preciated currency, and was authorized to enlist troops; and
by the end of May he was at the falls of the Ohio (the site of
Louisville) with about 175 men. The expedition proceeded
to Fort Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, in what is now Illinois.
This place and Cahokia, also on the Mississippi, near St Louis,
were defended by small British garrisons, which depended upon
the support of the French habitants. The French being willing
to accept the authority of Virginia, both forts were easily taken.
Clark gained the friendship of Father Pierre Gibault, the priest
at Kaskaskia, and through his influence the French at Vincennes
on the Wabash were induced (late in July) to change their
allegiance. On the i7th of December Lieut. -Governor Henry
Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, recovered Vincennes
and went into winter quarters. Late in February 1779 he was
surprised by Clark and compelled to give up Vincennes and its
fort, Fort Sackville, and to surrender himself and his garrison
of about So men, as prisoners of war. With the exception of
Detroit and several other posts on the Canadian frontier the
whole of the North-West was thus brought under American
influence; many of the Indians, previously hostile, became
friendly, and the United States was put in a position to demand
the cession of the North-West in the treaty of 1783.' For this
valuable service, in which Clark had freely used his own private
funds, he received practically no recompense either from Virginia
or from the United States, and for many years before his death
he lived in poverty. To him and his men, however, the Virginia
legislature granted 150,000 acres of land in 1781, which was
subsequently located in what are now Clark, Floyd and Scott
counties, Indiana; Clark's individual share was 8049 acres, but
from this he realized little. Clark built Fort Jefferson on the
Mississippi, 4 or 5 m. below the mouth of the Ohio, in 1780,
destroyed the Indian towns Chillicothe and Piqua in the same
year, and in November 1782 destroyed the Indian towns on the
Miami river. With this last expedition his active military
service virtually ended, and in July 1783 he was relieved of his
command by Virginia. Thereafter he lived on part of the land
granted to him by Virginia or in Louisville for the rest of his
life. In 1793 he accepted from Citizen Genet a commission as
" major-general in the armies of France, and commander-in-chief
of the French Revolutionary Legion in the Mississippi Valley,"
and tried to raise a force for an attack upon the Spanish
possessions in the valley of the Mississippi. The scheme,
however, was abandoned after Genet's recall. Disappointed
at what he regarded as his country's ingratitude, and broken
down by excessive drinking and paralysis, he lost his once
powerful influence and lived in comparative isolation until his
death, near Louisville, Kentucky, on the I3th of February
1818.

CLARK, G. R.— CLARK, J. L.

See W. H. English, Conquest of the Country north-west of the
River Ohio, 1778-1783, and Life of George Rogers Clark (2 vols.,
Indianapolis and Kansas City, 1896), an accurate and detailed work,
which represents an immense amount of research among both
printed and manuscript sources. Clark's own accounts of his
expeditions, and other interesting documents, are given in the
appendix to this work.

CLARK, WILLIAM (1770-1838), the well-known explorer, was
the youngest brother of the foregoing. He was born in Caroline
county, Virginia, on the ist of August 1770. At the age of
fourteen he removed with his parents to Kentucky, settling
at the falls of the Ohio (Louisville). He entered the United
States army as a lieutenant of infantry in March 1792, and
served under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians in
1794. In July 1796 he resigned his commission on account of
ill-health. In 1803-1806, with Meriwether Lewis (q.v.), he
commanded the famous exploring expedition across the continent
to the mouth of the Columbia river, and was commissioned
second lieutenant in March 1804 and first lieutenant in January
1806. In February he again resigned from the army. He then
served for a few years as brigadier-general of the Louisiana
territorial militia, as Indian agent for " Upper Louisiana," as
territorial governor of Missouri in 1813-1820, and as superin-
tendent of Indian affairs at St Louis from 1822 until his death
there on the ist of September 1838.

CLARK, SIR JAMES (1788-1870), English physician, was born
at Cullen, Banffshire, and was educated at the grammar school
of Fordyce and at the universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh.
He served for six years as a surgeon in the army; then spent
some time in travelling on the continent, in order to investigate
the mineral waters and the climate of various health resorts;
and for seven years he lived in Rome. In 1826 he began to
practise in London. In 1835 he was appointed physician to the
duchess of Kent, becoming physician in ordinary to Queen
Victoria in 1837. In 1838 he was created a baronet. He pub-
lished The Influence of Climate in Chronic Diseases, containing
valuable meteorological tables (1829), and a Treatise on Pul-
monary Consumption (1835).

CLARK, JOHN BATES (1847- ), American economist,
was born at Providence, Rhode Island, on the 26th of January
1847. Educated at Brown University, Amherst College, Heidel-
berg and Zurich, he was appointed professor of political economy
at Carleton College, Minnesota, in 1877. In 1881 he became
professor of history and political science in Smith College,
Massachusetts; in 1892 professor of political economy in
Amherst College. He was appointed professor of political
economy at Columbia University in 1895. Among his works are:
The Philosophy of Wealth (1885); Wages (1889); Capital and its
Earnings (1898); The Control of Trusts (1901); The Problem
of Monopoly (1904); and Essentials of Economic Theory (1907).

CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER (1822-1898), English engineer and
electrician, was born on the loth of March 1822 at Great Marlow,
Bucks. His first interest was in chemical manufacturing, but in
1848 he became assistant engineer at the Menai Straits bridge
under his elder brother Edwin (1814-1894), the inventor of the
Clark hydraulic lift graving dock. Two years later, when his
brother was appointed engineer to the Electric Telegraph
Company, he again acted as his assistant, and subsequently
succeeded him as chief engineer. In 1854 he took out a patent
" for conveying letters or parcels between places by the pressure
of air and vacuum," and later was concerned in the construction
of a large pneumatic despatch tube between the general post
office and Euston station, London. About the same period he
was engaged in experimental researches on the propagation of
the electric current in submarine cables, on which he published a
pamphlet in 1855, and in 1859 he was a member of the com-
mittee which was appointed by the government to consider the
numerous failures of submarine cable enterprises. Latimer
Clark paid much attention to the subject of electrical measure-
ment, and besides designing various improvements in method and
apparatus and inventing the Clark standard cell, he took a
leading part in the movement for the systematization of electrical
standards, which was inaugurated by the paper which he and Sir

CLARK, T.— CLARKE, C. C.

C. T. Bright read on the question before the British Association in
1861. With Bright also he devised improvements in the insula-
tion of submarine cables. In the later part of his life he was a
member of several firms engaged in laying submarine cables, in
manufacturing electrical appliances, and in hydraulic engineering.
He died in London on the 3oth of October 1898. Besides pro-
fessional papers, he published an Elementary Treatise on Electrical
Measurement (1868), together with two books on astronomical
subjects, and a memoir of Sir W. F. Cooke.

CLARK, THOMAS (1801-1867), Scottish chemist, was born at
Ayr on the 3ist of March 1801. In 1826 he was appointed
lecturer on chemistry at the Glasgow mechanics' institute, and in
1831 he took the degree of M.D. at the university of that city.
Two years later he became professor of chemistry in Marischal
College, Aberdeen, but was obliged to give up the duties of that
position in 1844 through ill-health, though nominally he remained
professor till 1860. His name is chiefly known in connexion with
his process for softening hard waters, and his water tests,
patented in 1841. The last twenty years before his death at
Glasgow on the 27th of November 1867 were occupied with the
study of the historical origin of the Gospels.

CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE (1821-1878), English classical
and Shakespearian scholar, was born at Barford Hall, Darlington,
in March 1821. He was educated at Sedbergh and Shrewsbury
schools and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected
fellow after a brilliant university career. In 1857 he was
appointed public orator. He travelled much during the long
vacations, visiting Spain, Greece, Italy and Poland. His
Peloponnesus (1858) was an important contribution to the
knowledge of the country at that time. In 1853 Clark had taken
orders, but left the Church in 1870 after the passing of the
Clerical Disabilities Act, of which he was one of the promoters.
He also resigned the public oratorship in the same year, and in
consequence of illness left Cambridge in 1873. He died at York
on the 6th of November 1878. He bequeathed a sum of money to
his old college for the foundation of a lectureship in English
literature. Although Clark was before all a classical scholar, he
published little in that branch of learning. A contemplated
edition of the works of Aristophanes, a task for which he was
singularly fitted, was never published. He visited Italy in 1868
for the express purpose of examining the Ravenna and other MSS.,
and on his return began the notes to the Acharnians, but they
were left in too incomplete a state to admit of publication in book
form even after his death (see Journal of Philology, viii., 1879).
He established the Cambridge Journal of Philology, and co-
operated with B. H. Kennedy and James Riddell in the pro-
duction of the well-known Sabrinae Corolla. The work by which
he is best known is the Cambridge Shakespeare (1863-1866),
containing a collation of early editions and selected emendations,
edited by him at first with John Glover and afterwards with
W. Aldis Wright. Gazpacho (i853)gives an account of his tour in
Spain; his visits to Italy at the time of Garibaldi's insurrection,
and to Poland during the insurrection of 1863, are described in
Vacation Tourists, ed. F. Gallon, i. and iii.

H. A. J. Munro in Journal of Philology (viii. 1879) describes Clark
as " the most accomplished and versatile man he ever met "; see
also notices by W. Aldis Wright in Academy (Nov. 23, 1878);
R. Burn in Athenaeum (Nov. 16, 1878); The Times (Nov. 8, 1878);
Notes and Queries, 5th series, x. (1878), p. 400.

CLARKE, ADAM (i762?-i832), British Nonconformist
divine, was born at Moybeg, Co. Londonderry, Ireland, in 1760
or 1762. After receiving a very limited education he was
apprenticed to a linen manufacturer, but, finding the employ-
ment uncongenial, he resumed school-life at the institution
founded by Wesley at Kingswood, near Bristol. In 1782 he
entered on the duties of the ministry, being appointed by Wesley
to the Bradford (Wiltshire)circuit. His popularity as a preacher
was very great, and his influence in the denomination is indicated
by the fact that he was three times (1806, 1814, 1822) chosen to
be president of the conference. He served twice on the London
circuit, the second period being extended considerably longer
than the rule allowed, at the special request of the British and
Foreign Bible Society, who had employed him in the preparation

443

of their Arabic Bible. Though ardent in his pastoral work, he
found time for diligent study of Hebrew and other Oriental
languages, undertaken chiefly with the view of qualifying himself
for the great work of his life, his Commentary on the Holy
Scriptures (8 vols., 1810-1826). In 1802 he published a Biblio-
graphical Dictionary in six volumes, to which he afterwards
added a supplement. He was selected by the Records Commis-
sion to re-edit Rymer's Foedera, a task which after ten years'
labour (1808-1818) he had to resign. He also wrote Memoirs of
the Wesley Family (1823), and edited a large number of religious
works. Honours were showered upon him (he was M.A., LL.D.
of Aberdeen), and many distinguished men in church and state
were his personal friends. He died in London on the i6th of
August 1832.

His Miscellaneous Works were published in 13 vols. (1836), and a
Life (3 vols.) by his son, J. B. B. Clarke, appeared in 1833.

CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902), British soldier and
administrator, son of Colonel Andrew Clarke, of Co. Donegal,
Ireland, governor of West Australia, was born at Southsea,
England, on the 2?th of July 1824, and educated at King's
school, Canterbury. He entered the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, and obtained his commission in the army in 1844
as second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. He was appointed
to his father's staff in West Australia, but was transferred to be
A.D.C. and military secretary to the governor of Tasmania;
and in 1847 he went to New Zealand to take part in the Maori
War, and for some years served on Sir George Grey's staff.
He was then made surveyor-general in Victoria, took a prominent
part in framing its new constitution, and held the office of
minister of public lands during the first administration (1855-
1857). He returned to England in 1857, and in 1863 was sent
on a special mission to the West Coast of Africa. In 1864 he
was appointed director of works for the navy, and held this
post for nine years, being responsible for great improvements
in the naval arsenals at Chatham, Portsmouth and Plymouth,
and for fortifications at Malta, Cork, Bermuda and elsewhere.
In 1873 he was made K.C.M.G., and became governor of the
Straits Settlements, where he did most valuable work in con-
solidating British rule and ameliorating the condition of the
people. From 1875 to 1880 he was minister of public works in
India; and on his return to England in 1881, holding then the
rank of lieutenant-colonel in the army, he was first appointed
commandant at Chatham and then inspector-general of fortifica-
tions (1882-1886). Having attained the rank of lieutenant-
general and been created G.C.M.G., he retired from official life,
and in 1886 and 1893 unsuccessfully stood for parliament as a
supporter of Mr Gladstone. During his last years he was agent-
general for Victoria. He died on the 29th of March 1902. Both
as a technical and strategical engineer and as an Imperial
administrator Sir Andrew Clarke was one of the ablest and most
useful public servants of his time; and his contributions to
periodical literature, as well as his official memoranda, contained
valuable suggestions on the subjects of imperial defence and
imperial consolidation which received too little consideration
at a period when the home governments were not properly alive
to their importance. He is entitled to remembrance as one of
those who first inculcated, from a wide practical experience,
the views of imperial administration and its responsibilities,
which in his last years he saw accepted by the bulk of his country-
men.

CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877), English author
and Shakespearian scholar, was born at Enfield, Middlesex,
on the isth of December 1787. His father, John Clarke, was a
schoolmaster, among whose pupils was John Keats. Charles
Clarke taught Keats his letters, and encouraged his love of
poetry. He knew Charles and Mary Lamb, and afterwards
became acquainted with Shelley, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge and
Hazlitt. Clarke became a music publisher in partnership with
Alfred Novello, and married in 1828 his partner's sister, Mary
Victoria (1800-1898), the eldest daughter of Vincent Novello.
In the year after her marriage Mrs Cowden Clarke began her
valuable Shakespeare concordance, which was eventually

444

issued in eighteen monthly parts (1844-1845), and in volume
form in 1845 as The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare, being
a Verbal Index to all the Passages in the Dramatic Works of the
Poet. This work superseded the Copious Index to . . . Shake-
speare (1790) of Samuel Ayscough, and the Complete Verbal
Index . . . (1805-1807) of Francis Twiss. Charles Cowden
Clarke published many useful books, and edited the text for
John Nichol's edition of the British poets; but his most import-
ant work consisted of lectures delivered between 1834 and 1856
on Shakespeare and other literary subjects. Some of the more
notable series were published, among them being Shakespeare's
Characters, chiefly those subordinate (1863), and Moli'ere's Char-
acters (1865). In 1859 he published a volume of original poems,
Carmina Minima. For some years after their marriage the
Cowden Clarkes lived with the Novellos in London. In 1849
Vincent Novello with his wife removed to Nice, where he was
joined by the Clarkes in 1856. After his death they lived at
Genoa at the " Villa Novello." They collaborated in The
Shakespeare Key, unlocking the Treasures of his Style . . .(1879),
and in an edition of Shakespeare for Messrs Cassell, which was
issued in weekly parts, and completed in 1868. It was reissued
in 1886 as Cassell's Illustrated Shakespeare. Charles Clarke died
on the I3th of March 1877 at Genoa, and his wife survived him
until the I2th of January 1898. Among Mrs Cowden Clarke's
other works may be mentioned The Girlhood of Shakespeare's
Heroines (3 vols., 1850-1852), and a translation of Berlioz's
Treatise upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration (1856).

See Recollections of Writers (1898), a joint work by the Clarkes
containing letters and reminiscences of their many literary friends;
and Mary Cowden Clarke's autobiography, My Long Life (1896).
A charming series of letters (1850-1861), addressed by her to an
American admirer of her work, Robert Balmanno, was edited by
Anne Upton Nettleton as Letters to an Enthusiast (Chicago, 1902).

CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769-1822), English mineral-
ogist and traveller, was born at Willingdon, Sussex, on the 5th
of June 1769, and educated first at Tonbridge. In 1786 he ob-
tained the office of chapel clerk at Jesus College, Cambridge,
but the loss of his father at this time involved him in difficulties.
In 1790 he took his degree, and soon after became private tutor
to Henry Tufton, nephew of the duke of Dorset. In 1792 he
obtained an engagement to travel with Lord Berwick through
Germany, Switzerland and Italy. After crossing the Alps, and
visiting a few of the principal cities of Italy, including Rome,
he went to Naples, where he remained nearly two years. Having
returned to England in the summer of 1794, he became tutor
in several distinguished families. In 1799 he set out with a
Mr Cripps on a tour through the continent of Europe, beginning
with Norway and Sweden, whence they proceeded through
Russia and the Crimea to Constantinople, Rhodes, and afterwards
to Egypt and Palestine. After the capitulation of Alexandria,
Clarke was of considerable use in securing for England the
statues, sarcophagi, maps, manuscripts, &c., which had been
collected by the French savants. Greece was the country next
visited. From Athens the travellers proceeded by land to
Constantinople, and after a short stay in that city directed
their course homewards through Rumelia, Austria, Germany
and France. Clarke, who had now obtained considerable repu-
tation, took up his residence at Cambridge. He received the
degree of LL.D. shortly after his return in 1803, on account
of the valuable donations, including a colossal statue of the
Eleusinian Ceres, which he had made to the university. He
was also presented to the college living of Harlton, near Cam-
bridge, in 1805, to which, four years later, his father-in-law
added that of Yeldham. Towards the end of 1808 Dr Clarke
was appointed to the professorship of mineralogy in Cambridge,
then first instituted. Nor was his perseverance as a traveller
otherwise unrewarded. The MSS. which he had collected in the
course of his travels were sold to the Bodleian library for £1000;
and by the publication of his travels he realized altogether
a clear profit of £6595. Besides lecturing on mineralogy and
discharging his clerical duties, Dr Clarke eagerly prosecuted
the study of chemistry, and made several discoveries, principally
by means of the gas blow-pipe, which he had brought to a high

CLARKE, E. D.— CLARKE, J. F.

degree of perfection. He was also appointed university librarian
in 1817, and was one of the founders of the Cambridge Philo-
sophical Society in 1819. He died in London on the gth of
March 1822. The following is a list of his principal works: —
Testimony of Authors respecting the Colossal Statue of Ceres in
the Public Library, Cambridge (8vo, 1801-1803); The Tomb of
Alexander, a Dissertation on the Sarcophagus brought from Alex-
andria, and now in the British Museum (4to, 1805) ; A Methodical
Distribution of the Mineral Kingdom (fol., Lewes, 1807); A
Description of the Greek Marbles brought from the Shores of the
Euxine, Archipelago and Mediterranean, and deposited in the
University Library, Cambridge (8vo, 1809); Travels in various
Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa (410, 1810-1819; 2nd ed.,
1811-1823).
See Life and Remains, by Rev. W. Otter (1824).

CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841- ), English
lawyer and politician, son of J. G. Clarke of Moorgate Street,
London, was born on the isth of February 1841. In 1859 he
became a writer in the India office, but resigned in the next year,
and became a law reporter. He obtained a Tancred law scholar-
ship in 1 86 1, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1864.
He joined the home circuit, became Q.C. in 1880, and a bencher of
Lincoln's Inn in 1882. In November 1877 he was successful in
securing the acquittal of Chief-Inspector Clarke from the charge
brought against certain Scotland Yard officials of conspiracy to
defeat justice, and his reputation was assured by his defence of
Patrick Staunton in the Penge murder case (1877), and of Mrs
Bartlett against the charge of poisoning her husband (1886).
Among other notable cases he was counsel for the plaintiff in the
libel action brought by Sir William Gordon-Gumming (1800)
against Mr and Mrs Lycett Green and others for slander, charging
him with cheating in the game of baccarat (in this case the prince
of Wales, afterwards Edward VII., gave evidence), and he
appeared for Dr Jameson, Sir John Willoughby and others when
they were tried (1896) under the Foreign Enlistment Act. He was
knighted in 1886. He was returned as Conservative member for
Southwark at a by-election early in 1880, but failed to retain his
seat at the general election which followed a month or two later;
he found a seat at Plymouth, however, which he retained until
1900. He was solicitor-general in the Conservative administra-
tion of 1886-1892, but declined office under the Unionist govern-
ment of 1895 when the law officers of the crown were debarred
from private practice. The most remarkable, perhaps, of his
speeches in the House of Commons was his reply to Mr Gladstone
on the second reading of the Home Rule Bill in 1893. In ^99
differences which arose between Sir Edward Clarke and his party
on the subject of the government's South African policy led to
his resigning his seat. At the general election of 1906 he was
returned at the head of the poll for the city of London, but he
offended a large section of his constituents by a speech against
tariff reform in the House of Commons on the i2th of March, and
shortly afterwards he resigned his seat on grounds of health.
He published a Treatise on the Law of Extradition (4th ed., 1903),
and also three volumes of his political and forensic speeches.

CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810-1888), American preacher
and author, was born in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the 4th of
April 1810. He was prepared for college at the public Latin
school of Boston, and graduated at Harvard College in 1829, and
at the Harvard Divinity School in 1833. He was then ordained
as minister of a Unitarian congregation at Louisville, Kentucky,
which was then a slave state. Clarke soon threw himself heart
and soul into the national movement for the abolition of slavery,
though he was never what was then called in America a " radical
abolitionist." In 1839 he returned to Boston, where he and his
friends established (1841) the " Church of the Disciples." It
brought together a body of men and women active and eager in
applying the Christian religion to the social problems of the day,
and he would have said that the feature which distinguished it
from any other church was that they also were ministers of the
highest religious life. Ordination could make no distinction
between him and them. Of this church he was the minister from
1841 until 1850 and from 1854 until his death. He was also

CLARKE, J. S.— CLARKE, SAMUEL

secretary of the Unitarian Association and, in 1867-1871
professor of natural religion and Christian doctrine at Harvard.
From the beginning of his active life he wrote freely for the press.
From 1836 until 1839 he was editor of the Western Messenger, a
magazine intended to carry to readers in the Mississippi Valley
simple statements of " liberal religion," involving what were then
the most radical appeals as to national duty, especially the
abolition of slavery. The magazine is now of value to collectors
because it contains the earliest printed poems of Ralph Waldo
Emerson, who was Clarke's personal friend. Most of Clarke's
earlier published writings were addressed to the immediate need
of establishing a larger theory of religion than that espoused
by people who were still trying to be Calvinists, people who
maintained what a good American phrase calls " hard-shelled
churches." But it would be wrong to call his work controversial.
He was always declaring that the business of the Church is
Eirenic and not Polemic. Such books as Orthodoxy: Its Truths
and Errors (1866) have been read more largely by members of
orthodox churches than by Unitarians. In the great moral
questions of his time Clarke was a fearless and practical advocate
of the broadest statement of human rights. Without caring
much what company he served in, he could always be seen and
heard, a leader of unflinching courage, in the front rank of the
battle. He published but few verses, but at the bottom he was a
poet. He was a diligent and accurate scholar, and among the
books by which he is best known is one called Ten Great Religions
(2 vols., 1871-1883). Few Americans have done more than
Clarke to give breadth to the published discussion of the subjects
of literature, ethics and religious philosophy. Among his later
books are Every-Day Religion (1886) and Sermons on the Lord's
Prayer (1888). He died at Jamaica Plain, Mass., on the 8th of
June 1888.

His Autobiography, Diary and Correspondence, edited by Edward
Everett Hale, was published in Boston in 1891. (E. E. H.)

CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833-1899), American actor, was
born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 3rd of September 1833, and
was educated for the law. He made his first appearance in
Boston as Frank Hardy in Paul Pry in 1851. In 1859 he married
Asia Booth, daughter of Junius Brutus Booth, and he was
associated with his brother-in-law Edwin Booth in the manage-
ment of the Winter Garden theatre in New York, the Walnut
Street theatre in Philadelphia and the Boston theatre. In 1867
he went to London, where he made his first appearance at the St
James's as Major Wellington de Boots in Stirling Coynes's
Everybody's Friend, rewritten for him and called The Widow's
Hunt. His success was so great that he remained in England for
the rest of his life, except for four visits to America. Among his
favourite parts were Toodles, which ran for 200 nights at the
Strand, Dr Pangloss in The Heir-at-law, and Dr Ollapod in The
Poor Gentleman. He managed several London theatres, includ-
ing the Haymarket, where he preceded the Bancrofts. He
retired in 1889, and died on the 24th of September 1899. His two
sons also were actors. X

CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846-1881),
Australian author, was born in London on the 24th of April 1846.
He was the only son of William Hislop Clarke, a barrister of the
Middle Temple who died in 1863. He emigrated forthwith to
Australia, where his uncle, James Langton Clarke, was a county
court judge. He was at first a clerk in the bank of Australasia,
but snowed no business ability, and soon proceeded to learn
farming at a station on the Wimmera river, Victoria. He was
already writing stories for the Australian Magazine, when in 1867
he joined the staff of the Melbourne Argus through the introduc-
tion of Dr Robert Lewins. He also became secretary (1872) to
the trustees of the Melbourne public library and later (1876)
assistant librarian. He founded in 1868 the Yorick Club, which
soon numbered among its members the chief Australian men of
letters. The most famous of his books is For the Term of his
Natural Life (Melbourne, 1874), a powerful tale of an Australian
penal settlement, which originally appeared in serial form in a
Melbourne paper. He also wrote The Peripatetic Philosopher
(1869), a series of amusing papers reprinted from The Austral-

445

asian; Long Odds (London, 1870), a novel; and numerous
comedies and pantomimes, the best of which was Twinkle,
Twinkle, Little Star (Theatre Royal, Melbourne; Christmas,
1873). He married an actress, Marian Dunn. In spite of his
popular success Clarke was constantly involved in pecuniary
difficulties, which are said to have hastened his death at
Melbourne on the 2nd of August 1881.

See The Marcus Clarke Memorial Volume (Melbourne, 1884),
containing selections from his writings with a biography and list
of works, edited by Hamilton Mackinnon.

CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c.^o-iSsz), mistress of Frederick
duke of York, second son of George III., was born either in
London or at Oxford. Her father, whose name was Thompson,
seems to have been a tradesman in rather humble circumstances.
She married before she was eighteen, but Mr Clarke, the pro-
prietor of a stonemasonry business, became bankrupt, and she
left him. After other liaisons, she became in 1803 the mistress of
the duke of York, then commander-in-chief, maintaining a large
and expensive establishment in a fashionable district. The
duke's promised allowance was not regularly paid, and to escape
her financial difficulties Mrs Clarke trafficked in her protector's
position, receiving money from various promotion-seekers,
military, civil and even clerical, in return for her promise to secure
them the good services of the duke. Her procedure became a
public scandal, and in 1809 Colonel Wardle, M.P., brought eight
charges of abuse of military patronage against the duke in the
House of Commons, and a committee of inquiry was appointed,
before which Mrs Clarke herself gave evidence. The result of the
inquiry clearly established the charges as far as sh.e was con-
cerned, and the duke of York was shown to have been aware of
what was being done, but to have derived no pecuniary benefit
himself. He resigned his appointment as commander-in-chief,
and terminated his connexion with Mrs Clarke, who subsequently
obtained from him a considerable sum in cash and a pension, as
the price for withholding the publication of his numerous letters
tc her. Mrs Clarke died at Boulogne on the 2ist of June 1852.

See Taylor, Authentic Memoirs of Mrs Clarke; Clarke (? pseud.),
Life of Mrs M. A. Clarke; Annual Register, vol. li.

CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675-1729), English philosopher and
divine, son of Edward Clarke, an alderman, who for several years
was parliamentary representative of the city of Norwich, was
born on the i ith of October 1675, and educated at the free school
of Norwich and at Caius College, Cambridge. The philosophy of
Descartes was the reigning system at the university; Clarke,
however, mastered the new system of Newton, and contributed
greatly to its extension by publishing an excellent Latin version
of the Traiti de physique of Jacques Rohault (1620-1675) with
valuable notes, which he finished before he was twenty-two years
of age. The system of Rohault was founded entirely upon
Cartesian principles, and was previously known only through the
medium of a rude Latin version. Clarke's translation (1697)
continued to be used as a text-book in the university till sup-
planted by the treatises of Newton, which it had been designed to
introduce. Four editions were issued, the last and best being
that of 1718. It was translated into English in 1723 by his
brother Dr John Clarke (1682-1757), dean of Sarum.

Clarke afterwards devoted himself to the study of Scripture in
the original, and of the primitive Christian writers. Having taken
holy orders, he became chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714),
bishop of Norwich, who was ever afterwards his friend and patron.
In 1699 he published two treatises, — one entitled Three Practical
Essays on Baptism, Confirmation and Repentance, and the other,
Some Reflections on that part of a book called Amyntor, or a
Defence of Milton's Life, which relates to the Writings of the
Primitive Fathers, and the Canon of the New Testament. In 1701
he published A Paraphrase upon the Gospel of St Matthew, which
was followed, in 1702, by the Paraphrases upon the Gospefs of St
Mark and St Luke, and soon afterwards by a third volume upon
St John. They were subsequently printed together in two
volumes and have since passed through several editions. He
intended to treat in the same manner the remaining books of the
New Testament, but his design was unfulfilled.

446

CLARKE, SAMUEL

Meanwhile he had been presented by Bishop Moore to the
rectory of Drayton, near Norwich. As Boyle lecturer, he dealt in
1704 with the Being and Attributes of God, and in 1705 with the
Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion. These lectures, first
printed separately, were afterwards published together under the
title of A Discourse concerning the Being and Attributes of God, the
Obligations of Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the
Christian Revelation, in opposition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the author
of the Oracles of Reason, and other Denier s of Natural and Revealed
Religion.

In 1706 he wrote a refutation of Dr Henry Dodwell's views on
the immortality of the soul, and this drew him into controversy
with Anthony Collins. He also wrote at this time a translation of
Newton's Optics, for which the author presented him with £500.
In the same year through the influence of Bishop Moore, he
obtained the rectory of St Benet's, Paul's Wharf, London.
Soon afterwards Queen Anne appointed him one of her chaplains
in ordinary, and in 1700 presented him to the rectory of St
James's, Westminster. He then took the degree of doctor in
divinity, defending as his thesis the two propositions: Nullum
fidei Christianae dogma, in Sacris Scripluris traditum, est rectae
rationi dissentaneum, and Sine actionum humanarum libertate
nulla palest esse religio. During the same year, at the request of
the author, he revised Whiston's English translation of the
Apostolical Constitutions.

In 1712 he published a carefully punctuated and annotated
edition (folio 1712, octavo 1720) of Caesar's Commentaries, with
elegant engravings, dedicated to the duke of Marlborough.
During the same year he published his celebrated treatise on The
Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity. It is divided into three parts.
The first contains a collection and exegesis of all the texts in the
New Testament relating to the doctrine of the Trinity; in the
second the doctrine is set forth at large, and explained in
particular and distinct propositions; and in the third the
principal passages in the liturgy of the Church of England
relating to the doctrine of the Trinity are considered. Whiston
informs us that, some time before the publication of this book,
a message was sent to him from Lord Godolphin "that the
affairs of the public were with difficulty then kept in the hands of
those that were for liberty; that it was therefore an unseasonable
time for the publication of a book that would, make a great noise
and disturbance; and that therefore they desired him to forbear
till a fitter opportunity should offer itself," — a message that
Clarke of course entirely disregarded. The ministers were right
in their conjectures; and the work not only provoked a great
number of replies, but occasioned a formal complaint from the
Lower House of Convocation. Clarke, in reply, drew up an
apologetic preface, and afterwards gave several explanations,
which satisfied the Upper House; and, on his pledging himself that
his future conduct would occasion no trouble, the matter dropped.

In 1715 and 1716 he had a discussion with Leibnitz relative
to the principles of natural philosophy and religion, which was
at length cut short by the death of his antagonist. A collection
of the papers which passed between them was published in 1717
(cf. G. v. Leroy, Die philos. Probleme in dent Briefwechsel Leibniz
ttnd Clarke, Giessen, 1893). In 1719 he was presented by Nicholas
ist Baron Lechmere, to the mastership of Wigston's hospital
in Leicester. In 1724 he published seventeen sermons, eleven
of which had not before been printed. In 1727, on the death
of Sir Isaac Newton, he was offered by the court the place of
master of the mint, worth on an average from £1200 to £1500
a year. This secular preferment, however, he absolutely refused.
In 1728 was published " A Letter from Dr Clarke to Benjamin
Hoadly, F.R.S., occasioned by the controversy relating to
the Proportion of Velocity and Force in Bodies in Motion,"
printed in the Philosophical Transactions. In 1729 he published
the first twelve books of Homer's Iliad. This edition, dedicated
to William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was highly praised
by Bishop Hoadly. On Sunday, the nth of May 1729, when
going out to preach before the judges at Serjeants' Inn, he was
seized with a sudden illness, which caused his death on the
Saturday following (May 17, 1729).

Soon after his death his brother Dr John Clarke, dean of
Sarum, published, from his original manuscripts, An Exposition
of the Church Catechism, and ten volumes of sermons. The
Exposition is composed of the lectures which he read every
Thursday morning, for some months in the year, at St James's
church. In the latter part of his life he revised them with great
care, and left them completely prepared for the press. Three
years after his death appeared also the last twelve books of the
Iliad, published by his son Samuel Clarke, the first three of these
books and part of the fourth having, as he states, been revised
and annotated by his father.

In disposition Clarke was cheerful and even playful. An
intimate friend relates that he once found him swimming
upon a table. At another time Clarke on looking out at the
window saw a grave blockhead approaching the house; upon
which he cried out, "Boys, boys, be wise; here comes a fool."
Dr Warton, in his observations upon Pope's line,

" Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wise,"
says, " Who could imagine that Locke was fond of romances;
that Newton once studied astrology; that Dr Clarke valued
himself on his agility, and frequently amused himself in a
private room of his house in leaping over the tables and chairs ? "

Philosophy. — Clarke, though in no way an original thinker, was
eminent in theology, mathematics, metaphysics and philology, but
his chief strength lay in his logical power. The materialism of
Hobbes, the pantheism of Spinoza, the empiricism of Locke, the
determinism of Leibnitz, Collins' necessitarianism, Dodwell's denial
of the natural immortality of the soul, rationalistic attacks on
Christianity, and the morality of the sensationalists — all these he
opposed with a thorough conviction of the truth of the principles
which he advocated. His fame as theologian and philosopher rests
to a large extent on his demonstration of the existence of God and
his theory of the foundation of rectitude. The former is not a purely
a priori argument, nor is it presented as such by its author. It
starts from a fact and it often explicitly appeals to facts. The
intelligence, for example, of the self-existence and original cause of
all things is, he says, " not easily proved a priori," but " dempn-
strably proved a posteriori from the variety and degrees of perfection
in things, and the order of causes and effects, from the intelligence
that created beings are confessedly endowed with, and from the
beauty, order, and final purpose of things." The propositions
maintained in the argument are — " (i) That something has existed
from eternity; (2) that there has existed from eternity some one
immutable and independent being; (3) that that immutable and
independent being, which has existed from eternity, without any
external cause of its existence, must be self-existent, that is, neces-
sarily existing; (4) what the substance or essence of that being is,
which is self-existent or necessarily existing, we have no idea,
neither is it at all possible for us to comprehend it ; (5) that though
the substance or essence of the self-existent being is itself absolutely
incomprehensible to us, yet many of the essential attributes of his
nature are strictly demonstrable as well as his existence, and, in
the first place, that he must be of necessity eternal; (6) that the
self-existent being must of necessity be infinite and omnipresent;
(7) must be but one; (8) must be an intelligent being; (9) must be
not a necessary agent, but a being endued with liberty and choice ;
(10) must of necessity have infinite power; (ll) must be infinitely
wise, and (12) must of necessity be a being of infinite goodness,
justice, and truth, and all other moral perfections, such as become the
supreme governor and judge of the world."

In order to establish his sixth proposition, Clarke contends that
time and space, eternity and immensity, are not substances, but
attributes — the attributes of a self-existent being. Edmund Law,
Dugald Stewart, Lord Brougham, and many other writers, have,
in consequence, represented Clarke as arguing from the existence
of time and space to the existence of Deity. This is a serious mistake.
The existence of an immutable, independent, and necessary being
is supposed to be proved before any reference is made to the nature
of time and space. Clarke has been generally supposed to have
derived the opinion that time and space are attributes of an infinite
immaterial and spiritual being from the Scholium Generate, first
published in the second edition of Newton's Principia (1714). The
truth is that his work on the Being and Attributes of God appeared
nine years before that Scholium. The view propounded by Clarke
may have been derived from the Midrash, the Kabbalah, Philo,
Henry More, or Cudworth, but not from Newton. It is a view
difficult to prove, and probably few will acknowledge that Clarke
has conclusively proved it.

His ethical theory of " fitness " (see ETHICS) is formulated on the
analogy of mathematics. He held that in relation to the will things
possess an objective fitness similar to the mutual consistency of
things in the physical universe. This fitness God has given to
actions, as he has given laws to Nature; and the fitness is as im-
mutable as the laws. The theory has been unfairly criticized by

CLARKE, T. S.— CLARKSON

447

Jouffroy, Amedee Jacques, Sir James Mackintosh, Thomas Brown
and others. It is said, for example, that Clarke made virtue consist
in conformity to the relations of things universally, although the
whole tenor of his argument shows him to have had in view con-
formity to such relations only as belong to the sphere of moral
agency. It is true that he might have emphasized the relation of
moral fitness to the will, and in this respect J. F. Herbart (g.f.)
improved on Clarke's statement of the case. To say, however, that
Clarke simply confused mathematics and morals by justifying the
moral criterion on a mathematical basis is a mistake. He compared
the two subjects for the sake of the analogy.

Though Clarke can thus be defended against this and similar
criticism, his work as a whole can be regarded only as an attempt
to present the doctrines of the Cartesian school in a form which
would not shock the conscience of his time. His work contained
a measure of rationalism sufficient to arouse the suspicion of orthodox
theologians, without making any valuable addition to, or modi-
fication of, the underlying doctrine.

AUTHORITIES. — See W. Whiston's Historical Memoirs, and the
preface by Benjamin Hoadly to Clarke's Works (4 vols., London,
1738-1742). See further on his general philosophical position
J. Hunt's Religious Thought in England, passim, but particularly in
vol. ii. 447-457, and vol. iii. 20-20 and 109-115, &c. ; Rob. Zimmer-
mann in the Denkschriften d. k. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-
Hist. Classe, Bd. xix. (Vienna, 1870); H. Sidgwick's Methods of
Ethics (6th ed., 1901), p. 384; A. Bain's Moral Science (1872),
p. 562 foil., and Mental Science (1872), p. 416; Sir L. Stephen's
English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (3rd ed., 1902), c. iii.;
J. E. le Rossignol, Ethical Philosophy of S. Clarke (Leipzig, 1892).

CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1860- ), American artist,
was born in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 25th of April 1860,
and graduated at Princeton in 1882. He was a pupil of the Art
Students' League, New York, and of the Ecole des Beaux Arts,
Paris, under J. L. Gerome; later he entered the atelier of
Dagnan-Bouveret, and, becoming interested in sculpture, worked
for a while under Henri M. Chapu. As a sculptor, he received
a medal of honour in Madrid for his " The Cider Press,"
now in the Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California, and
he made four caryatides of " The Seasons " for the Appellate
Court House, New York. He designed an " Alma Mater "
for Princeton University, and a model is in the library. Among
his paintings are his " Night Market in Morocco " (Philadelphia
Art Club), for which he received a medal at the International
Exposition in Berlin in 1891, and his " A Fool's Fool," exhibited
at the Salon in 1887 and now in the collection of the Pennsyl-
vania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia.

CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878), British
geologist, was born at East Bergholt, in Suffolk, on the 2nd of
June 1 798. He received his early education at Dedham grammar
school, and in 1817 entered Jesus College, Cambridge; he took
his B.A. in 1821, was ordained and became M.A. in 1824. In
1821 he was appointed curate of Ramsholt in Suffolk, and he
acted in his clerical capacity in other places until 1839. Having
become interested in geology through the teachings of Sedgwick,
he utilized his opportunities and gathered many interesting
facts on the geology of East Anglia which were embodied in a
paper " On the Geological Structure and Phenomena of Suffolk "
(Trans. Geol. Soc. 1837). He also communicated a series of
papers on the geology of S.E. Dorsetshire to the Magazine of
Nat. Hist. (1837-1838). In 1839, after a severe illness, he left
England for New South Wales, mainly with the object of benefit-
ing by the sea voyage. He remained, however, in that country,
and came to be regarded as the " Father of Australian Geology."
From the date of his arrival in New South Wales until 1870 he
was in clerical charge first of the country from Paramatta to
the Hawkesbury river, then of Campbelltown, and finally of
Willoughby. He zealously devoted attention to the geology
of the country, with results that have been of paramount import-
ance. In 1841 he discovered gold, being the first explorer
who had obtained it in situ in the country, finding it both in the
detrital deposits and in the quartzites of the Blue Mountains,
and he then declared his belief in its abundance. In 1849 he
made the first actual discovery of tin in Australia and in 1859
he made known the occurrence of the diamond. He was also
the first to indicate the presence of Silurian rocks, and to deter-
mine the age of the coal-bearing rocks in New South Wales.
In 1869 he announced the discovery of remains of Dinornis in

Queensland. He was a trustee of the Australian museum at
Sydney, and an active member of the Royal Society of New
South Wales. In 1860 he published Researches in the Southern
Gold-fields of New South Wales. He was elected F.R.S. in 1876,
and in the following year was awarded the Murchison medal
by the Geological Society of London. His contributions to
Australian scientific journals were numerous. He died near
Sydney, on the I7th of June 1878.

CLARKSON, THOMAS (1760-1846), English anti-slavery
agitator, was born on the 28th of March 1760, at Wisbeach, in
Cambridgeshire, where his father was headmaster of the free
grammar school. He was educated at St Paul's school and at
St John's College, Cambridge. Having taken the first place
among the middle bachelors as Latin essayist, he succeeded
in 1785 in gaining a similar honour among the senior bachelors.
The subject appointed by the vice-chancellor, Dr Peckhard, was
one in which he was himself deeply interested — Anne liceat
imiitos in servitulem dare? (Is it right to make men slaves
against their will?). In preparing for this essay Clarkson
consulted a number of works on African slavery, of which the
chief was Benezet's Historical Survey of New Guinea; and the
atrocities of* which he read affected him so deeply that he de-
termined to devote all his energies to effect the abolition of the
slave trade, and gave up his intention of entering the church.

His first measure was to publish, with additions, an English
translation of his prize essay (June 1786). He then commenced
to search in all quarters for information concerning slavery. He
soon discovered that the cause had already been taken up to
some extent by others, most of whom belonged to the Society of
Friends, and among the chief of whom were William Dillwyn,
Joseph Wood and Granville Sharp. With the aid of these
gentlemen, a committee of twelve was formed in May 1787 to do
all that was possible to effect the abolition of the slave trade.
Meanwhile Clarkson had also gained the sympathy of Wilberforce,
Whitbread, Sturge and several other men of influence. Travel-
ling from port to port, he now commenced to collect a large mass
of evidence; and much of it was embodied in his Summary View
of the Slave Trade, and the Probable Consequences of its Abolition,
which, with a number of other anti-slavery tracts, was published
by the committee. Pitt, Grenville, Fox and Burke looked
favourably on the movement; in May 1788 Pitt introduced a
parliamentary discussion on the subject, and Sir W. Dolben
brought forward a bill providing that the number of slaves
carried in a vessel should be proportional to its tonnage. A
number of Liverpool and Bristol merchants obtained permission
from the House to be heard by council against the bill, but on
the i8th of June it passed the Commons. Soon after Clarkson
published an Essay on the Impolicy of the Slave Trade; and for
two months he was continuously engaged in travelling that he
might meet men who were personally acquainted with the facts
of the trade. From their lips he collected a considerable amount
of evidence; but only nine could be prevailed upon to promise to
appear before the privy council. Meanwhile other witnesses had
been obtained by Wilberforce and the committee, and on the
1 2th of May 1789 the former led a debate on the subject in the
House of Commons, in which he was seconded by Burke and
supported by Pitt and Fox.

It was now the beginning of the French Revolution, and in the
hope that he might arouse the French to sweep away slavery with
other abuses, Clarkson crossed to Paris, where he remained six
months. He found Necker head of the government, and obtained
from him some sympathy but little help. Mirabeau, however,
with his assistance, prepared a speech against slavery, to be
delivered before the National Assembly, and the Marquis de la
Fayette entered enthusiastically into his views. During this
visit Clarkson met a deputation of negroes from Santo Domingo,
who had come to France to present a petition to the National
Assembly, desiring to be placed on an equal footing with the
whites; but the storm of the Revolution permitted no sub-
stantial success to be achieved. Soon after his return home he
engaged in a search, the apparent hopelessness of which finely
displays his unshrinking laboriousness and his passionate

CLARKSVILLE— CLASSICS

enthusiasm. He desired to find some one who had himself
witnessed the capture of the negroes in Africa; and a friend
having met by chance a man-of-war's-man who had done so,
Clarkson, though ignorant of the name and address of the sailor,
set out in search of him, and actually discovered him. His last
tour was undertaken in order to form anti-slavery committees
in all the principal towns. At length, in the autumn of 1794,
his health gave way, and he was obliged to cease active work.
He now occupied his time in writing a History of the Abolition
of the Slave Trade, which appeared in 1808. The bill for the
abolition of the trade became law in 1807; but it was still
necessary to secure the assent of the other powers to its principle.
To obtain this was, under pressure of the public opinion created
by Clarkson and his friends, one of the main objects of British
diplomacy at the Congress of Vienna, and in February 1815 the
trade was condemned by the powers. The question of concerting
practical measures for its abolition was raised at the Congress of
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but without result. On this occasion
Clarkson personally presented an address to the emperor
Alexander I., who communicated it to the sovereigns of Austria
and Prussia. In 1823 the Anti-Slavery Society was formed,
and Clarkson was one of its vice-presidents. He was for some
time blind from cataract; but several years before his death
on the 26th of September 1846, his sight was restored.

Besides the works already mentioned, he published the Portraiture
of Quakerism (1806), Memoirs of William Penn (1813), Researches,
Antediluvian, Patriarchal and Historical (1836), intended as a history
of the interference of Providence for man's spiritual good, and
Strictures on several of the remarks concerning himself made in the
Life of Wilberforce, in which his claim as originator of the anti-
slavery movement is denied.

See the lives by Thomas Elmes (1876) and Thomas Taylor (1839).

CLARKSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery
county, Tennessee, U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state,
about 50 m. N.W. of Nashville, on the Cumberland river, at the
mouth of the Red river. Pop. (1890) 7924; (1900) 9431, of whom
5094 were negroes; (1910 census) 8548. It is served by the
Louisville & Nashville, and the Illinois Central railways, and by
passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Cumberland river.
The city hall and the public library are among the principal
public buildings, and the city is the seat of the Tennessee Odd
Fellows'home,andof the South- Western Presbyterian University,
founded in 1875. Clarksville lies in the centre of the dark
tobacco belt — commonly known as the " Black Patch " — and is
an important tobacco market, with an annual trade in that
staple of about $4,000,000, most of the product being exported
to France, Italy, Austria and Spain. The city is situated in a
region well adapted for the growing of wheat, Indian corn, and
vegetables, and for the raising of live-stock; and Clarksville is a
shipping point for the lumber — chiefly oak, poplar and birch —
and the iron-ore of the surrounding country, a branch of the
Louisville & Nashville railway extending into the iron district.
The city's principal manufactures -are flour and grist mill products,
chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff, furniture, lumber, iron,
and pearl buttons. The value of the factory product in 1905 was
$2,210,112, being 32% greater than in 1900. The municipality
owns its water-works. Clarksville was first settled as early as
1780, was named in honour of General George Rogers Clark, and
was chartered as a city in 1850.

CLASSICS. The term " classic " is derived from the Latin
epithet classicus, found in a passage of Aulus Gellius (xix. 8. 15),
where a " scriptor ' classicus ' " is contrasted with a " scriptor
proletarius." The metaphor is taken from the division of the
Roman people into classes by Servius Tullius, those in the first
class being called classici, all the rest infra classem, and those
in the last proletarii.1 The epithet " classic " is accordingly
applied (i) generally to an author of the first rank, and (2) more

1 The above derivation is in accordance with English usage. In
the New English Dictionary the earliest example of the word
" classical " is the phrase " classical and canonical," found in the
Europae Speculum of Sir Edwin Sandys (1599), and, as applied to
a writer, it is explained as meaning " of the first rank or authority."
This exactly corresponds with the meaning of classicus in the above
passage of Gellius. On the other hand, the French word classique
(in Littre's view) primarily means " used in class."

particularly to a Greek or Roman author of that character.
Similarly, " the classics" is a synonym for the choicest products
of the literature of ancient Greece and Rome. It is to this
sense of the word that the following article is devoted in two
main divisions: (A) the general history of classical (i.e. Greek
and Latin) scholarship, and (B) its place in higher education.

(A) GENERAL HISTORY OF THE STUDY or THE CLASSICS

We may consider this subject in four principal periods: —
(i.) the Alexandrian, c. 300-1 B.C.; (ii.) the Roman, A.D. c. 1-530;
(iii.) the Middle Ages, c. 530-1350; and (iv.) the Modern Age,
c. 1350 to the present day.

(i.) The Alexandrian Age. — The study of the Greek classics
begins with the school of Alexandria. Under the rule of Ptolemy
Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.), learning found a home in the
Alexandrian Museum and in the great Alexandrian Library.
The first four librarians were Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristo-
phanes of Byzantium, and Aristarchus. Zenodotus produced
before 274 the first scientific edition of the Iliad and Odyssey,
an edition in which spurious lines were marked, at the beginning,
with a short horizontal dash called an obelus ( — ). He also drew
up select lists of epic and lyric poets. Soon afterwards a classified
catalogue of dramatists, epic and lyric poets, legislators, philo-
sophers, historians, orators and rhetoricians, and miscellaneous
writers, with a brief biography of each, was produced by the
scholar and poet Callimachus (fl. 260). Among the pupils of
Callimachus was Eratosthenes who, in 234, succeeded Zenodotus
as librarian. Apart from his special interest in the history of the
Old Attic comedy, he was a man of vast and varied learning;
the founder of astronomical geography and of scientific chrono-
logy; and the first to assume the name of ^tXoXcryos. The
greatest philologist of antiquity was, however, his successor,
Aristophanes of Byzantium (195), who reduced accentuation
and punctuation to a definite system, and used a variety of
critical symbols in his recension of the Iliad and Odyssey. He
also edited Hesiod and Pindar, Euripides and Aristophanes,
besides composing brief introductions to the several plays, parts
of which are still extant. Lastly, he established a scientific
system of lexicography and drew up lists of the " best authors."
Two critical editions of the Iliad and Odyssey were produced by
his successor, Aristarchus, who was librarian until 146 B.C. and
was the founder of scientific scholarship. His distinguished
pupil, Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166 B.C.), drew up a Greek
grammar which continued in use for more than thirteen centuries.
The most industrious of the successors of Aristarchus was
Didymus (c. 65 B.C.-A.D. 10), who, in his work on the Homeric
poems, aimed at restoring the lost recensions of Aristarchus.
He also composed commentaries on the lyric and comic poets
and on Thucydides and Demosthenes; part of his commentary
on this last author was first published in 1904. He was a teacher
in Alexandria (and perhaps also in Rome); and his death,
about A.D. 10, marks the close of the Alexandrian age. He
is the industrious compiler who gathered up the remnants of
the learning of his predecessors and transmitted them to posterity.
The poets of that age, including Callimachus and Theocritus,
were subsequently expounded by Theon, who flourished under
Tiberius, and has been well described as " the Didymus of the
Alexandrian poets."

The Alexandrian canon of the Greek classics, which probably
had its origin in the lists drawn up by Callimachus, Aristophanes
of Byzantium and Aristarchus, included the following authors: —

Epic poets (5) : Homer, Hesiod, Peisander, Panyasis, Antimachus.

Iambic poets (3) : Simonides of Amorgos, Archilochus, Hipponax.

Tragic poets (5) : Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Ion, Achaeus.

Comic poets, Old (7) : Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristo-
phanes, Pherecrates, Crates, Plato. Middle (2) : Antiphanes, Alexis.
New (5) : Menander, Philippides, Diphilus, Philemon, Apollodorus.

Elegiac poets (4) : Callinus, Mimnermus, Philetas, Callimachus.

Lyric poets (9): Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Pindar,
Bacchylides, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides of Ceos. _

Orators (10) : Demosthenes, Lysias, Hypereides, Isocrates,
Aeschines, Lycurgus, Isaeus, Antiphon, Andocides, Deinarchus.

Historians (10): Thucydides, Herodotus, Xenophon, Philistius,
Theopompus, Ephorus, Anaximenes, Callisthenes, Hellanicus,
Polybius.

CLASSICS

449

The latest name in the above list is that of Polybius, who
died about 1 23 B.C. Apollonius Rhodius, Aratus and Theocritus
were subsequently added to the " epic " poets. Philosophers,
such as Plato and Aristotle, were possibly classed in a separate
" canon. "

While the scholars of Alexandria were mainly interested in
the verbal criticism of the Greek poets, a wider variety of studies
was the characteristic of the school of Pergamum, the literary
rival of Alexandria. Pergamum was a home of learning for a
large part of the 150 years of the Attalid dynasty, 283-133 B.C.

The grammar of the Stoics, gradually elaborated by Zeno,
Cleanthes and Chrysippus, supplied a terminology which, in
words such as " genitive," " accusative " and " aorist," has
become a permanent part of the grammarian's vocabulary;
and the study of this grammar found its earliest home in Per-
gamum.-

From about 168 B.C. the head of the Pergamene school was
Crates of Mallus, who (like the Stoics) was an adherent of the
principle of " anomaly " in grammar, and was thus opposed
to Aristarchus of Alexandria, the champion of " analogy."
He also opposed Aristarchus, and supported the Stoics, by
insisting on an allegorical interpretation of Homer. He is
credited with having drawn up the classified lists of the best
authors for the Pergamene library. His mission as an envoy
to the Roman senate, " shortly after the death of Ennius " in
169 B.C., had a remarkable influence on literary studies in Rome.
Meeting with an accident while he was wandering on the Palatine,
and being detained in Rome, he passed part of his enforced
leisure in giving lectures (possibly on Homer, his favourite
author), and thus succeeded in arousing among the Romans a
taste for the scholarly study of literature. The example set by
Crates led to the production of a new edition of the epic poem
of Naevius, and to the public recitation of the Annals of Ennius,
and (two generations later) the Satires of Lucilius.

( ii.) The Roman Age. — (a) Latin Studies. — In the ist century
B.C. the foremost scholar in Rome was L. Aelius Stilo (c. 154-
c. 74), who is described by Cicero as profoundly learned in Greek
and Latin literature, and as an accomplished critic of Roman
antiquities and of ancient authors. Of the plays then passing
under the name of Plautus, he recognized twenty-five as genuine.
His most famous pupil was Varro (116-27), the six surviving
books of whose great work on the Latin language are mainly
concerned with the great grammatical controversy on analogy
and anomaly — a controversy which also engaged the attention
of Cicero and Caesar, and of the elder Pliny and Quintilian.
The twenty-one plays of Plautus accepted by Varro are doubtless
the twenty now extant, together with the lost Vidularia. The
influence of Varro's last work on the nine disciplines, or branches
of study, long survived in the seven " liberal arts " recognized
by St Augustine and Martianus Capella, and in the trivittm and
quadrivium of the middle ages.

Part of Varro's treatise on Latin was dedicated to Cicero (106-
43), who as an interpreter of Greek philosophy to his fellow-
countrymen enlarged the vocabulary of Latin by his admirable
renderings of Greek philosophical terms, and thus ultimately
gave us such indispensable words as " species," "quality " and
" quantity."

The earliest of Latin lexicons was produced about 10 B.C. by
Verrius Flaccus in a work, De Verborum Significatu, which
survived in the abridgment by Festus (,2nd century A.D.) and in
the further abridgment dedicated by Paulus Diaconus to Charles
the Great.

Greek models were diligently studied by Virgil and Horace.
Their own poems soon became the theme of criticism and of
comment; and, by the time of Quintilian and Juvenal, they
shared the fate (which Horace had feared) of becoming text-
books for use in schools.

Recensions of Terence, Lucretius and Persius, as well as
Horace and Virgil, were produced by Probus (d. A.D. 88), with
critical symbols resembling those invented by the Alexandrian
scholars. His contemporary Asconius is best known as the
author of an extant historical commentary on five of the speeches
VI. 15

of Cicero. In A.D. 88 Quintilian was placed at the head of the first
state-supported school in Rome. His comprehensive work on
the training of the future orator includes an outline of general
education, which had an important influence on the humanistic
schools of the Italian Renaissance. It also presents us with a
critical survey of the Greek and Latin classics arranged under the
heads of poets, historians, orators and philosophers (book x.
chap. i.). The lives of Roman poets and scholars were among the
many subjects that exercised the literary skill of Hadrian's
private secretary, Suetonius. One of his lost works is the
principal source of the erudition of Isidore of Seville (d. A.D. 636),
whose comprehensive encyclopaedia was a favourite text-book in
the middle ages. About the time of the death of Suetonius (A.D.
1 60) a work entitled the Noctes Atticae was begun by Aulus
Gellius. The author is an industrious student and a typical
scholar, who frequents libraries and is interested in the MSS.
of old Latin authors. Early in the 4th century the study of
grammar was represented in northern Africa by the Numidian
tiro, Nonius Marcellus (fl. 323), the author of an encyclopaedic
work in three parts, lexicographical, grammatical and antiquarian,
the main value of which lies in its quotations from early Latin
li terature. About the middle of the same century grammar had a
far abler exponent at Rome in the person of Aelius Donatus, the
preceptor of St Jerome, as well as the author of a text-book that
remained in use throughout the middle ages. The general state
of learning in this century is illustrated by Ausonius (c. 310-393),
the grammarian and rhetorician of Bordeaux, the author of the
Mosella, and the probable inspirer of the memorable decree of
Gratian (376), providing for the appointment and the payment of
teachers of rhetoric and of Greek and Latin literature in the
principal cities of Gaul. His distinguished friend, Q. Aurelius
Symmachus, the consul of A.D. 391, aroused in his own immediate
circle an interest in Livy, the whole of whose history was still
extant. Early in the 5th century other aristocratic Romans
interested themselves in the textual criticism of Persius and
Martial. Among the contemporaries of Symmachus, the devoted
adherent of the old Roman religion, was St Jerome (d. 420), the
most scholarly representative of Christianity in the 4th century,
the student of Plautus and Terence, of Virgil and Cicero, the
translator of the Chronology of Eusebius, and the author of the
Latin version of the Bible now known as the Vulgate. St
Augustine (d. 430) confesses to his early fondness for Virgil, and
also tells us that he received his first serious impressions from the
Hortensius of Cicero, an eloquent exhortation to the study of
philosophy, of which only a few fragments survive. In his
survey of the " liberal arts " St Augustine imitates (as we have
seen) the Disciplinae of Varro, and in the greatest of his works,
the De Civitate Dei (426), he has preserved large portions of the
Antiquitates of Varro and the De Republica of Cicero. About the
same date, and in the same province of northern Africa, Martianus
Capella produced his allegorical work on the " liberal arts," the
principal, and, indeed, often the only, text-book of the medieval
schools.

In the second half of the 5th century the foremost representa-
tive of Latin studies in Gaul was Apollinaris Sidonius (fl. 470),
whose Letters were modelled on those of the younger Pliny, while
his poems give proof of a wide though superficial acquaintance
with classical literature. He laments the increasing decline in
the classical purity of the Latin language.

An interest in Latin literature lived longest in Gaul, where
schools of learning flourished as early as the ist century
at Autun, Lyons, Toulouse, Nimes, Vienne, Narbonne and
Marseilles; and, from the 3rd century onwards, at Trier, Poitiers,
Besancon and Bordeaux.

About ten years after the death of Sidonius we find Asterius,
the consul of 494, critically revising the text of Virgil in Rome.
Boethius, who early in life formed the ambitious plan of expound-
ing and reconciling the opinions of Plato and Aristotle, continued
in the year of his sole consulship (510) to instruct his fellow-
countrymen in the wisdom of Greece. He is a link between the
ancient world and the middle ages, having been the last of the
learned Romans who understood the language and studied the

45°

CLASSICS

literature of Greece, and the first to interpret to the middle ages
the logical treatises of Aristotle. He thereby gave the signal for
the age-long conflict between Nominalism and Realism, which
exercised the keenest intellects among the Schoolmen, while the
crowning work of his life, the Consolatio Philosophiae (524), was
repeatedly expounded and imitated, and reproduced in renderings
that were among the earliest literary products of the vernacular
languages of modern Europe. His contemporary, Cassiodorus
(c. 4&o-c. 575), after spending thirty years in the service of the
Ostrogothic dynasty at Ravenna, passed the last thirty-three
years of his long life on the shores of the Bay of Squillace, where
he founded two monasteries and diligently trained their inmates to
become careful copyists. In his latest work he made extracts for
their benefit from the pages of Priscian (fl. 512), a transcript of
whose great work on Latin grammar was completed at Constanti-
nople by one of that grammarian's pupils in 527, to be re-
produced in a thousand MSS. in the middle ages. More than ten
years before Cassiodorus founded his monasteries in the south of
Italy, Benedict of Nursia (480-543) had rendered a more
permanent service to the cause of scholarship by building,
amid the ruins of the temple of Apollo on the crest of Monte
Cassino, the earliest of those homes of learning that have
lent an undying distinction to the Benedictine order. The
learned labours of the Benedictines were no part of the original
requirements of the rule of St Benedict; but before the founder's
death his favourite disciple had planted a monastery in France,
and the name of that disciple is permanently associated with the
learned labours of the Benedictines of the Congregation of St
Maur (see MAURISTS).

(b) Greek Studies. — Meanwhile, the study of the Greek classics
was ably represented at Rome in the Augustan age by Dionysius
of Halicarnassus (fl. 30-8 B.C.), the intelligent critic of the
ancient Attic orators, while the ist century of our era is the
probable date of the masterpiece of literary criticism known as
the treatise On the Sublime by Longinus (<?.».).

The and century is the age of the two great grammarians,
Apollonius Dyscolus (the founder of scientific grammar and
the creator of the study of Greek syntax) and his son Herodian,
the larger part of whose principal work dealt with the subject
of Greek accentuation. It is also the age of the lexicographers
of Attic Greek, the most important of whom are Phrynichus,
Pollux (fl. A.D. 180) and Harpocration.

In the 4th century Demosthenes was expounded and imitated
by the widely influential teacher, Libanius of Antioch (c. 314-
c- 393)j the pagan preceptor of St Chrysostom. To the same
century we may assign the grammarian Theodosius of Alexandria,
who, instead of confining himself (like Dionysius Thrax) to the
tenses of TWTTO) in actual use, was the first to set forth all the
imaginary aorists and futures of that verb, which have thence
descended through the Byzantine age to the grammars of the
Renaissance and of modern Europe.

In the 5th century we may place Hesychius of Alexandria,
the compiler of the most extensive of our ancient Greek lexicons,
and Proclus, the author of a chrestomathy, to the extracts
from which (as preserved by Photius) we owe almost all our
knowledge of the contents of the lost epics of early Greece.
In the same century the study of Plato was represented by
Synesius of Cyrene (c. 37o-c. 413) and by the Neoplatonists of
Alexandria and of Athens. The lower limit of the Roman age
of classical studies may be conveniently placed in the year 529.
In that year the monastery of Monte Cassino was founded in
the West, while the school of Athens was closed in the East.
The Roman age thus ends in the West with Boethius, Cassio-
dorus and St Benedict, and in the East with Priscian and
Justinian.

(iii.) The Middle Ages. — (a) In the East, commonly called
the Byzantine Age, c. 530-1350. In this age, grammatical
learning was represented by Choeroboscus, and lexicography by
Photius (d. 891), the patriarch of Constantinople, who is also
the author of a Bibliotheca reviewing and criticizing the contents
of 280 MSS., and incidentally preserving important extracts
from the lost Greek historians.

In the time of Photius the poets usually studied at school were
Homer, Hesiod, Pindar; certain select plays of Aeschylus
(Prometheus, Septem and Persae), Sophocles (Ajax, Electra
and Oedipus Tyrannus), and Euripides (Hecuba, Orestes, Phoe-
nissae, and, next to these, Alcestis, Andromache, Hippolytus,
Medea, Rhesus, Troades,) also Aristophanes (beginning with the
Plutus), Theocritus, Lycophron, and Dionysius Periegetes.
The principal prose authors were Thucydides, parts of Plato
and Demosthenes, with Aristotle, Plutarch's Lives, and, above all,
Lucian, who is often imitated in the Byzantine age.

One of the distinguished pupils of Photius, Arethas, bishop of
Caesarea in Cappadocia (c. 007-932), devoted himself with
remarkable energy to collecting and expounding the Greek
classics. Among the important MSS. still extant that were
copied at his expense are the Bodleian Euclid (888) and the
Bodleian Plato (895). To the third quarter of the loth century
we may assign the Greek lexicon of Suidas, a combination of a
lexicon and an encyclopaedia, the best articles being those on
the history of literature.

Meanwhile, during the " dark age " of secular learning at
Constantinople (641-850), the light of Greek learning had spread
eastwards to Syria and Arabia. At Bagdad, in the reign of
Mamun (813-833), the son of Harun al-Rashid, philosophical
works were translated by Syrian Christians from Greek into
Syriac and from Syriac into Arabic. It was in his reign that
Aristotle was first translated into Arabic, and, shortly afterwards,
we have Syriac and Arabic renderings of commentators on
Aristotle, and of portions of Plato, Hippocrates and Galen;
while in the loth century new translations of Aristotle and his
commentators were produced by the Nestorian Christians.

The Arabic translations of Aristotle passed from the East
to the West by being transmitted through the Arab dominions
in northern Africa to Spain, which had been conquered by the
Arabs in the 8th century. In the I2th century Toledo was the
centre of the study of Aristotle in the West, and it was from
Toledo that the knowledge of Aristotle spread to Paris and to
other seats of learning in western Europe.

The 1 2th century in Constantinople is marked by the name
of Tzetzes (c. ino-c. 1180), the author of a mythological,
literary and historical miscellany called the Chiliades, in the
course of which he quotes more than four hundred authors.
The prolegomena to his scholia on Aristophanes supply us with
valuable information on the Alexandrian libraries. The most
memorable name, however, among the scholars of this century
is that of Eustathius, whose philological studies at Constantinople
preceded his tenure of the archbishopric of Thessalonica (1175-
1192). The opening pages of his commentaries on the Iliad and
the Odyssey dwell with enthusiasm on the abiding influence of
Homer on the literature of Greece.

While the Byzantine MSS. of the nth century (such as the
Laurentian MSS. of Aeschylus and Sophocles, and the Ravenna
MS. of Aristophanes) maintain the sound traditions of the
Alexandrian and Roman ages, those of the times of the Palaeologi
give proof of a frequent tampering with the metres of the ancient
poets in order to bring them into conformity with theories
recently invented by Moschopulus and Triclinius. The scholars
of these times are the natural precursors of the earliest repre-
sentatives of the Revival of Learning in the West. Of these
later Byzantines the first in order of date is the monk Planudes
(d. 1330), who devoted his knowledge of Latin to producing
excellent translations of Caesar's Gallic War as well as Ovid's
Metamorphoses and Heroides, and the classic work of Boethius;
he also compiled (in 1302) the only Greek anthology known to
scholars before the recovery in 1607 of the earlier and fuller
anthology of Cephalas (fl. 917).

The scholars of the Byzantine age cannot be compared with
the great Alexandrians, but they served to maintain the con-
tinuity of tradition by which the Greek classics selected by the
critics of Alexandria were transmitted to modern Europe.

(b) In the West (c. 53o-c. 1350).— At the portal of the middle
ages stands Gregory the Great (c. 540-604), who had little (if any)
knowledge of Greek and had no sympathy with the secular

CLASSICS

451

side of the study of Latin. A decline in grammatical learning
is exemplified in the three Latin historians of the 6th century,
Jordanes, Gildas and Gregory of Tours (d. 594), who begins
his history of the Franks by lamenting the decay of Latin
literature in Gaul. The historian of Tours befriended the Latin
poet, Venantius Fortunatus (d. c. 600), who is still remembered
as the writer of the three well-known hymns beginning Salve
festa dies, Vexilla regis prodeunt, and Pange lingua gloriosi
proelium certaminis. The decadence of Latin early in the yth
century is exemplified by the fantastic grammarian Virgilius
Maro, who also illustrates the transition from Latin to Provencal,
-and from quantitive to accentual forms of verse.

While Latin was declining in Gaul, even Greek was not
unknown in Ireland, and the Irish passion for travel led to the
spread of Greek learning in the west of Europe. The Irish monk
Columban, shortly before his death in 615, founded in the
neighbourhood of Pavia the monastery of Bobbio, to be the
repository of many Latin MSS. which were ultimately dispersed
among the libraries of Rome, Milan and Turin. About the same
date his fellow-traveller, Gallus, founded above the Lake of
Constance the monastery of St Gallen, where Latin MSS. were
preserved until their recovery in the age of the Renaissance.
During the next twenty-five years Isidore of Seville (d. 636)
produced in his Origines an encyclopaedic work which gathered
up for the middle ages much of the learning of the ancient world.

In Italy a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the sth and 6th
centuries led to an estrangement between the Greek and Latin
Churches. The year 690 is regarded as the date of the temporary
extinction of Greek in Italy, but, in the first quarters of the Sth
and the gth centuries, the iconoclastic decrees of the Byzantine
emperors drove many of the Greek monks and their lay adherents
to the south of Italy, and even to Rome itself.

In Ireland we find Greek characters used in the Book of
Armagh (c. 807) ; and, in the same century, a Greek psalter was
copied by an Irish monk of Liege, named Sedulius (fl. 850), who
had a wide knowledge of Latin literature. In England, some
sixty years after the death of Augustine, the Greek archbishop
of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus (d. 690) founded a school for
the study of Greek, and with the help of an African monk named
Hadrian made many of the English monasteries schools of Greek
and Latin learning, so that, in the time of Bede (d. 735), some of
the scholars who still survived were "as familiar with Greek and
Latin as with their mother- tongue." Among those who had
learned their Greek at Canterbury was Aldhelm (d. 709), "the
first Englishman who cultivated classical learning with any
success." While Aldhelm is known as "the father of Anglo-
Latin verse," Latin prose was the literary medium used by Bede
in his celebrated Ecclesiastical History of England (731). Nine
years after the death of Bede (735), Boniface, "the apostle of
Germany," sanctioned the founding of Fulda (744), which soon
rivalled St Gallen as a school of learning. Alcuin (d. 804), who
was probably born in the year of Bede's death, tells us of the
wealth of Latin literature preserved in the library at York.
Through the invitation of Charles the Great, he became associated
with the revival of learning which marks the reign of that
monarch, by presiding over the School of the Palace (782-790),
and by exercising a healthy influence as abbot of St Martin's at
Tours (796-804). Among the friends of Alcuin and the advisers
of Charles was Theodulfus, bishop of Orleans and abbot of
Fleury (d. 821), who is memorable as an accomplished Latin
poet, and as the initiator of free education. Einhard (d. 840), in
his classic life of Charles the Great, models his style on that of
Suetonius, and shows his familiarity with Caesar and Livy and
Cicero, while Rabanus Maurus (d. 856), who long presided over
Einhard's school of Fulda, was the first to introduce Priscian into
the schools of Germany. His pupil, Walafrid Strabo, the abbot of
Reichenau (d. 849), had a genuine gift for Latin poetry, a gift
agreeably exemplified in his poem on the plants in the monastic
garden. In the same century an eager interest in the Latin
classics is displayed by Servatus Lupus, who was educated at
Fulda, and was abbot of Ferrieres for the last twenty years of his
life (d. 862). In his literary spirit he is a precursor of the

humanists of the Renaissance. Under Charles the Bald (d. 877)
there was a certain revival of interest in literature, when John
the Scot (Erigena) became, for some thirty years (c. 845-875),
the head of the Palace School. He was familiar with the Greek
Fathers, and was chosen to execute a Latin rendering of the
writings of "Dionysius the Areopagite," the patron saint of
France. In the preface the translator praises the king for
prompting him not to rest satisfied with the literature of the West,
but to have recourse to the "most pure and copious waters of the
Greeks." In the next generation Remi of Auxerre was the first to
open a school in Paris (900). Virgil is the main authority quoted
in Remi's Commentary on Donatus, which remained in use until
the Renaissance. During the two centuries after John the Scot,
the study of Greek declined in France. In England the gth
century closes with Alfred, who, with the aid of the Welsh monk,
Asser, produced a series of free translations from Latin texts,
including Boethiusand Orosius and Bede, and the Cvra Pastoralis
of Gregory the Great.

In the loth century learning flourished at Aachen under Bruno,
brother of Otto I. and archbishop of Cologne (953-965), who had
himself learned Greek from certain Eastern monks at the imperial
court, and who called an Irish bishop from Trier to teach Greek at
the imperial capital. He also encouraged the transcription of
Latin MSS., which became models of style to Widukind of
Corvey, the imitator of Sallust and Livy. In the same century
the monastery of Gandersheim, south of Hanover, was the
retreat of the learned nun Hroswitha, who celebrated the
exploits of Otho in leonine hexameters, and composed in prose
six moral and religious plays in imitation of Terence. _ One of the
most prominent personages of the century was Gerbert of
Aurillac, who, after teaching at Tours and Fleury, became abbot
of Bobbio, archbishop of Reims, and ultimately pope under the
name of Silvester II. (d. 1003). He frequently quotes from the
speeches of Cicero, and it has been surmised that the survival of
those speeches may have been due to the influence of Gcrbert.
The most original hellenist of this age is Luitprand, bishop of
Cremona (d. 972), who acquired some knowledge of Greek during
his repeated missions to Constantinople. About the same time
in England Oswald of York, who had himself been educated at
Fleury, invited Abbo (d. 1004) to Instruct the monks of the abbey
recently founded at Ramsey, near Huntingdon. At Ramsey he
wrote for his pupils a scholarly work dealing with points of
prosody and pronunciation, and exhibiting an accurate know-
ledge of Virgil and Horace. During the same half-century.
^Elfric, the abbot of Eynsham (d. c. 1030), aided Bishop
,/Ethelwold in making Winchester famous as a place of education.
It was there that he began his Latin Grammar, his Glossary (the
earliest Latin-English dictionary in existence), and his Collo-
quium, in which Latin is taught in a conversational manner.

In France, the most notable teacher in the first quarter of the
nth century was Fulbert, bishop of Chartres (d. 1029). In and
after the middle of that century the Norman monastery of Bee
flourished under the rule of Lanfranc and Anselm, both of whom
had begun their career in northern Italy, and closed it at Canter-
bury. Meanwhile, in Germany, the styles of Sallust and Livy
were being happily imitated in the Annals of Lambert of Hersfeld
(d. 1077). In Italy, where the study of Latin literature seems
never to have entirely died out, young nobles and students
preparing for the priesthood were not infrequently learning
Latin together, in private grammar schools under liberal clerics,
such as Anselm of Bisate (fl. 1050), who describes himself as
divided in his allegiance between the saints and the muses.
Learning flourished at Monte Cassino under the rule of the Abbot
Desiderius (afterwards Pope Victor III.). In this century thai
famous monastery had its classical chronicler in Leo Marsicanus,
and its Latin poet in Alfanus, the future archbishop of Salerno.

The Schoolmen devoted most of their attention to Aristotle,
and we may here briefly note the successive stages in their
gradually increasing knowledge of his works. Until 1128 only
the first two of the five parts of the Organon were known, and
those solely in Latin translations from the original. After that
date two more became known; the whole was familiar to John

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CLASSICS

of Salisbury in 1159; while the Physics and Metaphysics came
into notice about 1200. Plato was mainly represented by the
Latin translation of the Timaeus. Abelard (d. 1142) was
acquainted with no Greek works except in Latin translations,
but he has left his mark on the history of European education.
The wide popularity of his brilliant lectures in the "schools"
of Paris made this city the resort of the many students who
were ultimately organized as a " university " (c. 1170). John of
Salisbury attended Abelard's lectures in 1136, and, after spending
two years in the study of logic in Paris, passed three more in the
scholarly study of Latin literature at Chartres, where a sound
and healthy tradition, originally due to Bernard of Chartres
(fl. 1120), was still perpetuated by his pupils. In that school the
study of " figures of speech " was treated as merely introductory
to that of the classical texts. Stress was laid on the sense as
well as the style of the author studied. Discussions on set
subjects were held, select passages from the classics learned
by heart, while written exercises in prose and verse were founded
on the best ancient models. In the general scheme of education
the authority followed was Quintilian. John of Salisbury
(d. 1180), the ripest product of this school, is the most learned
man of his time. His favourite author is Cicero, and in all the
Latin literature accessible to him he is the best-read scholar of
his age. Among Latin scholars of the next generation we have
Giraldus Cambrensis (d. c. 1222), the author of topographical
and historical writings on Ireland and Wales, and of other works
teeming with quotations from the Latin classics. During the
middle ages Latin prose never dies out. It is the normal language
of literature. In England it is used by many chroniclers and
historians, the best known of whom are William of Malmesbury
(d. 1142) and Matthew Paris (d. 1259). In Italy Latin verse
had been felicitously applied to historic themes by William of
Apulia (fl. noo) and other Latin poets (1088-1247). ID tne
1 2th century England claims at least seven Latin poets, one of
these being her only Latin epic poet, Joseph of Exeter (d. 1210),
whose poem on the Trojan war is still extant. The Latin versifier,
John of Garlandia, an Englishman who lived mainly in France
(fl. 1204-1252), produced several Latin vocabularies which were
still in use in the boyhood of Erasmus. The Latin poets of French
birth include Gautier and Alain de Lille (d. c. 1203), the former
being the author of the Alexandreis, and the latter that of the
Anti-Claudianus, a poem familiar to Chaucer.

During the hundred and thirty years that elapsed between
the early translations of Aristotle executed at Toledo about
1 1 50 and the death in 1281 of William of Moerbeke, the translator
of the Rhetoric and the Politics, the knowledge of Aristotle had
been greatly extended in Europe by means of translations,
first from the Arabic, and, next, from the original Greek. Aris-
totle had been studied in England by Grosseteste (d. 1253),
and expounded abroad by the great Dominican, Albertus
Magnus (d. 1280), and his famous pupil, Thomas Aquinas
(d. 1274). Among the keenest critics of the Schoolmen and of
the recent translations of Aristotle was Roger Bacon (d. 1294),
whose Opus majus has been recognized as the Encyclopedic and
the Organon of the i3th century. His knowledge of Greek, as
shown in his Greek Grammar (first published in 1902), was
clearly derived from the Greeks of his own day. The medieval
dependence on the authority of Aristotle gradually diminished.
This was partly due to the recovery of some of the lost works
of ancient literature, and the transition from the middle ages
to the revival of learning was attended by a general widening
of the range of classical studies and by a renewed interest in
Plato.

The classical learning of the middle ages was largely second-
hand. It was often derived from glossaries, from books of
elegant extracts,or from comprehensive encyclopaedias. Among
the compilers of these last were Isidore and Hrabanus, William
of Conches and Honorius of Autun, Bartholomaeus Anglicus
(fl. 1250), Vincent of Beauvais (d. 1264), and, lastly, Brunetto
Latini (d. 1290), the earlier contemporary of Dante. For
Aristotle, as interpreted by Albertus Magnus and Thomas
Aquinas, Dante has the highest regard. To the Latin transla-

tions of Aristotle and to his interpreters he refers in more than
three hundred passages, while the number of his references to
the Latin translation of the Timaeus of Plato is less than
ten. His five great pagan poets are Homer, Virgil, Horace,
Ovid, Lucan; Statius he regards as a " Christian" converted
by Virgil's Fourth Eclogue. His standard authors in Latin
prose are Cicero, Livy, Pliny, Frontinus and Orosius. His
knowledge of Greek was practically nil. Latin was the language
of his political treatise, De Monarchia, and even that of his
defence of the vulgar tongue,. De Vulgari Eloquio. He is, in a
limited sense, a precursor of the Renaissance, but he is far more
truly to be regarded as the crowning representative of the
spirit of the middle ages.

(iv.) The Modern Age. — (a) Our fourth period is ushered
in by the age of the Revival of Learning in Italy (c. 1350-1527).
Petrarch (1304-1374) has been well described as IM
" the first of modern men." In contrast with the
Schoolmen of the middle ages, he has no partiality for Aristotle.
He was interested in Greek, and, a full century before the fall
of Constantinople, he was in possession of MSS. of Homer and
Plato, though his knowledge of the language was limited to the
barest rudiments. For that knowledge, scanty as it was, he was
indebted to Leontius Pilatus, with whose aid Boccaccio (1313-
1375) became " the first of modern men " to study Greek to some
purpose during the three years that Leontius spent as his guest
in Florence (1360-1363). It was also at Florence that Greek
was taught in the next generation by Chrysoloras (in 1396-1400).
Another generation passed, and the scholars of the East and
West met at the council of Florence (1439) One of the envoys
of the Greeks, Gemistus Pletho, then inspired Cosimo dei
Medici with the thought of founding an academy for the study
of Plato. The academy was founded, and, in the age of Lorenao,
Plato and Plotinus were translated into Latin by Marsilio
Ficino (d. 1499). The Apology and Crito, the Phaedo, Phaedrus
and Gorgias of Plato, as well as speeches of Demosthenes and
Aeschines, with the Oeconomics, Ethics and Politics of Aristotle,
had already been translated by Leonardo Bruni (d. 1444); the
Rhetoric by Filelfo (1430), and Plato's Republic by Decembrio
(1439). A comprehensive scheme for translating the principal
Greek prose authors into Latin was carried out at Rome by the
founder of the manuscript collections of the Vatican, Nicholas V.
(1447-1455), who had belonged to the literary circle of Cosimo
at Florence. The translation of Aristotle was entrusted to
three of the learned Greeks who had already arrived in Italy,
Trapezuntius, Gaza and Bessarion, while other authors were
undertaken by Italian scholars such as Guarino, Valla, Decembrio
and Perotti. Among the scholars of Italian birth, probably the
only one in this age who rivalled the Greeks as a public expositor
of their own literature was Politian (1454-1494), who lectured
on Homer and Aristotle in Florence, translated Herodian, and
was specially interested in the Latin authors of the Silver Age
and in the text of the Pandects of Justinian. It will be observed
that the study of Greek had been resumed in Florence half a
century before the fall of Constantinople, and that the principal
writers of Greek prose had been translated into Latin before
that event.

Meanwhile, the quest of MSS. of the Latin classics had been
actively pursued. Petrarch had discovered Cicero's Speech pro
Archia at Liege (1333) and the Letters to Atlicus and Quinlus at
Verona (1345). Boccaccio had discovered Martial and Ausonius,
and had been the first of the human'sts to be familiar with Varro
and Tacitus, while Salutati had recovered Cicero's letters Ad
Familiares (1389). During the council of Constance, Poggio, the
papal secretary, spent in the quest of MSS. the interval between
May 1415 and November 1417, during which he was left at
leisure by the vacancy in the apostolic see.

Thirteen of Cicero's speeches were found by him at Cluny and
Langres, and elsewhere in France or Germany; the commentary
of Asconius, a complete Quintilian, and a large part of Valerius
Flaccus were discovered at St Gallen. A second expedition to
that monastery and to others in the neighbourhood led to the
recovery of Lucretius, Manilius, Silius Italicus and Ammianus

CLASSICS

453

Marcellinus, while the Silvae of Statius were recovered shortly
afterwards. A complete MS. of Cicero, De Oratore, Brutus and
Orator, was found by Bishop Landriani at Lodi (1421). Cornelius
Nepos was discovered by Traversari in Padua (1434). The
Agricola, Gertftania and Dialogue of Tacitus reached Italy from
Germany in 1455, and the early books of the Annals in 1508.
Pliny's Panegyric was discovered by Aurispa at Mainz (1433),
and his correspondence with Trajan by Fra Giocondo in Paris
about 1500.

Greek MSS. were brought from the East by Aurispa, who in
1423 returned with no less than two hundred and thirty-eight,
including the celebrated Laurentian MS. of Aeschylus, Sophocles
and Apollonius P-hodius. A smaller number was brought from
Constantinople by Filelfo (1427), while Quintus Smyrnaeus was
discovered in south Italy by Bessarion, who presented his own
collection of MSS. to the republic of Venice and thus led to the
foundation of the library of St Mark's (1468). As the emissary of
Lorenzo, Janus Lascaris paid two visits to the East, returning
from his second visit in 1492 with two hundred MSS. from
Mount Athos.

The Renaissance theory of a humanistic education is illus-
trated by several treatises still extant. In 1392 Vergerio
addressed to a prince of Padua the first treatise which methodi-
cally maintains the claims of Latin as an essential part of a
liberal education. Eight years later, he was learning Greek from
Chrysoloras. Among the most distinguished pupils of the latter
was Leonardo Bruni, who, about 1405, wrote " the earliest
humanistic tract on education expressly addressed to a lady."
He here urges that the foundation of all true learning is a " sound
and thorough knowledge of Latin," and draws up a course of
reading, in which history is represented by Livy, Sallust, Curtius,
and Caesar; oratory by Cicero; and poetry by Virgil. The same
year saw the birth of Maffeo Vegio, whose early reverence for the
muse of Virgil and whose later devotion to the memory of
Monica have left their mark on the educational treatise which he
wrote a few years before his death in 1458. The authors he
recommends include " Aesop " and Sallust, the tragedies of
Seneca and the epic poets, especially Virgil, whom he interprets in
an allegorical sense. He is in favour of an early simultaneous
study of a wide variety of subjects, to be followed later by the
special study of one or two. Eight years before the death of
Vegio, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had composed a
brief treatise on education in the form of a letter to Ladislaus, the
young king of Bohemia and Hungary. The Latin poets to be
studied include Virgil, Lucan, Statius, Ovid's Metamorphoses, and
(with certain limitations) Horace, Juvenal and Persius, as well as
Plautus, Terence and the tragedies of Seneca; the prose authors
recommended are Cicero, Livy and Sallust. The first great
school of the Renaissance was that established by Vittorino da
Feltre at Mantua, where he resided for the last twenty-two years
of his life (1424-1446). Among the Latin authors studied were
Virgil and Lucan, with selections from Horace, Ovid and Juvenal,
besides Cicero and Quintilian, Sallust and Curtius, Caesar and
Livy. The Greek authors were Homer, Hesiod, Pindar and the
dramatists, with Herodotus, Xenophon and Plato, Isocrates and
Demosthenes, Plutarch and Arrian.

Meanwhile, Guarino had been devoting five years to the training
of the eldest son of the marquis of Ferrara. At Ferrara he spent
the last thirty years of his long life (1370-1460), producing text-
books of Greek and Latin grammar, and translations from
Strabo and Plutarch. His method may be gathered from his
son's treatise, De Ordine Docendi et Studendi. In that treatise
the essential marks of an educated person are, not only ability to
write Latin verse, but also, a point of " at least equal import-
ance," " familiarity with the language and literature of Greece."
" Without a knowledge of Greek, Latin scholarship itself is, in
any real sense, impossible " (1459).

By the fall of Constantinople in 1453, " Italy (in the eloquent
phrase of Carducci) became sole heir and guardian of the ancient
civilization," but its fall was in no way necessary for the revival
of learning, which had begun a century before. Bessarion,
Theodorus Gaza, Georgius Trepezuntius, Argyropulus, Chal-

condyles, all had reached Italy before 1453. A few more Greeks
fled to Italy after that date, and among these were Janus
Lascaris, Musurus and Callierges. All three were of signal service
in devoting their knowledge of Greek to perpetuating and
popularizing the Greek classics with the aid of the newly-
invented art of printing. That art had been introduced into
Italy by the German printers, Sweynheym and Pannartz, who
had worked under Fust at Mainz. At Subiaco and at Rome they
had produced in 1465-1471 the earliest editions of Cicero, De
Oratore and the Letters, and eight other Latin authors.

The printing of Greek began at Milan with the Greek grammar
of Constantine Lascaris (1476). At Florence the earliest editions
of Homer (1488) and Isocrates (1493) had been produced by
Demetrius Chalcondyles, while Janus Lascaris was the first to
edit the Greek anthology, Apollonius Rhodius, and parts of
Euripides, Callimachus and Lucian (1494-1496). In 1494-1515
Aldus Manutius published at Venice no less than twenty-seven
editiones principes of Greek authors and of Greek works of
reference, the authors including Aristotle, Theophrastus,
Theocritus, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Sophocles, Herodotus,
Euripides, Demosthenes (and the minor Attic orators), Pindar,
Plato and Athenaeus. In producing Plato, Athenaeus and
Aristophanes, the scholar-printer was largely aided by Musurus,
who also edited the Aldine Pausanias (1516) and the Elymo-
logicum printed in Venice by another Greek immigrant,
Callierges (1499).

The Revival of Learning in Italy ends with the sack of Rome
(1527). Before 1525 the study of Greek had begun to decline in
Italy, but meanwhile an interest in that language had been
transmitted to the lands beyond the Alps.

In the study of Latin the principal aim of the Italian humanists
was the imitation of the style of their classical models. In the
case of poetry, this imitative spirit is apparent in Petrarch's
Africa, and in the Latin poems of Politian, Pontano, Sannazaro,
Vida and many others. Petrarch was not only the imitator
of Virgil, who had been the leading name in Latin letters through-
out the middle ages; it was the influence of Petrarch that gave
a new prominence to Cicero. The imitation of Cicero was carried
on with varying degrees of success by humanists such as Gas-
parino da Barzizza (d. 1431), who introduced a new style of
epistolary Latin; by Paolo Cortesi, who discovered the impor-
tance of a rhythmical structure in the composition of Ciceronian
prose (1490); and by the accomplished secretaries of Leo X.,
Bembo and Sadoleto. Both of these papal secretaries were
mentioned in complimentary terms by Erasmus in his celebrated
dialogue, the Ciceronianus (1528), in which no less than one
hundred and six Ciceronian scholars of all nations are briefly
and brilliantly reviewed, the slavish imitation of Cicero de-
nounced, and the law laid down that " to speak with propriety
we must adapt ourselves to the age in which we live — an age
that differs entirely from that of Cicero." One of the younger
Ciceronians criticized by Erasmus was Longolius, who had
died at Padua in 1522. The cause of the Ciceronians was de-
fended by the elder Scaliger in 1531 and 1536, and by Etienne
Dolet in 1535, and the controversy was continued by other
scholars down to the year 1610. Meanwhile, in Italy, a strict
type of Ciceronianism was represented by Paulus Manutius
(d. 1574), and a freer and more original form of Latinity by
Muretus (d. 1585).

Before touching on the salient points in the subsequent
centuries, in connexion with the leading nations of Europe,
we may briefly note the cosmopolitan position of Erasmus
(1466-1536), who, although he was a native of the Netherlands,
was far more closely connected with France, England, Italy,
Germany and Switzerland, than with the land of his birth.
He was still a school-boy at Deventer when his high promise
was recognized by Rudolf Agricola, " the first (says Erasmus)
who brought from Italy some breath of a better culture." Late
in 1499 Erasmus spent some two months at Oxford, where he
met Colet; it was in London that he met More and Linacre and
Grocyn, who had already ceased to lecture at Oxford. At Paris,
in 1 500, he was fully conscious that " without Greek the amplest

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CLASSICS

knowledge of Latin was imperfect"; and, during his three
years in Italy (1506-1509), he worked quietly at Greek in Bologna
and 'attended the lectures of Musurus in Padua. In October
1511 he was teaching Greek to a little band of students in Cam-
bridge; at Basel in 1516 he produced his edition of the Greek
Testament, the first that was actually published; and during
the next few years he was helping to organize the college lately
founded at Louvain for the study of Greek and Hebrew, as well
as Latin. Seven years at Basel were followed by five at Freiburg,
and by two more at Basel, where he died. The names of all
these places are suggestive of the wide range of his influence.
By his published works, his Colloquies, his Adages and his
Apophthegms, he was the educator of the nations of Europe.
An educational aim is also apparent in his editions of Terence
and of Seneca, while his Latin translations made his contem-
poraries more familiar with Greek poetry and prose, and his
Paraphrase promoted a better understanding of the Greek
Testament. He was not so much a scientific scholar as a keen
and brilliant man of letters and a widely influential apostle of
humanism.

In France the most effective of the early teachers of Greek
was Janus Lascaris (1495-1503). Among his occasional pupils
France was Budaeus (d. 1540), who prompted Francis I.
to found in 1530 the corporation of the Royal Readers
in Greek, as well as Latin and Hebrew, afterwards famous
under the name of the College de France. In the study of
Greek one of the earliest links between Italy and Germany
Germany was Rudolf Agricola, who had learned Greek under
Gaza at Ferrara. It was in Paris that his younger con-
temporary Reuchlin acquired part of that proficiency in Greek
which attracted the notice of Argyropulus, whose admiration
of Reuchlin is twice recorded by Melanchthon, who soon after-
wards was pre-eminent as the " praeceptor " of Germany.

In the age of the revival the first Englishman who studied
Greek was a Benedictine monk, William of Selling (d. 1494),
England wno Pa^ two vls^ to Italy. At Canterbury he
inspired with his own love of learning his nephew,
Linacre, who joined him on one of those visits, studied Greek
at Florence under Politian and Chalcondyles, and apparently
stayed in Italy from 1485 to 1499. His translation of a treatise
of Galen was printed at Cambridge in 1521 by Siberch, who,
in the same year and place, was the first to use Greek type in
England. Greek had been first taught to some purpose at
Oxford by Grocyn on his return from Italy in 1491. One of the
younger scholars of the day was William Lilye, who picked up
his Greek at Rhodes on his way to Palestine and became the
first high-master of the school founded by Colet at St Paul's

(1510)-

(6) That part of the Modern Period of classical studies which
succeeds the age of the Revival in Italy may be subdivided
into three periods distinguished by the names of the nations
most prominent in each.

i. The first may be designated the French period. It begins
with the foundation of the Royal Readers by Francis I. in 1530,
and it may perhaps be regarded as extending to 1700.
period*" This period is marked by a many-sided erudition
rather than by any special cult of the form of the
classical languages. It is the period of the great polyhistors of
France. It includes Budaeus and the elder Scaliger (who
settled in France in 1529), with Turnebus and Lambinus, and
the learned printers Robertas and Henricus Stephanus, while
among its foremost names are those of the younger (and greater)
Scaliger, Casaubon and Salmasius. Of these, Casaubon ended
his days in England (1614); Scaliger, by leaving France for the
Netherlands in 1 593, for a time at least transferred the supremacy
in scholarship from the land of his birth to that of his adoption.
The last sixteen years of his life (i 593-1609) were spent at Leiden,
which was also for more than twenty years (1631-1653) the
home of Salmasius, and for thirteen (1579-1592) that of Lipsius
(d.i6o6). In the i7th century the erudition of France is best
represented by "Henricus Valesius," Du Cange and Mabillon.
In the same period Italy was represented by Muretus, who

had left France in 1563, and by her own sons, Nizolius, Victorius,
Robortelli and Sigonius, followed in the I7th century by R.
Fabretti. The Netherlands, in the i6th, claim W. Canter as
well as Lipsius, and, in the i7th, G. J. Vossius, Johannes Meur-
sius, the elder and younger Heinsius, Hugo Grotius, J. F.
Gronovius, J. G. Graevius and J. Perizonius. Scotland, in the
i6th, is represented by George Buchanan; England by Sir John
Cheke, Roger Ascham, and Sir Henry Savile, and, in the I7th,
by Thomas Gataker, Thomas Stanley, Henry Dodwell, and
Joshua Barnes; Germany by Janus Gruter, Ezechiel Spanheim
and Chr. Cellarius, the first two of whom were also connected
with other countries.

We have already seen that a strict imitation of Cicero was
one of the characteristics of the Italian humanists. In and
after the middle of 'the i6th century a correct and
pure Latinity was promoted by the educational
system of the Jesuits; but with the growth of the
vernacular literatures Latin became more and more exclusively
the language of the learned. Among the most conspicuous
Latin writers of the i?th century are G. J. Vossius and the
Heinsii, with Salmasius and his great adversary, Milton. Latin
was also used in works on science and philosophy, such as Sir
Isaac Newton's Principia (1687), and many of the works of
Leibnitz (1646-1705). In botany the custom followed by John
Ray (1627-1705) in his Historia Plantar-urn and in other works
was continued in 1760 by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae.
The last important work in English theology written in Latin
was George Bull's Defensio Fidei Nicenae (1685). The use of
Latin in diplomacy died out towards the end of the I7th century;
but, long after that date negotiations with the German empire
were conducted in Latin, and Latin was the language of the
debates in the Hungarian diet down to 1825.

2. During the i8th century the classical scholarship of the
Netherlands was under the healthy and stimulating influence
of Bentley (1662-1742), who marks the beginning The

of the English and Dutch period, mainly represented English
in Holland by Bentley's younger contemporary and "ndDatch
correspondent, Tiberius Hemsterhuys (1685-1766), periolt
and the latter scholar's great pupil David Ruhnken (1723-1798).
It is the age of historical and literary, as well as verbal, criticism.
Both of these were ably represented in the first half of the
century by Bentley himself, while, in the twenty years between
1782 and 1803, the verbal criticism of the tragic poets of Athens
was the peculiar province of Richard Person (1759-1808), who
was born in the same year as F. A. Wolf. Among other repre-
sentatives of England were Jeremiah Markland and Jonathan
Toup, Thomas Tyrwhitt and Thomas Twining, Samuel Parr
and Sir William Jones; and of the Netherlands, the two Bur-
manns and L. Kiister, Arnold Drakenborch and Wesseling,
Lodewyk Valckenaer and Daniel Wyttenbach (1746-1829).
Germany is represented by Fabricius and J. M. Gesner, J. A.
Ernesti and J. J. Reiske, J. J. Winckelmann and Chr. G. Heyne;
France by B. de Montfaucon and J. B. G. D. Villoison; Alsace
by French subjects of German origin, R. F. P. Brunck and J.
Schweighauser; and Italy by E. Forcellini and Ed. Corsini.

3. The German period begins with F. A. Wolf (1759-1824),
whose Prolegomena to Homer appeared in 1795. He is the
founder of the systematic and encyclopaedic type

of scholarship embodied in the comprehensive term J*e

Allertumswissenschaft, or "a scientific knowledge period.

of the old classical world." The tradition of Wolf

was ably continued by August Bockh (d. 1867), one of the

leaders of the historical and antiquarian school, brilliantly

represented in the previous generation by B. G. Niebuhr (d.

1831).

In contrast with this school we have the critical and gram-
matical school of Gottfried Hermann (d. 1848). During this
period, while Germany remains the most productive of the
nations, scholarship has been more and more international
and cosmopolitan in its character.

igth Century. — We must here be content with simply recording
the names of a few of the more prominent representatives of

CLASSICS

455

the iqth century in some of the most obvious departments of
classical learning. Among natives of Germany the leading

scholars have been, in Greek, C. F. W. Jacobs, C. A.
Oemaay. Lobeck) L Dissen> j. Bekker, A. Meineke, C. Lehrs,
W. Dindorf, T. Bergk, F. W. Schneidewin, H. Kochly, A. Nauck,
H. Usener, G. Kaibel, F. Blass and W. Christ; in Latin, C.
Lachmann, F. Ritschl, M. Haupt, C. Halm, M. Hertz, A. Fleck-
eisen, E. Bahrens, L. Muller and O. Ribbeck. Grammar and
kindred subjects have been represented by P. Buttmann, A.
Matthiae. F. W. Thiersch, C. G. Zumpt, G. Bernhardy, C. W.
Kruger, R. Kuhner and H. L. Ahrens; and lexicography by
F. Passow and C. E. Georges. Among editors of Thucydides
we have had E. F. Poppo and J. Classen; among editors of
Demosthenes or other orators, G. H. Schafer, J. T. Vomel, G. E.
Benseler, A. Westermann, G. F. Schomann, H. Sauppe, and C.
Rehdantz (besides Blass, already mentioned). The Plalonisls
include F. Schleiermacher, G. A. F. Ast, G. Stallbaum and the
many-sided C. F. Hermann; the Aristotelians, C. A. Brandis,
A. Trendelenburg, L. Spengel, H. Bonitz, C. Prantl, J. Bernays
and F. Susemihl. The history of Greek philosophy was written
by F. Ueberweg, and, more fully, by E. Zeller. Greek history
was the domain of G. Droysen, Max Duncker, Ernst Curtius,
Arnold Schafer and Adolf Holm; Greek antiquities that of
M. H. Meier and G. F. Schomann and of G. Gilbert; Greek
epigraphy that of J. Franz, A. Kirchhoff, W. von Hartel, U.
Kohler, G. Hirschfeld and W. Dittenberger; Roman history
and constitutional antiquities that of Theodor Mommsen (1817-
1903), who was associated in Latin epigraphy with E. Hiibner
and W. Henzen. Classical art and archaeology were represented
by F. G. Welcker, E. Gerhard, C. O. Muller, F. Wieseler, O.
Jahn, C. L. Urlichs, H. Brunn, C. B. Stark, J. Overbeck, W.
Helbig, O. Benndorf and A. Furtwangler; mythology (with
cognate subjects) by G. F. Creuzer, P. W. Forchhammer, L.
Preller, A. Kuhn, J. W. Mannhardt and E. Rohde; and com-
parative philology by F. Bopp, A. F. Pott, T. Benfey, W. Corssen,
Georg Curtius, A. Schleicher and H. Steinthal. The history of
classical philology in Germany was written by Conrad Bursian
(1830-1883).

In France we have J. F. Boissonade, J. A. Letronne, L. M.
Quicherat, M. P. Littre, B. Saint-Hilaire, J. V. Duruy, B. E.

Miller, fi. Egger, C. V. Daremberg, C. Thurot, L. E.

Benoist, O. Riemann and C. Graux; (in archaeology)
A. C. Quatremere de Quincy, P. le Bas, C. F. M. Texier, the due
de Luynes, the Lenormants (C. and F.), W. H. Waddington

and 0. Rayet; and (in comparative philology) Victor
HoUand. Henry. Greece was ably represented in France by

A. Roraes. In Belgium we have P. Willems and
the Baron De Witte (long resident in France); in Holland,
C. G. Cobet; in Denmark, J. N. Madvig. Among the scholars
p . of Great Britain and Ireland may be mentioned:

P. Elmsley, S. Butler, T. Gaisford, P. P. Dobree,
J. H. Monk, C. J. Blomfield, W. Veitch, T. H. Key, B. H.
Kennedy, W. Ramsay, T. W. Peile, R. Shilleto, W. H.Thompson,
J. W. Donaldson, Robert Scott, H. G. Liddell, C. Badham, G.
Rawlinson, F. A. Paley, B. Jowett, T. S. Evans, E. M. Cope,
H. A. J. Munro, W. G. Clark, Churchill Babington, H. A. Holden,
J. Riddell, J. Conington, W. Y. Sellar, A. Grant, W. D. Geddes,
D.B. Monro, H. Nettleship, A. Palmer, R. C. Jebb, A. S. Wilkins,
W. G. Rutherford and James Adam; among historians and
archaeologists, W. M. Leake, H. Fynes-Clinton, G. Grote and
C. Thirlwall, T. Arnold, G. Long and Charles Merivale, Sir
Henry Maine, Sir Charles Newton and A. S. Murray, Robert
Burn and H. F. Pelham. Among comparative philologists
Max Muller belonged to Germany by birth and to England by
adoption, while, in the United States, his ablest counterpart
was W.D. Whitney. B. L. Gildersleeve, W. W. Goodwin, Henry
Drisler, J. B. Greenough and G. M. Lane were prominent
American classical scholars.

The ipth century in Germany was marked by the organization
of the great series of Greek and Latin inscriptions, and by
the foundation of the Archaeological Institute in Rome (1820),
which was at first international in its character. The Athenian

Institute was founded in 1874. Schools at Athens and Rome
were founded by France in 1846 and 1873, by the United States
of America in 1882 and 1895, and by England in 1883 and 1901;
and periodicals are published by the schools of all these
four nations. An interest in Greek studies (and especially S6*00'* °'

. . , . Rome sad

in art and archaeology) has been maintained in Athens.
England by the Hellenic Society, founded in 1879, with
its organ the Journal of Hellenic Studies. A further interest in
Greek archaeology has been awakened in all civilized lands by
the excavations of Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Epidaurus, Sparta,
Olympia, Dodona, Delphi, Delos and of important sites in Crete.
The extensive discoveries of papyri in Egypt have greatly
extended our knowledge of the administration of that country in
the times of the Ptolemies, and have materially added to the
existing remains of Greek literature. Scholars have been
enabled to realize in their own experience some of the enthusiasm
that attended the recovery of lost classics during the Revival of
Learning. They have found themselves living in a new age of
editiones principes, and have eagerly welcomed the first publica-
tion of Aristotle's Constitution of Athens (1891), Herondas (1891)
and Bacchylides (1897), as well as the Persae of Timotheus of
Miletus (1903), with some of the Paeans of Pindar (1907) and
large portions of the plays of Menander (1898-1899 and 1907).
The first four of these were first edited by F. G. Kenyon,
Timotheus by von Wilamowitz-Mollendorff , Menander partly by
J. Nicole and G. Lefebre and partly by B. P. Grenfell and A. S.
Hunt, who have also produced fragments of the Paeans of
Pindar and many other classic texts (including a Greek con-
tinuation of Thucydides and a Latin epitome of part of Livy) in
the successive volumes of the Oxyrhynchus papyri and other
kindred publications.

AUTHORITIES. — For a full bibliography of the history of classical
philology, see E. Hiibner, Grundriss zu Vorlesungen iiber die Ceschichte
und Encyklopadie der klassischen Philologie (2nd ed., 1889); and for
a brief outline, C. L. Urlichs in Iwan von Miiller's Handbuch, vol. i.
(and ed., 1891). 33-145; S. Reinach, Manuel de philologie classique
(and ed.. 1883-1884; nouveau tirage 1907), 1-22; and A. Gude-
mann, Grundris (Leipzig, 1907), pp. 224 seq. For the Alexandrian
period, F. Susemihl, Gesch. der griechiscnen Litteratur in der Alexan-
drinerzeit (2 vols., 1891-1892): cf. F. A. Eckstein, Nomenclalor
Philologorum (1871), and W. Pokel, Philologisches Schriftsteller-
Lexikon (1882). For the period ending A.D. 400, see A. Grafenhan,
Gesch. der klass. Philologie (4 vols., 1843-1850) ; for the Byzantine
period, C. Krumbacher in Iwan von Muller, vol. ix. (l) (and ed.,
1897) ; for the Renaissance, G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des class.
Alterlums (3rd ed., 1894, with bibliography); L. Geiger, Renais-
sance und Humanismus in Italien und Deutschland (1882, with
bibliography); J. A. Symonds, Revival of Learning (1877, &c.);
R. C. Jebb, in Cambridge Modern History, i. (1902), 532-584; and
J. E. Sandys, Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning (1905) ;
also P. de Nolhac, Petrarque et I'humanisme (2nd ed., 1907). On
the history of Greek scholarship in France, E. Egger, L'Histoire
d'hellenisme en France (1869) ; Mark Pattison. Essays, i., and Life
of Casaubon; in Germany, C. Bursian, Gesch. der class. Philologie
in Deutschland (1883); m Holland, L. Muller, Gesch. der class.
Philologie in den Niederlanden (1869); in Belgium, L. C. Roersch in
E. P. van Bemmel's Patria Belgica, vol. iii. (1875), 407-432; and
in England, R. C. Jebb, " Erasmus " (1890) and " Bentley (1882),
and " Porson " (in Diet. Nat. Biog.). On the subject as a whole
see J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (with chronological
tables, portraits and facsimiles), vol. i. ; From the Sixth Century
B.C. to the end of the Middle Ages (1903, 2nd ed., 1906); vols. ii.
and iii., From the Revival of Learning to the Present Day (1908),
including the history of scholarship in all the countries of Europe
and in the United States of America. See also the separate bio-
graphical articles in this Encyclopaedia.

(B) THE STUDY OF THE CLASSICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION
After the Revival of Learning the study of the classics owed
much to the influence and example of Vittorino da Feltre,
Budaeus, Erasmus and Melanchthon, who were among the
leading representatives of that revival in Italy, France, England
and Germany.

i. In England, the two great schools of Winchester (1382) and
Eton (1440) had been founded during the life of Vittorino, but
before the revival had reached Britain. The first
school1 which came into being under the immediate
influence of humanism was that founded at St Paul's by Dean
1 See also the article SCHOOLS.

CLASSICS

Colet (1510), the friend of Erasmus, whose treatise De pueris
institttendis (1529) has its English counterpart in the Governor of
Sir Thomas Elyot (1531). The highmaster of St Paul's was to be
" learned in good and clean Latin, and also in Greek, if such may
be gotten." The master and the second master of Shrewsbury
(founded 1551) were to be " well able to make a Latin verse, and
learned in the Greek tongue." The influence of the revival
extended to many other schools, such as Christ's Hospital (1552),
Westminster (1560), and Merchant Taylors' (1561); Rep ton
(1557), Rugby (1567) and Harrow (1571).

At the grammar school of Stratford-on-Avon, about 1571-
1577, Shakespeare presumably studied Terence, Horace, Ovid
Shake- anc^ ^ne ^uco^cs °f Baptista Mantuanus (1502). In
spean and the early plays he quotes Ovid and Seneca. Similarly,
the in Titus Andronicus (iv. 2) he says, of Integer vitae:

IZbZoL**" " >Tis a verse in Horace; J know it well: I read it in
the grammar long ago." In Henry VI. part ii. sc. 7,
when Jack Cade charges Lord Say with having "most
traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in erecting a
grammar-school," Lord Say replies that " ignorance is the curse
of God, knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven." In
the Taming of the Shre-iv (I. i. 157) a line is quoted as from
Terence (Andria, 74) : " redime te captum quant queas minima."
This is taken verbatim from Lilye's contribution to the Brevis
Institutio, originally composed by Colet, Erasmus and Lilye for
St Paul's School (1527), and ultimately adopted as the

Early text-
books.

Eton Latin Grammar. The Westminster Greek Grammar

Ascham.

of Grant (1575) was succeeded by that of Camden
(1595), founded mainly on a Paduan text-book, and apparently
adopted in 1596 by Sir Henry Savile at Eton, where it long
remained in use as the Eton Greek Grammar, while at West-
minster itself it was superseded by that of Busby (1663). The
text-books to be used at Harrow in 1590 included Hesiod and
some of the Greek orators and historians.

In one of the Paslon Letters (i. 301) , an Eton boy of 1468 quotes
two Latin verses of his own composition. Nearly a century later,
on ^ew Year's Day, 1 560, forty-four boys of the school
presented Latin verses to Queen Elizabeth. The queen's
former tutor, Roger Ascham, in his Scholemaster (1570), agrees
with his Strassburg friend, J. Sturm, in making the imitation of
the Latin classics the main aim of instruction. He is more
original when he insists on the value of translation and retransla-
tion for acquiring a mastery over Latin prose composition, and
when he protests against compelling boys to converse in Latin
too soon. Ascham's influence is apparent in the Positions of
Mulcaster, who in 1581 insists on instruction in English before
admission to a grammar-school, while he is distinctly in advance
of his age in urging the foundation of a special college for the
training of teachers.

Cleland's Institution of a Young Nobleman ( 1 607) owes much to
the Italian humanists. The author follows Ascham in protesting
against compulsory Latin conversation, and only
slightly modifies his predecessor's method of teaching
Latin prose. When Latin grammar has been mastered, he
bids the teacher lead his pupil " into the sweet fountain and
spring of all Arts and Science," that is, Greek learning which is
" as profitable for the understanding as the Latin tongue for
speaking." In the study of ancient history, " deeds and not
words" are the prime interest. "In Plutarch pleasure is so
mixed and confounded with profit, that I esteem the reading of
him as a paradise for a curious spirit to walk in at all time."
T$a,conmhis Advancement of Learning (160$) notesitas " the first
distemper of learning when men study words and not matter "
(I. iv. 3) ; he also observes that the Jesuits " have much
Bg quickened and strengthened the state of learning "

/»m°n, (I- vi- XS)- He is on the side of reform in education;
Petty. ' he waves the humanist aside with the words : vetustas
cessit, ratio incit. Milton, in his Tractate on Education
(1644), advances further on Bacon's lines, protesting against the
length of time spent on instruction in language, denouncing
merely verbal knowledge, and recommending the study of a
large number of classical authors for the sake of their subject-

matter, and with a view to their bearing on practical life. His
ideal place of education is an institution combining a school and
a university. Sir William Petty, the economist (1623-1687),
urged the establishment of ergastula literaria for instruction of a
purely practical kind. Locke, who had been educated , .
at Winchester and had lectured on Greek at Oxford
(1660), nevertheless almost completely eliminated Greek from
the scheme which he unfolded in his Thoughts on Education
(1693). With Locke, the moral and practical qualities of virtue
and prudence are of the first consideration. Instruction, he
declares, is but the least part of education; his aim is to train,
not men of letters or men of science, but practical men armed for
the battle of life. Latin was, above all, to be learned through use,
with as little grammar as possible, but with the reading of easy
Latin texts, and with no repetition, no composition. Greek he
absolutely proscribes, reserving a knowledge of that language to
the learned and the lettered, and to professional scholars.

Throughout the i8th century and the early part of the igth,
the old routine went on in England with little variety, and with
no sign of expansion. The range of studies was xroo/rf
widened, however, at Rugby in 1828-1842 by Thomas
Arnold, whose interest in ancient history and geography, as a
necessary part of classical learning, is attested by his edition of
Thucydides; while his influence was still further extended when
those who had been trained in his traditions became head masters
of other schools.

During the rest of the century the leading landmarks are the
three royal commissions known by the names of their chairmen :
(i) Lord Clarendon's on nine public schools, Eton, Winchester,
Westminster, Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, St
Paul's and Merchant Taylors' (1861-1864), resulting in the
Public Schools Act of 1868; (2) Lord Taunton's on 782 endowed
schools (1864-1867), followed by the act of 1869; and (3) Mr
Bryce's on secondary education (1894-1895).

A certain discontent with the current traditions of classical
training found expression in the Essays on a Liberal Education
(1867). The author of the first essay, C. S. Parker, Coatro-
closed his review of the reforms instituted in Germany versy on
and France by adding that in England there had cl*sslc*1
been but little change. The same volume included a
critical examination of the "Theory of Classical Education" by
Henry Sidgwick, and an attack on compulsory Greek and Latin
verse composition by F. W. Farrar. The claims of verse com-
position have since been judiciously defended by the Hon.
Edward Lyttelton (1897), while a temperate and effective
restatement of the case for the classics may be found in Sir
Richard Jebb's Romanes Lecture on " Humanism in Education "
(1899).

The question of the position of Greek in secondary education
has from time to time attracted attention in connexion with the
requirement of Greek in Responsions at Oxford, and in the
Previous Examination at Cambridge.

In the Cambridge University Reporter for November 9, 1870, it
was stated that, " in order to provide adequate encouragement
for the study of Modern Languages and Natural
Science," the commissioners for endowed schools had
determined on the establishment of modern schools of
the first grade in which Greek would be excluded. The
commissioners feared that, so long as Greek was a sine qua non
at the universities, these schools would be cut off from direct
connexion with the universities, while the universities would in
some degree lose their control over a portion of the higher
culture of the nation. On the gth of March 1871 a syndicate
recommended that, in the Previous Examination, French and
German (taken together) should be allowed in place of Greek;
on the 27th of April this recommendation (which only affected
candidates for honours or for medical degrees) was rejected by
51 votes to 48.

All the other proposals and votes relating to Greek in the
Previous Examination in 1870-1873, 1878-1880, and 1891-1892
are set forth in the Cambridge University Reporter for November
n, 1904, pp. 202-205. ID November 1903 a syndicate was

CLASSICS

457

appointed to consider the studies and examinations of the uni-
versity, their report of November 1904 on the Previous Examina-
tion was fully discussed, and the speeches published in the
Reporter for December 17, 1904. In the course of the discussion
Sir Richard Jebb drew attention to the statistics collected by the
master of Emmanuel, Mr W. Chawner, showing that, out of 86
head masters belonging to the Head Masters' Conference whose
replies had been published, " about 56 held the opinion that the
exemption from Greek for all candidates for a degree would
endanger or altogether extinguish the study of Greek in the vast
majority of schools, while about 21 head masters held a different
opinion." On the 3rd of March 1905 a proposal for accepting
either French or German as an alternative for either Latin or
Greek in the Previous Examination was rejected by 1559 to 1052
votes, and on the 26th of May 1906 proposals distinguishing
between students in letters and students in science, and (inter
alia) requiring the latter to take either French or German for
either Latin or Greek in the Previous Examination, were rejected
by 746 to 241.

Meanwhile, at Oxford a proposal practically making Greek
optional with all undergraduates was rejected, in November 1902,
by 189 votes to 166; a preliminary proposal permitting students
of mathematics or natural science to offer one or more modern
languages in lieu of Greek was passed by 164 to 162 in February
1904, but on the zgth of November the draft of a statute to this
effect was thrown out by 200 to 164. In the course of the
controversy three presidents of the Royal Society, Lord Kelvin,
Lord Lister and Sir W. Huggins, expressed the opinion that the
proposed exemption was not beneficial to science students.

Incidentally, the question of " compulsory Greek " has
stimulated a desire for greater efficiency in classical teaching. In
The December 1903, a year before the most important of

classical the public discussions at Cambridge, the Classical
Associa- Association was founded in London. The aim of that
association is " to promote the development, and
maintain the well-being, of classical studies, and in particular (a)
to impress upon public opinion the claim of such studies to an
eminent place in the national scheme of education; (b) to
improve the practice of classical teaching by free discussion of its
scope and methods; (c) to encourage investigation and call
attention to new discoveries; (d) to create opportunities of
friendly intercourse and co-operation between all lovers of
classical learning in this country."

The question of the curriculum and the time-table in secondary
education has occupied the attention of the Classical Association,
the British Association and the Education Department
°f Scotland. The general effect of the recommenda-
tions already made would be to begin the study of
foreign languages with French, and to postpone the study of
Latin to the age of twelve and that of Greek to the age of thirteen.
At the Head Masters' Conference of December 1907 a proposal to
lower the standard of Greek in the entrance scholarship examina-
tions of public schools was lost by 10 votes to 1 6, and the "British
Association report " was adopted with reservations in 1908.
In the case of secondary schools in receipt of grants of public
money (about 700 in England and 100 in Wales in 1907-1908),
" the curriculum and time-table must be approved by the Board
of Education." The Board has also a certain control over the
curriculum of schools under the Endowed Schools Acts and the
Charitable Trusts Acts, and also over that of schools voluntarily
applying for inspection with a view to being recognized as
efficient.

Further efficiency in classical education has been the aim of the
movement in favour of the reform of Latin pronunciation. In
Reform i&ji this movement resulted in Munro and Palmer's
in Latin Syllabus of Latin Pronunciation. The reform was
a- carrjed forward at University College, London, by
Professor Key and by Professor Robinson Ellis in 1873,
and was accepted at Shrewsbury, Marlborough, Liverpool
College, Christ's Hospital, Dulwich, and the City of London
school. It was taken up anew -by the Cambridge Philological
Society in 1886, by the Modern Languages Association in 1901, by

the Classical Association in 1904-1905, and the Philological
Societies of Oxford and Cambridge in 1906. The reform was
accepted by the various bodies of head masters and assistant
masters in December 1906- January 1907, and the proposed
scheme was formally approved by the Board of Education in
February 1907.

See W. H. Woodward, Studies in Education during the Age of
the Renaissance (1906), chap, xiii.; Acland and Llewellin Smith,
Studies in Secondary Education, with introduction by James Bryce
(1892); Essays on a Liberal Education, ed. F. W. Farrar (1867);
R. C. Jebb, " Humanism in Education," Romanes Lecture of 1899,
reprinted with other lectures on cognate subjects in Essays and
Addresses (1907); Foster Watson, The Curriculum and Practice
of the English Grammar Schools up to 1660 (1908); "Greek at
Oxford," by a Resident, in The Times (December 27, 1904);
Cambridge University Reporter (November n and December 17,
1904) ; British Association Report on Curricula of Secondary Schools
(with an independent paper by Professor Armstrong on " The
Teaching of Classics "), (December 1907) ; W. H. D. Rouse in The
Year's Work in Classical Studies (1907 and 1908), chap. i. ; J. P.
Postgate, How to pronounce Latin (Appendix B, on " Recent Pro-
gress "), (1907). For further bibliographical details see pp. 875-890
of Dr Karl Breul's " Grossbritannien in Baumeister's Handbuch,
I. ii. 737-892 (Munich, 1897).

2. In France it was mainly with a view to promoting the
study of Greek that the corporation of Royal Readers was
founded by Francis I. in 1530 at the prompting of France.
Budaeus. In the university of Paris, which was
originally opposed to this innovation, the statutes of 1598
prescribed the study of Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Theocritus,
Plato, Demosthenes and Isocrates (as well as the principal Latin
classics), and required the production of three exercises in Greek
or Latin in each week.

From the middle of the i6th century the elements of Latin
were generally learned from unattractive abridgments of the
grammar of the Flemish scholar, van Pauteren or
Despautere (d. 1520), which, in its original folio
editions of 1537-1538, was an excellent work. The
unhappy lot of those who -were compelled to learn their Latin
from the current abridgments was lamented by a Port-Royalist
in a striking passage describing the gloomy forest of le pays de
Despautere (Guyot, quoted in Sainte-Beuve's Port-Royal, iii. 429).
The first Latin grammar written in French was that of Pere de
Condren of the Oratoire (c. 1642), which was followed by the
Port-Royal Methode latine of Claude Lancelot (1644), and by
the grammar composed by Bossuet for the dauphin, and also
used by Fenelon for the instruction of the due de Bourgogne.
In the second half of the i?th century the rules of grammar
and rhetoric were simplified, and the time withdrawn from the
practice of composition (especially verse composition) trans-
ferred to the explanation and the study of authors.

Richelieu, in 1640, formed a scheme for a college in which
Latin was to have a subordinate place, while room was to be
found for the study of history and science, Greek, and Richelieu.
French and modern languages. Bossuet, in educating Bossuet,
the dauphin, added to the ordinary classical routine F*ael°">
represented by the extensive series of the " Delphin
Classics " the study of history and of science. A greater origin-
ality in the method of teaching the ancient languages was
exemplified by Fenelon, whose views were partially reflected
by the Abbe Fleury, who also desired the simplification of
grammar, the diminution of composition, and even the sup-
pression of Latin verse. Of the ordinary teaching of Greek in
his day, Fleury wittily observed that most boys " learned just
enough of that language to have a pretext for saying for the rest
of their lives that Greek was a subject easily forgotten."

In the 1 8th century Rollin, in his Traite des etudes (1726),
agreed with the Port - Royalists in demanding that Latin
grammars should be written in French, that the rules p0ma
should be simplified and explained by a sufficient
number of examples, and that a more important place should
be assigned to translation than to composition. The supremacy
of Latin was the subject of a long series of attacks in the same
century. Even at the close of the previous century the brilliant
achievements of French literature had prompted La Bruyere

4-58

CLASSICS

Part-
Royal.

to declare in Des ouwages de I'esprit (about 1680), " We have at
last thrown off the yoke of Latinism "; and, in the same year,
Jacques Spon claimed in his correspondence the right to use the
French language in discussing points of archaeology.

Meanwhile, in 1563, notwithstanding the opposition of the
university of Paris, the Jesuits had succeeded in founding the
Collegium Claromontanum. After the accession of
jetuits. Henry IV. they were expelled from Paris and other
important towns in 1594, and not allowed to return
until 1609, when they found themselves confronted once more
by their rival, the university of Paris. They opened the doors of
their schools to the Greek and Latin classics, but they represented
the ancient masterpieces dissevered from their original historic
environment, as impersonal models of taste, as isolated standards
of style. They did much, however, for the cultivation of original
composition modelled on Cicero and Virgil. They have been
charged with paying an exaggerated attention to form, and
with neglecting the subject-matter of the classics. This neglect
is attributed to their anxiety to avoid the " pagan " element in
the ancient literature. Intensely conservative in their methods,
they kept up the system of using Latin in their grammars
(and in their oral instruction) long after it had been aban-
doned by others.

The use of French for these purposes was a characteristic of
the " Little Schools " of the Jansenists of Port- Royal (1643-1660).
The text-books prepared for them by Lancelot included
not only the above-mentioned Latin grammar (1644)
but also the M&hode grecque of 1655 and the Jardin
des ratines grecques (1657), which remained in use for two cen-
turies and largely superseded the grammar of Clenardus (1636)
andthe Tirociniumoi PereLabbe(i648). Greek began to decline
in the university about 1650, at the very time when the Port-
Royalists were aiming at its revival. During the brief existence
of their schools their most celebrated pupils were Tillemont
and Racine.

The Jesuits, on the other hand, claimed Corneille and Moliere,
as well as Descartes and Bossuet, Fontenelle, Montesquieu and
Voltaire. Of their Latin poets the best-known were Denis Petau
(d. 1652), Rene Rapin (d. 1687) and N. E. Sanadon (d. 1733).
In 1762 the Jesuits were suppressed, and more than one hundred
schools were thus deprived of their teachers. The university
of Paris, which had prompted their suppression, and the parlia-
ment, which had carried it into effect, made every endeavour
to replace them. The university took possession of the Collegium
Claromontanum, then known as the College Louis-le-Grand,
and transformed it into an Scale normale. Many of the Jesuit
schools were transferred to the congregations of the Oratoire
and the Benedictines, and to the secular clergy. On the eve of
the Revolution, out of a grand total of 562 classical schools,
384 were in the hands of the clergy and 178 in those of the
congregations.

The expulsion of the Jesuits gave a new impulse to the attacks
directed against all schemes of education in which Latin held
a prominent position. At the moment when the
university of Paris was, by the absence of its rivals,
placed in complete control of the education of France,
she found herself driven to defend the principles of
classical education against a crowd of assailants. All kinds of
devices were suggested for expediting the acquisition of Latin;
grammar was to be set aside; Latin was to be learned as a
" living language "; much attention was to be devoted to
acquiring an extensive vocabulary; and, " to save time,"
composition was to be abolished. To facilitate the reading of
Latin texts, the favourite method was the use of interlinear
translations, originally proposed by Locke, first popularized in
France by Dumarsais (1722), and in constant vogue down to the
time of the Revolution.

Early in the i8th century Rollin pleaded for the " utility
of Greek," while he described that language as the heritage of
the university of Paris. In 1753 Berthier feared that in thirty
years no one would be able to read Greek. In 1768 Rolland
declared that the university, which held Greek in high honour,

attacked.

Plnf

nevertheless had reason to lament that her students learnt little
of the language, and he traced this decline to the fact that attend-
ance at lectures had ceased to be compulsory. Greek, however,
was still recognized as part of the examination held for the
appointment of schoolmasters.

During the i8th century, in Greek as well as in Latin, the
general aim was to reach the goal as rapidly as possible, even at
the risk of missing it altogether. On the eve of the
Revolution, France was enjoying the study of the
institutions of Greece in the attractive pages of the
Voyage du jeune Anacharsis (1789), but the study of
Greek was menaced even more than that of Latin. For fifty
years before the Revolution there was a distinct dissatisfaction
with the routine of the schools. To meet that dissatisfaction,
the teachers had accepted new subjects of study, had improved
their methods, and had simplified the learning of the dead
languages. But even this was not enough. In the study of the
classics, as in other spheres, it was revolution rather than
evolution that was loudly demanded.

The Revolution was soon followed by the long-continued
battle of the " Programmes." Under the First Republic the
schemes of Condorcet (April 1792) and J. Lakanal
(February 1795) were superseded by that of P. C. F.
Daunou (October 1795), which divided the pupils of
the " central schools " into three groups, according to age, with
corresponding subjects of study: (i) twelve to fourteen, — draw-
ing, natural history, Greek and Latin, and a choice of modern
languages; (2) fourteen to sixteen, — mathematics, physics,
chemistry; (3) over sixteen, — general grammar, literature,
history and constitutional law.

In July 1 80 1, under the consulate, there were two courses, (i)
nine to twelve, — elementary knowledge, including elements of
Latin; (2) above twelve, — a higher course, with two coasajate
alternatives, " humanistic " studies for the " civil,"
and purely practical studies for the " military " section. The law
of the ist of May 1802 brought the lycees into existence, the
subjects being, in Napoleon's own phrase, " mainly Latin and
mathematics."

At the Restoration (1814) the military discipline of the lycees
was replaced by the ecclesiastical discipline of the " Royal
Colleges." The reaction of 1815-1821 in favour of
classics was followed by the more liberal programme of
Vatimesnil (1829), including, for those who had no
taste for a classical education, certain " special courses " (1830),
which were the germ of the enseignement special and the enseigne-
ment moderne.

Under Louis Philippe (1830-1848), amid all varieties of
administration there was a consistent desire to hold the balance
fairly between all the conflicting subjects of study. After the
revolution of 1848 the difficulties raised by the excessive num-
ber of subjects were solved by H. N. H. Fortoul's expedient of
" bifurcation," the alternatives being letters and science. In
1863, under Napoleon III., Victor Duruy encouraged the study of
history, and also did much for classical learning by founding the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes. In 1872, under the Third Republic,
Jules Simon found time for hygiene, geography and modern
languages by abolishing Latin verse composition and

reducing the number of exercises in Latin prose, while

, . . , • - Kepuouc.

he insisted on the importance of studying the inner

meaning of the ancient classics. The same principles were
carried out by Jules Ferry (1880) and Paul Bert (1881-1882). In
the scheme of 1890 the Latin course of six years began with ten
hours a week and ended with four; Greek was begun a year later
with two hours, increasing to six and ending with four.

The commission of 1899, under the able chairmanship of M.
Alexandre Ribot, published an important report, which was
followed in 1902 by the scheme of M. Georges Leygues. The
preamble includes a striking tribute to the advantages that
France had derived from the study of the classics : —

. " L'etudede 1'antiquite grecque etlatine a donnfeau g£nie francais
une mesure, une clarte et une 61egance incomparables. C'est par
elle que notre philosophic, nos lettres et nos arts ont brillS d'un si

CLASSICS

459

vif eclat; c'est par elle que notre influence morale s'est exercee en
souveraine dans le monde. Les humanites doivent 6tre prot6g£es
centre toute atteinte et fortifiees. Elles font partie du patrimoine
national.

" L'esprit classique n'est pas . . . incompatible avec 1'esprit
moderne. II est de tous les temps, parce qu'il est le culte de la raison
claire et libre, la recherche de la beaute harmonieuse et simple dans
toutes les manifestations de la pensee."

By the scheme introduced in these memorable terms the
course of seven years is divided into two cycles, the first cycle (of
four years) having two parallel courses: (i) without Greek or
Latin, and (2) with Latin, and with optional Greek at the
beginning of the third year. In the second cycle (of three years)
those who have been learning both Greek and Latin, and those
who have been learning neither, continue on the same lines as
before; while those who have been learning Latin only may
either (i) discontinue it in favour of modern languages and
science, or (2) continue it with either. As an alternative to the
second cycle, which normally ends in the examination for the
baccalaureat, there is a shorter course, mainly founded on
modern languages or applied science and ending in a public
examination without the baccalaurfat. The baccalaurtot, how-
ever, has been condemned by the next minister, M. Briand, who
prefers to crown the course with the award of a school diploma
(1907).

See H. Lantoine, Histoire de I'enseignement secondaire en France
au XVII* siecle (1874); A. Sicard, Les Etudes classiques avant la
Revolution (1887); Sainte-Beuve, Port-Royal, vpls. i.-v. (1840-
1859), especially iii. 383-588; O. Greard, Education et instruction,
4 vols., especially " Enseignement secondaire," vol. ii. pp. 1-90, with
conspectus of programmes in the appendix (1889); A. Ribot, La
Reforme de I'enseignement secondaire (1900); G. Leygues, Plan
d'etudes, &c. (1902); H. H. Johnson, " Present State of Classical
Studies in France," in Classical Review (December 1907). See also
the English Education Department's Special Reports on Education
in France (1899). The earlier literature is best represented in
England by Matthew Arnold's Schools and Universities in France
(1868; new edition, 1892) and A French Eton (1864).

3. The history of education in Germany since 1500 falls into
three periods: (a) the age of the Revival of Learning and the
Reformation (1500-1650), (b) the age of French in-
nnaay' fluence (1650-1800), and (c) the igth century.
(a) During the first twenty years of the i6th century the
reform of Latin instruction was carried out by setting aside the
old medieval grammars, by introducing new manuals of classical
literature, and by prescribing the study of classical authors and
the imitation of classical models. In all these points the lead was
first taken by south Germany, and by the towns along the Rhine
down to the Netherlands. The old schools and universities were
being quietly interpenetrated by the new spirit of humanism,
when the sky was suddenly darkened by the clouds of religious
conflict. In 1525-1535 there was a marked depression in the
classical studies of Germany. Erasmus, writing to W. Pirck-
heimer in 1528, exclaims: " Wherever the spirit of Luther
prevails, learning goes to the ground. " Such a fate was, however,
averted by the intervention of Melanchthon (d. 1560), the
praeceptor Germaniae, who was the embodiment of the
spirit of the new Protestant type of education, with its
union of evangelical doctrine and humanistic culture.
Under his influence, new schools rapidly rose into being at
Magdeburg, Eisleben and Nuremberg (1521-1526). During
more than forty years of academic activity he not only provided
manuals of Latin and Greek grammar and many other text-books
that long remained in use, but he also formed for Germany a well-
trained class of learned teachers, who extended his influence
throughout the land. His principal ally as an educator and as a
writer of text-books was Camerarius (d. 1574). Precepts of style,
and models taken from the best Latin authors, were the means
whereby a remarkable skill in the imitation of Cicero was attained
at Strassburg during the forty-four years of the headmastership of
Johannes von Sturm (d. 1589), who had himself been influenced
by the De disciplinis of J. L. Vives (1531), and in all his teaching
aimed at the formation of a sapiens atque eloquens pietas. Latin
continued to be the living language of learning and of literature,
and a correct and elegant Latin style was regarded as the mark of

an educated person. Greek was taught in all the great schools,
but became more and more confined to the study of the Greek
Testament. In 1550 it was proposed in Brunswick to
banish all " profane " authors from the schools, and in '"" Ontk
1589 a competent scholar was instructed to write a „,"„*"
sacred epic on the kings of Israel as a substitute for the
works of the "pagan "poets. In i637,whenthedoubtsof Scaliger
and Heinsius as to the purity of the Greek of the New Testament
prompted the rector of Hamburg to introduce the study of
classical authors, any reflection on the style of the Greek Testa-
ment was bitterly resented.

The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540, and by 1600 most
of the teachers in the Catholic schools and universities of
Germany were Jesuits. The society was " dissolved "
in 1773, but survived its dissolution. In accordance
with the Ratio Studiorum of Aquaviva (1599), which
long remained unaltered and was only partially revised by
J. Roothaan (1832), the main subjects of instruction were the
litterae humaniores diver sarum linguarum. The chief place among
these was naturally assigned to Latin, the language of the society
and of the Roman Church. The Latin grammar in use was that
of the Jesuit rector of the school at Lisbon, Alvarez (1572).
As in the Protestant schools, the principal aim was the attainment
of eloquentia. A comparatively subordinate place was assigned
to Greek, especially as the importance attributed to the Vulgate
weakened the motive for studying the original text. It was
recognized, however, that Latin itself (as Vives had said) was
" in no small need of Greek," and that, " unless Greek was
learnt in boyhood, it would hardly ever be learnt at all." The
text-book used was the Instituliones linguae Graecae of the
German Jesuit, Jacob Gretser, of Ingolstadt (c. 1590), and the
reading in the highest class included portions of Demosthenes,
Isocrates, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Gregory
of Nazianzus, Basil and Chrysostom. The Catholic and Pro-
testant schools of the i6th century succeeded, as a rule, in giving
a command over a correct Latin style and a taste for literary
form and for culture. Latin was still the language of the law-
courts and of a large part of general literature. Between
Luther and Lessing there was no great writer of German prose.

(6) In the early part of the period 1650-1800, while Latin
continued to hold the foremost place, it was ceasing to be Latin
of the strictly classical type. Greek fell still further
into the background; and Homer and Demosthenes
gradually gave way to the Greek Testament. Between
1600 and 1775 there was a great gap in the production
of new editions of the principal Greek classics. The spell was
only partially broken by J. A. Ernesti's Homer (1759 f.) and
Chr. G. Heyne's Pindar (1773 f.).

The peace of Westphalia (1648) marks a distinct epoch in
the history of education in Germany. Thenceforth, education
became more modern and more secular. The long
wars of religion in Germany, as in France and England, and
were followed by a certain indifference as to disputed *ecuiar
points of theology. But the modern and secular type educ*tloa-
of education that now supervened was opposed by the pietism
of the second half of the i7th century, represented at the newly-
founded university of Halle (1694) by A. H. Francke, the pro-
fessor of Greek (d. 1727), whose influence was far greater than
that of Chr. Cellarius (d. 1 707) , the founder of the first philological
Seminar (1697). Francke's contemporary, Chr. Thomasius
(d. 1728), was never weary of attacking scholarship of the old
humanistic type and everything that savoured of antiquarian
pedantry, and it was mainly his influence that made German the
language of university lectures and of scientific and learned
literature. A modern education is also the aim of the general
introduction to the nova methodus of Leibnitz, where the study
of Greek is recommended solely for the sake of the Greek
Testament (1666). Meanwhile, Ratichius (d. 1635) had in vain
pretended to teach Hebrew, Greek and Latin in the space of
six months (1612), but he had the merit of maintaining that
the study of a language should begin with the study of an author.
Comenius (d. 1671) had proposed to teach Latin by drilling his

French
Influence.

460

CLASSICS

ism.

Herder.

pupils in a thousand graduated phrases distributed over a
hundred instructive chapters, while the Latin authors were
banished because of their difficulty and their " paganism"
(1631). One of the catchwords of the day was to insist on a
knowledge of things instead of a knowledge of words, on " real-
ism " instead of " verbalism."

Under the influence of France the perfect courtier became
the ideal in the German education of the upper classes of
the 1 7th and i8th centuries. A large number of
akademlea. aristocratic schools (Ritter-Akademien) were founded,
'beginning with the Collegium Illustre of Tubingen
(1589) and ending with the Hohe Karlschule of Stuttgart (1775).
In these schools the subjects of study included mathematics
and natural sciences, geography and history, and modern
languages (especially French), with riding, fencing and dancing;
Latin assumed a subordinate place, and classical composition
in prose or verse was not considered a sufficiently courtly accom-
plishment. The youthful aristocracy were thus withdrawn
from the old Latin schools of Germany, but the aristocratic
schools vanished with the dawn of the ipth century, and the
ordinary public schools were once more frequented by the
young nobility.

(c) The Modern Period. — fn the last third of the i8th century
two important movements came into play, the " naturalism "
of Rousseau and the " new humanism." While
^ousseau sought his ideal in a form of education and
of culture that was in close accord with nature, the
German apostles of the new humanism were convinced
that they had found that ideal completely realized in the old
Greek world. Hence the aim of education was to make young
people thoroughly " Greek," to fill them with the " Greek "
spirit, with courage and keenness in the quest of truth, and
with a devotion to all that was beautiful. The link between the
naturalism of Rousseau and the new humanism is
to be found in J.G. Herder, whose passion for all that
is Greek inspires him with almost a hatred of Latin. The new
humanism was a kind of revival of the Renaissance, which had
been retarded by the Reformation in Germany and by the
Counter-Reformation in Italy, or had at least been degraded
to the dull classicism of the schools. The new humanism
agreed with the Renaissance in its unreserved recognition of
the old classical world as a perfect pattern of culture. But,
while the Renaissance aimed at reproducing the Augustan age
of Rome, the new humanism found its golden age in Athens.
The Latin Renaissance in Italy aimed at recovering and verbally
imitating the ancient literature; the Greek Renaissance in
Germany sought inspiration from the creative originality of
Greek literature with a view to producing an original literature
in the German language. The movement had its effect on the
schools by discouraging the old classical routine of verbal
imitation, and giving a new prominence to Greek and to German.
The new humanism found a home in Gottingen (1783) in the days
of J. M. Gesner and C. G. Heyne. It was represented at Leipzig
by Gesner's successor, Ernesti (d. 1781); and at Halle by F. A.
Wolf, who in 1783 was appointed professor of education by
Zedlitz, the minister of Frederick the Great. In literature, its
leading names were Winckelmann, Lessing and Voss, and Herder,
Goethe and Schiller. The tide of the new movement had
reached its height about 1800. Goethe and Schiller were con-
vinced that the old Greek world was the highest revelation of
humanity; and the universities and schools of Germany were
reorganized in this spirit by F. A. Wolf and his illustrious pupil,
Wilhelm von Humboldt. In 1800-1810 Humboldt was at the
head of the educational section of the Prussian Home

reoi*anyza-Office> and> in the brief interval of a year and a half,
tioa. gave to the general system of education the direction

which it followed (with slight exceptions) throughout
the whole century. In 1810 the examen pro facullale docendi
first made the profession of a schoolmaster independent of that
of a minister of religion. The new scheme drawn up by J. W.
Silvern recognized four principal co-ordinated branches of
learning: Latin, Greek, German, mathematics. All four were

studied throughout the school, Greek being begun in the fourth
of the nine classes, that corresponding to the English " third
form." The old Latin school had only one main subject, the
study of Latin style (combined with a modicum of Greek). The
new gymnasium aimed at a wider education, in which literature
was represented by Latin, Greek and German, by the side of
mathematics and natural science, history and religion. The
uniform employment of the term Gymnasium for the highest type
of a Prussian school dates from 1812. The leaving examination
(Abgangsprufung), instituted in that year, required Greek transla-
tion at sight, with Greek prose composition, and ability to speak
and to write Latin. In 1818-1840 the leading spirit on the
board of education was Johannes Schulze, and a complete and
comprehensive system of education continued to be the ideal
kept in view. Such an education, however, was found in practice
to involve a prolongation of the years spent at school and a
correspondingly later start in life. It was also attacked on the
ground that it led to " overwork." This attack was partially
met by the scheme of 1837. Schulze's period of prominence in
Berlin closely corresponded to that of Herbart at Konigsberg
(1800-1833) and Gottingen (1833-1841), who insisted that for
boys of eight to twelve there was no better text-book than the
Greek Odyssey, and this principle was brought into practice at
HanoVer by his distinguished pupil, Ahrens.

The Prussian policy of the next period, beginning with the
accession of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. in 1840, was to lay a new
stress on religious teaching, and to obviate the risk of overwork
resulting from the simultaneous study of all subjects by the
encouragement of specialization in a few. Ludwig Wiese's
scheme of 1856 insisted on the retention of Latin verse as well as
Latin prose, and showed less favour to natural science, but it
awakened little enthusiasm, while the attempt to revive the old
humanistic Gymnasium led to a demand for schools of a more
modern type, which issued in the recognition of the Real-
gymnasium (1859).

In the age of Bismarck, school policy in Prussia had for its aim
an increasing recognition of modern requirements. In 1875
Wiese was succeeded by Bonitz, the eminent Aristotelian
scholar, who in 1849 had introduced mathematics and natural
science into the schools of Austria, and had substituted the wide
reading of classical authors for the prevalent practice of speaking
and writing Latin. By his scheme of 1882 natural science
recovered its former position in Prussia, and the hours assigned in
each week to Latin were diminished from 86 to 77. But neither
of the two great parties in the educational world was satisfied;
and great expectations were aroused when the question of reform
was taken up by the German emperor, William II., in 1890.
The result of the conference of December 1890 was a compromise
between the conservatism of a majority of its members and the
forward policy of the emperor. The scheme of 1892 reduced the
number of hours assigned to Latin from 77 to 62, and laid
special stress on the German essay; but the modern training
given by the Realgymnasium was still unrecognized as an avenue
to a university education. A conference held in June 1900, in
which the speakers included Mommsen and von Wilamowitz,
Harnack and Diels, was followed by the " Kiel Decree " of the
26th of November. In that decree the emperor urged the equal
recognition of the classical and the modern Gymnasium, and
emphasized the importance of giving more time to Latin and to
English in both. In the teaching of Greek, " useless details "
were to be set aside, and special care devoted to the connexion
between ancient and modern culture, while, in all subjects,
attention was to be paid to the' classic precept: multum, non
multa.

By the scheme of 1901 the pupils of the Realgymnasium, the
Oberrealschule and the Gymnasium were admitted to the uni-
versity on equal terms in virtue of their leaving-certificates, but
Greek and Latin were still required for students of classics or
divinity.

For the Gymnasium the aim of the new scheme is, in Latin,
" to supply boys with a sound basis of grammatical training,
with a view to their understanding the more important classical

CLASSIFICATION

461

writers of Rome, and being thus introduced to the intellectual
life and culture of the ancient world "; and, in Greek, " to give
them a sufficient knowledge of the language with a view to their
obtaining an acquaintance with some of the Greek classical
works which are distinguished both in matter and in style, and
thus gaining an insight into the intellectual life and culture of
Ancient Greece." In consequence of these changes Greek is now
studied by a smaller number of boys, but with better results, and
a new lease of life has been won for the classical Gymnasium.

Lastly, by the side of the classical Gymnasium, we now have
the " German Reform Schools " of two different types, that of
Altona (dating from 1878) and that of Frankfort-on-the-Main
(1892). The leading principle in both is the postponement of the
time for learning Latin. Schools of the Frankfort type take
French as their only foreign language in the first three years of
the course, and aim at achieving in six years as much as has been
achieved by the Gymnasia in nine; and it is maintained that,
in six years, they succeed in mastering a larger amount of Latin
literature than was attempted a generation ago, even in the best
Gymnasia of the old style. It may be added that in all the
German Gymnasia, whether reformed or not, more time is given
to classics than in the corresponding schools in England.

See F. Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts vom Ausgang
des Mittelalters bis auf die Gegenwart mil besonderer Rucksicht auf
den klassischen Unterricht (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1896) ; Das Realgym-
nasium und die humanistische Bildung (1889); Die hoheren Schulen
und das Universitdtsstudium im 20. Jahrhundert (1901); " Das
moderne Bildungswesen " in Die Kulture der Gegenwart, vol. i. (1904) ;
Das deutsche Bildungswesen in seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung
(1906) (with the literature there quoted, pp. 190-192), translated
by Dr T. Lorenz, German Education, Past and Present (1908) ;
T. Ziegler, Notwendigkeit . . . des Realgymnasiums (Stuttgart,
1894) ; F. A. Eckstein, Lateinischer und griechischer Unterricht
(1887); O. Kohl, " Griechischer Unterricht (Langensalza, 1896)
in W. Rein's Handbuch; A. Baumeister's Handbuch (1895), especi-
ally vol. i. i (History) and i. 2 (Educational Systems) ; P. Stotzner,
Das offentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands in der Gegenwart (1901 );

F. Seller, Geschichte des deutschen Unterrichtswesens (2 vols., 1906) ;
Verhandlungen of June 1900 (2nd ed., 1902) ; Lehrpldne, &c. (1901) ;
Die Reform des hoheren Schulwesens, ed. W. Lexis (1902) ; A.
Harnack's Vortrag and W. Parow's Erwiderung (1905);' H. Miiller,
Das hohere Schulwesen Deutschlands am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts
(Stuttgart, 1904); O. Steinbart, Durchfuhrung des preussischen
Schulreform in ganz DeutscUand (Duisburg, 1904); J. Schipper,
Alte Bildung und moderne Cultur (Vienna, 1901); Papers by M. E.
Sadler: (i) Problems in Prussian Secondary Education " (Special
Reports of Education Dept., 1899) ; (2) " The Unrest in Secondary
Education in Germany and Elsewhere " (Special Reports of Board
of Education, vol. 9, 1902) ; J. L. Paton, The Teaching of Classics
in Prussian Secondary Schools (on "German Reform Schools")
(1907, Wyman, London); J. E. Russell, German Higher Schools
(New York, 1899); and (among earlier English publications)
Matthew Arnold's Higher Schools and Universities in Germany (1874,
reprinted from Schools and Universities on the Continent, 1865).

(4) In the United States of America the highest degree of
educational development has been subsequent to the Civil War.
The study of Latin begins in the " high schools," the
stares average age of admission being fifteen and the normal
course extending over four years. Among classical
teachers an increasing number would prefer a longer course
extending over six years for Latin, and at least three for Greek,
and some of these would assign to the elementary school the first
two of the proposed six years of Latin study. Others are content
with the late learning of Latin and prefer that it should be
preceded by a thorough study of modern languages (see Prof. B.
I. Wheeler, in Baumeister's Handbuch, 1897, ii. 2, pp. 584-586).

It was mainly owing to a pamphlet issued in 1871 by Prof.

G. M. Lane, of Harvard, that a reformed pronunciation of Latin

was adopted in all the colleges and schools of the
acia- Unite(* States. Some misgivings on this reform found
ton. '' expression in a work on the Teaching of Latin, pub-
lished by Prof. C. E. Bennett of Cornell in 1001, a year
in which it was estimated that this pronunciation was in use by
more than 96% of the Latin pupils in the secondary schools.

Some important statistics as to the number studying Latin
and Greek in the secondary schools were collected in 1000 by a
committee of twelve educational experts representing all parts of
the Union, with a view to a uniform course of instruction being

L'

pursued in all classical schools. They had the advantage of the
co-operation of Dr W. T. Harris, the U.S. commissioner of
education, and they were able to report that, in all the five
groups into which they had divided the states, the number of
pupils pursuing the study of Latin and Greek showed a remark-
able advance, especially in the most progressive states of the
middle west. The number learning Latin had increased from
100,144 in 1800 to 314,856 in 1890-1900, and those learning
Greek from 1 2,869 to 24,869. Thus the number learning Latin at
the later date was three times, and the number learning Greek
twice, as many as those learning Latin or Greek ten years
previously. But the total number in 1900 was 630,048; so that,
notwithstanding this proof of progress, the number learning
Greek in 1900 was only about one twenty-fifth of the total
number, while the number learning Latin was as high as half.

The position of Greek as an " elective " or " optional " subject
(notably at Harvard) , an arrangement regarded with approval by
some eminent educational authorities and with regret by others,
probably has some effect on the high schools in the small number
of those who learn Greek, and in their lower rate of increase, as
compared with those who learn Latin. Some evidence as to the
quality of the study of those languages in the schools is supplied
by English commissioners in the Reports of the Mosely Com-
mission. Thus Mr Papillon considered that, while the teaching of
English literature was admirable, the average standard of Latin
and Greek teaching and attainment in the upper classes was
"below that of an English public school"; he felt, however,
that the secondary schools of the United States had a " greater
variety of the curriculum to suit the practical needs of life," and
that they existed, not " for the select few," but " for the whole
people " (pp. 250 f.).

For full information see the " Two volumes of Monographs
prepared for the United States Educational Exhibit at the Paris
Exposition of 1900," edited by Dr N. Murray Butler; the Annual
Reports of the U.S. commissioner of education (Washington) ;
and the Reports of the Mosely Commission to the United States of
America (London, 1904). Cf. statistics quoted in G. G. Ramsay's
" Address on Efficiency in Education " (Glasgow, 1902, 17-20), from
the Transactions of the Amer. Philol. Association, xxx. (1899),
pp. Ixxvii-cxxii ; also Bennett and Bristol, The Teaching of Latin
and Greek in the Secondary School (New York, 1901). (J. E. S.*)

CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the
root col-, da-, as in Gr. xaXeco, clamor), a logical process, common
to all the special sciences and to knowledge in general, consisting
in the collection under a common name of a number of objects
which are alike in one or more respects. The process consists
in observing the objects and abstracting from their various
qualities that characteristic which they have in common. This
characteristic constitutes the definition of the " class " to which
they are regarded as belonging . It is this process by which we
arrive first at "species" and then at "genus," i.e. at all scientific
generalization. Individual things, regarded as such, constitute
a mere aggregate, unconnected with one another, and so far
unexplained; scientific knowledge consists in systematic classi-
fication. Thus if we observe the heavenly bodies individually
we can state merely that they have been observed to have certain
motions through the sky, that they are luminous, and the like.
If, however, we compare them one with another, we discover
that, whereas all partake in the general movement of the heavens,
some have a movement of their own. Thus we arrive at a system
of classification according to motion, by which fixed stars are
differentiated from planets. A further classification according
to other criteria gives us stars of the first magnitude and stars
of the second magnitude, and so forth. We thus arrive at a
systematic understanding expressed in laws by the application
of whith accurate forecasts of celestial phenomena can be made.
Classification in the strict logical sense consists in discovering
the casual interrelation of natural objects; it thus differs from
what is often called " artificial " classification, which is the
preparation, e.g. of statistics for particular purposes, adminis-
trative and the like.

Of the systems of classification adopted in physical science,
only one requires treatment here, namely, the classification of

462

CLASTIDIUM— CLAUDE, J.

the sciences as a whole, a problem which has from the time of
Aristotle attracted considerable attention. Its object is to
delimit the spheres of influence of the positive sciences and show
how they are mutually related. Of such attempts three are
specially noteworthy, those of Francis Bacon, Auguste Comte
and Herbert Spencer.

Bacon's classification is based on the subjective criterion of
the various faculties which are specially concerned. He thus
distinguished History (natural, civil, literary, ecclesiastical) as
the province of memory, Philosophy (including Theology) as
that of reason, and Poetry, Fables and the like, as that of
imagination. This classification was made the basis of the
Encyclopedic. Comte adopted an entirely different system based
on an objective criterion. Having first enunciated the theory
that all science passes through three stages, theological, meta-
physical and positive, he neglects the two first, and divides the
last according to the " things to be classified," in view of their
real affinity and natural connexions, into six, in order of decreas-
ing generality and increasing complexity — mathematics, astro-
nomy, physics, chemistry, physiology and biology (including
psychology), and sociology. This he conceives to be not only
the logical, but also the historical, order of development, from
the abstract and purely deductive to the concrete and inductive).
Sociology is thus the highest, most complex, and most positive
of the sciences. Herbert Spencer, condemning this division as
both incomplete and theoretically unsound, adopted a three-fold
division into (i) abstract science (including logic and mathematics)
dealing with the universal forms under which all knowledge of
phenomena is possible, (2) abstract -concrete science (including
mechanics, chemistry, physics), dealing with the elements of
phenomena themselves, i.e. laws of forces as deducible from
the persistence of forces, and (3) concrete science (e.g. astronomy,
biology, sociology), dealing with "phenomena themselves in
their totalities," the universal laws of the continuous redistribu-
tion of Matter and Motion, Evolution and Dissolution.

Beside the above three systems several others deserve brief
mention. In Greece at the dawn of systematic thought the
physical sciences were few in number; none the less philosophers
were not agreed as to their true relation. The Platonic school
adopted a triple 'classification, physics, ethics and dialectics;
Aristotle's system was more complicated, nor do we know
precisely how he subdivided his three main classes, theoretical,
practical and poetical (i.e. technical, having to do with TTOIJJOW,
creative). The second class covered ethics and politics, the
latter of which was often regarded by Aristotle as including
ethics; the third includes the useful and the imitative sciences;
the first includes metaphysics and physics. As regards pure
logic Aristotle sometimes seems to include it with metaphysics
and physics, sometimes to regard it as ancillary to all the sciences.

Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan) drew up an elaborate paradigm
of the sciences, the first stage of which was a dichotomy into
" Naturall Philosophy " (" consequences from the accidents
of bodies naturall ") and " Politiques and Civill Philosophy "
(" consequences from accidents of Politique bodies "). The
former by successive subdivisions is reduced to eighteen special
sciences; the latter is subdivided into the rights and duties of
sovereign powers, and those of the subject.

Jeremy Bentham and A. M. Ampere both drew up elaborate
systems based on the principle of dichotomy, and beginning
from the distinction of mind and body. Bentham invented
an artificial terminology which is rather curious than valuable.
The science of the body was Somatology, that of the mind Pneu-
matology. The former include Posology (science of quantity,
mathematics) and Poiology (science of quality); Posology
includes Morphoscopic(geometry)and Alegomorphic(arithmetic).
See further Bentham's Chrestomathia and works quoted under
BENTHAM, JEREMY.

Carl Wundt criticized most of these systems as taking too little
account of the real facts, and preferred a classification based on
the standpoint of the various sciences towards their subject-
matter. His system may, therefore, be described as conceptional.
It distinguishes philosophy, which deals with facts in their widest

universal relations, from the special sciences, which consider
facts in the light of a particular relation or set of relations.

All these systems have a certain value, and are interesting
as throwing light on the views of those who invented them. It
will be seen, however, that none can lay claim to unique validity.
The fundamenla divisionis, though in themselves more or less-
logical, are quite arbitrarily chosen, generally as being germane
to a preconceived philosophical or scientific theory.

CLASTIDIUM (mod. Casteggio), a village of the Anamares,.
in Gallia Cispadana, on the Via Postumia, 5 m. E. of Iria
(mod. Voghera) and 31 m. W. of Placentia. Here in 222 B.C.
M. Claudius Marcellus defeated the Gauls and won the spolia
opima; in 218 Hannibal took it and its stores of corn by
treachery. It never had an independent government, and not
later than 190 B.C. was made part of the colony of Placentia
(founded 219). In the Augustan division of Italy, however,
Placentia belonged to the 8th region, Aemilia, whereas Iria
certainly, and Clastidium possibly, belonged to the gth.Liguria
(see Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscrip. Lot. vol. v. Berlin, 1877,
p. 828). The remains visible at Clastidium are scanty; there
is a fountain (the Fontana d'Annibale), and a Roman bridge,
which seems .to have been constructed of tiles, not of stone,,
was discovered in 1857, but destroyed.

See C. Giulietti, Casteggio, notizie storiche IT. Avanzi di antichitd.
(Voghera, 1893).

CLAUBERG, JOHANN (1622-1665), German philosopher,
was born at Solingen, in Westphalia, on the 24th of February
1622. After travelling in France and England, he studied the
Cartesian philosophy under John Raey at Leiden. He became
(1649) professor of philosophy and theology at Herborn, but
subsequently (1651), in consequence of the jealousy of his
colleagues, accepted an invitation to a similar post at Duisburg,
where he died on the 3ist of January 1665. Clauberg was one
of the earliest teachers of the new doctrines in Germany and an
exact and methodical commentator on his master's writings.
His theory of the connexion between the soul and the body is
in some respects analogous to that of Malebranche; but he is
not therefore to be regarded as a true forerunner of Occasionalism,
as he uses " Occasion " for the stimulus which directly produces
a mental phenomenon, without postulating the intervention
of God (H. Miiller, /. Clauberg und seine Stellung im Cartesia-
nismus). His view of the relation of God to his creatures is held
to foreshadow the pantheism of Spinoza. All creatures exist
only through the continuous creative energy of the Divine
Being, and are no more independent of his will than are our
thoughts independent of us, — or rather less, for there are thoughts
which force themselves upon us whether we will or not. For
metaphysics Clauberg suggested the names ontosophy or ontology,
the latter being afterwards adopted by Wolff. He also devoted
considerable attention to the German languages, and his re-
searches in this direction attracted the favourable notice of
Leibnitz. His chief works are: De conjunctione animae et
corporis humani; Exercitationes centum de cognitione Dei et
nostri; Logica vetus et nova; Initiatio philosophi, sen Dubitatio
Cartesiana; a commentary on Descartes' Meditations; and
Ars etymologica Teutonum.

A collected edition of his philosophical works was published at
Amsterdam (1691), with life by H. C. Hennin; see also E. Zeller,
Geschichte der deutschen Philosophic seit Leibnitz (1873).

CLAUDE, JEAN (1619-1687), French Protestant divine, was
born at La Sauvetat-du-Dropt near Agen. After studying at
Montauban, he entered the ministry in 1645. He was for eight
years professor of theology in the Protestant college of Nimes;
but in 1661, having successfully opposed a scheme for re-uniting
Catholics and Protestants, he was forbidden to preach in Lower
Languedoc. In 1662 he obtained a post at Montauban similar
to that which he had lost; but after four years he was removed
from this also. He next became pastor at Charenton near Paris,
where he engaged in controversies with Pierre Nicole (Reponse
aux deux traites intitules la perpeluitS de la foi, 1665), Antoine
Arnauld (Reponse au livre de M. Arnauld, 1670), and J. B.
Bossuet (Reponse au livre de M. I'eveque de Meaux, 1683).

CLAUDE OF LORRAINE— CLAUDIANUS

463

On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he fled to Holland, and
received a pension from William of Orange, who commissioned
him to write an account of the persecuted Huguenots (Plaintes
des proteslants cruellement opprimes dans le royaume de France,
1686). The book was translated into English, but by order of
James II. both the translation and the original were publicly
burnt by the common hangman on the $th of May 1686, as
containing " expressions scandalous to His Majesty the king of
France." Other works by him were Reponse au lime de P, Nouet
sur I' eucharistie (1668); CEuvres posthumes (Amsterdam, 1688),
containing the Traile de la composition d'un sermon, translated
into English in 1778.

See biographies by J. P. Niceron and Abel Rotholf de la Devize;
E. Haag, La France protestanle, vol. iv. (1884, new edition).

CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, or CLAUDE GELEE (1600-1682),
French landscape-painter, was born of very poor parents at the
village of Chamagne in Lorraine. When it was discovered that
he made no progress at school, he was apprenticed, it is commonly
said, to a pastry-cook, but this is extremely dubious. At the
age of twelve, being left an orphan, he went to live at Freiburg
on the Rhine with an elder brother, Jean Gelee, a wood-carver
of moderate merit, and under him he designed arabesques and
foliage. He afterwards rambled to Rome to seek a livelihood;
but from his clownishness and ignorance of the language, he
failed to obtain permanent employment. He next went to
Naples, to study landscape painting under Godfrey Waals, a
painter of much repute. With him he remained two years;
then he returned to Rome, and was domesticated until April
1625 with another landscape-painter, Augustin Tassi, who hired
him to grind his colours and to do all the household drudgery.

His master, hoping to make Claude serviceable in some of his
greatest works, advanced him in the rules of perspective and the
elements of design. Under his tuition the mind of Claude began
to expand, and he devoted himself to artistic study with great
eagerness. He exerted his utmost industry to explore the true
principles of painting by an incessant examination of nature;
and for this purpose he made his studies in the open fields, where
he very frequently remained from sunrise till sunset, watching
the effect of the shifting light upon the landscape. He generally
sketched whatever he thought beautiful or striking, marking
every tinge of light with a similar colour; from these sketches
he perfected his landscapes. Leaving Tassi, he made a tour in
Italy, France and a part of Germany, including his native
Lorraine, suffering numerous misadventures by the way. Karl
Dervent, painter to the duke of Lorraine, kept him as assistant
for a year; and he painted at Nancy the architectural subjects
on the ceiling of the Carmelite church. He did not, however,
relish this employment, and in 1627 returned to Rome. Here,
painting two landscapes for Cardinal Bentivoglio, he earned
the protection of Pope Urban VIII. and from about 1637 he
rapidly rose into celebrity. Claude was acquainted not only
with the facts, but also with the laws of nature; and the German
painter Joachim von Sandrart relates that he used to explain,
as they walked together through the fields, the causes of the
different appearances of the same landscape at different hours of
the day, from the reflections or refractions of light, or from the
morning and evening dews or vapours, with all the precision of
a natural philosopher. He elaborated his pictures with great
care; and if any performance fell short of his ideal, he .altered,
erased and repainted it several times over.

His skies are aerial and full of lustre, and every object har-
moniously illumined. His distances and colouring are delicate,
and his tints have a sweetness and variety till then unexampled.
He frequently gave an uncommon tenderness to his finished trees
by glazing. His figures, however, are very indifferent; but he
was so conscious of his deficiency in this respect, that he usually
engaged other artists to paint them for him, among whom were
Courtois and Filippo Lauri. Indeed, he was wont to say that he
sold his landscapes and gave away his figures. In order to avoid
a repetition of the same subject, and also to detect the very
numerous spurious copies of his works, he made tinted outline
drawings (in six paper books prepared for this purpose) of all

those pictures which were transmitted to different countries;
and on the back of each drawing he wrote the name of the
purchaser. These books he named Libri di verita. This valuable
work(now belonging to the duke of Devonshire) has been engraved
and published, and has always been highly esteemed by students
of the art of landscape. Claude, who had suffered much from
gout, died in Rome at the age of eighty-two, on the 2ist (or
perhaps the 23rd) of November 1682, leaving his wealth, which
was considerable, between his only surviving relatives, a nephew
and an adopted daughter (? niece).

Many choice specimens of his genius may be seen in the
National Gallery and in the Louvre; the landscapes in the
Altieri and Colonna palaces in Rome are also of especial celebrity.
A list has been printed showing no less than 92 examples in the
various public galleries of Europe. He himself regarded a land-
scape which he painted in the Villa Madama, being a cento of
various views with great abundance and variety of leafage, and
a composition of Esther and Ahasuerus, as his finest works; the
former he refused to sell, although Clement IX. offered to cover
its surface with gold pieces. He etched a series of twenty-eight
landscapes, fine impressions of which are greatly prized. Full
of amenity, and deeply sensitive to the graces of nature, Claude
was long deemed the prince of landscape painters, and he must
always be accounted a prime leader in that form of art, and
in his day a great enlarger and refiner of its province.

Claude was a man of amiable and simple character, very kind
to his pupils, a patient and unwearied worker; in his own sphere
of study, his mind was stored (as we have seen) with observation
and knowledge, but he continued an unlettered, man till his
death. Famous and highly patronized though he was in all his
later years, he seems to have been very little known to his brother
artists, with the single exception of Sandrart. This painter is
the chief direct authority for the facts of Claude's life (Academia
Artis Pictoriae, 1683); Baldinucci, who obtained information
from some of Claude's immediate survivors, relates various
incidents to a different effect (Notizie dei professori del disegno) .

See also Victor Cousin, Sur Claude Gelte (1853) ; M. F. Sweetser,
Claude Lorrain (1878); Lady Dilke, Claude Lorrain (1884).

(W. M. R.)

CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANCOIS JEAN (1797-1867), French
photographer, was born at Lyons on the I2th of August 1797.
Having acquired a share in L. J. M. Daguerre's invention, he was
one of the first to practise daguerreotype portraiture in England,
and he improved the sensitizing process by using chlorine in
addition to iodine, thus gaining greater rapidity of action. In
1848 he produced the photographometer, an instrument designed
to measure the intensity of photogenic rays; and in 1849 he
brought out the focimeter, for securing a perfect focus in photo-
graphic portraiture. He was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society in 1853, and in 1858 he produced the stereomonoscope,
in reply to a challenge from Sir David Brewster. He died in
London on the 27th of December 1867.

CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS, Latin epic poet and panegyrist,
flourished during the reign of Arcadius and Honorius. He was
an Egyptian by birth, probably an Alexandrian, but it may be
conjectured from his name and his mastery of Latin that he was
of Roman extraction. His own authority has been assumed for
the assertion that his first poetical compositions were in Greek,
and that he had written nothing in Latin before A.D. 395; but
this seems improbable, and the passage (Carm. Min. xli. 13)
which is taken to prove it does not necessarily bear this meaning.
In that year he appears to have come to Rome, and made his
debut as a Latin poet by a panegyric on the consulship of Olybrius
and Probinus, the first brothers not belonging to the imperial
family who had ever simultaneously filled the office of consul.
This piece proved the precursor of the series of panegyrical poems
which compose the bulk of his writings. In Birt's edition a
complete chronological list of Claudian's poems is given, and
also in J. B. Bury's edition of Gibbon (iii. app. i. p. 485), where
the dates given differ slightly from those in the present article.

In 396 appeared the encomium on the third consulship of the
emperor Honorius, and the epic on the downfall of Rufinus, the

464

CLAUDIUS

unworthy minister of Arcadius at Constantinople. This revolu-
tion was principally effected by the contrivance of Stilicho, the
great general and minister of Honorius. Claudian's poem appears
to have obtained his patronage, or rather perhaps that of his wife
Serena, by whose interposition the poet was within a year or two
enabled to contract a wealthy marriage in Africa (Episl. 2).
Previously to this event he had produced (398) his panegyric on
the fourth consulship of Honorius, his epithalamium on the
marriage of Honorius to Stilicho's daughter, Maria, and his poem
on the Gildonic war, celebrating the repression of a revolt in
Africa. To these succeeded his piece on the consulship of
Manlius Theodorus (399), the unfinished or mutilated invective
against the Byzantine prime minister Eutropius in the same year,
the epics on Stilicho's first consulship and on his repulse of Alaric
(400 and 403), and the panegyric on the sixth consulship of
Honorius (404). From this time all trace of Claudian is lost, and
he is generally supposed to have perished with his patron Stilicho
in 408. It may be conjectured that he must have died in 404, as
he could hardly otherwise have omitted to celebrate the greatest
of Stilicho's achievements, the destruction of the barbarian host
led by Radagaisus in the following year. On the other hand, he
may have survived Stilicho, as in the dedication to the second
book of his epic on the Rape of Proserpine (which Birt, however,
assigns to 395-397), he speaks of his disuse of poetry in terms
hardly reconcilable with the fertility which he displayed during
his patron's lifetime. From the manner in which Augustine
alludes to him in his De civitate Dei, it may be inferred that he
was no longer living at the date of the composition of that work,
between 4-15 and 428.

Besides Claudian's chief poems, his lively Fescennines on the
emperor's marriage, his panegyric on Serena, and the Giganto-
machia, a fragment of an unfinished Greek epic, may also be
mentioned. Several poems expressing Christian sentiments are
undoubtedly spurious. Claudian's paganism, however, neither
prevented his celebrating Christian rulers and magistrates nor his
enjoying the distinction of a court laureate. It is probable that he
was nominally a Christian, like his patron Stilicho and Ausonius,
although at heart attached to the old religion. The very decided
statements of Orosius and Augustine as to his heathenism may be
explained by the pagan style of Claudian's political poems. We
have his own authority for his having been honoured by a bronze
statue in the forum, and Pomponius Laetus discovered in the
iSth century an inscription (C.I.L. vi. 1710) on the pedestal,
which, formerly considered spurious, is now generally regarded as
genuine.

The position of Claudian — the last of the Roman poets — is
unique in literature. It is sufficiently remarkable that, after
nearly three centuries of torpor, the Latin muse should have
experienced any revival in the age of Honorius, nothing less than
amazing that this revival should have been the work of a foreigner,
most surprising of all that a just and enduring celebrity should
have been gained by official panegyrics on the generally un-
interesting transactions of an inglorious epoch. The first of these
particulars bespeaks Claudian's taste, rising superior to the
prevailing barbarism, the second his command of language, the
third his rhetorical skill. As remarked by Gibbon, " he was
endowed with the rare and precious talent of raising the meanest,
of adorning the most barren, and of diversifying the most
similar topics." This gift is especially displayed in his poem on
the downfall of Rufinus, where the punishment of a public male-
factor is exalted to the dignity of an epical subject by the
magnificence of diction and the ostentation of supernatural
machinery. The noble exordium, in which the fate of Rufinus is
propounded as the vindication of divine justice, places the subject
at once on a dignified level; and the council of the infernal
powers has afforded a hint to Tasso, and through him to Milton.
The inevitable monotony of the panegyrics on Honorius is
relieved by just and brilliant expatiation on the duties of a
sovereign. In his celebration of Stilicho's victories Claudian
found a subject more worthy of his powers, and some passages,
such as the description of the flight of Alaric, and of Stilicho's
arrival at Rome, and the felicitous parallel between his triumphs

and those of Marius, rank among the brightest ornaments of
Latin poetry. Claudian's panegyric, however lavish and
regardless of veracity, is in general far less offensive than usual in
his age, a circumstance attributable partly to his more refined
taste and partly to the genuine merit of his patron Stilicho.
He is a valuable authority for the history of his times, and is
rarely to be convicted of serious inaccuracy in his facts, whatever
may be thought of the colouring he chooses to impart to them.
He was animated by true patriotic feeling, in the shape of a
reverence for Rome as the source and symbol of law, order and
civilization. Outside the sphere of actual life he is less successful ;
his Rape of Proserpine, though the beauties of detail are as
great as usual, betrays his deficiency in the creative power
requisite for dealing with a purely ideal subject. This denotes
the rhetorician rather than the poet, and in general it may be said
that his especial gifts of vivid natural description, and of copious
illustration, derived from extensive but not cumbrous erudition,
are fully as appropriate to eloquence as to poetry. In the
general cast of his mind and character of his writings, and
especially, in his faculty for bestowing enduring interest upon
occasional themes, we may fitly compare him with Dryden,
remembering that while Dryden exulted in the energy of a
vigorous and fast-developing language, Claudian was cramped
by an artificial diction, confined to the literary class.

The editio princeps of Claudian was printed at Vicenza in 1482;
the editions of J. M. Gesner (1759) and P. Burmann (1760) are still
valuable for their notes. The first critical edition was that of L.
Jeep (1876-1879), now superseded by the exhaustive work of T.
Birt, with bibliography, in Monumenta Germaniae Htstorica (x.,
1892 ; smaller ed. founded on this by J. Koch, Teubner series, 1893).
There is a separate edition with commentary and verse translation of
II Ratio di Prosperpina, by L. Garces de Diez (1889); the satire In
Eutropium is discussed by T. Birt in Zwei politische Satiren des a'ten
Rom (1888). There is a complete English verse translation of little
merit by A. Hawkins (1817). See the articles by Ramsay in Smith's
Classical Dictionary and Vollmer in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclo-
padie der clasnschen Altertumswissenschaft, iii. 2 (1899); also
J. H. E. Crees, Claudian as an Historian (1908), the " Cambridge
Historical Essay" for 1906 (No. 17) ; T. Hodgkin, Claudian, the last
of the Roman Poets (1875).

CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS],
Roman emperor A.D. 41-54, son of Drusus and Antonia, nephew
of the emperor Tiberius, and grandson of Livia, the wife of
Augustus, was born at Lugdunum (Lyons) on the ist of August
10 B.C. During his boyhood he was treated with contempt,
owing to his weak and timid character and his natural infirmities;
the fact that he was regarded as little better than an imbecile
saved him from death at the hands of Caligula. He chiefly devoted
himself to literature, especially history, and until his accession
he took no real part in public affairs, though Caligula honoured
him with the dignity of consul. He was four times married:
to Plautia Urgulanilla, whom he divorced because he suspected
her of designs against his life; to Aelia Petina, also divorced;
to the infamous Valeria Messallina (?.».); and to his niece
Agrippina.

In A.D. 41, on the murder of Caligula, Claudius was seized
by the praetorians, and declared emperor. The senate, which
had entertained the idea of restoring the republic, was obliged
to acquiesce. One of Claudius's first acts was to proclaim an
amnesty for all except Cassius Chaerea, the assassin of his pre-
decessor, and one or two others. After the discovery of a
conspiracy against his life in 42, he fell completely under the
influence of Messallina and his favourite freedmen Pallas and
Narcissus, who must be held responsible for acts of cruelty
which have brought undeserved odium upon the emperor.
There is no doubt that Claudius was a liberal-minded man of
kindly nature, anxious for the welfare of his people. Humane
regulations were made in regard to freedmen, slaves, widows
and orphans; the police system was admirably organized;
commerce was put on a sound footing; the provinces were
governed in a spirit of liberality; the rights of citizens and
admission to the senate were extended to communities outside
Italy. The speech of Claudius delivered (in the year 48) in the
senate in support of the petition of the Aeduans that their
senators should have the jus petendorum honorum (claim of

CLAUDIUS

465

admission to the senate and magistracies) at Rome has been
partly preserved on the fragment of a bronze tablet found at
Lyons in 1524; an imperial edict concerning the citizenship of
the Anaunians (isth of March 46) was found in the southern
Tirol in 1869 (C.I.L. v. 5050). Claudius was especially fond
of building. He completed thfc great aqueduct (Aqua Claudia)
begun by Caligula, drained the Lacus Fucinus, and built the
harbour of Ostia. Nor were his military operations unsuccessful.
Mauretania was made a Roman province; the conquest of
Britain was begun; his distinguished general Domitius Corbulo
(q.v.) gained considerable successes in Germany and the East.
The intrigues of Narcissus caused Messallina to be put to death
by order of Claudius, who took as his fourth wife his niece
Agrippina, a woman as criminal as any of her predecessors.
She prevailed upon him to set aside his own son Britannicus in
favour of Nero, her son by a former marriage; and in 54, to
make Nero's position secure, she put the emperor to death by
poison . The apotheosis of Claudius was the subject of a lampoon
by Seneca called apokolokyntosis, the " pumpkinification " of
Claudius.

Claudius was a prolific writer, chiefly on history, but his
works are lost. He wrote (in Greek ) a history of Carthage and
a history of Etruria: (in Latin) a history of Rome from the
death of Caesar, an autobiography, and an essay in defence of
Cicero against the attacks of Asinius Gallus. He also introduced
three new letters into the Latin alphabet: J for the consonantal
V, J for BS and PS, h for the intermediate sound between I
andU.

AUTHORITIES.— Ancient : the Annals of Tacitus, Suetonius and
Dio Cassius. Modern: H. Lehmann, Claudius und seine Zeit, with
introductory chapter on the ancient authorities (1858); Lucien
Double, L'Empereur Claude (1876); A. Ziegler, Die politische Seite
der Regierung des Kaisers Claudius (1885) ; H. F. Pelham in Quarterly
Review (April 1905), where certain administrative and political
changes introduced by Claudius, for which he was attacked by his
contemporaries, are discussed and defended ; Merivale, Hist, of
the Romans under the Empire, chs. 49, 50; H. Schiller, Geschichte
der romischen Kaiserzeit, i., pt. I ; H. Furneaux's ed. of the Annals
of Tacitus (introduction).

CLAUDIUS, the name of a famous Roman gens. The by-form
Clodius, in its origin a mere orthographical variant, was regularly
used for certain Claudii in late republican times, but otherwise
the two forms were used indifferently. The gens contained a
patrician and a plebeian family; the chief representatives of
the former were the Pulchri, of the latter the Marcelli (see
MARCELLUS). The following members of the gens deserve
particular mention.

1. APPIUS SABINUS INREGILLENSIS, or REGILLENSIS, CLAUDIUS,
so called from Regillum (or Regilli) in Sabine territory, founder
of the Claudian gens. His original name was Attus or Attius
Clausus. About 504 B.C. he settled in Rome, where he and his
followers formed a tribe. In 495 he was consul, and his cruel
enforcement of the laws of debtor and creditor, in opposition to
his milder colleague, P. Servilius Priscus, was one of the chief
causes of the " secession " of the plebs to the Sacred Mount. On
several occasions he displayed his hatred of the people, although
it is stated that he subsequently played the part of mediator.

Suetonius, Tiberius, i. ; Livy ii. 16-29; Dion. Halic. v. 40, vi.
23- 24-

2. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CRASSUS, a Roman patrician,
consul in 471 and 451 B.C., and in the same and following year
one of the decemvirs. At first he was conspicuous for his
aristocratic pride and bitter hatred of the plebeians. Twice
they refused to fight under him, and fled before their enemies.
He retaliated by decimating the army. He was banished, but
soon returned, and again became consul. In the same year
(451) he was made one of the decemviri who had been appointed
to draw up a code of written laws. When it was decided to elect
decemvirs for another year, he who had formerly been looked
upon as the champion of the aristocracy, suddenly came forward
as the friend of the people, and was himself re-elected together
with several plebeians. But no sooner was the new body in
office, than it treated both patricians and plebeians with equal
violence, and refused to resign at the end of the year. Matters

were brought to a crisis by the affair of Virginia. Enamoured
of the beautiful daughter of the plebeian centurion Virginius,
Claudius attempted to seize her by an abuse of justice. One
of his clients, Marcus Claudius, swore that she was the child of
a slave belonging to him, and had been stolen by the childless
wife of the centurion. Virginius was summoned from the army,
and on the day of trial was present to expose the conspiracy.
Nevertheless, judgment was given according to the evidence
of Marcus, and Claudius commanded Virginia to be given up to
him. In despair, her father seized a knife from a neighbouring
stall and plunged it in her side. A general insurrection was the
result; and the people seceded to the Sacred Mount. The
decemvirs were finally compelled to resign and Appius Claudius
died in prison, either by his own hand or by that of the execu-
tioner. For a discussion of the character of Appius Claudius,
see Mommsen's appendix to vol. i. of his History of Rome. He
holds that Claudius was never the leader of the patrician party,
but a patrician demagogue who ended by becoming a tyrant
to patricians as well as plebeians. The decemvirate, one of
the triumphs of the plebs, could hardly have been abolished by
that body, but would naturally have been overthrown by the
patricians. The revolution which ruined Claudius was a return to
the rule of the patricjans represented by the Horatii and Valerii.
Livy iii. 32-58 ; Dion. Halic, x. 59, xi. 3.

3. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CAECUS, Roman patrician and
author. In 31 2 B.C. he was elected censor without having passed
through the office of consul. His censorship — which he retained
for five years, in spite of the lex Aemilia which limited the
tenure of that office to eighteen months — was remarkable for the
actual or attempted achievement of several great constitutional
changes. He filled vacancies in the senate with men of low birth,
in some cases even the sons of freedmen (Diod. Sic. xx. 36;
Livy ix. 30; Suetonius, Claudius, 24). His most important
political innovation was the abolition of the old free birth,
freehold basis of suffrage. He enrolled the freedmen and
landless citizens both in the centuries and in the tribes,
and, instead of assigning them to the four urban tribes,
he distributed them through all the tribes and thus gave
them practical control of the elections. In 304, however,
Q. Fabius Rullianus limited the landless and poorer freedmen to
the four urban tribes, thus annulling the effect of Claudius's
arrangement. Appius Claudius transferred the charge of the
public worship of Hercules in the Forum Boarium from the
Potitian gens to a number of public slaves. He further invaded
the exclusive rights of the patricians by directing his secretary
Gnaeus Flavius (whom, though a freedman, he made a senator)
to publish the legis acliones (methods of legal practice) and the
list of dies fasti (or days on which legal business could be trans-
acted). Lastly, he gained enduring fame by the construction of a
road and an aqueduct, which — a thing unheard of before — he
called by his own name (Livy ix. 29; Frontinus, De Aquis,
115; Diod. Sic. xx. 36). In 307 he was elected consul for the
first time. In 298 he was interrex; in 296, as consul, he led the
army in Samnium, and although, with his colleague, he gained a
victory over the Etruscans and Samnites, he does not seem to
have specially distinguished himself as a soldier (Livy x. 19).
Next year he was praetor, and he was once dictator. His
character, like his namesake the decemvir's is not easy to define.
In spite of his political reforms, he opposed the admission of the
plebeians to the consulship and priestly offices; and, although
these reforms might appear to be democratic in character and
calculated to give preponderance to the lowest class of the people,
his probable aim was to strengthen the power of the magistrates
(and lessen that of the senate) by founding it on the popular will,
which would find its expression in the urban inhabitants and
could be most easily influenced by the magistrate. He was
already blind and too feeble to walk, when Cineas, the minister of
Pyrrhus, visited him, but so vigorously did he oppose every
concession that all the eloquence of Cineas was in vain, and the
Romans forgot past misfortunes in the inspiration of Claudius's
patriotism (Livy x. 13; Justin xviii. 2; Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 19).
The story of his blindness, however, may be merely a method of

466

CLAUDIUS, M. A.— CLAUSEL

accounting for his cognomen. Tradition regarded it as the
punishment of his transference of the cult of Hercules from the
Potitii.

Appius Claudius Caecus is also remarkable as the first writer
mentioned in Roman literature. His speech against peace with
Pyrrhus was the first that was transmitted to writing, and thereby
laid the foundation of prose composition . He was the author of a
collection of aphorisms in verse mentioned by Cicero (of which a
few fragments remain), and of a legal work entitled De Usurpa-
tionibus. It is very likely also that he was concerned in the
drawing up of the Legis Actiones published by Flavius. The
famous dictum " Every man is the architect of his own fortune "
is attributed to him. He also interested himself in grammatical
questions, distinguished the two sounds R and S in writing, and
did away with the letter Z.

See Mommsen's appendix to his Roman History (vol. i.) ; treatises
by W. Siebert (1863) and F. D. Gerlach (1872), dealing especially
with the censorship of Claudius.

4. CLAUDIUS, PUBLIUS, surnamed PULCHER, son of (3). He
was the first of the gens who bore this surname. In 249 he was
consul and appointed to the command of the fleet in the first
Punic War. Instead of continuing the siege of Lilybaeum, he
decided to attack the Carthaginians in the harbour of Drepanum,
and was completely defeated. The disaster was commonly
attributed to Claudius's treatment of the sacred chickens, which
refused to eat before the battle. " Let them drink then," said
the consul, and ordered them to be thrown into the sea. Having
been recalled and ordered to appoint a dictator, he gave another
instance of his high-handedness by nominating a subordinate
official, M. Claudius Glicia, but the nomination was at once over-
ruled. Claudius himself was accused of high treason and heavily
fined. He must have died before 246, in which year his sister
Claudia was fined for publicly expressing a wish that her brother
Publius could rise from the grave to lose a second fleet and
thereby diminish the number of the people. It is supposed that
he committed suicide.

Livy, Epit., 19; Polybius i. 49; Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 1 6,
ii. 8; Valerius Maximus i. 4, viii. I.

5. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed PULCHER, Roman statesman
and author. He served under his brother-in-law Lucullus in Asia
(72 B.C.) and was commissioned to deliver the ultimatum to
Tigranes, which gave him the choice of war with Rome or the
surrender of Mithradates. In 57 he was praetor, in 56 pro-
praetor in Sardinia, and in 54 consul with L. Domitius Aheno-
barbus. Through the intervention of Pompey, he became
reconciled to Cicero, who had been greatly offended because
Claudius had indirectly opposed his return from exile. In this
and certain other transactions Claudius seems to have acted from
avaricious motives, — a result of his early poverty. In 53 he
entered upon the governorship of Cilicia, in which capacity
he seems to have been rapacious and tyrannical. During this
period he carried on a correspondence with Cicero, whose letters
to him form the third book of the Epistolae ad Familiares.
Claudius resented the appointment of Cicero as his successor,
avoided meeting him, and even issued orders after his arrival
in the province. On his return to Rome Claudius was impeached
by P. Cornelius Dolabella on the ground of having violated the
sovereign rights of the people. This led him to make advances to
Cicero, since it was necessary to obtain witnesses in his favour
from his old province. He was acquitted, and a charge of
bribery against him also proved unsuccessful. In 50 he was
censor, and expelled many of the members of the senate, amongst
them the historian Sallust on the ground of immorality. His
connexion with Pompey brought upon him the enmity of Caesar,
at whose march on Rome he fled from Italy. Having been
appointed by Pompey to the command in Greece, in obedience to
an ambiguous oracle he crossed over to Euboea, where he died
about 48, before the battle of Pharsalus. Claudius was of a
distinctly religious turn of mind, as is shown by the interest he
took in sacred buildings (the temple at Eleusis, the sanctuary of
Amphiaraus at Oropus). He wrote a work on augury, the first
book of which he dedicated to Cicero. He was also extremely

superstitious, and believed in invocations of the dead. Cicero had
a high opinion of his intellectual powers, and considered him a
great orator (see Orelli, Onomasticon Tuttianum).

A full account of all the Claudii will be found in Pauly-Wissowa's

Realencyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, iii. 2 (1899).

CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, surnamed GOTHICUS,
Roman emperor A.D. 268-270, belonged to an obscure Illyrian
family. On account of his military ability he was placed in
command of an army by Decius; and Valerian appointed him
general on the Illyrian frontier, and ruler of the provinces of the
lower Danube. During the reign of Gallienus, he was called to
Italy in order to crush Aureolus; and on the death of the
emperor (268) he was chosen as his successor, in accordance,
it was said, with his express desire. Shortly after his accession
he routed the Alamanni on the Lacus Benacus (some doubt is
thrown upon this); in 269 a great victory over the Goths at
Naissus in Moesia gained him the title of Gothicus. In the
following year he died of the plague at Sirmium, in his fifty-
sixth year. He enjoyed great popularity, and appears to have
been a man of ability and character.

His life was written by Trebellius Pollio, one of the Scriptores
Historiae Auguslae; see also Zosinius i. 40-43, the histories of Th.
Bernhardt and H. Schiller, and special dissertations by A. Duncker
on the life of Claudius ( 1 868) and the defeat of the Alamanni (A nnalen
des Vereins fur nassauische Altertumskunde, 1879); Homo, De
Claudia Gotnico (1900) ; Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, ii.
2458 ff. (Henze).

CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (1740-1815), German poet, other-
wise known by the nom de plume of ASMUS, was born on the isth
of August 1740 at Reinfeld, near Liibeck, and studied at Jena.
He spent the greater part of his life in the little town of Wands-
beck, near Hamburg, where he earned his first literary reputation
by editing from 1771 to 1775, a newspaper called the Wandsbecker
Bate (Wandsbeck Messenger), in which he published a large
number of prose essays and poems. They were written in pure
and simple German, and appealed to the popular taste; in many
there was a vein of extravagant humour or even burlesque,
while others were full of quiet meditation and solemn sentiment.
In his later days, perhaps through the influence of Klopstock,
with whom he had formed an intimate acquaintance, Claudius
became strongly pietistic, and the graver side of his nature
showed' itself. In 1814 he removed to Hamburg, to the house
of his son-in-law, the publisher Friedrich Christoph Perthes,
where he died on the 2ist of January 1815.

Claudius's collected works were published under the title of
Asmus omnia sua secum portans, oder Sdmtliche Werke des Wands-
becker Boten (8 vols., 1775-1812; I3th edition, by C. Redich, 2 vols.,
1902). His biography has been written by Wilhelm Herbst (4th ed.,
1878). See also M. Schneidereit, M. Claudius, seine Weltanscltauung
und Lebensweisheit (1898).

CLAUSEL (more correctly CLAUZEL), BERTRAND, COUNT
(1772-1842), marshal of France, was born at Mirepoix (Ariege)
on the izth of December 1772, and served in the first campaign
of the French Revolutionary Wars as one of the volunteers of
1791. In June 1795, having distinguished himself repeatedly
in the war on the northern frontier (1792-1793) and the fighting
in the eastern Pyrenees (1793-1794), Clausel was made a general
of brigade. In this rank he served in Italy in 1798 and 1799,
and in the disastrous campaign of the latter year he won great
distinction at the battles of the Trebbia and of Novi. In 1802
he served in the expedition to S. Domingo. He became a general
of division in December 1802, and after his return to France he
was in almost continuous military employment there until in
1806 he was sent to the army of Naples. Soon after this Napoleon
made him a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1808-1809
he was with Marmont in Dalmatia, and at the close of 1809 he
was appointed to a command in the army of Portugal under
Massena.

Clausel took part in the Peninsular campaigns of 1810 and 181 1 ,
including the Torres Vedras campaign, and under Marmont he
did excellent service in re-establishing the discipline, efficiency
and mobility of the army, which had suffered severely in the
retreat from Torres Vedras. In the Salamanca campaign (1812)
the result of Clausel's work was shown in the marching powers

CLAUSEN— CLAUSEWITZ

467

of the French, and at the battle of Salamanca, Clausel, who had
succeeded to the command on Marmont being wounded, and had
himself received a severe wound, drew off his army with the
greatest skill, the retreat on Burgos being conducted by him in
such a way that the pursuers failed to make the slightest impres-
sion, and had themselves in the end to retire from the siege of
Burgos (1812). Early in 1813 Clausel was made commander
of the Army of the North in Spain, but he was unable to avert
the great disaster of Vittoria. Under the supreme command of
Soult he served through the rest of the Peninsular War with
unvarying distinction. On the first restoration in 1814 he
submitted unwillingly to the Bourbons, and when Napoleon
returned to France, he hastened to join him. During the
Hundred Days he was in command of an army defending the
Pyrenean frontier. Even after Waterloo he long refused to
recognize the restored government, and he escaped to America,
being condemned to death in absence. He took the first oppor-
tunity of returning to aid the Liberals in France (1820), sat in
the chamber of deputies from 1827 to 1830, and after the revolu-
tion of 1830 was at once given a military command. At the head
of the army of Algiers, Clausel made a successful campaign,
but he was soon recalled by the home government, which desired
to avoid complications in Algeria. At the same time he was
made a marshal of France (February 1831). For some four
years thereafter he urged his Algerian policy upon the chamber
of deputies, and finally in 1835 was reappointed commander-in-
chief. But after several victories, including the taking of
Mascara in 1835, the marshal met with a severe repulse at
Constantine in 1836. A change of government in France was
primarily responsible for the failure, but public opinion attributed
it to Clausel, who was recalled in February 1837. He thereupon
retired from active service, and, after vigorously defending his
conduct before the deputies, he ceased to take part in public
affairs. He lived in complete retirement up to his death at
Secourrieu (Garonne) on the 2ist of April 1842.

CLAUSEN, GEORGE (1852- ), English painter, was born
in London, the son of a decorative artist. He attended the design
classes at the South Kensington schools from 1867-1873 with
great success. He then worked in the studio of Edwin Long,
R.A., and subsequently in Paris under Bouguereau and Robert-
Fleury. He became one of the foremost modern painters of
landscape and of peasant life, influenced to a certain extent
by the impressionists with whom he shared the view that light
is the real subject of landscape art. His pictures excel in render-
ing the appearance of things under flecking outdoor sunlight,
or in the shady shelter of a barn or stable. His " Girl at the
Gate " was acquired for the nation by the Chantrey Trustees and
is now at the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery).
He was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1895, and as
professor of painting gave a memorable series of lectures to the
students of the schools, — published as Six Lectures on Painting
(1904) and Aims and Ideals in Art (1906).

CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON (1780-1831), Prussian general and
military writer, was born at Burg, near Magdeburg, on the ist of
June 1 780. His family, originally Polish, had settled in Germany
at the end of the previous century. Entering the army in 1792,
he first saw service in the Rhine campaigns of 1793-1794,
receiving his commission at the siege of Mainz. On his return to
garrison duty he set to work so zealously to remedy the defects
in his education caused by his father's poverty, that in 1801 he
was admitted to the Berlin Academy for young officers, then
directed by Scharnhorst. Scharnhorst, attracted by his pupil's
industry and force of character, paid special attention to his
training, and profoundly influenced the development of his mind.
In 1803, on Scharnhorst's recommendation, Clausewitz was made
" adjutant " (aide-de-camp) to Prince August, and he served in
this capacity in the campaign of Jena (1806), being captured
along with the prince by the French at Prenzlau. A prisoner in
France and Switzerland for the next two years, he returned
to Prussia in 1809; and for the next three years, as a depart-
mental chief in the ministry of war, as a teacher in the
military school, and as military instructor to the crown prince,

he assisted Scharnhorst in the famous reorganization of the
Prussian army. In 1810 he married the countess Marie von
Bruhl.

On the outbreak of the Russian war in 1812, Clausewitz, like
many other Prussian officers, took service with his country's
nominal enemy. This step he justified in a memorial, published
for the first time in the Leben Gneisenaus by Pertz (Berlin, 1869).
At first adjutant to General Phull, who had himself been a
Prussian officer, he served later under Pahlen at Witepsk and
Smolensk, and from the final Russian position at Kaluga he
was sent to the army of Wittgenstein. It was Clausewitz who
negotiated the convention of Tauroggen, which separated the
cause of Yorck's Prussians from that of the French, and began
the War of Liberation (see YORCK VON WARTENBURG; also
Blumenthal's Die Konvenlion wn Tauroggen, Berlin, 1901). As a
Russian officer he superintended the formation of the Landwehrof
east Prussia (see STEIN, BARON VOM), and in the campaign of
1813 served as chief of staff to Count Wallmoden. He conducted
the fight at Gohrde, and after the armistice, with Gneisenau's
permission, published an account of the campaign (Der Feldzug wn
1813 bis zum Wa/enslillstand, Leipzig, 1813). This work was
long attributed to Gneisenau himself. After the peace of 1814
Clausewitz re-entered the Prussian service, and in the Waterloo
campaign was present at Ligny and Wavre as General Thielmann's.
chief of staff. This post he retained till 1818, when he was pro-
moted major-general and appointed director of the Allgemeine
Kriegsschule. Here he remained till in 1830 he was made chief of
the 3rd Artillery Inspection at Breslau. Next year he became
chief of staff to Field-marshal Gneisenau, who commanded an
army of observation on the Polish frontier. After the dissolution
of this army Clausewitz returned to his artillery duties; but on
the i8th of November 1831 he died at Breslau of cholera, which
had proved fatal to his chief also, and a little previously, to his
old Russian commander Diebitsch on the other side of the
frontier.

His collected works were edited and published by his widow,
who was aided by some officers, personal friends of the general, in
her task. Of the ten volumes of Hinterlassene Werke ilber Krieg
und Kriegfuhrung (Berlin, 1832-1837, later edition called
Clausewitz's Gesammte Werke, Berlin, 1874) the first three
contain Clausewitz's masterpiece, Vom Kriege, an exposition
of the philosophy of war which is absolutely unrivalled. He
produced no " system " of strategy, and his critics styled his
work " negative " and asked " Qu'a-t-U fonde ? " What he had
" founded " was that modern strategy which, by its hold on the
Prussian mind, carried the Prussian arms to victory in 1866 and
1870 over the " systematic " strategists Krismanic and Bazaine,
and his philosophy of war became, not only in Germany but in
many other countries, the essential basis of all serious study of
the art of war. The English and French translations (Graham,
On War, London, 1873; Neuens, La Guerre, Paris, 1840-1852; or
Vatry, Theorie de la grande guerre, Paris, 1899), with the German
original, place the work at the disposal of students of most
nationalities. The remaining volumes deal with military
history: vol. 4, the Italian campaign of 1796-97; vols. 5 and 6,
the campaign of 1799 in Switzerland and Italy; vol. 7, the wars
of 1812, 1813 to the armistice, and 1814; vol. 8, the Waterloo-
Campaign; vols. 9 and 10, papers on the campaigns of Gustavus
Adolphus, Turenne, Luxemburg, Mtinnich, John Sobieski,
Frederick the Great, Ferdinand of Brunswick, &c. He also wrote
Uber das Leben und den Charakter von Scharnhorst (printed in
Ranke's Historisch-politischer Zeitschrift, 1832). A manuscript
on the catastrophe of 1806 long remained unpublished. It was
used by v. Hopfner in his history of that war, and eventually
published by the Great General Staff in 1888 (French translation,
1903). Letters from Clausewitz to his wife were published in
Zeitschrift fiir preussische Landcskunde (1876). His name is borne
by the 28th Field Artillery regiment of the German army.

See Schwartz, Leben des General von Clausewitz und der Frau
Marie von Clausewitz (2 vols., Berlin, 1877); von Meerheimb, Karl
von Clausewitz (Berlin, 1875), also Memoir in Allgemeine deutsche
Biographic; Bernhardi, Leben des Generals von Clausewitz (loth
Supplement, Militar. Wochenblatl, 1878).

468

CLAUSIUS— CLAVICYTHERIUM

CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF JULIUS EMMANUEL (1822-1888),
German physicist, was born on the 2nd of January 1822 at
Koslin, in Pomerania. After attending the Gymnasium at
Stettin, he studied at Berlin University from 1840 to 1844. In
1848 he took his degree at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed
professor of physics in the royal artillery and engineering school at
Berlin. Late in the same year he delivered his inaugural lecture
as Privatdocent in the university. In 1855 he became an ordinary
professor at Zurich Polytechnic, accepting at the same time
a professorship in the university of Zurich. In 1867 he moved
to Wurzburg as professor of physics, and two years later was
appointed to the same chair at Bonn, where he died on the 24th of
August 1888. During the Franco-German War he was at the
head of an ambulance corps composed of Bonn students, and
received the Iron Cross for the services he rendered at Vionville
and Gravelotte. The work of Clausius, who was a mathematical
rather than an experimental physicist, was concerned with many
of the most abstruse problems of molecular physics. By his
restatement of Carnot's principle he put .the theory of heat on a
truer and sounder basis, and he deserves the credit of having
made thermodynamics a science; he enunciated the second law,
in a paper contributed to the Berlin Academy in 1850, in the well-
known form, " Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter
body." His results he applied to an exhaustive development of
the theory of the steam-engine, laying stress in particular on the
conception of entropy. The kinetic theory of gases owes much to
his labours, Clerk Maxwell calling him its principal founder. It
was he who raised it, on the basis of the dynamical theory of heat,
to the level of a theory, and he carried out many numerical
determinations in connextion with it, e.g. of the mean free path of
a molecule. To Clausius also was due an important advance in
the theory of electrolysis, and he put forward the idea that
molecules in electrolytes are continually interchanging atoms, the
electric force not causing, but merely directing, the interchange.
This view found little favour until 1887, when it was taken up by
S. A. Arrhenius, who made it the basis of the theory of electrolytic
dissociation. In addition to many scientific papers he wrote
Die Polentialfunktion und das Potential, 1864, and Abhandlungen
iiber die mechanische Wiirmetheorie, 1864-1867.

CLAUSTHAL, or KLAUSTHAL, a town of Germany, in the
Prussian Harz, lying on a bleak plateau, 1860 ft. above sea-level,
50 m. by rail W.S.W. of Halberstadt. Pop. (1905) 8565.
Clausthal is the chief mining town of the Upper Harz Mountains,
and practically forms one town with Zellerfeld, which is separated
from it by a small stream, the Zellbach. The streets are broad,
opportunity for improvement having been given by fires in 1844
and 1854; the houses are mostly of wood. There are an
Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and a gymnasium.
Clausthal has a famous mining college with a mineralogical
museum, and a disused mint. Its chief mines are silver and lead,
but it also smelts copper and a little gold. Four or five sanatoria
are in the neighbourhood. The museum of the Upper Harz is at
Zellerfeld.

Clausthal was founded about the middle of the i2th century
in consequence probably of the erection of a Benedictine monas-
tery (closed in 1431), remains of which still exist in Zellerfeld.
At the beginning of the i6th century the dukes of Brunswick
made a new settlement here, and under their directions the
mining, which had been begun by the monks, was carried on
more energetically. The first church was built at Clausthal in
1570. In 1864 the control of the mines passed into the hands of
the state.

CLAVECIN, the French for clavisymbal or harpsichord
(Ger. Clavicymbel or Dockenklavier) , an abbreviation of the
Flemish clavisinbal and Ital. davicimbalo, a keyboard musical
instrument in which the strings were plucked by means of a
plectrum consisting of a quill mounted upon a jack.

See PIANOFORTE; HARPSICHORD.

CLAVICEMBALO, or GRAVICEMBALO (from Lat. clavis, key,
aid cymbalum, cymbal; Eng. clavicymbal, clavisymbal; Flemish,
clavisinbal; Span, clavisinbanos) , a keyboard musical instru-
ment with strings plucked by means of small quill or leather

plectra. " Cymbal " (Gr. /cirtSaAw, from *6\i&i\, a hollow
vessel) was the old European term for the dulcimer, and hence
its place in the formation of the word.

See PIANOFORTE; SPINET; VIRGINAL.

CLAVICHORD, or CLARICHOED (Fr. manicorde; Ger. Clavi-
chord; Ital. manicordo; Span, manicordio1) , a medieval stringed
keyboard instrument, a forerunner of the pianoforte (q.v.), its
strings being set in vibration by a blow from a brass tangent
instead of a hammer as in the modern instrument. The clavi-
chord, derived from the dulcimer by the addition of a keyboard,
consisted of a rectangular case, with or without legs, often very
elaborately ornamented with paintings and gilding. The earliest
instruments were small and portable, being placed upon a table
or stand. The strings, of finely drawn brass, steel or iron wire,
were stretched almost parallel with the keyboard over the
narrow belly or soundboard resting on the soundboard bridges,
often three in number, and wound as in the piano round wrest
or tuning pins set in a block at the right-hand side of the sound-
board and attached at the other end to hitch pins. The bridges
served to direct the course of the strings and to conduct the
sound waves to the soundboard. The scaling, or division of
the strings determining their vibrating length, was effected by the
position of the tangents. These tangents, small wedge-shaped
blades of brass, beaten out at the top, were inserted in the end
of the arm of the keys. As the latter were depressed by the
fingers the tangents rose to strike the strings and stop them
at the proper length from the belly-bridge. Thus the string was
set in vibration between the point of impact and the belly-bridge
just as long as the key was pressed down. The key being
released, the vibrations were instantly stopped by a list of cloth
acting as damper and interwoven among the strings behind the
line of the tangents.

There were two kinds of clavichords — the fretted or gebunden
and the fret-free or bund-frei. The term " fretted " was applied
to those clavichords which, instead of being provided with a
string or set of strings in unison for each note, had one set of
strings acting for three or four notes, the arms of the keys being
twisted in order to bring the contact of the tangent into the
acoustically correct position under the string. The " fret-free "
were chromatically-scaled instruments. The first bund-frei
clavichord is attributed to Daniel Faber of Crailsheim in Saxony
about 1720. This important change in construction increased
the size of the instrument, each pair of unison strings requiring
a key and tangent of its own, and led to the introduction of the
system of tuning by equal temperament upheld by J. S. Bach.
Clavichords were made with pedals.2

The tone of the clavichord, extremely sweet and delicate,
was characterized by a tremulous hesitancy, which formed its
great charm while rendering it suitable only for the private
music room or study. Between 1883 and 1893 renewed attention
was drawn to the instrument by A. J. Hipkins's lectures and
recitals on keyboard instruments in London, Oxford and Cam-
bridge; and Arnold Dolmetsch reintroduced the art of making
clavichords in 1894. (K. S.)

CLAVICYTHERIUM, a name usually applied to an upright
spinet (q.v.), the soundboard and strings of which were vertical
instead of horizontal, being thus perpendicular to the keyboard;
but it would seem that the clavicytherium proper is distinct
from the upright spinet in that its strings are placed horizontally.
In the early clavicytherium there was, as in the spinet, only one
string (of gut) to each key, set in vibration by means of a small
quill or leather plectrum mounted on a jack which acted as in
the spinet and harpsichord (q.v.). The clavicytherium or keyed

1 The words clavicorde, clavicordo and clavicordio, respectively
French, Italian and Spanish, were applied to a different type of
instrument, the spinet (q.v.).

2 See Sebastian Virdung, Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel,
1511) (facsimile reprint Berlin, 1882, edited by R. Eitner); J.
Verschuere Reynvaan, Musijkaal Kunst-Woordenboek (Amsterdam,
1795) (a very scarce book, of which the British Museum does not
possess a copy) ; Jacob Adlune, Musica Mechanica Organoedi
(Berlin, 1768), vol. ii. pp. 158-9; A. J. Hipkins, The History of the
Pianoforte (London, 1896), pp. 61 and 62.

CLAVIE— CLAVIJO, R. G. DE

469

cythcra or cetra, names which in the i4th and isth centuries
had been applied somewhat indiscriminately to instruments
having strings stretched over a soundboard and plucked by
fingers or plectrum, was probably of Italian * or possibly of south
German origin. Sebastian Virdung,2 writing early in the :6th
century, describes the clavicy therium as a new invention, having
gut strings, and gives an illustration of it. (See PIANOFORTE.) A
certain amount of uncertainty exists as to its exact construction,
due to the extreme rarity of unrestored specimens extant, and to
the almost total absence of trustworthy practical information.

In a unique specimen with two keyboards dating from the i6th
or 1 7th century, which is in the collection of Baron Alexandre
Kraus,3 what appear to be vibrating strings stretched over a
soundboard perpendicular to the keyboard are in reality the
wires forming part of the mechanism of the action. The arrange-
ment of this mechanism is the distinctive feature of the clavi-
cytherium, for the wires, unlike the strings of the upright spinet,
increase in length from left to right, so that the upright harp-
shaped back has its higher side over the treble of the keyboard
instead of over the bass. The vibrating strings of the clavi-
cytherium in the Kraus Museum are stretched horizontally over
two kinds of psalteries fixed one over the other. The first,
serving for the lower register, is of the well-known trapezoid
shape and lies over the keyboards; it has 30 wire strings in
pairs of unisons corresponding to the 15 lowest keys. The
second psaltery resembles the kanoun of the Arabs, and has
36 strings in courses of 3 unisons corresponding to the next 12
keys, and 88 very thin strings in courses of 4, completing the
49 keys; the compass thus has a range of four octaves from
C to C. The quills of the jacks belonging to the two keyboards
are of different length and thickness. The jacks, which work
as in the spinet, are attached to the perpendicular wires, disposed
in two parallel rows, one for each keyboard.

There is a very fine specimen of the so-called clavicytherium
(upright spinet) in the Donaldson museum of the Royal College
of Music, London, acquired from the Correr collection at Venice
in 1885.' The instrument is undated, but A. J. Hipkins 6 placed
it early in the i6th or even at the end of the i sth century. There
is German writing on the inside of the back, referring to some
agreement at Ulm. The case is of pine-wood, and the natural
keys of box-wood. The jacks have the early steel springs, and in
1885 traces were found in the instrument of original brass
plectra, all of which point to a very early date.

A learned Italian, Nicolo Vicentino,6 living in the i6th century,
describes an archicembalo of his own invention, at which the per-
former had to stand, having four rows of keys designed to obtain
a complete mesotonic pure third tuning. This was an attempt to
reintroduce the ancient Greek musical system. This instrument
was probably an upright harpsichord or clavicembalo.

For the history of the clavicytherium considered as a forerunner
of the pianoforte see PIANOFORTE. (K. S.)

CLAVIE, BURNING THE, an ancient Scottish custom still
observed at Burghead, a fishing village on the Moray Firth,
near Forres. The " clavie " is a bonfire of casks split in two,
lighted on the iath of January, corresponding to the New Year
of the old calendar. One of these casks is joined together again
by a huge nail (Lat. clavus; hence the term). It is then filled
with tar, lighted and carried flaming round the village and
finally up to a headland upon which stands the ruins of a Roman
altar, locally called " the Douro." It here forms the nucleus
of the bonfire, which is built up of split casks. When the burning
tar-barrel falls in pieces, the people scramble to get a lighted

1 Mersenne, Harmonic universelle (Paris, 1636), p. 113, calls the
clavicytherium "une nouvelle forme d'epinette dont on use en
Italic," and states that the action of the jacks and levers is parallel
from back to front.

1 Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel, 1511).

* See " Une Pi£ce unique du Mus£e Kraus de Florence " in
Annales de V alliance scientifiaue universelle (Paris, 1907).

4 See illustration by William Gibb in A. J. Hipkins's Musical
Instruments, Historic, Rare and Unique (1888).

* History of the Pianoforte, Novello s Music Primers, No. 52 (1896),
P- 75-

* L'Antica Musica ridotta moderna prattica (Rome, 1555).

piece with which to kindle the New Year's fire on their cottage
hearth. The charcoal of the clavie is collected and is put in
pieces up the cottage chimneys, to keep spirits and witches from
coming down.

CLAVIERE, ETIENNE (1735-1793), French financier and poli-
tician, was a native of Geneva. As one of the democratic leaders
there he was obliged in 1782 to take refuge in England, upon
the armed interference of France, Sardinia and Berne in favour
of the aristocratic party. There he met other Swiss, among
them Marat and Etienne Dumont, but their schemes for a new
Geneva in Ireland — which the government favoured — were
given up when Necker came to power in France, and Claviere,
with most of his comrades, went to Paris. There in 1789 he and
Dumont allied themselves with Mirabeau, secretly collaborating
for him on the Courrier de Provence and also in preparing
the speeches which Mirabeau delivered as his own. It was
mainly by his use of Claviere that Mirabeau sustained his
reputation as a financier. But Claviere also published some
pamphlets under his own name, and through these and his
friendship with J. P. Brissot, whom he had met in London, he
became minister of finance in the Girondist ministry, from
March to the I2th of June 1792. After the loth of August he
was again given charge of the finances in the provisional executive
council, though with but indifferent success. He shared in the
fall of the Girondists, was arrested on the 2nd of June 1793,
but somehow was left in prison until the Sth of December, when,
on receiving notice that he was to appear on the next day before
the Revolutionary Tribunal, he committed suicide.

CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE (d. 1412), Spanish traveller
of the 1 5th century, whose narrative is the first important one
of its kind contributed to Spanish literature, was a native of
Madrid, and belonged to a family of some antiquity and position.
On the return of the ambassadors Pelayo de Sotomayor and
Hernan Sanchez de Palazuelos from the court of Timur, Henry
III. of Castille determined to send another embassy to the new
lord of Western Asia, and for this purpose he selected Clavijo,
Gomez de Salazar (who died on the outward journey), and a
master of theology named Fray Alonzo Paez de Santa Maria.
They sailed from St Mary Port near Cadiz on the 22nd of May
1403, touched at the Balearic Isles, Gaeta and Rhodes, spent
some time at Constantinople, sailed along the southern coast of
the Black Sea to Trebizond, and proceeded inland by Erzerum,
the Ararat region, Tabriz, Sultanieh, Teheran and Meshed,
to Samarkand, where they were well received by the conqueror.
Their return was at last accomplished, in part after Timur's
death, and with countless difficulties and dangers, and they
landed in Spain on the ist of March 1406. Clavijo proceeded,
at once to the court, at that time in Alcala de Henares, and
served as chamberlain till the king's death (in the spring of
1406-1407); he then returned to Madrid, and lived there in
opulence till his own death on the 2nd of April 1412. He was
buried in the chapel of the monastery of St Francis, which he
had rebuilt at great expense.

There are two leading MSS. of Clavijo's narrative — (a) London,
British Museum, Additional MSS., 16,613 fols. I. n.-ias, v. ; (b)
Madrid, National Library, 9218 ; and two old editions of the original
Spanish — (i) by Gon^alo Argote de Molina (Seville, 1582), (2) by
Antonio de Sancha (Madrid, 1 782) , both having the misleading titles,
apparently invented by Molina, of Historia del gran Tamorlan, and
Vtda y hazanas del gran Tamorlan (the latter at the beginning of the
text itself) ; a better sub-title is added, viz. Itinerario y enarracion
del viage y relation de la embaxada que Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo
le hizo. Both editors, and especially Sancha, supply general ex-
planatory dissertations. The Spanish text has also been published,
with a Russian translation, in vol. xxviii. (pp. 1-455) of the Publi-
cations of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences (Section of
Russian Language, &c.), edited by I. I. Sreznevsld (1881). An
English version, by Sir Clements Markham, was issued by the Hakluyt
Society in 1859 (Narrative of the Embassy of R . . . G . . . de Clavijo
to the Court of Timour). The identification of a great number of
the places mentioned by Clavijo is a matter of considerable difficulty,
and has given rise to some discussion (see Khanikof's list in Geo-
graphical Magazine (1874), and Sreznevski's Annotated Index in
the Russian edition of 1881). A short account of Clavijo's life is
riven by Alvarez y Baena in the Hijos de Madrid, vol. ix. See also
C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 332-56.

CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO— CLAY, HENRY

470

CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSt (1730-1806), Spanish publicist,
was born at Lanzarote (Canary Islands) in 1730. He settled
in Madrid, became editor of El Pensador, and by his campaign
against the public performance of autos sacramenlales secured
their prohibition in 1765. In 1770 he was appointed director
of the royal theatres, a post which he resigned in order to take
up the editorship of the Mercurio histirico y politico de Madrid:
at the time of his death in 1806 he was secretary to the Cabinet
of Natural History. He had in abundance the courage, per-
severance and gift of pungent expression which form the equip-
ment of the aggressive journalist, but his work would long since
have been forgotten were it not that it put an end to a peculiarly
national form of dramatic exposition, and that his love affair
with one of Beaumarchais' sisters suggested the theme of Goethe's
first publication, Clavigo.

CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903), American poli-
tician, was born in Madison county, Kentucky, on the ipth of
October 1810. He was the son of Green Clay (1757-1826), a
Kentucky soldier of the war of 1812 and a relative of Henry
Clay. He was educated at Centre College, Danville, Kentucky,
and at Yale, where he graduated in 1832. Influenced to some
extent by William Lloyd Garrison, he became an advocate of the
abolition of slavery, and on his return to his native state, at the
risk of social and political ostracism, he gave utterance to his
belief. He studied law, but instead of practising devoted
himself to a political career. In 1835, 1837 and 1840 he was
elected as a Whig to the Kentucky legislature, where he advocated
a system of gradual emancipation, and secured the establishment
of a public school system, and a much-needed reform in the jury
system. In 1841 he was defeated on account of his abolition
views. In 1844 he delivered campaign speeches for Henry Clay
throughout the North. In 1845 he established, at Lexington,
Kentucky, an anti-slavery publication known as The True
American, but in the same year his office and press were wrecked
by a mob, and he removed the publication office to Cincinnati,
Ohio. During this and the earlier period of his career his zeal and
hot temper involved him in numerous personal encounters and
several duels, in all of which he bore himself with a reckless
bravery. In the Mexican War he served as a captain of a
Kentucky company of militia, and was taken prisoner, while
reconnoitring, during General Scott's advance on the City of
Mexico. He left the Whig party in 1850, and as an anti-slavery
candidate for governor of Kentucky polled 5000 votes. In 1856
he joined the Republican party, and wielded considerable
influence as a Southern representative in its councils. In 1860
he was a leading candidate for the vice-presidential nomination.
In 1 86 1 he was sent by President Lincoln as minister to Russia;
in 1862 he returned to America to accept a commission as major-
general of volunteers, but in March 1863 was reappointed to his
former post at St Petersburg, where he remained until 1869.
Disapproving of the Republican policy of reconstruction, he left
the party, and in 1872 was one of the organizers of the Liberal-
Republican revolt, and was largely instrumental in securing the
nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. In the
political campaigns of 1876 and 1880 he supported the Democratic
candidate, but rejoined the Republican party in the campaign of
1884. He died at Whitehall, Kentucky, on the 22nd of July
1903.

See his autobiography, The'Life, Memoirs, Writings, and Speeches
of Cassius Marcellus Clay (Cincinnati, 1896) ; and The Writings of
Cassius Marcellus Clay (edited with a " Memoir " by Horace Greeley.
New York, 1848).

CLAY, CHARLES (1801-1893), English surgeon, was born at
Bredbury, near Stockport, on the 27th of December 1801. He
began his medical education as a pupil of Kinder Wood in
Manchester (where he used to attend John Dalton's lectures on
chemistry), and in 1821 went to Edinburgh to continue his
studies there. Qualifying in 1823, he began a general practice in
Ashton-under-Lyne, but in 1839 removed to Manchester to
practise as an operative and consulting surgeon. It was there
that, in 1842, he first performed the operation of ovariotomy
with which his name is associated. On this occasion it was

perfectly successful, and when in 1865 he published an analysis
of in cases he was able to show a mortality only slightly above
30%. Although his merits in this matter have sometimes been
denied, his claim to the title " Father of Ovariotomy " is now
generally conceded, and it is admittted that he deserves the
credit not only of having shown how that operation could be
made a success, but also of having played an important part in
the advance of abdominal surgery for which the igth century was
conspicuous. In spite of the claims of a heavy practice, Clay
found time for the pursuit of geology and archaeology. Among
the books of which he was the author were a volume of Geological
Sketches of Manchester (1839) and a History of the Currency of the
Isle of Man (1849), and his collections included over a thousand
editions of the Old and New Testaments and a remarkably
complete series of the silver and copper coins of the United
States. He died at Poulton-le-Fylde, near Preston, on the igth
of September 1893.

CLAY, FREDERIC (1838-1889), English musical composer,
the son of James Clay, M.P., who was celebrated as a player of
whist and a writer on that subject, was born in Paris on the 3rd of
August 1838. He studied music under W. B. Molique in Paris
and Moritz Hauptmann at Leipzig. With the exception of a few
songs and two cantatas, The Knights of the Cross (1866) and
Lalla Rookh (1877), — the latter of which contained his well-
known song " I'll sing thee songs of Araby," — his compositions
were all written for the stage. Clay's first public appearance was
made with an opera entitled Court and Cottage, the libretto of
which was written by Tom Taylor. This was produced at
Covent Garden in 1862, and was followed by Constance (1865),
Ages Ago (1869), and Princess Tola (1875), to name only three of
many works which have long since been forgotten. The last two,
which were written to libretti by W. S. Gilbert, are among Clay's
most tuneful and most attractive works. He wrote part of the
music for Babil and Bijou (1872) and The Black Crook (1873),
both of which were produced at the Alhambra. He also furnished
incidental music for a revival of Twelfth Night and for the
production of James Albery's Oriana. His last works, The
Merry Duchess (1883) and The Golden Ring (1883), the latter
written for the reopening of the Alhambra, which had been burned
to the ground the year before, showed an advance upon his
previous work, and rendered all the more regrettable the stroke of
paralysis which crippled his physical and mental energies during
the last few years of his life. He died at Great Marlow on the
24th of November 1889.

CLAY, HENRY (1777-1852), American statesman and orator,.
was born in Hanover county, Virginia, on the izth of April 1777,
and died in Washington on the 29th of June 1852. Few public
characters in the United States have been the subject of more
heated controversy. His enemies denounced him as a pretender,
a selfish intriguer, and an abandoned profligate; his supporters
placed him among the sages and sometimes even among the
saints. He was an arranger of measures and leader of political
forces, not an originator of ideas and systems. His public life
covered nearly half a century, and his name and fame rest
entirely upon his own merits. He achieved his success despite
serious obstacles. He was tail, rawboned and awkward; his
early instruction was scant; but he " read books," talked well,
and so, after his admission to the bar at Richmond, Virginia,
in 1797, and his removal next year to Lexington, Kentucky, he
quickly acquired a reputation and a lucrative income from his
law practice.

Thereafter, until the end of life, and in a field where he met,
as either friend or foe, John Quincy Adams, Gallatin, Madison,
Monroe, Webster, Jackson, Calhoun, Randolph and Benton,
his political activity was wellnigh ceaseless. At the age of
twenty- two (1799), he was elected to a constitutional convention
in Kentucky; at twenty-six, to the Kentucky legislature;
at twenty-nine, while yet under the age limit of the United
States constitution, he was appointed to an unexpired term
(1806-1807) in the United States Senate, where, contrary to
custom, he at once plunged into business, as though he had been
there all his life. He again served in the Kentucky legislature

CLAY, HENRY

(1808-1809), was chosen speakerof its lower house, and achieved
distinction by preventing an intense and widespread anti-British
feeling from excluding the common law from the Kentucky code.
A year later he was elected to another unexpired term in the
United States Senate, serving in 1810-1811. At thirty-four
(1811) he was elected to the United States House of Representa-
tives and chosen speaker on the first day of the session. One of
the chief sources of his popularity was his activity in Congress
in promoting the war with Great Britain in 1812, while as one
of the peace commissioners he reluctantly signed the treaty of
Ghent on the 24th of December 1814. During the fourteen years
following his first election, he was re-elected five times to the
House and to the speakership; retiring for one term (1821-1823)
to resume his law practice and retrieve his fortunes. He thus
served as speaker in 1811-1814, in 1815-1820 and in 1823-1825.
Once he was unanimously elected by his constituents, and once
nearly defeated for having at the previous session voted to increase
congressional salaries. He was a warm friend of the Spanish-
American revolutionists (1818) and of the Greek insurgents
(1824). From 1825 to 1829 he served as secretary of state in
President John Quincy Adams's cabinet, and in 1831 he was
elected to the United States Senate, where he served until 1842,
and again from 1849 until his death.

From the beginning of his career he was in favour of internal
improvements as a means of opening up the fertile but inaccess-
ible West, and was opposed to the abuse of official patronage
known as " the spoils system." The most important of the
national questions with which Clay was associated, however,
were the various phases of slavery politics and protection to
home industries. The most prominent characteristics of his
public life were his predisposition to " compromises " and
" pacifications " which generally failed of their object, and his
passionate patriotic devotion to the Union.

His earliest championship of protection was a resolution
introduced by him in the Kentucky legislature (1808) which
favoured the wearing by its members of home-made
asSaCpn^F clothes; and one in the United States Senate (April
tectioaist. 1810), on behalf of home-grown and home-made
supplies for the United States navy, but only to the
point of making the nation independent of foreign supply. In
1816 he advocated the Dallas tariff, in which the duties ranged
up to 35% on articles of home production, the supply of which
could satisfy the home demand; the avowed purpose being to
build up certain industries for safety in time of war. In 1824
he advocated high duties to relieve the prevailing distress, which
he pictured' in a brilliant and effective speech. Although the
distress was caused by the reactionary effect of a disordered
currency and the inflated prices of the war of 1812, he ascribed
it to the country's dependence on foreign supply and foreign
markets. Great Britain, he said, was a shining example of the
wisdom of a high tariff. No nation ever flourished without one.
He closed his principal speech on the subject in the House of
Representatives with a glowing appeal in behalf of what he
called " The American System." In spite of the opposition of
Webster and other prominent statesmen, Clay succeeded in
enacting a tariff which the people of the Southern states de-
nounced as a " tariff of abominations." As it overswelled the
revenue, in 1832 he vigorously favoured reducing tariff rates
on all articles not competing with American products. His speech
in behalf of the measure was for years a protection text-book;
but the measure itself reduced the revenue so little and provoked
such serious threats of nullification and secession in South
Carolina, that, to prevent bloodshed and to forestall a free trade
measure from the next Congress, Clay brought forward in 1833
a compromise gradually reducing the tariff rates to an average
of 20%. To the Protectionists this was " like a crash of thunder
in winter "; but it was received with such favour by the country
generally, that its author was hailed as " The Great Pacificator,"
as he had been thirteen years before at the time of the Missouri
Compromise (see below). As, however, the discontent with
the tariff in the South was only a symptom of the real
trouble there — the sensitiveness of the slave-power, — Clay

subsequently confessed his serious doubts of the policy of his
interference.

He was only twenty-two, when, as an opponent of slavery,
he vainly urged an emancipation clause for the new constitution
of Kentucky, and he never ceased regretting that its failure put
his state, in improvements and progress, behind its free neigh-
bours. In 1820 he congratulated the new South American
republics on having abolished slavery, but the same year the
threats of the Southern states to destroy the Union led him to
advocate the " Missouri Compromise," which, while keeping
slavery out of all the rest of the territory acquired by the
" Louisiana Purchase " north of Missouri's southern boundary
line, permitted it in that state. Then, greeted with the title
of " The Great Pacificator " as a reward for his success, he
retired temporarily to private life, with a larger stock of popu-
larity than he had ever had before. Although at various times
he had helped to strengthen the law for the recovery of fugitive
slaves, declining as secretary of state to aid Great Britain in the
further suppression of the slave trade, and demanding the
return of fugitives from Canada, yet he heartily supported
the colonizing of the slaves in Africa, because slavery was the
" deepest stain upon the character of the country," opposition
to which could not be repressed except by " blowing out the moral
lights around," and " eradicating from the human soul the light
of reason and the law of liberty." When the slave power
became more aggressive, in and after the year 1831, Clay defended
the right of petition for the abolition of slavery in the District of
Columbia, and opposed Calhoun's bill forbidding the use of the
mails to " abolition " newspapers and documents. He was luke-
warm toward recognizing the independence of Texas, lest it should
aid the increase of slave territory, and generally favoured the
freedom of speech and press as regards the question of slavery;
yet his various concessions and compromises resulted, as he him-
self declared, in the abolitionists denouncing him as a slave-
holder, and the slaveholders as an abolitionist. In 1839, only
twelve months after opposing the pro-slavery demands, he pre-
pared an elaborate speech, in order " to set himself right with the
South," which, before its delivery, received pro-slavery approval.
While affirming that he was " no friend of slavery " he held
abolition and the abolitionists responsible for the hatred, strife,
disruption and carnage that menaced the nation. In response,
Calhoun extended to him a most hearty welcome, and assigned
him to a place on the bench of the penitents. Being a candidate
for the presidency Clay had to take the insult without wincing.
It was in reference to this speech that he made the oft-quoted
remark that he " would rather be right than be president."
While a candidate for president in 1844, he opposed in the
" Raleigh letter " the annexation of Texas on many grounds
except that of its increasing the slave power, thus displeasing
both the men of anti-slavery and those of pro-slavery sentiments.
In 1847, after the conquest of Mexico, he made a speech against
the annexation of that country or the acquiring of any foreign
territory for the spread of slavery. Although in 1849 he again
vainly proposed emancipation in Kentucky, he was unanimously
elected to the United States Senate, where in 1850 he temporarily
pacified both sections of the country by successfully offering,
for the sake of the " peace, concord and harmony of these
states," a measure or series of measures that became known as
the "Compromise of 1850." ItadmittedCaliforniaasafree state,
organized Utah and New Mexico as Territories without reference
to slavery, and enacted a more efficient fugitive slave law. In
spite of great physical weakness he made several earnest speeches
in behalf of these measures to save the Union.

Another conspicuous feature of Clay's public career was his
absorbing and rightful, but constantly ungratified, ambition to
be president of the United States. His name in connexion
therewith was mentioned comparatively early, and in 1824,
with W. H. Crawford, Andrew Jackson, and John Quincy
Adams, he was a candidate for that office. There being no choice
by the people, and the House of Representatives having elected
Adams, Clay was accused by Jackson and his friends of making
a corrupt bargain whereby, in payment of his vote and influence

472

CLAY

for Adams, he was appointed secretary of state. This made
Jackson Clay's lifelong enemy, and ever after kept Clay busy
explaining and denying the allegation. In 1832 Clay was unani-
mouslyjiominated for the presidency by the National Republicans;
Jackson, by the Democrats. The main issue was the policy
of continuing the United States Bank, which in 1811 Clay had
opposed, but in 1816 and always subsequently warmly favoured.
A majority of the voters approved of Jackson's fight against
what Clay had once denounced as a dangerous and unconstitu-
tional monopoly. Clay made the mistake of supposing that he
could arouse popular enthusiasm for a moneyed corporation in
its contest with the great military " hero of New Orleans."
In 1839 he was a candidate for the Whig nomination, but by a
secret ballot his enemies defeated him in the party convention,
held in December of that year, and nominated William Henry
Harrison. The result threw Clay into paroxysms of rage, and
he violently complained that his friends always used him as
their candidate when he was sure to be defeated, and betrayed
him when he or any one could have been elected. In 1844 he
was nominated by the Whigs against James K. Polk, the Demo-
cratic candidate. By an audacious fraud that represented him
as an enemy, and Polk as a friend of protection, Clay lost the
vote of Pennsylvania; and he lost the vote of New York by
his own letter abating the force of his previous opposition to
the annexation of Texas. Even his enemies felt that his defeat
by Polk was almost a national calamity. In 1848, Zachary
Taylor, a Mexican War hero, and hardly even a convert to the
Whig party, defeated Clay for the nomination, Kentucky
herself deserting her " favourite son."

Clay's quick intelligence and sympathy, and his irreproachable
conduct in youth, explain his precocious prominence in public
affairs. In his persuasiveness as an orator and his charming
personality lay the secret of his power. He had early trained
himself in the art of speech-making, in the forest, the field and
even the barn, with horse and ox for audience. By contempor-
aries his voice was declared to be the finest musical instrument
that they ever heard. His eloquence was in turn majestic,
fierce, playful, insinuating; his gesticulation natural, vivid,
large, powerful. In public he was of magnificent bearing,
possessing the true oratorical temperament, the nervous exalta-
tion that makes the orator feel and appear a superior being,
transfusing his thought, passion and will into the mind and
heart of the listener; but his imagination frequently ran away
with his understanding, while his imperious temper and ardent
combativeness hurried him and his party into disadvantageous
positions. The ease, too, with which he outshone men of vastly
greater learning lured him from the task of intense and arduous
study. His speeches were characterized by skill of statement,
ingenious grouping of facts, fervent diction, and ardent patriot-
ism; sometimes by biting sarcasm, but also by superficial
research, half-knowledge and an unwillingness to reason a
proposition to its logical results. In private, his never-failing
courtesy, his agreeable manners and a noble and generous
heart for all who needed protection against the powerful or the
lawless, endeared him. to hosts of friends. His popularity was
as great and as inexhaustible among his neighbours as among
his fellow-citizens generally. He pronounced upon himself a
just judgment when he wrote: " If any one desires to know the
leading and paramount object of my public life, the preservation
of this Union will furnish him the key."

See Calvin Colton, The Works of Henry Clay (6 vols., New York,
1857; new ed., 7 vols., New York, 1898), the first three volumes
of which are an account of Clay's " Life and Times"; Carl Schurz,
Henry Clay (2 vols., Boston, 1887), in the " American Statesmen "
series; and the life by T. Hart Clay (1910). (C. S.)

CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms
to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Kiel), commonly denned as a
fine-grained, almost impalpable substance, very soft, more or
less coherent when dry, plastic and retentive of water when wet;
it has an " earthy " odour when breathed upon or moistened,
and consists essentially of hydrous aluminium silicate with
various impurities. Of clay are formed a great number of rocks,
which collectively are known as " clay-rocks " or " pelitic rocks "

(from Gr. injX6s, clay), e.g. mudstone, shale, slate: these exhibit
in greater or less perfection the properties above described
according to their freedom from impurities. In nature, clays are
rarely free from foreign ingredients, many of which can be
detected with the unaided eye, while others may be observed
by means of the microscope. The commonest impurities are: —
(i) organic matter, humus, &c. (exemplified by clay-soils with
an admixture of peat, oil shales, carbonaceous shales); (2)
fossils (such as plants in the shales of the Lias and Coal Measures,
shells in clays of all geological periods and in fresh water marls) ;
(3) carbonate of lime (rarely altogether absent, but abundant
in marls, cement-stones and argillaceous limestones); (4)
sulphide of iron, as pyrite or marcasite (when finely diffused,
giving the clay a dark grey-blue colour, which weathers to
brown — e.g. London Clay; also as nodules and concretions,
e.g. Gault) ; (5) oxides of iron (staining the clay bright red when
ferric oxide, red ochre; yellow when hydrous, e.g. yellow
ochre); (6) sand or detrital silica (forming loams, arenaceous
clays, argillaceous sandstones, &c.). Less frequently present
are the following: — rock salt (Triassic clays, and marls of
Cheshire, &c.); gypsum (London Clay, Triassic clays) ; dolomite,
phosphate of lime, vivianite (phosphate of iron), oxides of
manganese, copper ores (e.g. Kupferschiefer), wavellite and
amber. As the impurities increase in amount the clay rocks
pass gradually into argillaceous sands and sandstones, argil-
laceous limestones and dolomites, shaly coals and clay
ironstones.

Natural clays, even when most pure, show a considerable
range of composition, and hence cannot be regarded as consisting
of a single mineral; clay is a rock, and has that variability which
characterizes all rocks. Of the essential properties of clay some
are merely physical, and depend on the minute size of the
particles. If any rock be taken (even a piece of pure quartz) and
crushed to a very fine powder, it will show some of the peculi-
arities of clays; for example, it will be plastic, retentive of
moisture, impermeable to water, and will shrink to some extent if
the moist mass be kneaded, and then allowed to dry. It happens,
however, that many rocks are not disintegrated to this extreme
degree by natural processes, and weathering invariably accom-
panies disintegration. Quartz, for example, has little or no
cleavage, and is not attacked by the atmosphere. It breaks up
into fragments, which become rounded by attrition, but after
they reach a certain minuteness are borne along by currents of
water or air in a state of suspension, and are not further reduced
in size. Hence sands are more coarse grained than clays. A
great number of rock-forming minerals, however, possess a good
cleavage, so that when bruised they split into thin fragments;
many of these minerals decompose somewhat readily, yielding
secondary minerals, which are comparatively soft and have a
scaly character, with eminently perfect cleavages, which facilitate
splitting into exceedingly thin plates. The principal substances
of this description are kaolin, muscovite and chlorite. Kaolin
and muscovite are formed principally after felspar (and the
felspars are the commonest minerals of all crystalline rocks);
also from nepheline, leucite, scapolite and a variety of other
rock-forming minerals. Chlorite arises from biotite, augite and
hornblende. Serpentine, which may be fibrous or scaly, is a
secondary product of olivine and certain pyroxenes. Clays
consist essentially of the above ingredients (although serpentine
is not known to take part in them to any extent, it is closely
allied to chlorite). At the same time other substances are
produced as decomposition goes on. They are principally finely
divided quartz, epidote, zoisite, rutile, limonite, calcite, pyrites,
and very small particles of these are rarely absent from
natural clays. These fine-grained materials are at first mixed
with broken and more or less weathered rock fragments
and coarser mineral particles in the soil and subsoil, but by
the action of wind and rain they are swept away and deposited
in distant situations. " Loess " is a fine calcareous clay,
which has been wind-borne, and subsequently laid down on the
margins of dry steppes and deserts. Most clays are water-
borne, having been carried from the surface of the land by

CLAY

473

rain and transported by the brooks and rivers into lakes or
the sea. In this state the fine particles are known as " mud."
They are deposited where the currents are checked and the water
becomes very still. If temporarily laid down in other situations
they are ultimately lifted again and removed. A little clay,
stirred up with water in a glass vessel, takes hours to settle, and
even after two or three days some remains in suspension; in fact,
it has been suggested that in such cases the clay forms a sort of
"colloidal solution" in the water. Traces of dissolved salts,
such as common salt, gypsum or alum, greatly accelerate
deposition. For these reasons the principal gathering places of
fine pure clays are deep, still lakes, and the sea bottom at con-
siderable distances from the shore. The coarser materials settle
nearer the land, and the shallower portions of the sea floor are
strewn with gravel and sand, except in occasional depressions
and near the mouths of rivers where mud may gather. Farther
out the great mud deposits begin, extending from 50 to 200 m.
from the land, according to the amount of sediment brought in,
and the rate at which the water (Jeepens. A girdle of mud
accumulations encircles all the continents. These sediments are
fine and tenacious; their principal components, in addition to
day, being small grains of quartz, zircon, tourmaline, hornblende,
felspar and iron compounds. Their typical colour is blackish-
blue, owing to the abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; when
fresh they have a sulphurous odour, when weathered they are
brown, as their iron is present as hydrous oxides (limonite, &c.).
These deposits are tenanted by numerous forms of marine life,
and the sulphur they contain is derived from decomposing
organic matter. Occasionally water-logged plant debris is
mingled with the mud. In a few places a red colour prevails, the
iron being mostly oxidized; elsewhere the muds are green
owing to abundant glauconite. Traced landwards the muds
become more sandy, while on their outer margins they grade into
the abysmal deposits, such as the globigerina ooze (see OCEAN
AND OCEANOGRAPHY). Near volcanoes they contain many
volcanic minerals, and around coral islands they are often in
large part calcareous.

Microscopic sections of some of the more coherent clays and
shales may be prepared by saturating them with Canada balsam
by long boiling, and slicing the resultant mass in the same
manner as one of the harder rocks. They show that clay rocks
contain abundant very small grains of quartz (about o-oi to
0-05 mm. in diameter), with often felspar, tourmaline, zircon,
epidote, rutile and more or less calcite. These may form more
than one-third of an ordinary shale; the greater part, however,
consists of still smaller scales of other minerals (o-oi mm. in
diameter and less than this). Some of these are recognizable as
pale yellowish and white mica; others seem to be chlorite, the
remainder is perhaps kaolin, but, owing to the minute size of the
flakes, they yield very indistinct reactions to polarized light.
They are also often stained with iron oxide and organic substances,
and in consequence their true nature is almost impossible to
determine. It is certain, however, that the finer-grained rocks are
richest in alumina, and in combined water; hence the inference
is clear that kaolin or some other hydrous aluminium silicate is
the dominating constituent. These results are confirmed by the
mechanical analysis of clays. This process consists in finely
pulverizing the soil or rock, and levigating it in vessels of water.
A series of powders is obtained progressively finer according to the
time required to settle to the bottom of the vessel. The clay is
held to include those particles which have less than 0-005 mm-
diameter, and contains a higher percentage of alumina than any
of the other ingredients.

As might be inferred from the differences they exhibit in other
respects, clay rocks vary greatly in their chemical composition.
Some of them contain much iron (yellow, blue and red clays);
others contain abundant calcium carbonate (calcareous clays
and marls). Pure clays, however, may be found almost quite
free from these substances. Their silica ranges from about 60 to
45%, varying in accordance with the amount of quartz and
alkali-felspar present. It is almost always more than would be
the case if the rock consisted of kaolin mixed with muscovite.

Alumina is high in the finer clays (18 to 30%), and they are the
most aluminous of all sediments, except bauxite. Magnesia is
never absent, though its amount may be less than i %; it is
usually contained in minerals of the chlorite group, but partly
also in dolomite. The alkalis are very interesting; often they
form 5 or 10% of the whole rock; they indicate abundance of
white micas or of undecomposed particles of felspar. Some clays,
however, such as fireclays, contain very little potash or soda,
while they are rich in alumina; and it is a fair inference that
hydrated aluminous silicates, such as kaolin, are well represented
in these rocks. There are, in fact, a few clays which contain
about 45 % of alumina, that is to say, more than in pure kaolin.
It is probable that these are related to bauxite and certain kinds
of laterite.

A few of the most important clay rocks, such as china-clay,
brick-clay, red-clay and shale, may be briefly described here.

China-clay is white, friable and earthy. It occurs in regions
of granite, porphyry and syenite, and usually occupies funnel-
shaped cavities of no great superficial area, but of considerable
depth. It consists of very fine scaly kaolin, larger, shining plates
of white mica, grains of quartz and particles of semi-decomposed
felspar, tourmaline, zircon and other minerals, which originally
formed part of the granite. These clays are produced by the
decomposition of the granite by acid vapours, which are dis-
charged after the igneous rock has solidified ("fumarole or
pneumatolytic action"). Fluorine and its compounds are often
supposed to have been among the agencies which produce this
change, but more probably carbonic acid played the principal
r61e. The felspar decomposes into kaolin and. quartz; its
alkalis are for the most part set free and removed in solution,
but are partly retained in the white mica which is constantly
found in crude china-clays. Semi-decomposed varieties of the
granite are known as china-stone. The kaolin may be washed
away from its original site, and deposited in hollows or lakes to
form beds of white clay, such as pipe-clay; in this case it is
always more or less impure. Yellow and pinkish varieties of
china-clay and pipe-clay contain a small quantity of oxide of
iron. The best known localities for china-clay are Cornwall,
Limoges (France), Saxony, Bohemia and China; it is found also
in Pennsylvania, N. Carolina and elsewhere in the United States.

Fire-clays include all those varieties of clay which are very
refractory to heat. They must contain little alkalis, lime,
magnesia and iron, but some of them are comparatively rich
in silica. Many of the clays which pass under this designation
belong to the Carboniferous period, and are found underlying
seams of coal. Either by rapid growth of vegetation, or by
subsequent percolation of organic solutions, most of the alkalis
and the lime have been carried away.

Any argillaceous material, which can be used for the manu-
facture of bricks, may be called a brick-clay. In England,
Kimmeridge Clay, Lias clays, London Clay and pulverized
shale and slate are all employed for this purpose. Each variety
needs special treatment according to its properties. The true
brick-clays, however, are superficial deposits of Pleistocene or
Quaternary age, and occur in hollows, filled-up lakes and
deserted stream channels. Many of them are derived from the
glacial boulder-clays, or from the washing away of the finer
materials contained in older clay formations. They are always
very impure.

The red-clay is an abysmal formation, occurring in 'the sea
bottom in the deepest part of the oceans. It is estimated to
cover over fifty millions of square miles, and is probably the most
extensive deposit which is in course of accumulation at the
present day. In addition to the reddish or brownish argillaceous
matrix it contains fresh or decomposed crystals of volcanic
minerals, such as felspar, augite, hornblende, olivine and
pumiceous or palagonitic rocks. These must either have been
ejected by submarine volcanoes or drifted by the wind from
active vents, as the fine ash discharged by Krakatoa was wafted
over the whole globe. Larger rounded lumps of pumice, found
in the clay, have probably floated to their present situations,
and sank when decomposed, all their cavities becoming filled

474

CLAY CROSS— CLAYTON

with sea water. Crystals of zeolites (phillipsite) form in the
red-clay as radiate, nodular groups. Lumps of manganese oxide,
with a black, shining outer surface, are also characteristic of
this deposit, and frequently encrust pieces of pumice or animal
remains. The only fossils of the clay are radiolaria, sharks'
teeth and the ear-bones of whales, precisely those parts of the
skeleton of marine creatures which are hardest and can longest
survive exposure to sea-water. Their comparative abundance
shows how slowly the clay gathers. Small rounded spherules
of iron, believed by some to be meteoric dust, have also been
obtained in some numbers. Among the rocks of the continents
nothing exactly the same as this remarkable deposit is known
to occur, though fine dark clays, with manganese nodules, are
found in many localities, accompanied by other rocks which
indicate deep-water conditions of deposit.

Another type of red-clay is found in caves, and is known as
cave-earth or red-earth (terra rossa). It is fine, tenacious and
bright red, and represents the insoluble and thoroughly weathered
impurities which are left behind when the calcareous matter is
removed in solution by carbonated waters. Similar residual
clays sometimes occur on the surface of areas of limestone in
hollows and fissures formed by weathering.

Boulder-clay is a coarse unstratified deposit of fine clay, with
more or less sand, and boulders of various sizes, the latter usually
marked with glacial striations.

Some clay rocks which have been laid down by water are
very uniform through their whole thickness, and are called
mud-stones. Others split readily into fine leaflets or laminae
parallel to their bedding, and this structure is accentuated by
the presence of films of other materials, such as sand or vegetable
debris. Laminated clays of this sort are generally known as
shales; they occur in many formations but are very common
in the Carboniferous. Some of them contain much organic
debris, and when distilled yield paraffin oil, wax, compounds
of ammonia, &c. In these oil-shales there are clear, globular,
yellow bodies which seem to be resinous. It has been suggested
that the admixture of large quantities of decomposed fresh-
water algae among the original mud is the origin of the paraffins.
In New South Wales, Scotland and several parts of America
such oil-shales are worked on a commercial scale. Many shales
contain great numbers of ovoid or rounded septarian nodules
of clay ironstone. Others are rich in pyrites, which, on oxidation,
produces sulphuric acid; this attacks the aluminous silicates
of the clay and forms aluminium sulphate (alum shales). The
lias shales of Whitby contain blocks of semi-mineralized wood,
or jet, which is black with a resinous lustre, and a fibrous
structure. The laminated structure of shales, though partly
due to successive very thin sheets of deposit, is certainly de-
pendent also on the vertical pressure exerted by masses of super-
incumbent rock; it indicates a transition to the fissile character
of clay slates. (J. S. F.)

CLAY CROSS, an urban district in the Chesterfield parlia-
mentary division of Derbyshire, England, near the river Amber,
on the Midland railway, 5 m. S. of Chesterfield. Pop. (1901)
8358. The Clay Cross Colliery and Ironworks Company, whose
mines were for a time leased by George Stephenson, employ a
great number of hands.

CLAYMORE (from the Gaelic claidheamh mdr, " great sword "),
the old two-edged broadsword with cross hilt, of which the
guards were usually turned down, used by the Highlanders of
Scotland. The name is also wrongly applied to the single-edged
basket-hilled sword adopted in the i6th century and still worn
as the full-dress sword in the Highland regiments of the British
army.

CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1810-1900), Belgian artist, was born
at Bruges in 1819, and died at Brussels in 1900. He was one of
the most esteemed marine painters of his time, and early in his
career he substituted a sincere study of nature for the extravagant
and artificial conventionality of most of his predecessors. When
he began to paint, the sea was considered by continental artists
as worth representing only under its most tempestuous aspects.
Artists cared only for the stirring drama of storm and wreck,

and they clung still to the old-world tradition of the romantic
school. Clays was the first to appreciate the beauty of calm
waters reflecting the slow procession of clouds, the glories of
sunset illuminating the sails of ships or gilding the tarred sides
of heavy fishing-boats. He painted the peaceful life of rivers,
the poetry of wide estuaries, the regulated stir of roadsteads and
ports. And while he thus broke away from old traditions he
also threw off the trammels imposed on him by his master,
the marine painter Theodore Gudin (1802-1880). Endeavouring
only to give truthful expression to the nature that delighted his
eyes, he sought to render the limpid salt atmosphere, the weight
of waters, the transparence of moist horizons, the gem-like
sparkle of the sky. A Fleming in his feeling for colour, he set his
palette with clean strong hues, and their powerful harmonies
were in striking contrast with the rusty, smoky tones then in
favour. If he was not a " luminist " in the modem use of the
word, he deserves at any rate to be classed with the founders of
the modern naturalistic school. This conscientious and healthy
interpretation, to which the artist remained faithful, without any
important change, to the end of an unusually long and laborious
career, attracted those minds which aspired to be bold, and won
over those which were moderate. Clays soon took his place
among the most famous Belgian painters of his generation, and
his pictures, sold at high prices, are to be seen in most public and
private galleries. We may mention, among others, " The Beach
at Ault," " Boats in a Dutch Port," and " Dutch Boats in the
Flushing Roads," the last in the National Gallery, London.
In the Brussels gallery are " The Port of Antwerp," " Coast near
Ostend," and a " Calm on the Scheldt "; in the Antwerp
museum, " The Meuse at Dordrecht "; in the Pinakothek at
Munich, " The Open North Sea "; in the Metropolitan Museum
of Fine Arts, New York, " The Festival of the Freedom of the
Scheldt at Antwerp in 1863 "; in the palace of the king of the
Belgians, " Arrival of Queen Victoria at Ostend in 1857 "; in
the Bruges academy, " Port of Feirugudo, Portugal." Clays
was a member of several Academies, Belgian and foreign, and
of the Order of Leopold, the Legion of Honour, &c.

See Camille Lemonnier, Hisloire des Beaux-Arts (Brussels, 1887).

(O. M.*)

CLAYTON, JOHN HIDDLETON (1796-1856), American
politician, was born in Dagsborough, Sussex county, Delaware, on
the 24th of July 1796. He came of an old Quaker family long
prominent in the political history of Delaware. He graduated
at Yale in 1815, and in 1819 began to practise law at Dover,
Delaware, where for a time he was associated with his cousin,
.Thomas Clayton (1778-1854), subsequently a United States
senator and chief-justice of the state. He soon gained a large
practice. He became a member of the state House of Repre-
sentatives in 1824, and from December 1826 to October 1828 was
secretary of state of Delaware. In 1829, by a combination of
anti-Jackson forces in the state legislature, he was elected to the
United States Senate. Here his great oratorical gifts gave him
a high place as one of the ablest and most eloquent opponents
of the administration. In 1831 he wasamemberof theDelaware
constitutional convention, and in 1835 he was returned to the
Senate as a Whig, but resigned in the following year. In 1837-
1839 he was chief justice of Delaware. In 1845 he again entered
the Senate, where he opposed the annexation of Texas and the
Mexican War, but advocated the active prosecution of the latter
once it was begun. In March 1849 he became secretary of state
in the cabinet of President Zachary Taylor, to whose nomination
and election his influence had contributed. His brief tenure
of the state portfolio, which terminated on the 22nd of July
1850, soon after Taylor's death, was notable chiefly for the
negotiation with the British minister, Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer,
of the Clay ton-Bulwer Treaty (q.v.). He was once more a member
of the Senate from March 1853 until his death at Dover, Delaware,
on the 9th of November 1856. By his contemporaries Clayton
was considered one of the ablest debaters and orators in the
Senate.

See the memoir by Joseph P. Comegys in the Papers of the His-
torical Society of Delaware, No. 4 (Wilmington, 1882).

CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY— CLAY-WITH-FLINTS 475

CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY, a famous treaty between the
United States and Great Britain, negotiated in 1850 by John M.
Clayton and Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer (Lord Dalling), in con-
sequence of the situation created by the project of an iuter-
oceanic canal across Nicaragua, each signatory being jealous of
the activities of the other in Central America. Great Britain
had large and indefinite territorial claims in three regions —
Belize or British Honduras, the Mosquito Coast and the Bay
Islands.1 On the other hand, the United States, without terri-
torial claims, held in reserve, ready for ratification, treaties with
Nicaragua and Honduras, which gave her a certain diplomatic
vantage with which to balance the de facto dominion of Great
Britain. Agreement on these points being impossible and
agreement on the canal question possible, the latter was put in
the foreground. The resulting treaty had four essential points.
It bound both parties not to " obtain or maintain " any ex-
clusive control of the proposed canal, or unequal advantage in
its use. It guaranteed the neutralization of such canal. It
declared that, the intention of the signatories being not only the
accomplishment of " a particular object " — i.e. that the canal,
then supposedly near realization, should be neutral and equally
free to the two contracting powers — " but also to establish a
general principle," they agreed " to extend their protection by
treaty stipulation to any other practicable communications,
whether by canal or railway, across the isthmus which connects
North and South America." Finally, it stipulated that neither
signatory would ever " occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume
or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mos-
quito Coast or any part of Central America," nor make use of
any protectorate or alliance, present or future, to such ends.

The treaty was signed on the igth of April, and was ratified
by both governments; but before the exchange of ratifications
Lord Palmerston, on the 8th of June, directed Sir H. Bulwer
to make a " declaration " that the British government did not
understand the treaty " as applying to Her Majesty's settlement
at Honduras, or its dependencies." Mr Clayton made a counter-
declaration, which recited that the United States did not regard
the treaty as applying to " the British settlement in Honduras
commonly called British-Honduras . . . nor the small islands
in the neighbourhood of that settlement which may be known
as its dependencies"; that the treaty's engagements did apply
to all the Central American states, " with their just limits and
proper dependencies "; and that these declarations, not being
submitted to the United States Senate, could of course not affect
the legal import of the treaty. The interpretation of the declara-
tions soon became a matter of contention. The phraseology
reflects the effort made by the United States to render impossible
a physical control of the canal by Great Britain through the
territory held by her at its mouth — the United States losing
the above-mentioned treaty advantages, — just as the explicit
abnegations of the treaty rendered impossible such control
politically by either power. But great Britain claimed that the
excepted " settlement " at Honduras was the " Belize " covered
by the extreme British claim; that the Bay Islands were a
dependency of Belize; and that, as for the Mosquito Coast, the
abnegatory clauses being wholly prospective in intent, she was
not required to abandon her protectorate. The United States
contended that the Bay Islands were not the " dependencies "
of Belize, these being the small neighbouring islands mentioned
in the same treaties; that the excepted " settlement " was the
British-Honduras of definite extent and narrow purpose recog-
nized in British treaties with Spain; that she had not con-
firmed by recognition the large, indefinite and offensive claims
whose dangers the treat}' was primarily designed to lessen ; and
that, as to the Mosquito Coast, the treaty was retrospective, and
mutual in the rigour of its requirements, and as the United States
had no de facto possessions, while Great Britain had, the clause

1 The claims to a part of the first two were very old in origin, but
all were heavily clouded by interruptions of possession, contested
interpretations of Spanish-British treaties, and active controversy
with the Central American States. The claim to some of the terri-
tory was new and still more contestable. See particularly on these
claims Travis's book cited below.

binding both not to " occupy " any part of Central America
or the Mosquito Coast necessitated the abandonment of such
territory as Great Britain was already actually occupying or
exercising dominion over; and the United States demanded the
complete abandonment of the British protectorate over the
Mosquito Indians. It seems to be a just conclusion that when
in 1852 the Bay Islands were erected into a British " colony "
this was a flagrant infraction of the treaty; that as regards
Belize the American arguments were decidedly stronger, and
more correct historically; and that as regards the Mosquito
question, inasmuch as a protectorate seems certainly to have
been recognized by the treaty, to demand its absolute abandon-
ment was unwarranted, although to satisfy the treaty Great
Britain was bound materially to weaken it.

In 1850-1860, by British treaties with Central American
states, the Bay Islands and Mosquito questions were settled
nearly iu accord with the American contentions.* But by the
same treaties Belize was accorded limits much greater than
those contended for by the United States. This settlement
the latter power accepted without cavil for many years.

Until 1866 the policy of the United States was consistently
for inter-oceanic canals open equally to all nations, and un-
equivocally neutralized; indeed, until 1880 there was practically
no official divergence from this policy. But in 1880-1884 a
variety of reasons were advanced why the United States might
justly repudiate at will the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.* The new
policy was based on national self-interest. The arguments
advanced on its behalf were quite indefensible in law and history,
and although the position of the United States .in 1850-1860
was in general the stronger in history, law and political ethics,
that of Great Britain was even more conspicuously the stronger
in the years 1880-1884. In 1885 the former government re-
verted to its traditional policy, and the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty
of 1902, which replaced the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, adopted
the rule of neutralization for the Panama Canal.

See the collected diplomatic correspondence in I. D. Travis,
History of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1899) ;
J. H. Latane, Diplomatic Relations of the United States and Spanish
America (Baltimore, 1900); T. J. Lawrence, Disputed Questions
of Modern International Law (2nd ed., Cambridge, England, 1885) ;
Sir E. L. Bulwer in 99 Quarterly Rev. 235-286, and Sir H. Bulwer in
104 Edinburgh Rev. 280-298.

CLAY-WITH-FLINTS, in geology, the name given by W-
Whitaker in 1861 to a peculiar deposit of stiff red, brown or
yellow clay containing unworn whole flints as well as angular
shattered fragments, also with a variable admixture of rounded
flint, quartz, quartzite and other pebbles. It occurs " in sheets or
patches of various sizes over a large area in the south of England,
from Hertfordshire on the north to Sussex on the south, and
from Kent on the east to Devon on the west. It almost always
lies on the surface of the Upper Chalk, but in Dorset it passes
on to the Middle and Lower Chalk, and in Devon it is found on
the Chert-Beds of the Selbornian group " (A. J. Jukes-Browne,
" The Clay-with-Flints, its Origin and Distribution," Q.J.G.S.,
vol. Ixii., 1906, p. 132). Many geologists have supposed, and
some still hold, that the Clay-with-Flints is the residue left by
the slow solution and disintegration of the Chalk by the processes
of weathering; on the other hand, it has long been known that
the deposit very frequently contains materials foreign to the
Chalk, derived either from the Tertiary rocks or from overlying
drift. In the paper quoted above, Jukes-Browne ably summarizes

2 The islands were ceded to Honduras. The Mosquito Coast was
recognized as under Nicaraguan rule limited by an attenuated
British protectorate over the Indians, who were given a reservation
and certain peculiar rights. They were left free to accept full
Nicaraguan rule at will. This they did in 1894.

3 It was argued, e.g., that the " general principle " of that engage-
ment was contingent on the prior realization of its " particular
object," which had failed, and the treaty had determined as a special
contract; moreover, none of the additional treaties to embody the
" general principle " had been negotiated, and Great Britain had
not even offered co-operation in the protection and neutrality-
guarantee of the Panama railway built in 1850-1855, so that her
rights had lapsed; certain engagements of the treaty she had vio-
lated, and therefore the whole treaty was voidable, &c.

476

CLAZOMENAE— CLEARING-HOUSE

the evidence against the view that the deposit is mainly a
Chalk residue, and brings forward a good deal of evidence to
show that many patches of the Clay-with-Flints lie upon the
same plane and may be directly associated with Reading Beds.
He concludes "that the material of the Clay-with-Flints has been
chiefly and almost entirely derived from Eocene clay, with
addition of some flints from the Chalk; that its presence is an
indication of the previous existence of Lower Eocene Beds on
the same site and nearly at the same relative level, and, conse-
quently, that comparatively little Chalk has been removed
from beneath it. Finally, I think that the tracts of Clay-with-
Flints have been much more extensive than they are now "
(loc. cil. p. 159).

It is noteworthy that the Clay-with-Flints is developed over
an area which is just beyond the limits of the ice sheets of the
Glacial epoch, and the peculiar conditions of late Pliocene and
Pleistocene times, involving heavy rains, snow and frost, may
have had much to do with the mingling of the Tertiary and
Chalky material. Besides the occurrence in surface patches,
Clay-with-Flints is very commonly to be observed descending
in "pipes" often to a considerable depth into the Chalk; here,
if anywhere, the residual chalk portion of the deposit should
be found, and it is surmised that a thin layer of very dark clay
with darkly stained flints, which appears in contact with
the sides and bottom of the pipe, may represent all there is of
insoluble residue.

A somewhat similar deposit, a " conglomerat de silex " or
" argile a silex," occurs at the base of the Eocene on the southern
and western borders of the Paris basin, in the neighbourhood
of Chartres, Thimerais and Sancerrois. (J. A. H.)

CLAZOMENAE (mod. Kelisman), an ancient town of Ionia
and a member of the Ionian Dodecapolis (Confederation of
Twelve Cities), on the Gulf of Smyrna, about 20 m. W. of that
city. Though not in existence before the arrival of the lonians
in Asia, its original founders were largely settlers from Phlius
and Cleonae. It stood originally on the isthmus connecting
the mainland with the peninsula on which Erythrae stood;
but the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachments of the
Persians, removed to one of the small islands of the bay, and
there established their city. This island was connected with
the mainland by Alexander the Great by means of a pier, the
remains of which are still visible. During the 5th century it
was for some time subject to the Athenians, but about the
middle of the Peloponnesian war (412 B.C.) it revolted. After
a brief resistance, however, it again acknowledged the Athenian
supremacy, and repelled a Lacedaemonian attack. Under the
Romans Clazomenae was included hi the province of Asia, and
enjoyed an immunity from taxation. The site can still be made
out, in the neighbourhood of Vourla, but nearly every portion
of its ruins has been removed. It was the birthplace of the
philosopher Anaxagoras. It is famous for its painted terra-cotta
sarcophagi, which are the finest monuments of Ionian painting
in the 6th century B.C. (E. GR.)

CLEANTHES (c. 301-232 or 252 B.C.), Stoic philosopher,
born at Assos in the Troad, was originally a boxer. With but
four drachmae in his possession he came to Athens, where he
listened first to the lectures of Crates the Cynic, and then to
those of Zeno, the Stoic, supporting himself meanwhile by
working all night as water-carrier to a gardener (hence his
nickname $pta.vT\i\s). His power of patient endurance, or
perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of " the Ass "; but
such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that,
on the death of Zeno in 263, he became the leader of the school.
He continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his
own hands. Among his pupils were his successor, Chrysippus,
and Antigonus, king of Macedon, from whom he accepted
2000 minae. The manner of his death was characteristic. A
dangerous ulcer had compelled him to fast for a time. Subse-
quently he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was
already half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble
to retrace his steps.

Cleanthes produced very little that was original, though he

wrote some fifty works, of which fragments have come down
to us. The principal is the large portion of the Hymn to Zeus
which has been preserved in Stobaeus. He regarded the sun
as the abode of God, the intelligent providence, or (in accordance
with Stoical materialism) the vivifying fire or aether of the
universe. Virtue, he taught, is life according to nature; but
pleasure is not according to nature. He originated a new theory
as to the individual existence of the human soul; he held that
the degree of its vitality after death depends upon the degree
of its vitality in this life. The principal fragments of Cleanthes's
works are contained in Diogenes Laertius and Stobaeus; some
may be found in Cicero and Seneca.

See G. C. Mohinke, Kleanthes der Striker (Greifswald, 1814); C.
Wachsmuth, Commentationes de Zenone Gitiensi et Cleanthe Assio
(Gottingen, 1874-1875); A. C. Pearson, Fragments of Zeno and
Cleanthes (Camb., 1891); article by E. Wellmann in Ersch and
Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopadie; R. Hirzel, Unlersuchungen zu
Ciceros philosophischen Schriften, ii. (1882), containing a vindication
of the originality of Cleanthes; A. B. Krische, Forschungen auf
dem Gebiete der alien Philosophie (1840) ; also works quoted under
STOICS.

CLEARCHUS, the son of Rhamphias, a Spartan general and
condottiere. Born about the middle of the 5th century B.C.,
Clearchus was sent with a fleet to the Hellespont in 411 and
became governor (apfjoarrp) of Byzantium, of which town he was
proxenus. His severity, however, made him unpopular, and in
his absence the gates were opened to the Athenian besieging army
under Alcibiades (409). Subsequently appointed by the ephors
to settle the political dissensions then rife at Byzantium and to
protect the city and the neighbouring Greek colonies from
Thracian attacks, he made himself tyrantof Byzantium, and,
when declared an outlaw and driven thence by a Spartan force,
he fled to Cyrus. In the " expedition of the ten thousand "
undertaken by Cyrus to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes
Mnemon, Clearchus led the Peloponnesians, who formed the
right wing of Cyrus's army at the battle of Cunaxa (401). On
Cyrus's death Clearchus assumed the chief command and
conducted the retreat, until, being treacherously seized with his
fellow-generals by Tissaphernes, he was handed over to Artaxerxes
and executed (Thuc. viii. 8. 39, 80; Xen. Hellenica, i. 3. 15-19;
Anabasis, i. ii.; Diodorus xiv. 12. 19-26). In character he was a
typical product of the Spartan educational system. He was a
warrior to the finger-tips (xoXejuucds KOI 4>iXo7r6X«/ios tcrxaTux.
Xen. Anab. ii. 6. i), and his tireless energy, unfaltering courage
and strategic ability made him an officer of no mean order. But
he seems to have had no redeeming touch of refinement or
humanity.

CLEARFIELD, a borough and the county-seat of Clearfield
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W. branch of the Susque-
hanna river, in the W. central part of the state. Pop. (1890)
2248; (1900) 5081 (310 foreign-born); (1910)6851. It is served
by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Pennsylvania,
and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg railways. The borough is
about 1 105 ft. above sea-level, in a rather limited space between
the hills, which command picturesque views of the narrow valley.
The river runs through the borough. Coal and fireclay abound in
the vicinity, and these, with leather, iron, timber and the pro-
ducts of the fertile soil, are the bases of its leading industries.
Before the arrival of the whites the place had been cleared of
timber (whence its name), and in 1805 it was chosen as a site for
the county-seat of the newly erected county and laid out as a
town; in 1840 it was incorporated as a borough.

CLEARING-HOUSE, the general term for a central institution
employed in connexion with large and interrelated businesses for
the purpose of facilitating the settlement of accounts.

Banking. — The London Clearing-House was established
between 1750 and 1770 as a place where the clerks of the bankers
of the city of London could assemble daily to exchange with one
another the cheques drawn upon and bills payable at their
respective houses. Before the clearing-house existed, each
banker had to send a clerk to the places of business of all
the other bankers in London to collect the sums payable by
them in respect of cheques and bills; and it is obvious that much

CLEARING-HOUSE

477

time was consumed by this process, which involved the use of an
unnecessary quantity of money and corresponding risks of safe
carriage. In 1775 a room in Change Alley was settled upon as a
common centre of exchange; this was afterwards removed to
Post Office Court, Lombard Street. This clearing centre was at
first confined to the bankers — at that time and long afterwards
exclusively private bankers — doing business within the city, and
the bankers in the west end of the metropolis used some one or
other of the city banks as their agent in clearing. When the
joint-stock banks were first established, the jealousy of the
existing banks was powerful enough to exclude them altogether
from the use of the Clearing-House; and it was not until 1854
that this feeling was removed so as to allow them to be admitted.

At first the Clearing-House was simply a place of meeting, but
it came to be perceived that the sorting and distribution of
cheques, bills, &c., could be more expeditiously conducted by the
appointment of two or three common clerks to whom each
banker's clerk could give all the instruments of exchange he
wished to collect, and from whom he could receive all those
payable at his own house. The payment of the balance settled
the transaction, but the arrangements were afterwards so
perfected that the balance is now settled by means of transfers
made at the Bank of England between the Clearing-House
account and those of the various banks, the Clearing-House, as
well as each banker using it, having an account at the Bank of
England. The use of the Clearing-House was still further
extended in 1858, so as to include the settlement of exchanges
between the country bankers of England. Before that time each
country banker receiving cheques on other country bankers sent
them to those other bankers by post (supposing they were not
carrying on business in the same place), and requested that the
amount should be paid by the London agent of the banker on
whom the cheques were drawn to the London agent of the banker
remitting them. Cheques were thus collected by correspondence,
and each remittance involved a separate payment in London.
Since 1858, accordingly, a country banker sends cheques on other
country banks to his London correspondent, who exchanges them
at the Clearing-House with the correspondents of the bankers on
whom they are drawn.

The Clearing-House consists of one long room, lighted from the
roof. Around the walls and down the centre are placed desks,
allotted to the various banks, according to the amount of their
business. The desks are arranged alphabetically, so that the
clerks may lose no time in passing round the room and delivering
their " charges " or batches of cheques to the representatives of
the various banks. There are three clearings in London each day.
The first is at 10.30 A.M., the second at noon, and the third at
2.30 P.M. It is the busiest of all, and continues until five minutes
past four, when the last delivery must be made. The three
clearings were, in 1907, divided into town, metropolitan and
country clearings, each with a definite area. AH the clearing
banks have their cheques marked with the letters " T," " M " and
" C," according to the district in which the issuing bank is
situated. Every cheque issued by the clearing banks, even
though drawn in the head office of a bank, goes through the
Clearing-House.

The amount of business transacted at the Clearing-House
varies very much with the seasons of the year, the busiest time
being when dividends are paid and stock exchange settlements
are made, but the volume of transactions averages roughly from
200 to 300 millions sterling a week, and the yearly clearances
amount to something like £12 ,000,000,000. There are provincial
clearing-houses at Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, New-
castle-on-Tyne, Leeds, Sheffield, Leicester and Bristol. There are
also clearing-houses in most of the large towns of Scotland and
Ireland. In New York and the other large cities of the United
States there are clearing-houses providing accommodation for
the various banking institutions (see BANKS AND BANKING).

The progress of banking on the continent of Europe has been
slow in comparison with that of the United Kingdom, and the
use of cheques is not so general, consequently the need for
clearing-houses is not so great. In France, too, the greater

proportion of the banking business is carried on through three
banks only, the Banque de France, the 800616 G6n6rale and the
Credit Lyonnais, and a great part of their transactions are settled
at their own head offices. But at the same time large sums
pass through the Paris Chambrc de Compensation (the clearing-
house), established in 1872.

There are clearing-houses also in Berlin, Hamburg and many
other European cities.

Railways. — The British Railway Clearing-House was estab-
lished in 1842, its purpose, as defined by the Railway Clearing-
House Act of 1850, being " to settle and adjust the receipts
arising from railway traffic within, or partly within, the United
Kingdom, and passing over more than one railway within the
United Kingdom, booked or invoiced at throughout rates or
fares." It is an independent body, governed by a committee
which is composed of delegates (usually the chairman or one of
the directors) from each of the railways that belong to it. Any
railway company may be admitted a party to the clearing-system
with the assent of the committee, may cease to be a member at a
month's notice, and may be expelled if such expulsion be voted
for by two-thirds of the delegates present at a specially convened
meeting. The cost of _ maintaining it is defrayed by contributions
from the companies proportional to the volume of business passed
through it by each. It has two main functions, (i) When
passengers or goods are booked through between stations
belonging to different railway companies at an inclusive charge
for the whole journey, it distributes the money received in due
proportions between the companies concerned in rendering the
service. To this end it receives, in the case of passenger traffic, a
monthly return of the tickets issued at each station to stations on
other lines, and, in the case of goods traffic, it is supplied by both
the sending and receiving stations (when these are on different
companies' systems) with abstracts showing the character, weight,
&c., of the goods that have travelled between them. By the aid
of these particulars it allocates the proper share of the receipts
to each company, having due regard to the distance over which
the traffic has been carried on each line, to the terminal services
rendered by each company, to any incidental expenses to which
it may have been put, and to the existence of any special agree-
ments for the division of traffic. (2) To avoid the inconvenience
of a change of train at points where the lines of different com-
panies meet, passengers are often, and goods and minerals
generally, carried in through vehicles from their starting-point
to their destination. In consequence, vehicles belonging to one
company are constantly forming part of trains that belong to,
and run over the lines of, other companies, which thus have the
temporary use of rolling stock that does not belong to them.
By the aid of a large staff of " number takers " who are stationed
at junctions all over the country, and whose business is to
record particulars of the vehicles which pass through those
junctions, the Clearing-House follows the movements of vehicles
which have left their owners' line, ascertains how far they have
run on the lines of other companies, and debits each of the latter
with the amount it has to pay for their use. This charge is
known as " mileage "; another charge which is also determined
by the Clearing-House is " demurrage," that is, the amount
exacted from the detaining company if a vehicle is not returned
to its owners within a prescribed time. By the exercise of these
functions the Clearing-House accumulates a long series of credits
to, and debits against, each company; these are periodically
added up and set against each other, with the result that the
accounts between it and the companies are finally settled by the
transfer of comparatively small balances. It also distributes the
money paid by the post-office to the railways on account of the
conveyance of parcel-post traffic, and through its lost luggage
department many thousands of articles left in railway carriages
are every year returned to their owners. Its situation in London
further renders it a convenient meeting-place for several " Clear-
ing-House Conferences " of railway officials, as of the general
managers, the goods managers, and the superintendents of the
line, held four times a year for the consideration of questions
in which all the companies are interested. The Irish Railway

478

CLEAT— CLEFT PALATE

Clearing-House, established in 1848, has its headquarters in
Dublin, and was incorporated by act of parliament in 1860.

General. — The principle of clearing adopted by banks and
railways has been applied with considerable success in other
businesses.

In 1874 the London Stock Exchange Clearing-House was
•established for the purpose of settling transactions in stock, the
clearing being effected by balance-sheets and tickets; the balance
of stock to be received or delivered is shown on a balance-sheet
sent in by each member, and the items are then cancelled against
one another and tickets issued for the balances outstanding.
The New York Stock Exchange Clearing-House was established in
1892. The settlements on the Paris Bourse are cleared within the
Bourse itself, through the Compagnie des Agents de Change de
Paris.

In 1888 a society was formed in London called the Beetroot
Sugar Association for clearing bargains in beetroot sugar. For
•every 500 bags of sugar of a definite weight which a broker sells,
he issues a. filiere (a form something like a dock-warrant), giving
particulars as to the ship, the warehouse, trade-marks, &c. The
filiere contains also a series of transfer forms which are filled up
and signed by each successive holder, so transferring the property
to a new purchaser. The new purchaser also fills up a coupon
attached to the transfer, quoting the date and hour of sale. This
coupon is detached by the seller and retained by him as evidence
to determine any liability through subsequent delay in the
delivery of the sugar. Any purchaser requiring delivery of the
sugar forwards the filiere to the clearing-house, and the officials
then send on his name to the first seller who tenders him the
warrant direct. These filieres pass from hand to hand within a
limit of six days, a stamp being affixed on each transfer as a
clearing-house fee. The difference between each of the successive
transactions is adjusted by the clearing-house to the profit or loss
of the seller.

The London Produce Clearing-House was established in 1888
for regulating and adjusting bargains in foreign and colonial
produce. The object of the association is to guarantee both to
the buyer and the seller the fulfilment of bargains for future
delivery. The transactions on either side are allowed to accumu-
late during a month and an adjustment made at the end by a
settlement of the final balance owing. On the same lines are the
Caisse de Liquidation at Havre and the Waaren Liquidations
Casse at Hamburg. The Cotton Association also has a clearing-
house at Liverpool for clearing the transactions which arise from
•dealings in cotton.

AUTHORITIES. — W. Howarth, Our Clearing System and Clearing
Houses (1897), The Banks in the Clearing House (1905) ; J. G. Cannon,
Clearing-houses, their History, Methods and Administration (1901);
H. T. Easton, Money, Exchange and Banking (1905) ; and the various
volumes of the Journal of the Institute of Bankers. (T. A. I.)

CLEAT (a word common in various forms to many Teutonic
languages, in the sense of a wedge or lump, cf. " clod " and
" clot "), a wedge-shaped piece of wood fastened to ships'
masts and elsewhere to prevent a rope, collar or the like from
slipping, or to act as a step; more particularly a piece of wood
or metal with double or single horns used for belaying ropes.
A " cleat " is also a wedge fastened to a ship's side to catch the
shores in a launching cradle or dry dock. " Cleat " is also used
in mining for the vertical cleavage-planes of coal.

CLEATOR MOOR, an urban district in the Egremont parlia-
mentary division of Cumberland, England, 4 m. S.E. of White-
haven, served by the Furness, London & North-Western and
Cleator & Workington Junction railways. Pop. (1901) 8120.
The town lies between the valleys of the Ehen and its tributary
the Dub Beck, in a district rich in coal and iron ore. The mining
of these, together with blast furnaces and engineering works,
occupies the large industrial population.

CLEAVERS, or GOOSE-GRASS, Galium Aparine (natural order
Rubiaceae), a common plant in hedges and waste places, with
a long, weak, straggling, four-sided, green stem, bearing whorls
of 6 to 8 narrow leaves, £ to 2 in. long, and, like the angles of the
stem, rough from the presence of short, stiff , downwardly-pointing,

hooked hairs. The small, white, regular flowers are borne, a few
together, in axillary clusters, and are followed by the large, hispid,
two-celled fruit, which, like the rest of the plant, readily clings
to a rough surface, whence the common name. The plant has a
wide distribution throughout the north temperate zone, and is also
found in temperate South America.

CLEBURNE, a town and the county-seat of Johnson county,
Texas, U.S.A., 25 m. S. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1800) 3278;

(1900) 7493, including 61 1 negroes; (1910)10,364. Itisservedby
the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas,
and the Trinity & Brazos Valley railways. It is the centre of a
prosperous farming, fruit and stock-raising region, has large
railway repair shops, flour-mills, cotton gins and foundries, a
canning factory and machine shops. It has a Carnegie library,
and St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic; for girls). The
town was named in honour of Patrick Ronayne Cleburne (1828-
1864), a major-general of the Confederate army, who was of
Irish birth, practised law in Helena, Arkansas, served at Shiloh,
Perryville, Stone River, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Ring-
gold Gap, Jonesboro and Franklin, and was killed in the last-
named battle; he was called the " Stonewall of the West."

CLECKHEATON, an urban district in the Spen Valley parlia-
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
Sj m. S. by E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire,
Great Northern and London & North-Western railways. Pop.

(1901) 12,524. A chamber of commerce has held meetings here
since 1878. The industries comprise the manufacture of woollens,
blankets, flannel, wire-card and machinery.

CLEETHORPES, a watering-place of Lincolnshire, England;
within the parliamentary borough of Great Grimsby, 3 m. S.E.
of that town by a branch of the Great Central railway. Pop.
of urban district of Cleethorpe with Thrunscoe (1901) 12,578.
Cleethorpes faces eastward to the North Sea, but its shore of
fine sand, affording good bathing, actually belongs to the estuary
of the Humber. There is a pier, and the sea-wall extends for
about a mile, forming a pleasant promenade. The suburb of
New Clee connects Cleethorpes with Grimsby. The church of
the Holy Trinity and St Mary is principally Norman of various
dates, but work of a date apparently previous to the Conquest
appears in the tower. Cleethorpes is greatly favoured by
visitors from the midland counties, Lancashire and Yorkshire.

CLEFT PALATE and HARE-LIP, in surgery. Cleft Palate
is a congenital cleavage, or incomplete development in the roof
of the mouth, and is frequently associated with hare-lip. The
infant is prevented from sucking, and an operation is necessary.
Cleft-palate is often a hereditary defect. The most favourable
time for operating is between the age of two weeks and three
months, and if the cleft is closed at this early date, not only are
the nutrition and general development of the child greatly
improved, but the voice is probably saved from much of the
unpleasant tone which is usually associated with a defective
roof to the mouth and is apt to persist even if a cleft has been
successfully operated on later in childhood. The greatest advance
which has been made in the operative treatment of cleft palate
is due to the teaching of Dr Truman W. Brophy, who adopted
the ingenious plan of thrusting together to the middle line of
the mouth the halves of the palate which nature had unfortun-
ately left apart. But, as noted above, this operation must, to
give the best results, be undertaken in the earliest months of
infancy. After the cleft in the palate has been effectually dealt
with, the hare-lip can be repaired with ease and success.

Hare-lip. — In the hare the splitting of the lip is in the middle
line, but in the human subject it is on one side, or on both sides
of the middle line. This is accounted for on developmental
grounds: a cleft in the exact middle line is of extremely rare
occurrence. Hare-lip is often associated with cleft palate.
Though we are at present unable to explain why development
should so frequently miss the mark in connexion with the forma-
tion of the lip and palate, it is unlikely that maternal impressions
have anything to do with it. As a rule, the supposed " fright "
comes long after the lips are developed. They are completely
formed by the ninth week. Heredity has a powerful influence

CLEISTHENES

479

in many cases. The best time for operating on a hare-lip depends
upon various circumstances. Thus, if it is associated with cleft
palate, the palatine cleft has first to be closed, in which case the
child will probably be several months old before the lip is operated
on. If the infant is in so poor a state of nutrition that it appears
unsuitable for surgical treatment, the operation must be post-
poned until his condition is sufficiently improved. But, assuming
that the infant is in fair health, that he is taking his food well and
thriving on it, that he is not troubled by vomiting or diarrhoea,
and that the hare-lip is not associated with a defective palate,
the sooner it is operated on the better. It may be successfully
done even within a few hours of birth. When a hare-lip is
unassociated with cleft palate, the infant may possibly be enabled
to take the breast within a short time of the gap being closed.
In such a case the operation may be advisably undertaken
within the first few days of birth. The case being suitable, the
operation may be conveniently undertaken at any time after
the tenth day. (E. O.*)

CLEISTHENES, the name of two Greek statesmen, (i) of
Athens, (2) of Sicyon, of whom the first is far the more important,
i. CLEISTHENES, the Athenian statesman, was the son of
Megacles and Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon. He
thus belonged, through his father, to the noble family of the
Alcmaeonidae (q.v.), who bore upon them the curse of the Cylon-
ian massacre, and had been in exile during the rule of the Peisi-
stratids. In the hope of washing out the stigma, which damaged
their prestige, they spent the latter part of their exile in carrying
out with great splendour the contract given out by the Amphic-
tyons for the rebuilding of the temple at Delphi (destroyed
by fire in 548 B.C.). By building the pronaos of Parian marble
instead of limestone as specified in the contract, they acquired
a high reputation for piety; the curse was consigned to oblivion,
and their reinstatement was imposed by the oracle itself upon
the Spartan king, Cleomenes (q.v.). Cleisthenes, to whom this
far-seeing atonement must probably be attributed, had also on
his side (i) the malcontents in Athens who were disgusted with
the growing severity of Hippias, and (2) the oligarchs of Sparta,
partly on religious grounds, and partly owing to their hatred
of tyranny. Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, however, treats
the alliance of the Peisistratids with Argos, the rival of Sparta
in the Peloponnese, as the chief ground for the action of Sparta
(c. 19). In c. 513 B.C. Cleisthenes invaded Attica, but was
defeated by the tyrant's mercenaries at Leipsydrium (S. of Mt.
Parnes). Sparta then, in tardy obedience to the oracle, threw
off her alliance with the Peisistratids, and, after one failure,
expelled Hippias in 511-510 B.C., leaving Athens once again at
the mercy of the powerful families.

Cleisthenes, on his return, was in a difficulty; he realized
that Athens would not tolerate a new tyranny, nor were the
other nobles willing to accept him as leader of a
constitutional oligarchy. It was left for him to " take
policy. the people into partnership " as Peisistratus had in a
different way done before him. Solon's reforms had
failed, primarily because they left unimpaired the power of the
great landed nobles, who, in their several districts, doubled the
r61es of landlord, priest and patriarch. This evil of local influence
Peisistratus had concealed by satisfying the nominally sovereign
people that in him they had a sufficient representative. It was
left to Cleisthenes to adopt the remaining remedy of giving
substance to the form of the Solonian constitution. His first
attempts roused the aristocrats to a last effort; Isagoras
appealed to the Spartans (who, though they disliked tyranny,
had no love for democracy) to come to his aid. Cleisthenes
retired on the arrival of a herald from Cleomenes, reviving the
old question of the curse; Isagoras thus became all-powerful1
and expelled seven hundred families. The democrats, however,

1 The archonship of Isagoras in 508 is important as showing that
Cleisthenes, three years after his return, had so far failed to secure
the support of a majority in Athens. There is no sufficient reason
for supposing that the election of Isagoras was procured by Cleo-
menes; all the evidence points to its having been brought about in
the ordinary way. Probably, therefore, Cleisthenes did not take the
people thoroughly into partnership till after the spring of 508.

rose, and after besieging Cleomenes and Isagoras in the Acropolis,
let them go under a safe-conduct, and brought back the exiles.

Apart from the reforms which Cleisthenes was now able to
establish, the period of his ascendancy is a blank, nor are we
told when and how it came to an end. It is dear, however —
and it is impossible in connexion with the Pan-hellenic patriotism
to which Athens laid claim, to overrate the importance of the
fact — that Cleisthenes, hard pressed in the war with Boeotia,
Euboea and Sparta (Herod, v. 73 and foil.), sent ambassadors
to ask the help of Persia. The story, as told by Herodotus, that
the ambassadors of their own accord agreed to give " earth and
water " (i.e. submission) in return for Persian assistance, and
that the Ecclesia subsequently disavowed their action as un-
authorized, is scarcely credible. Cleisthenes (i) was in full
control and must have instructed the ambassadors; (2) he
knew that any help from Persia meant submission. It is practi-
cally certain, therefore, that he (cf. the Alcmaeonids and the
story of the shield at Marathon) was the first to " medize "
(see Curtius, History of Greece). Probably he had hoped to
persuade the Ecclesia that the agreement was a mere form.
Aelian says that he himself was a victim to his own device of
ostracism (q.v.); this, though apparently inconsistent with the
Constitution of Athens (c. 22), may perhaps indicate that his
political career ended in disgrace, a hypothesis which is explicable
on the ground of this act of treachery in respect of the attempted
Persian alliance. Whether to Cleisthenes are due the final
success over Boeotia and Euboea, the planting of the 4000
cleruchs on the Lelantine Plain, and the policy of the Aeginetan
War (see AEGINA), in which Athens borrowed ships from Corinth,
it is impossible to determine. The eclipse of Cleisthenes in all
records is one of the most curious facts in Greek history. It is
also curious that we do not know in what official capacity
Cleisthenes carried his reforms. Perhaps he was given extra-
ordinary ad hoc powers for a specified time; conceivably he
used the ordinary mechanism. It seems clear that he had fully
considered his scheme in advance, that he broached it before
the last attack of Isagoras, and that it was only after the final
expulsion of Isagoras and his Spartan allies that it became
possible for him to put it into execution.

Cleisthenes aimed at being the leader of a self-governing
people; in other words he aimed at making the democracy
actual. He realized that the dead-weight which
held the democracy down was the influence on politics
of the local religious unit. Therefore his prime object reforms.
was to dissociate the clans and the phratries from
politics, and to give the democracy a totally new electoral basis
in which old associations and vested interests would be split
up and become ineffective. It was necessary that no man
should govern a pocket-constituency merely by virtue of his
religious, financial or ancestral prestige, and that there should
be created a new local unit with administrative powers of a
democratic character which would galvanize the lethargic voters
into a new sense of responsibility and independence. His first
step was to abolish the four Solonian tribes and create ten new
ones.2 Each of the new tribes was subdivided into " demes "
(roughly " townships ") ; this organization did not,
except politically, supersede the system of clans and
phratries whose old religious signification remained
untouched. The new tribes, however, though geographically
arranged, did not represent local interests. Further, the tribe
names were taken from legendary heroes (Cecropis, Pandionis,
Aegeis recalled the storied kings of Attica), and, therefore,
contributed to the idea of a national unity; even Ajax, the
eponym of the tribe Aeantis, though not Attic, was famous
as an ally (Herod, v. 66) and ranked as a national hero. Each
tribe had its shrine and its particular hero-cult, which, however,
was free from local association and the dominance of particular

! The explanation given for this step by Herodotus (v. 67) is
an amusing example of his incapacity as a critical historian. To
compare Cleisthenes of Sicyon (see below), bent on humiliating the
Dorians of Sicyon by giving opprobrious names to the Dorian tnbes,
with his grandson, whose endeavour was to elevate the very persons
whose tribal organization he replaced, is clearly absurd.

Analysis

The tea
tribes.

480

CLEISTHENES

families. This national idea Cleisthenes further emphasized by
setting up in the market-place at Athens a statue of each tribal
hero.

The next step was the organization of the deme. Within
each tribe he grouped ten demes (see below), each of which had

Deme*. ^ *ts nero and its cnaPe'> an<* (2) its census-list kept
by the demarch. The demarch (local governor), who
was elected popularly and held office for one year, presided over
meetings affecting local administration and the provision of
crews for the state-navy, and was probably under a system of
scrutiny like the dokimasia of the state-magistrates. According
to the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens, Cleisthenes further
divided Attica into three districts, Urban and Suburban, Inland
(Mesogaios), and Maritime (Par alia), each of which was sub-
divided into ten trittyes; each tribe had three trittyes in each
of these districts. The problem of establishing this decimal
system in connexion with the demes and trittyes is insoluble.
Herodotus says that there were ten1 demes to each tribe (8«/ca
efe rds <t>v\6.s); but each tribe was composed of three trittyes,
one in each of the three districts. Since the deme was, as will
be seen, the electoral unit, it is clear that in tribal voting the
object of ending the old threefold schism of the Plain, the Hill
and the Shore was attained, but the relation of deme and trittys
is obviously of an unsymmetrical kind. The Constitution of
Athens says nothing of the ten-deme-to-each-tribe arrangement,
and there is no sufficient reason for supposing that the demes
originally were exactly a hundred in number. We know the
names of 168 demes, and Polemon (3rd century B.C.) enumerated
173. It has been suggested that the demes did originally number
exactly a hundred, and that new demes were added as the popu-
lation increased. This theory, however, presupposes that the
demes were originally equal in numbers. In the 5th and 4th
centuries this was certainly not the case; the number of demes-
men in some cases was only one hundred or two hundred,
whereas the deme Acharnae is referred to as a " great part " of
the whole state, and is known to have furnished three thousand
hoplites. The theory is fundamentally at fault, inasmuch as
it regards the deme as consisting of all those resident within
its borders. In point of fact membership was hereditary, not
residential; Demosthenes "of the Paeanian deme" might live
where he would without severing his deme connexion. Thus
the increase of population could be no reason for creating new
demes. This distinction in a deme between demesmen and
residents belonging to another deme (the tyK&t-rrintvoi) , who
paid a deme-tax for their privilege, is an important one. It
should further be noted that the demes belonging to a particular
tribe do not, as a fact, appear always in three separate groups;
the tribe Aeantis consisted of Phalerum and eleven demes in
the district of Marathon; other tribes had demes in five or six
groups. It must, therefore, be admitted that the problem is
insoluble for want of data. Nor are we better equipped to settle
the relation between the Cleisthenean division into Urban,
Maritime and Inland, and the old divisions of the Plain, the
Shore and the Upland or Hill. The " Maritime " of Cleisthenes
and the old " Shore " are certainly not coincident, nor is the
" Inland " identical with the " Upland."

Lastly, it has been asked whether we are to believe that
Cleisthenes invented the demes. To this the answer is in the
negative. The demes were undoubtedly primitive divisions of
Attica; Herodotus (ix. 73) speaks of the Dioscuri as ravaging
the demes of Decelea (see R. W. Macan ad loc.) and we hear of
opposition between the city and the demes. The most logical
conclusion perhaps is that Cleisthenes, while he did create the
demes which Athens itself comprised, did not create the country
demes, but merely gave them definition as political divisions.
Thus the city itself had six demes in five different tribes, and the
other five tribes were represented in the suburbs and the Peiraeus.
It is clear that in the Cleisthenean system there was one great
source of danger, namely that the residents in and about Athens
must always have had more weight in elections than those in

1 Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (Arist. undAihen, pp. 149-150) suggests
5«ax<4, " in ten batches," instead of Skua.

distant demes. There can be little doubt that the preponderat-
ing influence of the city was responsible for the unwisdom of
the later imperial policy and the Peloponnesian war.

A second problem is the franchise reform of Cleisthenes.
Aristotle in the Politics (iii. 2. 3 = 1275 b) says that Cleisthenes
created new citizens by enrolling in the tribes " many resident
aliens and emancipated slaves."2 But the Aristotelian Con-
stitution of Athens asserts that he gave " citizenship to the
masses." These two statements are not compatible. It is
perfectly clear that Cleisthenes is to be regarded as a
democrat, and it would have been no bribe to t
people merely to confer a boon on aliens and slaves.
Moreover, a revision of the citizen-roll (diapsephismus) had
recently taken place (after the end of the tyranny) and a
great many citizens had been struck off the roll as being of
impure descent (01 T<$ ykvtt. ^ noJdapoi). This class had existed
from the time of Solon, and, through fear of political extinction
by the oligarchs, had been favourable to Peisistratus. Cleis-
thenes may have enfranchised aliens and slaves, but it seems
certain that he must have dealt with these free Athenians who
had lost their rights. Now Isagoras presumably did not carry
out this revision of the roll (diapsephismus); as " the friend of
the tyrants " (so Ath. Pol. 20; by Meyer, Busolt and others
contest this) he would not have struck a blow at a class which
favoured his own views. A reasonable hypothesis is that
Cleisthenes was the originator of the measure of expulsion, and
that he now changed his policy, and strengthened his hold on
the democracy by reinstating the disfranchised in much larger
numbers. The new citizens, whoever they were, must, of course,
have been enrolled also in the (hitherto exclusive) phratry lists
and the deme-rolls.

The Boule (q.v.) was reorganized to suit the new tribal arrange-
ment, and was known henceforward as the Council of the Five
Hundred, fifty from each tribe. Its exact constitution The
is unknown, but it was certainly more democratic council
than the Solonian Four Hundred. Further, the "'""">aras
system of ten tribes led in course of time to the con- *
struction of boards of ten to deal with military and civil affairs,
e.g. the Strategi (see STRATEGUS), the Apodectae, and others.
Of these the former cannot be attributed to Cleisthenes, but on
the evidence of Androtion it is certain that it was Cleisthenes
who replaced the Colacretae3 by the Apodectae ("receivers"),
who were controllers and auditors of the finance department,
and, before the council in the council-chamber, received the
revenues. The Colacretae, who had done this work before,
remained in authority over the internal expenses of the Pry-
taneum. A further change which followed from the new tribal
system was the reconstitution of the army; this, however,
probably took place about 501 B.C., and cannot be attributed
directly to Cleisthenes. It has been said that the deme became
the local political unit, replacing the naucrary (<?.».). But the
naucraries still supplied the fleet, and were increased in number
from forty-eight to fifty; if each naucrary still supplied a ship
and two mounted soldiers as before, it is interesting to learn
that, only seventy years before the Peloponnesian War, Athens
had but fifty ships and a hundred horse.4

The device of ostracism is the final stone in the Cleisthenean
structure. An admirable scheme in theory, and, at first, in
practice, it deteriorated in the sth century into a mere party

! It should be observed that there are other translations of the
difficult phrase flrovs xal 6o6Xous Atcrofcovs.

3 Colacretae were very ancient Athenian magistrates; either
(i) those who " cut up the joints " in the Prytaneum («oXa, ndpu),
or (2) those who " collected the joints" (icaJXa, iytlfxa) which were
left over from public sacrifices, and consumed in the Prytaneum.
These officials were again important in the time of Aristophanes
(Wasps, 693, 724; Birds, 1541), and they presided over the payment
of the dicasts instituted by Pericles. They are not mentioned,
though they may have existed, after 403 B.C. At Sicyon also
magistrates of this name are found.

4 It is, however, more probable that the right reading of the
passage is i«a ijrTrels instead of 660, which would give a cavalry force
in early Athens of 480, a reasonable number in proportion to the
total fighting strength.

CLEITARCHUS— CLEMATIS

481

Summary.

weapon, and in the case of Hyperbolus (417) became an
absurdity.

In conclusion it should be noticed that Cleisthenes was
the founder of the Athens which we know. To him was due
the spirit of nationality, the principle of liberty duly
apportioned and controlled by centralized and de-
centralized administration, which prepared the ground for the
rich developments of the Golden Age with its triumphs of art
and literature, politics and philosophy. It was Cleisthenes who
organized the structure which, for a long time, bore the heavy
burden of the Empire against impossible odds, the structure
which the very different genius of Pericles was able to beautify.
He was the first to appreciate the unique power in politics,
literature and society of an organized public opinion.

AUTHORITIES. — Ancient: Aristotle, Constitution of Athens (ed.
J. E. Sandys), cc. 20-22, 41 ; Herodotus v. 63-73, vi. 131 ; Aristotle,
Politics, iii. 2, 3 ( = 1275 b, for franchise reforms). Modern: Histories
of Greece in general, especially those of Grote and Curtius (which,
of course, lack the information contained in the Constitution of
Athens), and I. B. Bury. See also E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums
(vol. ii.); G. Busolt, Griech. Gesch. (2nd ed., 1893 foil.); Milchhofer,
" tJber die Demenordnung des Kleisthenes " in appendix to Abhand-
lung d. Berl. Akad. (1892); R. Loeper in Athen. Mitteil. (1892),
pp. 319-433; A. H. I. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Constitutional
History (1896); Gilbert, Greek Constitutional Antiquities (Eng.
trans., 1895) ; R. W. Macan, Herodotus iv.-vi., vol. ii. (1895), PP- I27-
148; U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Arist. und Athen. See also
BOULE; ECCLESIA; OSTRACISM; NAUCRARY; SOLON.

2. CLEISTHENES or SICYON (c. 600-570), grandfather of the
above, became tyrant of Sicyon as the representative of the
conquered Ionian section of the inhabitants. He emphasized
the destruction of Dorian predominance by giving ridiculous
epithets to their tribal units, which from Hylleis, Dymanes and
Pamphyli become Hyatae ("Swine-men"), Choireatae ("Pig-
men ") and Oneatae (" Ass-men "). He also attacked Dorian
Argos, and suppressed the Homeric " rhapsodists " who sang
the exploits of Dorian heroes. He championed the cause of the
Delphic oracle against the town of Crisa (Cirrha) in the Sacred
War (c. 590) . Crisa was destroyed, and Delphi became one of the
meeting-places of the old amphictyony of Anthela, henceforward
often called the Delphic amphictyony. The Pythian games,
largely on the initiative of Cleisthenes, were re-established with
new magnificence, and Cleisthenes won the first chariot race in
582. He founded Pythian games at Sicyon, and possibly built
a new Sicyonian treasury at Delphi. His power was so great
that when he offered his daughter Agariste in marriage, some
of the most prominent Greeks sought the honour, which fell upon
Megacles, the Alcmaeonid. The story of the rival wooers with
the famous retort, " Hippocleides don't care," is told in Herod,
vi. 125; see also Herod, v. 67 and Thuc. i. 18.

CLEISTHENES is also the name of an Athenian, pilloried by Aristo-
phanes (Clouds, 354; Thesm. 574) asafopand a profligate. (J. M. M.)

CLEITARCHUS, one of the historians of Alexander the Great,
son of Deinon, also an historian, was possibly a native of Egypt,
or at least spent a considerable time at the court of Ptolemy
Lagus. Quintilian (Instil, x. i. 74) credits him with more
ability than trustworthiness; and Cicero (Brutus, n) accuses
him of giving a fictitious account of the death of Themistocles.
But there is no doubt that his history was very popular, and
much used by Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius, Justin and
Plutarch, and the authors of the Alexander romances. His
unnatural and exaggerated style became proverbial.

The fragments, some thirty in number, chiefly preserved in Aelian
and Strabo, will be found in C. Miiller's Scriptores Rerum Alexandri
Magni (in the Didot Arrian, 1846); monographs by C. Raun, De
Clitarcho Diodori, Curtii, Justini auctore (1868), and F. Reuss,
" Hellenistische Beitrage " in Rhein. Mus. Ixiii. (1908), pp. 58-78.

CLEITHRAL (Gr. K\tWpov, an enclosed or shut-up place),
an architectural term applied to a covered Greek temple, in
contradistinction to hypaethral, which designates one that is
uncovered; the roof of a cleithral temple completely covers it.

CLEITOR, or CLITOR, a town of ancient Greece, in that part of

Arcadia which corresponds to the modern eparchy of Kalavryta

in the nomos of Elis and Achaea. It stood in a fertile plain to

the south of Mt Chelmos, the highest peak of the Aroanian

vi. 16

Mountains, and not far from a stream of its own name, which
joined the Aroanius, or Katzana. In the neighbourhood was
a fountain, the waters of which were said to deprive those who
drank them of the taste for wine. The town was a place of con-
siderable importance in Arcadia, and its inhabitants were noted
for their love of liberty. It extended its territory over several
neighbouring towns, and in the Theban war fought against
Orchomenus. It joined the other Arcadian cities in the founda-
tion of Megalopolis. As a member of the Achaean league it
was besieged by the Aetolians in 220 B.C., and was on several
occasions the seat of the federal assemblies. It coined money
up to the time of Septimius Severus. The ruins, which bear
the common name of Paleopoli, or Old City, are still to be seen
about 3 m. from a village that preserves the ancient designation.
The greater part of the walls which enclose an area of about a
mile and several of the semi-circular towers with which they
were strengthened can be clearly made out; and there are also
remains of three Doric temples and a small theatre.

CLELAND, WILLIAM (i66i?-i689), Scottish poet and
soldier, son of Thomas Cleland, gamekeeper to the marquis of
Douglas, was born about 1661. He was probably brought up
on the marquess of Douglas's estate in Lanarkshire, and was
educated at St Andrews University. Immediately on leaving
college he joined the army of the Covenanters, and was present
at Drumclog, where, says Robert Wodrow, some attributed to
Cleland the manoeuvre which led to the victory. He also fought
at Bothwell Bridge. He and his brother James were described
in a royal proclamation of the i6th of June 1679 among the
leaders of the insurgents. He escaped to Holland, but in 1685
was again in Scotland in connexion with the abortive invasion
of the earl of Argyll. He escaped once more, to return in 1688
as agent for William of Orange. He was appointed lieutenant-
colonel of the Cameronian regiment raised from the minority
of the western Covenanters who consented to serve under William
III. The Cameronians were entrusted with the defence of Dun-
keld, which they held against the fierce assault of the Highlanders
on the 26th of August. The repulse of the Highlanders before
Dunkeld ended the Jacobite rising, but Cleland fell in the struggle.
He wrote A Collection of several Poems and Verses composed
upon various occasions (published posthumously, 1697). Of
"Hullo, my fancie, whither wilt thou go?" only the last nine
stanzas are by Cleland. His poems have small literary merit,
and are written, not in pure Lowland Scots, but in English with
a large admixture of Scottish words. The longest and most
important of them are the " mock poems " " On the Expedition
of the Highland Host who came to destroy the western shires
in winter 1678 " and " On the clergie when they met to consult
about taking the Test in the year 1681."

An Exact Narrative of the Conflict of Dunkeld . . . collected from
several officers of the regiment . . . appeared in 1689.

CLEMATIS, in botany, a genus of the natural order Ranun-
culaceae, containing nearly two hundred species, and widely
distributed. It is represented in England by Clematis Vitalba,
" old man's beard " or " traveller's joy," a common plant on
chalky or light soil. The plants are shrubby climbers with gener-
ally compound opposite leaves, the stalk of which is sensitive
to contact like a tendril, becoming twisted round suitable objects
and thereby giving support to the plant. The flowers are arranged
in axillary or terminal clusters; they have no petals, but white
or coloured, often very large sepals, and an indefinite number
of stamens and carpels. They contain no honey, and are visited
by insects for the sake of the pollen, which is plentiful. The fruit
is a head of achenes, each bearing the long-bearded persistent
style, suggesting the popular name. This feathery style is an
important agent in the distribution of the seed by means of the
wind. Several of the species, especially the large-flowered ones,
are favourite garden plants, well adapted for covering trellises
or walls, or trailing over the ground. Many garden forms have
been produced by hybridization; among the best known is
C. Jackmanni, due to Mr George Jackman of Woking.

Further information may be obtained from The Clematis as a
Garden Flower, by Thos. Moore and George Jackman. See also
G. Nicholson, Dictionary of Gardening, i. (1885) and Supplements.

482

CLEMENCEAU— CLEMENT

CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES (1841- ), French statesman,
was born at Mouilleron-en-Pareds, Vend6e, on the 28th of
September 1841. Having adopted medicine as his profession,
he settled in 1869 in Montmartre; and after the revolution of
1870 he had become sufficiently well known to be nominated
mayor of the i8th arrondissement of Paris (Montmartre) — an
unruly district over which it was a difficult task to preside.
On the 8th of February 1871 he was elected as a Radical to the
National Assembly for the department of the Seine, and voted
against the peace preliminaries. The execution, or rather
murder, of Generals Lecomte and Clement Thomas by the
communists on i8th March, which he vainly tried to prevent,
brought him into collision with the central committee sitting
at the h6tel de ville, and they ordered his arrest, but he escaped;
he was accused, however, by various witnesses, at the subsequent
trial of the murderers (November agth), of not having intervened
when he might have done, and though he was cleared of this
charge it led to a duel, for his share in which he was prosecuted
and sentenced to a fine and a fortnight's imprisonment.

Meanwhile, on the zoth of March 1871, he had introduced
in the National Assembly at Versailles, on behalf of his Radical
colleagues, the bill establishing a Paris municipal council of
eighty members; but he was not returned himself at the elections
of the z6th of March. He tried with the other Paris mayors to
mediate between Versailles and the h&tel de ville, but failed,
and accordingly resigned his mayoralty and his seat in the
Assembly, and temporarily gave up politics; but he was elected
to the Paris municipal council on the 23rd of July 1871 for the
Clignancourt quartier, and retained his seat till 1876, passing
through the offices of secretary and vice-president, and becoming
president in 1875. In 1876 he stood again for the Chamber of
Deputies, and was elected for the i8th arrondissement. He joined
the Extreme Left, and his energy and mordant eloquence
speedily made him the leader of the Radical section. In 1877,
after the Seize Mai (see FRANCE: History), he was one of the
republican majority who denounced the Broglie ministry, and
he took a leading part in resisting the anti-republican policy
of which the Seize Mai incident was a symptom, his demand
in 1879 for the indictment of the Broglie ministry bringing him
into particular prominence. In 1880 he started his newspaper,
La Justice, which became the principal organ of Parisian Radical-
ism; and from this time onwards throughout M. Grevy's
presidency his reputation as a political critic, and as a destroyer
of ministries who yet would not take office himself, rapidly grew.
He led the Extreme Left in the Chamber. He was an active
opponent of M. Jules Ferry's colonial policy and of the Oppor-
tunist party, and in 1885 it was his use of the Tongking disaster
which principally determined the fall of the Ferry cabinet.
At the elections of 1885 he advocated a strong Radical pro-
gramme, and was returned both for his old seat in Paris and for
the Var, selecting the latter. Refusing to form a ministry to
replace the one he had overthrown, he supported the Right in
keeping M. Freycinet in power in 1886, and was responsible
for the inclusion of General Boulanger in the Freycinet cabinet
as war minister. When Boulanger (q.v.) showed himself as an
ambitious pretender, Clemenceau withdrew his support and
became a vigorous combatant against the Boulangist movement,
though the Radical press and a section of the party continued
to patronize the general.

By his exposure of the Wilson scandal, and by his personal
plain speaking, M. Clemenceau contributed largely to M. Grevy's
resignation of the presidency in 1887, having himself declined
Gr6vy's request to form a cabinet on the downfall of that of
M. Rouvier; and he was primarily responsible, by advising
his followers to vote neither for Floquet, Ferry nor Freycinet,
for the election of an "outsider" as president in M. Carnot.
He had arrived, however, at the height of his influence, and
several factors now contributed to his decline. The split in the
Radical party over Boulangism weakened his hands, and its
collapse made his help unnecessary to the moderate republicans.
A further misfortune occurred in the Panama affair, Clemenceau's
relations with Cornelius Herz leading to his being involved

in the general suspicion; and, though he remained the leading
spokesman of French Radicalism, his hostility to the Russian
alliance so increased his unpopularity that in the election for
1893 he was defeated for the Chamber, after having sat in it
continuously since 1876. After his defeat for the Chamber,
M. Clemenceau confined his political activities to journalism,
his career being further overclouded — so far as any immediate
possibility of regaining his old ascendancy was concerned — by
the long-drawn-out Dreyfus case, in which he took an active
and honourable part as a supporter of M. Zola and an opponent
of the anti-Semitic and Nationalist campaign. In 1900 he
withdrew from La Justice to found a weekly review, Le Bloc,
which lasted until March 1902. On the 6th of April 1902 he
was elected senator for the Var, although he had previously
continually demanded the suppression of the Senate. He sat
with the Socialist Radicals, and vigorously supported the
Combes ministry. In June 1903 he undertook the direction of
the journal L'Aurore, which he had founded. In it he led the
campaign for the revision of the Dreyfus affair, and for the
separation of Church and State.

In March 1906 the fall of the Rouvier ministry, owing to the
riots provoked by the inventories of church property, at last
brought Clemenceau to power as minister of the interior in the
Sarrien cabinet. The strike of miners in the Pas de Calais
after the disaster at Courrieres, leading to the threat of disorder
on the ist of May 1906, obliged him to employ the military;
and his attitude in the matter alienated the Socialist party,
from which he definitely broke in his notable reply in the Chamber
to Jean Jaures in June 1906. This speech marked him out as
the strong man of the day in French politics; and when the
Sarrien ministry resigned in October, he became premier. During
1907 and 1908 his premiership was notable for the way in which
the new entente with England was cemented, and for the successful
part which France played in European politics, in spite of diffi-
culties with Germany and attacks by the Socialist party in
connexion with Morocco (see FRANCE: History). But on July
20th, 1909, he was defeated in a discussion in the Chamber on
the state of the navy, in which bitter words were exchanged
between him and Delcass6; and he at once resigned, being
succeeded as premier by M. Briand, with a reconstructed
cabinet.

CLEMENCiN, DIEGO (1765-1834), Spanish scholar and
politician, was born on the 27th of September 1765, at Murcia,
and was educated there at the Colegio de San Fulgencio.
Abandoning his intention of taking orders, he found employment
at Madrid in 1788 as tutor to the sons of the countess-duchess
de Benavente, and devoted himself to the study of archaeology.
In 1807 he became editor of the Gaceta de Madrid, and in the
following year was condemned to death by Murat for publishing
a patriotic article; he fled to Cadiz, and under the Junta Central
held various posts from which he was dismissed by the reac-
tionary government of 1814. During the liberal regime of
1820-1823 Clemencin took office as colonial minister, was exiled
till 1827, and in 1833 published the first volume of his edition
(1833-1839) of Don Quixote. Its merits were recognized by his
appointment as royal librarian, but he did not long enjoy his
triumph: he died on the 3oth of July 1834. His commentary
on Don Quixote owes something to John Bowie, and is disfigured
by a patronizing, carping spirit; nevertheless it is the most
valuable work of its kind, and is still unsuperseded. Clemencin
is also the author of an interesting Elogio de la reina Isabel la
Catolica, published as the sixth volume of the Memorias of the
Spanish Academy of History, to which body he was elected
on the 1 2th of September 1800.

CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. KXifciip), the
name of fourteen popes and two anti-popes.

CLEMENT I., generally known as Clement of Rome, or CLEMENS
ROMANUS (flor. c. A.D. 96), was one of the "Apostolic Fathers,"
and in the lists of bishops of Rome is given the third or fourth
place — Peter, Linus, (Anencletus), Clement. There is no ground
for identifying him with the Clement of Phil. iv. 3. He may
have been a freedman of T. Flavius Clemens, who was consul

CLEMENT (POPES)

483

with his cousin, the Emperor Domitian, in A.D. 95. A gth-
century tradition says he was martyred in the Crimea in 102;
earlier authorities say he died a natural death; he is com-
memorated on the 23rd of November.

In The Shepherd of Hermas (q.v.) (Vis. n. iv. 3) mention is
made of one Clement whose office it is to communicate with other
churches, and this function agrees well with what we find in
the letter to the church at Corinth by which Clement is best
known. Whilst being on our guard against reading later ideas
into the title " bishop " as applied to Clement, there is no reason
to doubt that he was one of the chief personalities in the Christian
community at Rome, where since the time of Paul the separate
house congregations (Rom. xvi.) had been united into one
church officered by presbyters and deacons (Clem. 40-42).
The letter in question was occasioned by a dispute in the church
of Corinth, which had led to the ejection of several presbyters
from their office. It does not contain Clement's name, but is
addressed by " the Church of God which sojourneth in Rome to
the Church of God which sojourneth in Corinth." But there is
no reason for doubting the universal tradition which ascribes
it to Clement, or the generally accepted date, c. A.D. 96. No
claim is made by the Roman Church to interfere on any ground
of superior rank; yet it is noteworthy that in the earliest
document outside the canon which we can securely date, the
church in the imperial city comes forward as a peacemaker to
compose the troubles of a church in Greece. Nothing is known
of the cause of the discontent; no moral offence is charged
against the presbyters, and their dismissal is regarded by
Clement as high-handed and unjustifiable, and as a revolt of
the younger members of the community against the elder.
After a laudatory account of the past conduct of the Corinthian
Church, he enters upon a denunciation of vices and a praise of
virtues, and illustrates his various topics by copious citations
from the Old Testament scriptures. Thus he paves the way
for his tardy rebuke of present disorders, which he reserves until
two-thirds of his epistle is completed. Clement is exceedingly
discursive, and his letter reaches twice the length of the Epistle
to the Hebrews. Many of his general exhortations are but very
indirectly connected with the practical issue to which the epistle
is directed, and it is very probable that he was drawing largely
upon the homiletical material with which he was accustomed to
edify his fellow-Christians at Rome.

This view receives some support from the long liturgical
prayer at the close, which 'almost certainly represents the
intercession used in the Roman eucharists. But we must not
allow such a theory to blind us to the true wisdom with which
the writer defers his censure. He knows that the roots of the
quarrel lie in a wrong condition of the church's life. His general
exhortations, courteously expressed in the first person plural,
are directed towards a wide reformation of manners. If the
wrong spirit can be exorcised, there is hope that the quarrel will
end in a general desire for reconciliation. The most permanent
interest of the epistle lies in the conception of the grounds on
which the Christian ministry rests according to the view of a
prominent teacher before the ist century has closed. The
orderliness of nature is appealed to as expressing the mind of its
Creator. The orderliness of Old Testament worship bears a like
witness; everything is duly fixed by God; high priests, priests
and Levites, and the people in the people's place. Similarly
in the Christian dispensation all is in order due. " The apostles
preached the gospel to us from the Lord Jesus Christ; Jesus
Christ was sent from God. Christ then is from God, and the
apostles from Christ. . . . They appointed their first-fruits,
having tested them by the Spirit, as bishops and deacons of those
who should believe. . . . Our apostles knew, through our Lord
Jesus Christ that there would be strife about the name of the
bishop's office. For this cause therefore, having received
perfect foreknowledge, they appointed the aforesaid, and after-
wards gave a further injunction (tnvonriv has now the further
evidence of the Latin legem) that, if these should fall asleep,
other approved men should succeed to their ministry. . . .
It will be no small sin in us if we eject from the bishop's

office those who have offered the gifts blamelessly and holily "
(cc. xlii. xliv.).

Clement's familiarity with the Old Testament points to his
being a Christian of long standing rather than a recent convert.
We learn from his letter (i. 7) that the church at Rome, though
suffering persecution, was firmly held together by faith and love,
and was exhibiting its unity in an orderly worship. The epistle
was publicly read from time to time at Corinth, and by the 4th
century this usage had spread to other churches. We even find
it attached to the famous Alexandrian MS. (Codex A) of the New
Testament, but this does not imply that it ever reached canonical
rank. For the mass of early Christian literature that was gradu-
ally attached to his name see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE.

The epistle was published in 1633 by Patrick Young from Cod.
Alexandrinus, in which a leaf near the end was missing, so that
the great prayer (cc. Iv.-lxiv.) remained unknown. In 1875 (six
years after J. B. Lightfoot's first edition) Bryennius (?.f.) published
a complete text from the MS. in Constantinople (dated 1055), from
which in 1883 he gave us the Didache. In 1876 R. L. Bensly found a
complete Syriac text in a MS. recently obtained by the University
library at Cambridge. Lightfoot made use of these new materials
in an Appendix (1877); his second edition, on which he had been
at work at the time of his death, came out in 1890. This must
remain the standard edition, notwithstanding Dom Morin's most
interesting discovery of a Latin version (1894), which was prob-
ably made in the 3rd century, and is a valuable addition to the
authorities for the text. Its evidence is used in a small edition of
the epistle by R. Knopf (Leipzig, 1899). See also W. Wrede, Unter-
suchungen zum ersten ClemensbriefdSgi), and the other literature cited
in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie, vol. iv. (A. J. G. ; J. A. R.)

CLEMENT II. (Suidger) became pope on the 2$th of December
.1046. He belonged to a noble Saxon family, was bishop of Bam-
berg, and chancellor to the emperor Henry III., to whom he was
indebted for his elevation to the papacy upon the abdication
of Gregory VI. He was the first pope placed on the throne by
the power of the German emperors, but his short pontificate was
only signalized by the convocation of a council in which decrees
were enacted against simony. He died on the 9th of October
1047, and was buried at Bamberg. (L. D.*)

CLEMENT III. (Paolo Scolari), pope from 1187 to 1191, a
Roman, was made cardinal bishop of Palestrina by Alexander III.
in 1180 or 1181. On the igth of December 1187 he was chosen
at Pisa to succeed Gregory VIII. On the 3ist of May 1188 he
concluded a treaty with the Romans which removed difficulties
of long standing, and in April 1 1 89 he made peace with the emperor
Frederick I. Barbarossa. He settled a controversy with William
of Scotland concerning the choice of the archbishop of St Andrews,
and on the I3th of March 1188 removed the Scottish church from
under the legatine jurisdiction of the archbishop of York, thus
making it independent of all save Rome. In spite of his con-
ciliatory policy, Clement angered Henry VI. of Germany by
bestowing Sicily on Tancred. The crisis was acute when the
pope died, probably in the latter part of March 1191.

See " Epistolae et Privilegia," in J. P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus
completus, torn. 204 (Paris, 1853), 1253 ff. ; additional material in
Neues Archiv fur die dltere deutsche Geschichtskunde, 2. 219; 6. 293;
14. 178-182; P. Jaffe, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, torn. 2
(2nd edition, Leipzig, 1888), 535 ff. (W. W. R.*)

CLEMENT IV. (Gui Foulques), pope from 1265 to 1268, son of
a successful lawyer and judge, was born at St Gilles-sur-Rh&ne.
He studied law, and became a valued adviser of Louis IX. of
France. He married, and was the father of two daughters, but
after the death of his wife took orders. In 1257 he became
bishop of Le Puy; in 1259 he was elected archbishop of Nar-
bonne; and on the 24th of December 1261 Urban IV. created
him cardinal bishop of Sabina. He was appointed legate in
England on the 22nd of November 1263, and before his return
was elected pope at Perugia on the sth of February 1265. On
the 26th of February he invested Charles of Anjou with the
kingdom of Sicily; but subsequently he came into conflict with
Charles, especially after the death of Manfred in February 1266.
To the cruelty and avarice of Charles he opposed a generous
humanity. When Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen,
appeared in Italy the pope excommunicated him and his sup-
porters, but it is improbable that he was in the remotest degree

484

CLEMENT (POPES)

responsible for his execution. At Viterbo, where he spent most
of his pontificate, Clement died on the zgth of November 1268,
leaving a name unsullied by nepotism. As the benefactor and
protector of Roger Bacon he has a special title to the gratitude

of posterity.

See A Potthast, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, vol. ii. (Berlin,
1875) 1542 ff-; E. Jordan, Les Registres de Clement IV (Paris, 1893
ff ) • Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (3rd ed., vol. iv., Leipzig, 1898),
144' f.; J. Heidemann, Papst Clemens IV., I. Teil: Das Vorleben
des Papstes und sein Legationsregister = Kirchengeschichttiche Studien,
herausgegeben von Knopfler, &c., 6. Band, 4. Heft (Miinster, 1903),
reprints Processus legationis in Angliam. (W. W. R.*)

CLEMENT V. (Bertrand de Gouth), pope from 1305 to 1314, was
born of a noble Gascon family about 1264. After studying the
arts at Toulouse and law at Orleans and Bologna, he became
a canon at Bordeaux and then vicar-general to his brother the
archbishop of Lyons, who in 1294 was created cardinal bishop
of Albano. Bertrand was made a chaplain to Boniface VIII.,
who in 1 295 nominated him bishop of Cominges (Haute Garonne) ,
and in 1299 translated him to the archbishopric of Bordeaux.
Because he attended the synod at Rome in 1302 in the con-
troversy between France and the Pope, he was considered a
supporter of Boniface VIII., yet was by no means unfavourably
regarded at the French court. At Perugia on the 5th of June
1305 he was chosen to succeed Benedict XI.; the cardinals
by a vote of ten to five electing one neither an Italian nor a
cardinal, in order to end a conclave which had lasted eleven
months. The chronicler Villani relates that Bertrand owed his
election to a secret agreement with Philip IV., made at St Jean
d'Angdly in Saintonge; this may be dismissed as gossip, but
it is probable that the future pope had to accept certain con-
ditions laid down by the cardinals. At Bordeaux Bertrand was
formally notified of his election and urged to come to Italy;
but he caused his coronation to take place at Lyons on the I4th
of November 1305. From the beginning Clement V. was sub-
servient to French interests. Among his first acts was the
creation of nine French cardinals. Early in 1306 he modified
or explained away those features of the bulls Clericis Laicos
and Unam sanctam which were particularly offensive to the
king. Most of the year 1306 he spent at Bordeaux because of
ill-health; subsequently he resided at Poitiers and elsewhere,
and in March 1309 the entire papal court settled at Avignon,
an imperial fief held by the king of Sicily. Thus began the
seventy years " Babylonian captivity of the Church." On the
i3th of October 1307 came the arrest of all the Knights Templar
in France, the breaking of a storm conjured up by royal jealousy
and greed. From the very day of Clement's coronation the
king had charged the Templars with heresy, immorality and
abuses, and the scruples of the weak pope were at length over-
come by apprehension lest the State should not wait for the
Church, but should proceed independently against the alleged
heretics, as well as by the royal threats of pressing the accusation
of heresy against the late Boniface VIII. In pursuance of the
king's wishes Clement summoned the council of Vienne (see
VIENNE, COUNCIL OF), which was 'unable to conclude that the
Templars were guilty of heresy. The pope abolished the order,
however, as it seemed to be in bad repute and had outlived its
usefulness. Its French estates were granted to the Hospitallers,
but actually Philip IV. held them until his death.

In his relations to the Empire Clement was an opportunist.
He refused to use his full influence hi favour of the candidacy
of Charles of Valois, brother of Philip IV., lest France became
' too powerful; and recognized Henry of Luxemburg, whom
his representatives crowned emperor at the Lateran in 1312.
When Henry, however, came into conflict with Robert of Naples,
Clement supported Robert and threatened the emperor with
ban and interdict. But the crisis passed with the unexpected
death of Henry, soon followed by that of the pope on the 2Oth
of April 1314 at Roquemaure-sur-Rh6ne. Though the sale of
offices and oppressive taxation which disgraced his pontificate
may in part be explained by the desperate condition of the papal
finances and by his saving up gold for a crusade, nevertheless
he indulged in unbecoming pomp. Showing favouritism toward

lis family and his nation, he brought untold disaster on the
Church.

BIBLIOGRAPHY — See " dementis V. ... et aliorum epistolae,"
n S. Baluzius, Vitae Paparum Avenionensium, torn. ii. (Paris, 1693),
J5 ff. ; " Tractatus cum Henrico VII. imp. Germ, anno 1309, ' in
Pertz, Monumenta Germaniae historica, legum ii. I. 492-496; J. F.
Rabanis, Clement V et Philippe le Bel. Suivie du journal de la visile
bastorale de Bertrand de Got dans la province ecclesiastiyue de Bordeaux
'.n 1304 et 1305 (Paris, 1858) ; " dementis Papae V. Constitutiones,"
n Corpus luris Canonici, ed. Aemilius Friedberg, vol. ii. (Leipzig,
1881), 1125-1200; P. B. Gams, Series Episcoporum Ecclesiae
Catholicae (Regensburg, 1873); Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexikon,
vol. iii. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1884), 462-473; Regeslum Clementis
Papae V. ex Vaticanis archetypis cura et studio monachorum ord. Ben.
(Rome, 1885-1892), 9 vols. and appendix; J. Gmelin, Schuld oder
Unschuld des Templerordens (Stuttgart, 1893) ; Gachon, Pieces relatifs
au debat du pape Clement V avec I'emptreur Henri VII (Montpellier,
1 894) ; Lacoste, Nouvelles Etudes sur Clement V( 1 896) ; Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopadie, vol. iv. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1898), 144 f.; J. Loserth,
Geschichte des spdteren Mittelalters (Munich, 1903) ; and A. Eitel, Der
Kirchenstaat unter Klemens V. (Berlin, 1907). (W. W. R.*)

CLEMENT VI. (Pierre Roger), pope from the 7th of May 1342
to the 6th of December 1352, was born at Maumont in Limousin
in 1291, the son of the wealthy lord of Rosieres, entered the
Benedictine order as a boy, studied at Paris, and became suc-
cessively prior of St Baudil, abbot of F6camp, bishop of Arras,
chancellor of France, archbishop of Sens and archbishop of
Rouen. He was made cardinal-priest of Sti Nereo ed Achilleo
and administrator of the bishopric of Avignon by Benedict XII.
in 1338, and four years later succeeded him as pope. He con-
tinued to reside at Avignon despite the arguments of envoys
and the verses of Petrarch, but threw a sop to the Romans by
reducing the Jubilee term from one hundred years to fifty. He
appointed Cola di Rienzo to a civil position at Rome, and,
although at first approving the establishment of the tribunate,
he later sent a legate who excommunicated Rienzo and, with
the help of the aristocratic faction, drove him from the city
(December 1347). Clement continued the struggle of his pre-
decessors with the emperor Louis the Bavarian, excommunicating
him after protracted negotiations on the i3th of April 1346,
and directing the election of Charles of Moravia, who received
general recognition after the death of Louis in October 1347,
and put an end to the schism which had long divided Germany.
Clement proclaimed a crusade in 1343, but nothing was accom-
plished beyond a naval attack on Smyrna (2Qth of October 1344).
He also carried on fruitless negotiations for church unity with
the Armenians and with the Greek emperor, John Cantacuzenus.
He tried to end the Hundred Years' War between England and
France, but secured only a temporary truce. He excommuni-
cated Casimir of Poland for marital infidelity and forced him to
do penance. He successfully resisted encroachments on ecclesi-
astical jurisdiction by the kings of England, Castile and Aragon.
He made Prague an archbishopric hi 1344, and three years later
founded the university there. During the disastrous plague of
1347-1348 Clement did all he could to alleviate the distress,
and condemned the Flagellants and Jew-baiters. He tried
Queen Joanna of Naples for the murder of her husband and
acquitted her. He secured full ownership of the county of
Avignon through purchase from Queen Joanna (gth of June 1348)
and renunciation of feudal claims by Charles IV. of France, and
considerably enlarged the papal palace in that city. To supply
money for his many undertakings Clement revived the practice
of selling reservations and expectancies, which had been abolished
by his predecessor. Oppressive taxation and unblushing
nepotism were Clement's great faults. On the other hand, he
was famed for his engaging manners, eloquence and theological
learning. He died on the 6th of December 1352, and was buried
in the Benedictine abbey at Auvergne, but his tomb was destroyed
by Calvinists in 1562. His successor was Innocent VI.

The chief sources for the life of Clement VI. are in Baluzius, Vitae
Pap. Avenion., vol. i. (Paris, 1693); E. Werunsky, Excerpta ex
registris dementis VI. et Innocentii VI. (Innsbruck, 1885); and
F. Cerasoli, Clemente VI. e Giovanni I. di Napoli—Documenti
inedite dell' Archivio Vaticano (1896, &c.).

See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. i., trans, by F. I. Antrobus
(London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. vi.
trans, by MrsG. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902) ; J. B. Christophe,

CLEMENT (POPES)

485

Histoire de la papauti pendant le XIV' silcle, vol. ii. (Paris, 1853) : also
article by L. Kiipper in the Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed.). (C. H. HA.)

CLEMENT VII. (Robert of Geneva), (d. 1394), antipope, brother
of Peter, count of Genevois, was connected by blood or marriage
with most of the sovereigns of Europe. After occupying the
episcopal sees of Th6rouanne and Cambrai, he attained to the
cardinalate at an early age. In 1377, as legate of Pope Gregory
XI. in the Romagna, he directed, or rather assisted in, the
savage suppression of the revolt of the inhabitants of Cesena
against the papal authority. In the following year he took part
in the election of Pope Urban VI. at Rome, and was perhaps
the first to express doubts as to the validity of that tumultuous
election. After withdrawing to Fondi to reconsider the election,
the cardinals finally resolved to regard Urban as an intruder
and the Holy See as still vacant, and an almost unanimous vote
was given in favour of Robert of Geneva (aoth of September
1378), who took the name of Clement VII. Thus originated the
Great Schism of the West.

To his high connexions and his adroitness, as well as to the
gross mistakes of his rival, Clement owed the immediate support
of Queen Joanna of Naples and of several of the Italian barons;
and the king of France, Charles V., who seems to have been
sounded beforehand on the choice of the Roman pontiff, soon
became his warmest protector. Clement eventually succeeded
in winning to his cause Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, a
great part of the Latin East, and Flanders. He had adherents,
besides, scattered through Germany, while Portugal on two
occasions acknowledged him, but afterwards forsook him.
From Avignon, however, where he had immediately fixed his
residence, his eyes were always turned towards Italy, his purpose
being to wrest Rome from his rival. To attain this end he
lavished his gold — or rather the gold provided by the clergy in
his obedience — without stint, and conceived a succession of the
most adventurous projects, of which one at least was to leave a
lasting mark on history.

By the bait of a kingdom to be carved expressly out of the
States of the Church and to be called the kingdom of Adria,
coupled with the expectation of succeeding to Queen Joanna,
Clement incited Louis, duke of Anjou, the eldest of the brothers
of Charles V., to take arms in his favour. These tempting offers
gave rise to a series of expeditions into Italy carried out almost
exclusively at Clement's expense, in the first of which Louis
lost his life. These enterprises on several occasions planted
Angevin domination in the south of the Italian peninsula, and
their most decisive result was the assuring of Provence to the
dukes of Anjou and afterwards to the kings of France. After
the death of Louis, Clement hoped to find. equally brave and
interested champions in Louis' son and namesake; in Louis of
Orleans, the brother of Charles VI.; in Charles VI. himself;
and in John III., count of Armagnac. The prospect of his
briliant progress to Rome was ever before his eyes; and in his
thoughts force of arms, of French arms, was to be the instrument
of his glorious triumph over his competitor.

There came a time, however, when Clement and more particu-
larly his following had to acknowledge the vanity of these
illusive dreams; and before his death, which took place on the
i6th of September 1394, he realized the impossibility of over-
coming by brute force an opposition which was founded on the
convictions of the greater part of Catholic Europe, and discerned
among his adherents the germs of disaffection. By his vast
expenditure, ascribable not only to his wars in Italy, his incessant
embassies, and the necessity of defending himself in the Comtat
Venaissin against the incursions of the adventurous Raymond
of Turenne, but also to his luxurious tastes and princely habits,
as well as by his persistent refusal to refer the question of the
schism to a council, he incurred genera1 reproach. Unity was
the crying need; and men began to fasten upon him the responsi-
bility of the hateful schism, not on the score of insincerity —
which would have been very unjust, — but by reason of his
obstinate persistence in the course he had chosen.

See N. Valois, La France et le grand schisme d'occident (Paris,
1896). (N. V.)

CLEMENT VII. (Giulio de' Medici), pope from 1523 to 1334,
was the son of Giuliano de' Medici, assassinated in the conspiracy
of the Pazzi at Florence, and of a certain Fioretta, daughter of
Antonia. Being left an orphan he was taken into his own house
by Lorenzo the Magnificent and educated with his sons. In 1494
Giulio went with them into exile; but, on Giovanni's restora-
tion to power, returned to Florence, of which he was made
archbishop by his cousin Pope Leo X., a special dispensation
being granted on account of his illegitimate birth, followed by
a formal declaration of the fact that his parents had been secretly
married and that he was therefore legitimate. On the 23rd of
September 1513 the pope conferred on him the title of cardinal
and made him legate at Bologna. During the reign of the
pleasure-loving Leo, Cardinal Giulio had practically the whole
papal government in his hands and displayed all the qualities
of a good administrator; and when, on the death of Adrian VI.
— whose election he had done most to secure — he was chosen
pope (Nov. 18, 1523), his accession was hailed as the dawn of a
happier era. It soon became clear, however, that the qualities
which had made Clement an excellent second in command were
not equal to the exigencies of supreme power at a time of peculiar
peril and difficulty.

Though free from the grosser vices of his predecessors, a
man of taste, and economical without being avaricious, Clement
VII. was essentially a man of narrow outlook and interests.
He failed to understand the great spiritual movement which
was convulsing the Church; and instead of bending his mind
to the problem of the Reformation, he from the first subordinated
the cause of Catholicism and of the world to his' interests as an
Italian prince and a Medici. Even in these purely secular affairs,
moreover, his timidity and indecision prevented him from
pursuing a consistent policy; and his ill fortune, or his lack of
judgment, placed him, as long as he had the power of choice,
ever on the losing side.

Clement's accession at once brought about a political change
in favour of France; yet he was unable to take a strong line,
and wavered between the emperor and Francis I., concluding
a treaty of alliance with the French king, and then, when the
crushing defeat of Pavia had shown him his mistake, making
his peace with Charles (April I, 1525), only to break it again
by countenancing Girolamo Morone's League of Freedom, of
which the aim was to assert the independence of Italy from
foreign powers. On the betrayal of this conspiracy Clement
made a fresh submission to the emperor, only to follow this, a
year later, by the Holy League of Cognac with Francis I. (May
22, 1526). Then followed the imperial invasion of Italy and
Bourbon's sack of Rome (May 1527) which ended the Augustan
age of the papal city in a horror of fire and blood. The pope
himself was besieged in the castle of St Angelo, compelled on the
6th of June to ransom himself with a payment of 400,000 scudi,
and kept in confinement until, on the 26th of November, he
accepted the emperor's terms, which besides money payments
included the promise to convene a general council to deal with
Lutheranism. On the 6th of December Clement escaped, before
the day fixed for his liberation, to Orvieto, and at once set to
work to establish peace. After the signature of the treaty of
Cambrai on the 3rd of August 1529 Charles met Clement at
Bologna and received from him the imperial crown and the iron
crown of Lombardy. The pope was now restored to the greater
part of his temporal power; but for some years it was exercised
in subservience to the emperor. During this period Clement was
mainly occupied in urging Charles to arrest the progress of the
Reformation in Germany and in efforts to elude the emperor's
demand for a general council, which Clement feared lest the
question of the mode of his election and his legitimacy should
be raised. It was due to his dependence on Charles V., rather
than to any conscientious scruples, that Clement evaded Henry
VIII.'s demand for the nullification of his marriage with Catherine
of Aragon, and so brought about the breach between England
and Rome. Some time before his death, however, the dynastic
interests of his family led him once more to a rapprochement
with France. On the gth of June 1531 an agreement was

CLEMENT (POPES)

signed for the marriage of Henry of Orleans with Catherine
de' Medici; but it was not till October 1533 that Clement met
Francis at Marseilles, the wedding being celebrated on the 27th.
Before, however, the new political alliance, thus cemented, could
take effect, Clement died, on the 25th of September 1534.

See E. Casanova, Lettere di Carlo V. a Clemente VII. (Florence,
1893); Hugo Lammer, Monumenta Vaticana, &c. (Freiburg, 1861);
P. Balan, Monumenta saeculi XVI. hist, illustr. (Innsbruck, 1885);
ib. Man. Reform. Luther (Regensburg, 1884); Stefan Ehses, Rom.
Dokum. z. Gesch. der Ehescheidung Heinrichs VIII. (Paderborn,
1893); Calendar of State Papers (London, 1869, &c.); J. J. I. von
DSllinger, Beitrdge zur polittschen, kirchlichen und Kulturgeschichte
(3 vols., yienna, 1882); F. Guicciardini, Istoria d' Italia; L. von
Ranke, Die romischen Pdpste in den letzten vier Jahrhunderten,
and Deutsche Gesch. im Zeitalter der Reformation ; W. Hellwig, Die
politischen Bezlehungen Clement's VII. zu Karl V., 1526 (Leipzig,
1889); H. Baurr.garten, Gesch. Karls V. (Stuttgart, 1888); F.
Gregorovius, Geschtchte der Stadt Rom, vol. viii. p. 414 (and ed.,
1874) ; P. Balan, Clemente VII. e I' Italia de' suoi tempi (Milan, 1887) ;
E. Armstrong, Charles the Fifth (2 vols., London, 1902); M.
Creighton, Hist, of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation
(London, 1882); and H. M. Vaughan, The Medici Popes (1008).
Further references will be found in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie,
*•. Clemens VII. Ses also Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii. chap. i.
and bibliography. (W. A. P.)

CLEMENT VIII. (Aegidius Muftoz), antipope from 1425 to the
26th of July 1429, was a canon at Barcelona until elected at
Peniscola by three cardinals whom the stubborn antipope
Benedict XIII. had named on his death-bed. Clement was
immediately recognized by Alphonso V. of Aragon, who was
hostile to Pope Martin V. on account of the latter's opposition to
his claims to the kingdom of Naples, but abdicated as soon as an
agreement was reached between Alphonso and Martin through
the exertions of Cardinal Pierre de Foix, an able diplomat and
relation of the king's. Clement spent his last years as bishop of
Majorca, and died on the 28th of December 1446.

See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. i. trans, by F. I. Antrobus
(London, 1899) ; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. ii. (London,
1899) ; and consult bibliography on MARTIN V. (C. H. HA.)

CLEMENT VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), pope from 1592 to
1605, was born at Fano, in 1535. He became a jurist and filled
several important offices. In 1585 he was made a cardinal, and
subsequently discharged a delicate mission to Poland with skill.
His moderation and experience commended him to his fellow
cardinals, and on the 3oth of January 1 592 he was elected pope, to
succeed Innocent IX. While not hostile to Philip II., Clement
desired to emancipate the papacy from undue Spanish influence,
and to that end cultivated closer relations with France. In 1595
he granted absolution to Henry IV., and so removed the last
objection to the acknowledgment of his legitimacy. The peace of
Vervins (1598), which marked the end of Philip's opposition to
Henry, was mainly the work of the pope. Clement also enter-
tained hopes of recovering England. He corresponded with
James I. and with his queen, Anne of Denmark, a convert to
Catholicism. But James was only half in earnest, and, besides,
dared not risk a breach with his subjects. Upon the failure of
the line of Este, Clement claimed the reversion of Ferrara and
reincorporated it into the States of the Church (1598). He
remonstrated against the exclusion of the Jesuits from France,
and obtained their readmission. But in their doctrinal contro-
versy with the Dominicans (see MOLINA, Luis) he refrained from
a decision, being unwilling to offend either party. Under Clement
the publication of the revised edition of the Vulgate, begun by
Sixtus V., was finished; the Breviary, Missal and Pontifical
received certain corrections; the Index was expanded; the
Vatican library enlarged; and the Collegium Clementinum
founded. Clement was an unblushing nepotist; three of his
nephews he made cardinals, and to one of them gradually
surrendered the control of affairs. But on the other hand among
those whom he promoted to the cardinalate were such men
as Baronius, Bellarmine and Toledo. During this pontificate
occurred the burning of Giordano Bruno for heresy; and the
tragedy of the Cenci (see the respective articles). Clement died
on the sth of March 1605, and was succeeded by Leo XI.

See the contemporary life by Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae sum-
morum Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 1601-1602); Francolini, Ippolito

Aldobrandini, che fu Clemente VIII. (Perugia, 1867); Ranke's,
excellent sketch, Popes (Eng. trans. Austin), ii. 234 seq. ; v. Reumont,
Gesch. der Stadt Rom, lii. 2, 599 seq.; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchen-
staates (1880), i. 301 seq. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT IX. (Giulio Rospigliosi) was bom in 1600, became
successively auditor of the Rota, archbishop of Tarsus in partibus,
and cardinal, and was elected pope on the 2oth of June 1667.
He effected a temporary adjustment of the Jansenist contro-
versy; was instrumental in concluding the peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle (1668); healed a long-standing breach between the
Holy See and Portugal; aided Venice against the Turks, and
laboured unceasingly for the relief of Crete, the fall of which
hastened his death on the 9th of October 1669.

See Oldoin, continuator of Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae sum-
morum Pontiff. Rom.; Palazzi, Gesta Pontiff. Rom. (Venice, 1687-
1688), iv. 621 seq. (both contemporary); Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans.
Austin), iii. 59 seq.; and v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom, iii. 2,
634 seq. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT X. (Emilio Altieri) was born in Rome, on the i3th of
July 1590. Before becoming pope, on the 2gth of April 1670 he
had been auditor in Poland, governor of Ancona, and nuncio in
Naples. His advanced age induced him to resign the control of
affairs to his adopted nephew, Cardinal Paluzzi, who embroiled
the papacy in disputes with the resident ambassadors, and
incurred the enmity of Louis XIV., thus provoking the long
controversy over the regalia (see INNOCENT XI.). Clement died
on the 22nd of July 1676.

See Guarnacci, Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 1751),
(contin. of Ciaconius), i. i seq. ; Palazzi, Gesta Pontiff. Rom. (Venice,
1687-1688), iv. 655 seq.; and Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans. Austin),
iii. 172 seq. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT XI. (Giovanni Francesco Albani), pope from 1700 to
1721, was born in Urbino, on the 22nd of July 1649, received
an extraordinary education in letters, theology and law, filled
various important offices in the Curia, and finally, on the 23rd of
November 1700, succeeded Innocent XII. as pope. His private
life and his administration were blameless, but it was his mis-
fortune to reign in troublous times. In the war of the Spanish
Succession he would willingly have remained neutral, but found
himself between two fires, forced first to recognize Philip V., then
driven by the emperor to recognize the Archduke Charles. In
the peace of Utrecht he was ignored; Sardinia and Sicily, Parma
and Piacenza, were disposed of without regard to papal claims.
When he quarrelled with the duke of Savoy, and revoked his
investiture rights in Sicily (1715), his interdict was treated with
contempt. The prestige of the papacy had hardly been lower
within two centuries. About 1702 the Jansenist controversy
broke out afresh. Clement reaffirmed the infallibility of the pope,
in matters of fact (1705), and, in 1713, issued the bull Unigenitus,
condemning 101 Jansenistic propositions extracted from the
Moral Reflections of Pasquier Quesnel. The rejection of this bull
by certain bishops led to a new party division and a further
prolonging of the controversy (see JANSENISM and QUESNEL,
PASQUIER). Clement also forbade the practice of the Jesuit
missionaries in China of " accommodating " their teachings to
pagan notions or customs, in order to win converts. Clement was
a polished writer, and a generous patron of art and letters. He
died on the igth of March 1721.

For contemporary lives see Elci, The Present State of the Court oj
Rome, trans, from the Ital. (London, 1706); Polidoro, De Vita et
Reb. Gesl. Clem. XI. (Urbino, 1727); Reboulet, Hist, de Clem. XI.
Pape (Avignon, 1752) ; Guarnacci, Vitae et res gest. Pontiff. Rom.
(Rome, 1751); Sandini, Vitae Pontiff. Rom. (Padua, 1739); Buder,
Leben u. Thaten dementis XI. (Frankfort, 1720-1721). See also
dementis XI. Opera Omnia (Frankfort, 1729); the detailed
" Studii sul pontificate di Clem. XL," by Pometti in the Archivio
della R. Soc. romana di storia patria, vols. 21, 22, 23 (1898-1900),
and the extended bibliography in Hergenrother, Allg. Kirchengesch.
(1880), iii. 506. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT XII. (Lorenzo Corsini), pope from 1730 to 1740,
succeeded Benedict XIII. on the I2th of July 1730, at the age of
seventy-eight. The rascally Cardinal Coscia, who had deluded
Benedict, was at once brought to justice and forced to disgorge
his dishonest gains. Politically the papacy had sunk to the
level of pitiful helplessness, unable to resist the aggressions of
the Powers, who ignored or coerced it at will. Yet Clement

CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA

487

entertained high hopes for Catholicism; he laboured for a union
with the Greek Church, and was ready to facilitate the return of
the Protestants of Saxony. He deserves well of posterity for his
services to learning and art; the restoration of the Arch of
Constantine; the enrichment of the Capitoline museum with
antique marbles and inscriptions, and of the Vatican library with
oriental manuscripts (see ASSEMANI) ; and the embellishment of
the city with many buildings. He died on the 6th of February
1740, and was succeeded by Benedict XIV.

See Guarnacci, Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 1751);
Sandini, Vitae Pontiff. Rom. (Padua, 1739); Fabroni, De Vita
et Reb. Gest. dementis XII. (Rome, 1760); Ranke, Popes (Eng.
trans. Austin), iii. 191 seq.; v. Reumont, Cesch. der Stadt Rom, iii.
2, 653 seq. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT XIII. (Carlo della Torre Rezzonico), pope from
1758 to 1769, was born in Venice, on the 7th of March 1693,
filled various important posts in the Curia, became cardinal in
1737, bishop of Padua in 1743, and succeeded Benedict XIV.
as pope on the 6th of July 1758. He was a man of upright,
moderate and pacific intentions, but his pontificate of eleven
years was anything but tranquil. The Jesuits had fallen upon
evil days; in 1758 Pombal expelled them from Portugal; his
example was followed by the Bourbon countries — France, Spain,
the Two Sicilies and Parma (1764-1768). The order turned
to the pope as its natural protector; but his protests (cf. the
bull Apostolicum pascendi munus, 7th of January 1765) were
unheeded (see JESUITS). A clash with Parma occurred to aggra-
vate his troubles. The Bourbon kings espoused their relative's
quarrel, seized Avignon, Benevento and Ponte Corvo, and
united in a peremptory demand for the suppression of the
Jesuits (January 1769). Driven to extremities, Clement con-
sented to call a Consistory to consider the step, but on the very
eve of the day set for its meeting he died (2nd of February 1769),
not without suspicion of poison, of which, however, there appears
to be no conclusive evidence.

A contemporary account of Clement was written by Augustin de
Andres y Sobinas, . . . el nacimiento, estudios y empleos de . . . Clem.
XIII. (Madrid, 1759). Ravignan's Clement XIII. e Clement XIV.
(Paris, 1854) is partisan but free from rancour; and appends many
interesting documents. See also the bibliographical note under
Clement XIV. infra.; and the extended bibliography in Hergen-
rother, AUg. Kirchengesch. (1880), iii. 509. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT XIV. (Lorenzo Ganganelli), pope from 1769 to 1774,
son of a physician of St Arcangelo, near Rimini, was born on
the 3ist of October 1705, entered the Franciscan order at the
age of seventeen, and became a teacher of theology and philo-
sophy. As regent of the college of S. Bonaventura, Rome, he
came under the notice of Benedict XIV., who conceived a
high opinion of his talents and made him consulter of the Inquisi-
tion. Upon the recommendation of Ricci, general of the Jesuits,
Clement XIII. made him a cardinal; but, owing to his dis-
approval of the pope's policy, he found himself out of favour
and without influence. The conclave following the death of
Clement XIII. was the most momentous of at least two centuries.
The fate of the Jesuits hung in the balance; and the Bourbon
princes were determined to have a pope subservient to their
hostile designs. The struggle was prolonged three months.
At length, on the I9th of May 1769, Ganganelli was chosen, not
as a declared enemy of the Jesuits, but as being least objection-
able to each of the contending factions. The charge of simony
was inspired by Jesuit hatred; there is absolutely no evidence
that Ganganelli pledged himself to suppress the order.

The outlook for the papacy was dark; Portugal was talking
of a patriarchate; France held Avignon; Naples held Ponte
Corvo and Benevento; Spain was ill-affected; Parma, defiant;
Venice, aggressive; Poland meditating a restriction of the
rights of the nuncio. Clement realized the imperative necessity
of conciliating the powers. He suspended the public reading
of the bull In Coena Domini, so obnoxious to civil authority;
resumed relations with Portugal; revoked the monitorium of
his predecessor against Parma. But the powers were bent upon
the destruction of the Jesuits, and they had the pope at their
mercy. Clement looked abroad for help, but found none. Even
Maria Theresa, his last hope, suppressed the order in Austria.

Temporizing and partial concessions were of no avail. At last,
convinced that the peace of the Church demanded the sacrifice,
Clement signed the brief Dominus ac Redemptor, dissolving the
order, on the zist of July 1773. The powers at once gave
substantial proof of their satisfaction; Benevento, Ponte Corvo,
Avignon and the Venaissin were restored to the Holy See.
But it would be unfair to accept this as evidence of a bargain.
Clement had formerly indignantly rejected the suggestion of
such an exchange of favours.

There is no question of the legality of the pope's act; whether
he was morally culpable, however, continues to be a matter of
bitter controversy. On the one hand, the suppression is de-
nounced as a base surrender to the forces of tyranny and irreligion,
an act of treason to conscience, which reaped its just punishment
of remorse; on the other hand, it is as ardently maintained
that Clement acted in full accord with his conscience, and that
the order merited its fate by its own mischievous activities
which made it an offence to religion and authority alike. But
whatever the guilt or innocence of the Jesuits, and whether their
suppression were ill-advised or not, there appears to be no
ground for impeaching the motives of Clement, or of doubting
that he had the approval of his conscience. The stories of his
having swooned after signing the brief, and of having lost hope
and even reason, are too absurd to be entertained. The decline
in health, which set in shortly after the suppression, and his
death (on the 22nd of September 1774) proceeded from wholly
natural causes. The testimony of his physician and of his
confessor ought to be sufficient to discredit the oft-repeated
story of slow poisoning (see Duhr, Jesuilen Pabeln, 4th ed.,
1904, pp. 69 seq.).

The suppression of the Jesuits bulks so large in the pontificate
of Clement that he has scarcely been given due credit for his
praiseworthy attempt to reduce the burdens of taxation and to
reform the financial administration, nor for his liberal encourage-
ment of art and learning, of which the museum Pio-Clementino
is a lasting monument.

No pope has been the subject of more diverse judgments than
Clement XIV. Zealous defenders credit him with all virtues,
and bless him as the instrument divinely ordained to restore the
peace of tBe Church; virulent detractors charge him with in-
gratitude, cowardice and double-dealing. The truth is at neither
extreme. Clement's was a deeply religious and poetical nature,
animated by a lofty and refined spirit. Gentleness, equanimity
and benevolence were native to him. He cherished high purposes
and obeyed a lively conscience. But he instinctively shrank
from conflict; he lacked the resoluteness and the sterner sort
of courage that grapples with a crisis.

Caraccioli's Vie de Clement XIV (Paris, 1775) (freq. translated),
is incomplete, uncritical and too laudatory. The middle of the
I9th century saw quite a spirited controversy over Clement XIV.;
St Priest, in his Hist, de la chute des Jesuites (Paris, 1846), represented
Clement as lamentably, almost culpably, weak; Cretineau- Joly,
in his Hist. . . . de la Camp, de Jesus (Paris, 1844-1845, and his
Clement XIV et les Jesuites (Paris, 1847), was outspoken and bitter
in his condemnation; this provoked Theiner's Gesch. des Pontificals
Clemens' XIV. (Leipzig and Paris, 1852), a vigorous defence based
upon original documents to which, as custodian of the Vatican
archives, the author had freest access; Cretineau- Joly replied with
Le Pape Clement XIV; Lettres au P. Theiner (Pans, 1852). Ravi-
gnan's Clem. XIII. e Clem. XIV. (Paris, 1854) is a weak, half-
hearted apology for Clement XIV. See also v. Reumont, Ganganelli,
Papst Clemens XIV. (Berlin, 1847); and Reinerding, Clemens XIV.
u. d. Aufhebung der Gesellschaft Jesu (Augsburg, 1854). The letters
of Clement have frequently been printed; the genuineness of
Caraccioli's collection (Paris, 1776; freq. translated) has been
questioned, but most of the letters are now generally accepted
as genuine; see also Clementit XIV. Epp. ac Brevia, ed. Theiner
(Paris, 1852). An extended bibliography is to be found in Hergen-
rother, AUg. Kirchengesch. (1880), iii. 510 seq. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (Clemens Alexandrinus) , Greek
Father of the Church. The little we know of him is mainly
derived from his own works. He was probably born about A.D.
150 of heathen parents in Athens. The earliest writer after
himself who gives us any information with regard to him is
Eusebius. The only points on which his works now extant
inform us are his date and his instructors. In the Stromateis,

488

CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA

while attempting to show that the Jewish Scriptures were older
than any writings of the Greeks, he invariably brings down his
dates to the death of Commodus, a circumstance which at once
suggests that he wrote in the reign of the emperor Severus, from
193 to 211 A.D. (see Strom, lib. i. cap. xxi. 140, p. 403, Potter's
edition). The passage in regard to his teachers is corrupt, and
the sense is therefore doubtful (Strom, lib. i. cap. i. u, p. 322, P.).
" This treatise," he says, speaking of the Stromateis, " has not
been contrived for mere display, but memoranda are treasured up
in it for my old age to be a remedy for fprgetf ulness, — an image, truly,
and an outline of those clear and living discourses, and those men
truly blessed and noteworthy I was privileged to hear. One of these
was in Greece, the Ionian, the other was in Magna Graecia ; the one
of them was from Coele Syria, the other from Egypt ; but there were
others in the East, one of whom belonged to the Assyrians, but
the other was in Palestine, originally a Jew. The last of those
whom I met was first in power. On falling in with him I found
rest, having tracked him while he lay concealed in Egypt. He
was in truth the Sicilian bee, and, plucking the flowers of the
prophetic and apostolic meadow, he produced a wonderfully pure
knowledge in the souls of the listeners."

Some have supposed that in this passage seven teachers are
named, others that there are only five, and various conjectures
have been hazarded as to what persons were meant. The only
one about whom conjecture has any basis for speculating is the
last, for Eusebius states (H.E. v. n) that Clement made mention
of Pantaenus as his teacher in the Hypotyposes. The reference
in this passage is plainly to one whom he might well designate as
his teacher.

To the information which Clement here supplies subsequent
writers add little. By Eusebius and Photius he is called Titus
Flavius Clemens, and " the Alexandrian " is added to his name.
Epiphanius tells us that some said Clement was an Alexandrian,
others that he was an Athenian (Haer. xxxii. 6), and a modern
writer imagined that he reconciled this discordance by the
supposition that he was born at Athens, but lived at Alexandria.
We know nothing of his conversion except that he passed from
heathenism to Christianity. This is expressly stated by Eusebius
(Praep. Evangel, lib. ii. cap. 2), though it is likely that Eusebius
had no other authority than the works of Clement. These works,
however, warrant the inference. They show a singularly minute
acquaintance with the ceremonies of pagan religion, and there
are indications that Clement himself had been initiated in some
of the mysteries (Protrept. cap. ii. sec. 14, p. 13, P.). There is
no means of determining the date of his conversion. He attained
the position of presbyter in the church of Alexandria (Eus.
H.E. vi. n, and Jerome, De Vir. III. 38), and became perhaps
the assistant, and certainly the successor of Pantaenus in the
catechetical school of that place. Among his pupils were Origen
(Eus. H.E. vi. 7) and Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem (Eus. H.E.
vi. 14.). How long he continued in Alexandria, and when and
where he died, are all matters of pure conjecture. The only
further notice of Clement that we have in history is in a letter
written in 211 by Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem, to the
Antiqchians, and preserved by Eusebius (H.E. vi. ii). The
words are as follows: — "This letter I sent through Clement
the blessed presbyter, a man virtuous and tried, whom ye know
and will come to know completely, who being here by the
providence and guidance of the Ruler of all strengthened and
increased the church of the Lord." A statement of Eusebius in
regard to the persecution of Severus in 202 (H.E. vi. 3) would
render it likely that Clement left Alexandria on that occasion.
It is conjectured that he went to his old pupil Alexander, who was
at that time bishop of Flaviada in Cappadocia, and that when his
pupil was raised to the see of Jerusalem Clement followed him
there. The letter implies that he was known to the Antiochians,
and that it was likely he would be still better known. Some
have conjectured that he returned to Alexandria, but there is not
the shadow of evidence for such conjecture. Alexander, writing
to Origen (c. 216), mentions Clement as dead (Eus. H.E. vi. 14, 9).

Eusebius and Jerome give us lists of the works which Clement
left behind him. Photius has also described some of them. They
are as follows: — (i) Tlp&s "EXXj;i>aj XA-yos 6 5rporpeirruc6j, A Hortatory
Address to the Greeks. (2) '0 UatSayaybs, The Tutor, in three books.
(3) Srpwjjams, or Patch-work, in eight books. ' (4) Tts &

irXo6<rioi; Who is the Rich Man that is Saved ? (5) Eight books of

Pa

, Adumbrations or Outlines. (6) On the Passover. (7) Dis-
courses on Pasting. (8) On Slander. (9) Exhortation to Patience, or
to the Newly Baptized. (10) The Kcu-uu/ iucXiiatcurrticfe, the Rule oj
the Church, or to those who Judaize, a work dedicated to Alexander,
bishop of Jerusalem.

Of these, the first four have come down to us complete, or nearly
complete. _ The first three form together a progressive introduction
to Christianity corresponding to the stages through which the
tiiiaTip passed at Eleusis — purification, initiation, revelation. The
Hortatory Address to the Greeks is an appeal to them to give up the
worship of their gods, and to devote themselves to the worship of the
one living and true God. Clement exhibits the absurdity and immor-
ality of the stories told with regard to the pagan deities, the cruelties
perpetrated in their worship, and the utter uselessness of bowing
down before images made by hands. He at the same time shows
the Greeks that their own greatest philosophers and poets recognized
the unity of the divine Being, and had caught glimpses of the true
nature of God, but that fuller light had been thrown on this subject
by the Hebrew prophets. He replies to the objection that it was
not right to abandon the customs of their forefathers, and points
them to Christ as their only safe guide to God.

The Paedagogue is divided into three books. In the first Clement
discusses the necessity for and the true nature of the Paedagogus,
and shows how Christ as the Logos acted as Paedagogus, and still
acts. In the second and third books Clement enters into particulars,
and explains how the Christian following the Logos or Reason ought
to behave in the various circumstances of life — in eating, drinking,
furnishing a house, in dress, in the relations of social life, in the care
of the body, and similar concerns, and concludes with a general
description of the life of a Christian. Appended to the Paedagogue
are two hymns, which are, in all probability, the production of
Clement, though s_ome have conjectured that they were portions
of the church service of that time. arpu/ior«Ij were bags in which
bedclothes (o-Tpi/iara) were kept. The phrase was used as a book-
title by Origen and others, and is equivalent to our " miscellanies."
It is difficult to give a brief account of the varied contents of the
book. Sometimes Clement discusses chronology, sometimes philo-
sophy, sometimes poetry, entering into the most minute critical
and chronological details; but one object runs through all, and
this is to show what the true Christian Gnostic is, and what is his
relation to philosophy. The work was in eight books. The first
seven are complete. The eighth now extant is really an incomplete
treatise on logic. Some critics have rejected this book as spurious,
since its matter is so different from that of the rest. Others, however,
have held to its genuineness, because in a Patch-work or Book of
Miscellanies the difference of subject is no sound objection, and
because Photius seems to have regarded our present eighth book as
genuine (Phot. cod. iii. p. 8gb, Bekker).

The treatise Who is the Rich Man that is Saved ? is an admirable
exposition of the narrative contained in St Mark's Gospel x. 17-31.
Here Clement argues that wealth, if rightly used, is not unchristian.

The Hypotyposes1 in eight books, have not come down to us.
Cassipdorus translated them into Latin, freely altering to suit his
own ideas of orthodoxy. Both Eusebius and Photius describe the
work. It was a short commentary on all the books of Scripture,
including some of the apocryphal works, such as the Epistle of
Barnabas and the Revelation of Peter. Photius speaks in strong
language of the impiety of some opinions in the book (Bibl. cod. 109,
p. 89 a Bekker), but his statements are such as to prove conclusively
that he must have had a corrupt copy, or read very carelessly, or
grossly misunderstood Clement. Notes in Latin on the first epistle
of Peter, the epistle of Jude, and the first two of John have come
down to us; but whether they are the translation of Cassiodorus,
or indeed a translation of Clement's work at all, is a matter of
dispute.

The treatise on the Passover was occasioned by a work of Melito
on the same subject. Two fragments of this treatise were given by
Petavius, and are contained in the modern editions.

We know nothing of the work called The Ecclesiastical Canon
from any external testimony. Clement himself often mentions the
£KicXi7<r»a<micds KO.V&V, and defines it as the agreement and harmony
of the law and the prophets with the covenant delivered at the
appearance of Christ (Strom, vi. cap. xv. 125, p. 803, P.). No doubt
this was the subject of the treatise. Jerome and Photius call the
work Ecclesiastical Canons, but this seems to be a mistake.

Of the other treatises mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome nothing
is known. A fragment of Clement, quoted by Antonius Melissa, is
most probably taken from the treatise on slander.

Besides the treatises mentioned by Eusebius, fragments of treatises
on Providence and the Soul have been preserved. Mention is also
made of a work by Clement on the Prophet Amos, and another on
Definitions.

In addition to these Clement often speaks of his intention to
write on certain subjects, but it may well be doubted whether in
most cases, if not all, he intended to devote separate treatises to

1 Zahn thinks we have part of them in the Adumbrationes Clem.
Alex, in epistolas canonicas (Codex Lindum, 96, sec. ix.). They were
perhaps intended as a completion of the preceding course.

CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA

489

them. Some have found an allusion to the treatise on the Soul
already mentioned. The other subjects are Marriage (yaiuicfa \6yos),
Continence, the Duties of Bishops. Presbyters, Deacons and Widows,
Prophecy, the Soul, the Transmigration of the Soul and the Devil,
Angels, the Origin of the World, First Principles and the Divinity of
the Logos, Allegorical Interpretations of Statements made with
regard to God's anger and similar affections, the Unity of the Church,
and the Resurrection.

Two works are -incorporated in the editions of Clement which
are not mentioned by himself or any ancient writer. They are
'En T£>V QtoSdrov Kal TTJS dparoXtinj: KttXou/itnjs <5i<5a<7xaXias KCLTO. roiis
OiiaXtmtmv xp6»ous ixiTo/iai, and 'Ex rdv iepo<t>riTutuv ixXoyal. The
first, if it is the work of Clement, must be a book merely of
excerpts, for it contains many opinions which Clement opposed.
Mention is made of Pantaenus in the second, and some have thought
it more worthy of him than the first. Others have regarded it as
a work similar to the first, and derived from Theodorus.

Clement occupies a profoundly interesting position in the
history of Christianity. He is the first to bring all the culture
of the Greeks and all the speculations of the Christian heretics
to bear on the exposition of Christian truth. He does not attain
to a systematic exhibition of Christian doctrine, but he paves the
way for it, and lays the first stones of the foundation. In some
respects Justin anticipated him. He also was well acquainted
with Greek philosophy, and took a genial view of it; but he was
not nearly so widely read as Clement. The list of Greek authors
whom Clement has quoted occupies upwards of fourteen of the
quarto pages in Fabricius's Bibliotheca Graeca. He is at home
alike in the epic and the lyric, the tragic and the comic poets, and
his knowledge of the prose writers is very extensive. Some,
however, of the classic poets he appears to have known only
from anthologies; hence he was misled into quoting as from
Euripides and others verses which were written by Jewish
forgers. He made a special study of the philosophers. Equally
minute is his knowledge of the systems of the Christian heretics.
And in all cases it is plain that he not merely read but thought
deeply on the questions which the civilization of the Greeks and
the various writings of poets, philosophers and heretics raised.
But it was in the Scriptures that he found his greatest delight.
He believed them to contain the revelation of God's wisdom to
men. He quotes all the books of the Old Testament except
Ruth and the Song of Solomon, and amongst the sacred writings
of the Old Testament he evidently included the book of Tobit,
the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus. He is equally full
in his quotations from the New Testament, for he quotes from all
the books except the epistle to Philemon, the second epistle
of St Peter, and the epistle of St James, and he quotes from
The Shepherd of Hermas, and the epistles of Clemens Romanus
and of Barnabas, as inspired. He appeals also to many of the
lost gospels, such as those of the Hebrews, of the Egyptians and
of Matthias.

Notwithstanding this adequate knowledge of Scripture, the
modern theologian is disappointed to find very little of what he
deems characteristically Christian. In fact Clement regarded
Christianity as a philosophy. The ancient philosophers sought
through their philosophy to attain to a nobler and holier life,
and this also was the aim of Christianity. The difference between
the two, in Clement's judgment, was that the Greek philosophers
had only glimpses of the truth, that they attained only to
fragments of the truth, while Christianity revealed in Christ
the absolute and perfect truth. All the stages of the world's
history were therefore preparations leading up to this full
revelation, and God's care was not confined to the Hebrews
alone. The worship of the heavenly bodies, for instance, was
given to man at an early stage that he might rise from a con-
templation of these sublime objects to the worship of the Creator.
Greek philosophy in particular was the preparation of the Greeks
for Christ. It was the schoolmaster or paedagogue to lead them
to Christ. Plato was Moses atticizing. Clement varies in his
statement how Plato got his wisdom or his fragments of the
Reason. Sometimes he thinks that they came direct from God,
like all good things, but he is also fond of maintaining that many
of Plato's best thoughts were borrowed from the Hebrew
prophets; and he makes the same statement in regard to the
wisdom of the other philosophers. But however this may be,

Christ was the end to which all that was true in philosophies
pointed. Christ himself was the Logos, the Reason. God the
Father was ineffable. The Son alone can manifest Him fully.
He is the Reason that prevades the universe, that brings out all
goodness, that guides all good men. It was through possessing
somewhat of this Reason that the philosophers attained to any
truth and goodness; but in Christians he dwells more fully and
guides them through all the perplexities of life. Photius, prob-
ably on a careless reading of Clement, argued that he could not
have believed in a real incarnation. But the words of Clement
are quite precise and their meaning indisputable. The real
difficulty attaches not to the Second Person, but to the First.
The Father in Clement's mind becomes the Absolute of the
philosophers, that is to say, not the Father at all, but the Monad,
a mere point devoid of all attributes. He believed in a personal
Son of God who was the Reason and Wisdom of God; and he
believed that this Son of God really became incarnate though he
speaks of him almost invariably as the Word, and attaches
little value to his human nature. The object of his incarnation
and death was to free man from his sins, to lead him into the path
of wisdom, and thus in the end elevate him to the position of a
god. But man's salvation was to be gradual. It began with
faith, passed from that to love, and ended in full and complete
knowledge. There could be no faith without knowledge. But
the knowledge is imperfect, and the Christian was to do many
things in simple obedience without knowing the reason. But
he has to move upwards continually until he at length does
nothing that is evil, and he knows fully the reason and object
of what he does. He thus becomes the true Gnostic, but he can
become the true Gnostic only by contemplation and by the
practice of what is right. He has to free himself from the power
of passion. He has to give up all thoughts of pleasure. He must
prefer goodness in the midst of torture to evil with unlimited
pleasure. He has to resist the temptations of the body, keeping
it under strict control, and with the eye of the soul undimmed by
corporeal wants and impulses, contemplate God the supreme
good, and live a life according to reason. In other words, he
must strive after likeness to God as he reveals himself in his
Reason or in Christ. Clement thus looks entirely at the en-
lightened moral elevation to which Christianity raises man. He
believed that Christ instructed men before he came into the
world, and he therefore viewed heathenism with kindly eye.
He was also favourable to the pursuit of all kinds of knowledge.
AlTenlightenment tended to lead up to the truths of Christianity,
and hence knowledge of every kind not evil was its handmaid.
Clement had at the same time a strong belief in evolution or
development. The world went through various stages in prepara-
tion for Christianity. The man goes through various stages
before he can reach Christian perfection. And Clement conceived
that this development took place not merely in this life, but in
the future through successive grades. The Jew and the heathen
had the gospel preached to them in the world below by Christ
and his apostles, and Christians will have to pass through pro-
cesses of purification and trial after death before they reach
knowledge and perfect bliss.

The beliefs of Clement have caused considerable difference
of opinion among modern scholars. He sought the truth from
whatever quarter he could g