ENCYCLOREWA
BRI1ANNICA

EIJEVENTH
EDITION

• • i m • .

•

I

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771.

SECOND ten „ 1777—1784.

THIRD eighteen „ 1788—1797.

FOURTH twenty „ 1801 — 1810.

FIFTH twenty „ 1815—1817.

SIXTH twenty „ 1823—1824.

SEVENTH twenty-one „ 1830—1842.

EIGHTH twenty-two „ 1853—1860.

NINTH twenty-five „ 1875—1889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.

ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

All rights reserved

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VI

CH^TELET to CONSTANTINE

Cambridge, England:

at the University Press

New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1910

E. 5

E.3

Copyright, in the United States of America,

by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME VI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. Bo.*
A. B. G.*
A. B. R.

A. C. Be.
A. C. C.

A. C. McG.

A. C. S.
A. D.
A. E. B.

A. F. L.

A. G.

A. Go.*
A. H.*

A. He.*
A. H. J. G.

A. J. G.

4 Church, Dean.

AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L. [Conclave;

Professor of Canon Law in the Catholic University of Paris. Editor of the Canoniste ~\ Concordat;
contemporain. Author of Biens d'eglise et peines canoniques; &c. I Consistorv

ALICE B. GOMME. f

Hon. Member of the Folk-lore Society. Author of Dictionary of Traditional Games •( Children's Games.
of Great Britain and Ireland; Children's Singing Games. (,

ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. f fwn.- R

Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Classifi- •( „ L, aolany>
cation of Flowering Plants; &c. I Coflee: Botany.

ARTHUR CHRISTOPHER BENSON, C.V.O., M.A., F.R.HisT.S.
See the biographical article: BENSON, EDWARD WHITE.

ALBERT CURTIS CLARK, M.A. I"

Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and University Reader in Latin. "! Cicero.
Editor of Cicero's Speeches (Clarendon Press). I

ARTHUR CUSHMAN MCGIFFERT, D.D., PH.D., M.A. I"

Professor of Church History in Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of i Church History (in part).
A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c.

ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE.

See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C.

AUSTIN DOBSON.

See the biographical article : DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN.

REV. ANDREW EWBANK BURN, M.A., D.D.

Vicar of Halifax and Prebendary of Lichfield. Author of An Introduction to the
Creeds and the Te Deum; Niceta of Remesiana; &c.

ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A.

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. .
Formerly Assistant Secretary of the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Stanhope Prizeman, 1872.

MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908).

H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;
Secrets of the Prison House; &c.

; Congreve, William.

I Chesterfield, 4th Earl of.

Church.

Chicheley.

Children's Courts.

REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.

Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

f Chemnitz;
\ Cochlaeus.

ALBERT HAUCK, D.TH., PH.D., D.JURIS. ("

Professor of Church History in the University of Leipzig. Director of the Collection

of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Member of the Royal Saxon Society of Arts and J rv,«,»i, »;*+«,.•„ I • * A
Sc|ences. Formerly Professor in the University of Erlangen. Editor of the 3rd Cnl ««tory (m part).
edition of Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche.
Author of Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands; Tertullians Leben und Schriften; &c.

AUGUSTINE HENRY, M.A., F.L.S.

Reader in Forestry, Cambridge University. Formerly Official in Chinese Imperial J |M,ina.
Maritime Customs. Explorer of the Flora of the interior of China, Formosa and 1 wun*-
Hainan.

ABEL HENDY JONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.) (d. 1905). f

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Constitutional! Comitia.
History; Roman Public Life; History of Rome. Joint-author of Sources of Roman
History, 133-70 B.C.

REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. (Lond.).

Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J _, . . , . ,

College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of] Clement I. (in part).
Mysore Educational Service.

'A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.

V

1975

vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

{Chile: Geography and
Statistics;
Colombia: Geography and
Statistics.

A. LO. AUGUSTE LONGNON. . -

Professor at the College de France. Director of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. J chatillon.

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute. Author of Geographic |
de la Gatde au VI' siecle.

BUR WILLIAM CLAYDEN, M.A. f

Christ's College, Cambridge. Principal of the Royal Albeit Memorial College, i Cloud.
Exeter. Author of Cloud Studies; The Clouds of Venus; &c.

de la Gaule au VI' siecle.

A. W. C. ARTHUR WILLIAM CLAYDEN, M.A.

Christ's College, Cambridge. P
Exeter. Author of Cloud Studies; The Clouds of Venus; &c.

A. W. Po. ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A.

Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King B College, J Chaucer;
London. Hon. Secretary, Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books •{ coloohon
and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of the Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe "
Chaucer. I

A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.

Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws i Compensation.
of England. I

C. EARL OF CREWE. J Cherbuliez.

See the biographical article: CREWE, EARL OF. I

C. A. MacM. CHARLES ALEXANDER MACMUNN, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. f colours of Animals-

Formerly Physician and Pathologist to Wolverhampton General Hospital. Author -
of Outlines of Clinical Chemistry; The Spectroscope in Medicine; &c.

C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D.Lnr. (Oxon.). / Chronicle;

See the biographical article: BEMONT, C. I Commlnes.

C. BL REV. CHARLES BIGG, M.A., D.D. (1840-1908). r

Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Oxford, 1901-1908. Examining] Clement Of Alexandria
Chaplain to Bishop of London. Author of Neoplatonism; The Christian Platonists] /•
of Alexandria; &c. Editor of St Augustine's Confessions; De Imitatione; &c. [_ v

C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. f Chemistry;

Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \Circle (in part).

C. E. A. C. E. AKERS. f

Formerly Times Correspondent in Buenos Aires. Author of A History of Southi Chile: History (in part).
America, 1854-1904. I

C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, D.D. f

Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member J Clement VI.;

of the American Historical Association. Author of An Introduction to the Sources 1 Clement VIII.: antipope

relating to the Barbarian Invasions. [

0. J. H. CHARLES JOHN HOLMES, M.A. f

Director, Keeper and Secretary of the National Portrait Gallery. Slade Professor I China: Chinese Art (Sculpture);
of Fine Art, Oxford, 1904-1910. Author of Constable; Constable and his Influence 1 Constable, John.
on Landscape Painting ; Notes on the Science of Picture Making ; &c. I

C. M. K. SIR CHARLES MALCOLM KENNEDY, K.C.M.G., C.B. (1831-1908).

Head of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1872-1893. Lecturer on Inter-
national Law, University College, Bristol. Commissioner in the Levant, 1870-1871 ; -\ Commercial Treaties.
at Paris, 1872-1886. Plenipotentiary, Treaty of the Hague, 1882. Author of
Diplomacy and International Law.

C. PI. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES L. r Childebert; Chilperic;

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of -I Clotaire; Clotilda, Saint;
Etudes sue le regne de Robert le Pieux; &c. [ Clovis

C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HisT.S. r

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow

of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, i Columbus, Christopher.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. L

C. S. HON. CARL SCHURZ, LL.D. f

See the biographical article: SCHURZ, CARL. "^ Clay, Henry.

C. W. R. C. CHARLES WALLWYN RADCLIFFE COOKE. r

President, National Association of English Cider-makers. M.P. for Walworth, -{ Cider.
1885-1892, and for Hereford, 1893-1900. Author of A Book about Cider and Perry. (.

C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). f

Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary

Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- J «... . /•• .\

mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General ] CUlCla (in part).

of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of

Lord Clive; &c.

D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. rMi«™Mni.

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising the J *£
Classical Concerto; The Goldberg Variations; and analyses of many other classical") Chorale;
works. t Concerto.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

vii

0.0. H.

D. H.

D. Mn.

E. B. P.

E.C.B.
E.C. Q

E.E.H.
E.G.

E. G. J. H.

E. Gr.
E. H. H.

E. K. C.

E.Ma.
Ed. M.

E. 0.*

E.V.

E. W. C.

F. C. G.

P. E. W.-S.
F. 0. H. B.
F. G. P.

F.H.*

F. H. B.
F. J. J.-S.

DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. f

Keeper of the Ashmdean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. CillCla (in part);
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 18991 Colophon;
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906^1907. Director, British School at Comana.
Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

DAVID HANNAY. f ciS£%ir Pi,

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, J „ f ' s enaru,
1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. Coastguard;

I Codrington, Sir Edward.

REV. PUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. C

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London -| Concordance.
Missionary Society. Author of Constructive Congregational Ideals.

EDWARD BAGNALL POULTON, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D.. F.R.S. f

Hope Professor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Jesus College, I Colours of Animate.
Oxford. Author of The Colours of Animals; Essays on Evolution; Darwin and the\ Bionomics
Original Species; &c. I

RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Lnr. (Dublin).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.

EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in Celtic, Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge.

EDWARD EVERETT HALE

See the biographical article: HALE, E. E.

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.

See the biographical article: GOSSE, E.

E. G. J. MOYNA, F.R.G.S.
New College, Oxford.

ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY.

ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A.

Lecturer in Palaeography in the University of Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant
Librarian, and formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge.

EDMUND KERCHEVER CHAMBERS.

j Cistercians; Clara, Saint;
\Clares, Poor; Cluny.

Columba, Saint.

* Clarke, James Freeman.

[Choi-iambic Verse; Clanvowe;
I Collins, William;
j Conscience, Hendrik;
I Constable, Henry.

| Chile: History (in part).

/Chios (in part);
I Cithaeron; Clazomenae.

Chersonese;

Cimmerii.

EDWARD MANSON. r

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Joint-editor of Journal of Comparative Legislation; •< Company.
Law of Trading Companies; Practical Guide to Company Law; &c.

f

Chosroes.

EDUARD MEYER, D.Lrrr. (Oxon.), PH.D., LL.D.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Member of the Royal
Prussian Academy. Author of Geschichle des Alterlhums; Forschungen zur alien
Geschichte ; &c.

EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, -j Cleft Palate and Hare Lip.
Great Ormond Street. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.

REV. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A., D.D. (1819-1895).

Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England.

- Cloister.

ETTRICK WILLIAM CREAK, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. r

Captain, R.N. Formerly Superintendent of Compasses, Hydrographic Department, •{ Compass (in part).
Admiralty. Author of many papers on magnetic subjects.

FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen). f Christmav

Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. 4 ««.
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals- &c [ tonsecratlon'

FRANCIS EDWARD WENTWORTH-SHEILDS, M.lNST.C.E.
Docks Engineer, London & South-Western Railway.

FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

- Concrete

fCimbri;
I Crenwulf.

FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. f

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer onj rnnlnm and «tarnu« MAmhrariA*

Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 C°* Dranes.

Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I

FREDERICK HIRTH, PH.D. r

Professor of Chinese in Columbia University, New York. Author of China and the \ China' History (in part)

Roman Orient; The Ancient History of China to the End of the Ghon Dynasty; &c.

FRANCIS H. BUTLER, M.A. J „ .»

Associate of the Royal School of Mines. \ Compass (in part).

REV. FREDERICK JOHN jERvis-Smra, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f

Millard Lecturer in Experimental Mechanics and Engineering, Trinity College, •{ Chronograph.
Oxford. Formerly University Lecturer in Mechanics.

viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

p. K. FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD KEUTGEN, PH.D.

Professor of History in the University of Hamburg. Formerly Professor of Medieval

and Modern History in the University of Jena. Author of Die Hanse und England -^ Commune: Medieval.

im 14. Jahrhundert ; Untersuchungen iiber den Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung ;

Urkunden zur stddtischen Verfassungsgeschichte; Amter und Zunfte; &c.

F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A. f

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, I
Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the j Oneops.
Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. I

F. H. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B.

Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the! Conscription.
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. I

F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. J Congo;

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Congo Free State (in part).

F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Chrysoberyl; Chrysoprase;

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -1. _. * . *
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

G. LORD GRIMTHORPE. f C]ock iin

See the biographical article: GRIMTHORPE, IST BARON. |_

G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S. f cichlid-

In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British J. _ .
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. [ Loa-

G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Lrrr.D. f _. . _

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard I Clouet, Francois,
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition | Clouet, Jean,
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers.

G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f/,v.i IT- . /•

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. I Cnile: History (in part),
Employed by British Government jn preparation of the British case in the British | Colombia: History.
Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations. I

G. Fa. G. FAUR. \ Conjuring (in part).

G. G. Co. GEORGE GORDON COULTON, M.A. f

Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author J Concubinage,
of Medieval Studies; Chaucer and his England; &c.

G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, M.R.I.A. f

Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: J, Coleoptera.
their Structure and Life. {.

G. H. Fo. GEORGE HERBERT FOWLER, PH.D., F.Z.S., F.L.S. r

Formerly Berkeley Fellow of Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant Professor of J Coelentera.
Zoology at University College, London. Member of Council of Linnean Society. [

G. J. GEORGE JAMIESON, C.M.G., M.A. r

Formerly Consul-General at Shanghai, and Consul and Judge of the Supreme Court, J China (in part).
Shanghai.

G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. r

Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J Clarendon, Constitutions of.
Society ;&c.

G. L. GEORG LUNGE, PH.D., F.C.S. f r , T

See the biographical article: LUNGE, GEORG. ^ v

G. S. C. SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., F.R.S.

Governor of Bombay. Author of Imperial Defence; Russia's Great Sea Power; The J Coaling-Stations.
Last Great Naval War; &c.

G. W. Kn. REV. GEORGE WILLIAM KNOX, D.D., LL.D. r

Professor of Philosophy and History of Religion, Union Theological Seminary, New ]_,... ..
York. Author of The Reli£ion of Jesus; The Direct and Fundamental Proofs of thel Christianity.
Christian Religion; &c.

H. A. Gl. HERBERT ALLEN GILES, M.A., LL.D.

Professor of Chinese in the University of Cambridge. Member of the China Consular
Service, 1867-1893. Author of a Chinese-English Dictionary; A Chinese Biographical '

Dictionary; History of Chinese Literature.
H. B. HILARY BAUERMANN, F.G.S. (d. 1909).

China: Language, Literature,
Religion.

IRY UAUERMANN, J-.li.b. (a. 1909;. ("maif A rt-

Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of J ~°™ u* *"*"' '
4 Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron. [^ Coke.

H. C. H. REV. HORACE CARTER HOVEY, A.M., D.D. r

Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Geological J fi-i---.
Society of America, NationalGeographicSociety and Societe de Speleologie (France). ] l/olos5'
Author of Celebrated American Caverns; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky; &c. (_

H. E. W. HENRY EDWARD WATTS. [

Editor of the Melbourne Argus. Author of Life of Cervantes. Translator of Don -| Cid, The.
Quixote. [_

H. H. C. SIR HENRY HARDINGE CUNYNGHAME, K.C.B.; M.A. f

Assistant Under-Secretary, Home Office; Vice- President, Institute of Electrical-! Clock.
Engineers. Author of various works on Enamelling, Electric Lighting, &c. (.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, LL.I )., F.R.S. r

Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of J rni,Hii»»i/,i «f n..»
Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. \ COT He*t>

H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross. r

Formerly ^Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of " The Times " -I Coal ( in •hnrt)
Engineering Supplement. Author of British Railways.

H. M. W. HARRY MARSHALL WARD, F.R.S., D.Sc. (d. 1905). r

Formerly Professor of Botany, Cambridge University. President of the British J

Mycological Society. Author of Timber and some of its Diseases; The Oak; Diseases } Cohn, Ferdinand Julius.
in Plants; &c.

H. M. Wo. HAROLD MELLOR WOODCOCK, D.Sc. r

Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow of Uni- J _
versity College, London. Author of " Haemoflagellates " in Professor Ray Lan- 1 Cocc""a.
kester's Treatise of Zoology, and of various scientific papers.

H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A.

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. Director of the British School at -I Constantino I
Rome, 1903-1905. Author of The Roman Empire; &c.

H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. !

Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism; &c. | Condillac.

H. S. Wl. HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS; M.D., B.Sc. r

Formerly Lecturer in the Hartford School of Sociology, U.S.A. Editor of The I Chronology (in Part) •
Historians' History of the World. Author of The Story of Nineteenth Century Science ; 1 Civilization
The History of the Art of Writing; The Lesson of Heredity; &c. I

H. Wh. HORACE WHITE, LL.D. f

Formerly Editor of the New York Evening Post. Sometime Editor of Chicago I Clnvnland Rrnvar
Tribune. Author of Money and Banking Illustrated by American History; The\
Tariff Question; The Cold Question; The Silver Question; &c. L

H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. J

Correspondent of The Times at Rome, 1897-1902, and at Vienna. \ Cialdini.

H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. f

See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. \ China: History (in part).

I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge.
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A -
Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c.
Edited Jewish Quarterly Review, 1888-1908.

J. A. Cl. JOHN ALGERNON CLARKE. f

Author of Fen Sketches; &c. | Conjuring (in part).

J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.I.E.E. f

Fender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of
University College, London.^ Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, -I Conduction Electric

and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University. Author of Magnets and
Electric Currents.

(

J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. 1 Clay-with-Flints.

J. A. R. VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, D.D. f

Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's
College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and NorrisianJ rinmnnf f a-
Professor of Divinity in the University. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation ; ' ^

&c. [

J. C. Sc. JOHN CHRISTOPHER SCHWAB, A.M., PH.D. r

Librarian, Yale University. Editor of Yale Review. Author of The Confederate J Confederate States of America
States of America; History of New York Property Tax; &c.

J. D. SIR JAMES DONALDSON. f _.

See the biographical article: DONALDSON, SIR J. \ Clement of Alexandria (in part).

J. D. v. d. W. JOHANNES DIDERIK VAN DER WAALS, PH.D.

Professor of Physics at the University of Amsterdam.' Author of The Continuity of 4 Condensation of
the Liquid and Caseous States.

J. E. F. REV. JAMES EVERETT FRAME, A.M. (Harvard). r

Edward Robinson Professor of Biblical Theology in Union Theological Seminary, •< Colossians, Epistle to the
New York. Author of Purpose of New Testament Theology.

J. E. S.* JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D. f

Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, J Classics
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classical]
Scholarship; &c. I

J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, LL.D. (Edin.).

Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ Clare: Family.
Pedigree; &c. L

J. J. T. SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., LL.D., PH.D. f

Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics, Cambridge. Professor of Physics, Conduction Electric- Tkrnuih
Royal Institution, London. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. President \ '

of the British Association, 1909-1910. Awarded Nobel Prize for Physics, 1906.
Author of Conduction of Electricity through Gases; Recent Researches in Electricity
and Magnetism; Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry; &c.

X
J. Le.

J. L. M.

J. MO.
J. M. H.

J. H. Ro.

J. N. H.
J. P.-B.

J. P. E.

J. R. C.
J. S. F.

J. S. K.

J. T. C.

J. T. S.*
J. V. B.

K. S.

L. B.
L.D.*

L. Gi.

L. J. S.
L.V.*

H. E. S.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Confucius.

(jitium

Comic.

| Conjuring (in part).

/Chippendale;
I Clock (in part).

REV. JAMES LEGGE.

See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES.

JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A.

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford.

VISCOUNT MORLEY OF BLACKBURN.

See the biographical article: MORLEY, VISCOUNT.

JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f r.h

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer on Classics at East London "J Cleistnenes:
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. I Colchis.

JOHN MACKINNON ROBERTSON, M.P.

Author of Montaigne and Shakespeare; Modern Humanists; Buckle and his Critics; 1 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor.
&c. M.P., Tyneside Division of Northumberland.

JOHN NEVIL MASKELYNE.

Author of Modern Spiritualism ; Sharps and Flats ; &c.

JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST.
Editor of the Guardian, London.

JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. f"

Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. I Chatelet;
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit | code Napoleon.
franfais; &c. L

JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A.

Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin.

edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. (.

JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. fClay;

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in j Concretion*
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby | r ' t

Medallist of the Geological Society of London.

JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). I

Secretary, Koyal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star. _ »_««</• _A

Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member, Geographical \ ConS° *ree State (in part).
Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of Statesman's Year Book. Editor of
the Geographical Journal. I

JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. f

Lecturer on Zoology at South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow of I Chiton;
University College, Oxford, and Assistant Professor of Natural History in the Uni- 1 Cockle.
versity of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I

JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.

JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews).

Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic
Age; &c.

Editor of 2nd -I Colour.

j Colbert, Jean Baptiste.

Clementine Literature;
Congregationalism.

fChelys; Cheng; Chorus;
j Cithara; Cittern; Clarina;
1 Clarinet; Clavichord;
[ Clavicytherium; Concertina.

/China: Chinese Art.
/Clement II.

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra.

LAURENCE BINYON.

See the biographical article: BINYON, L.

LOUIS DUCHESNE.

See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.

LIONEL GILES, M.A. f

Assistant, Oriental Department, British Museum. Author of Sun Tzu on the Art -I China: Language (in part),
of War. {_

LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Childrenite; Chlorite;

Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney J Chromite; Chrysocolla;
Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical'] Clintonite; Cobaltite;
Magazine. [colemanite; Columbite.

LUIGI VILLARI. f cibrario; CoUeoni;

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- rniutta- Pnlnnna-
spondent in East of Europe Italian Vice-Consul in New OrieaB»Tw6; Phil- J 9,°, "*' , °DI!a-
adelphia, 1907; and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town Colonna, Vlttoria;
and Country; &c. [ Confalonieri.

MICHAEL ERNEST SADLER, M.A., LL.D.

Professor of the History and Administration of Education in the University of
Manchester. Formerly Director of Special Enquiries and Reports to the Board of •
Education. Student and Steward of Christ Church, Oxford. Editor of Continua-
tion Schools in England and elsewhere; Moral Instruction and Training in Schools; &c.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

XI

M. G. D.

M. N. T.
M. 0. B. C.
N. V.

N. W. T.

0. Ba.
0. J. R. H.

0. M.*
P. A. H.

P. C. Y.

P. La.

R. de C. W.

R. H.*

R. J. M.
R. K. D.

R.L.*

R. N. B.
R. P. S.

Coleridge, J. D. C., 1st Baron.

RT. HON. SIR MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE GRANT-DUFF, G.C.S.I., F.R.S. (1829-

1906).

M.P. for the Elgin Burghs. 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India, 1868-
1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1881. Governor of Madras,
1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. President
of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European Politics;
Notes from a Diary ; &c.

MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. J

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. | Ueomenes.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.

MAX OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- 1 Chios (in part).
ham University, 1905-1908.

JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS.

Member of Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist I Clement VII.: antipope.
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Societe de 1'Histoire del Constance Council of
France and the Societe de 1'Ecole de Charles. Author of La France et le grand
schisme d' Occident ; &c.

NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. f"

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the I
Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and | vial ice.

Marriage in A ustralia ; &c. I

OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A.

Editor of the Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the '
Honourable Society of the Baronetage.

OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f

Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the < Coal (in part).
British Association. . I

OCTAVE MAUS, LL.D. (Brussels).

Advocate of the Court of Appeal at Brussels. Director of L'Art Moderne and of

La Libre Esthetique. President of the Association of Belgian writers. Officer oH Clays, Paul Jean.

the Legion of Honour. Author of Le Theatre de Bayreuth; Aux Ambassadeurs;

Malta, Constantinople et la Crimee; &c.

PERCY ALEXANDER MACMAHON, D.Sc., F.R.S. f

Late Major, R.A. Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade. Joint I combinatorial Analysis
General Secretary of the British Association. Formerly Professor of Physics, 1 *'OB inatorlal Analysis.
Ordnance College. President of London Mathematical Society, 1894-1896. I

Clanricarde, 1st Earl of;
Clanricarde, Marquess of;
Clarendon, 1st Earl of;
Clifford of Chudleigh;
Colepeper.

Collar.

PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.

PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. f

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly I

of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 vmna. tjeology.
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. [

ROBERT DE COURCY WARD, A.M. (Harvard). f

Assistant Professor of Climatology in the University of Harvard. Fellow of Royal I n:—-*., an(i
Meteorological Society, London. Sometime Editor of American Meteorological 1 *-umale
Journal. Author of Climate considered especially in Relation to Man ; &c.

SIR ROBERT HUNTER, C.B., M.A.

Solicitor to the Post Office. Author of The Preservation of Open Spaces and of J. Commons.
Footpaths and other Rights of Way; &c.

RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
Gazette, London.

Formerly Editor of the St James's

Chichester of Belfast;
Clare, 1st Earl of.

SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.

Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental .

Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese -{ China: History (in part}.

Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China;

China; Europe and the Far East; &c.

Che vro tain; Chimpanzee;
China: Fauna;
Chiroptera; Chiru;
Clouded Leopard.

f Chmielnicki;

RICHARD LYDEKK.ER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum ; The Deer of
all Lands; &c.

ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).

Formerly Assistant Librarian, British Museum. Author of Scandinavia: the Political J '

History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725; | Christian II., III., IV.;

Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796; &c. [ Christina Of Sweden.

R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I. B. A. r Chimney (in part);

Formerly Master of Architectural School and Surveyor, Royal Academy, London. Chimnevpiece'
Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, J rhn-r.
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Ferguson's vHOir,
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. I Column.

Xll
S. A. C.

S. J. L.

S. N.
S. P. T.

T. A. I.
T.As.
T. Ba.

T. F. C.
T. G. Br.

T. H. H.*

T. K. C.
T. Mu.

T. Se.

V. C.

W. A. B. C.

W. A. P.

W. B. B.
W. C. D. W.

W. F. C.
W. G. F.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.

Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew,
and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic
Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.

SIDNEY JAMES Low, M.A.

Fellow of King's College, London.

Chronicles, Books of

(in part).

__ ___- „-, Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Formerly

Editor of the St James's Gazette. Joint-editor of the Dictionary of English History. 1 Churchill, Lord Randolph.
Author of The Governance of England. Joint-author of vol. xii. of Longman's

Political History of England, 1837-1901.

SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.

SILVANUS PHILLIPS THOMPSON, M.D., D.Sc^ F.R.S.

Principal and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds Technical College, Fins- .
bury. Formerly President of Physical Society, of Institution of Electrical Engineers,
and of Rontgen Society. Author of Lectures on Light; Michael Faraday; &c.

THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.

Comet.

Compass (in part).

f Child, Sir Josiah; Children,
I Law Relating to (in part) ;
I Chiltern Hundreds; Clearing
I House; Confession: Law.

THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.), F.S.A. f Chioggia (in part) ;

Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Director of British School of Archaeo- J CirceiUS Mons; Clodia, Via;
logy at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Craven 1 Clusium; Collatia; Como;
Fellow, Oxford, 1897. [ Concordia.

SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. f

Member of the. Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council,
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems
of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.

Conquest.

DR THEODORE FRELINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D.

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A.

Clement VIII.-XIV.

Chitral.

Cherubim.

THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S.

Professor of Physiology in the University of Toronto. Author of Essentials CM Connective Tissues.
Experimental Physiology. t

COL. SIR THOMAS HUNGERPORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc. f

Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S.,
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's
Award; India; Tibet; &c.

REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.D., D.LITT.
See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.

THOMAS MUIR, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). ,

Superintendent-General of Education in Cape Colony. Formerly Assistant Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow. Vice-Chancellor of the J Circle (in part).
University of the Cape of Good Hope till 1901. Author of Theory of Determinants |
in the Historical Order of Development; History of Determinants; Text-Book of De- [
terminants; &c.

THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. (

Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J (Jhenier Andre de
University of London. Assistant Editor, Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-
1900. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c.

VALENTINE CHIROL.

Director of the Foreign Department of The Times. Author of The Middle Eastern •{ China: History (in part).
Question ; The Far Eastern Question ; &c. I

REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., D.Pn. (Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of-
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c. ^ Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889, &c.

WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, "1
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; The War of Greek Independence; &c.

Chaux de Fonds, La;
Coire; Como, Lake of;
Constance;
Constance, Lake of.
Chimere; Choir;
Church History (in part) ;
Clement VII.;
Confessional; Congress;
Constable.

' Coast Defence.

W. BAKER BROWN.

Lieut.-Col., Commanding Royal Engineers at Malta.

WILLIAM CECIL DAMPIER WHETHAM, M.A., F.R.S. f ronHnrtiAn

Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Theory of Solution; \ w»nnucMon,
Recent Development of Physical Science; &c. L *» Liquids.

WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. ("

New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, J Children, Law relating to
King's College, London. Author of Craies on Statute Law. Editor of Archbold's | (in part).
Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). L

WILLIAM GEORGE FREEMAN, B.Sc. (London), A.R.C.S.

Joint-author of Nature Teaching; The World's Commercial Products. Joint-editor
of Science Progress in the Twentieth Century.

Cocoa;
Coffee.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Xlll

W. K. S. WILLIAM KIRBY SULLIVAN, PH.D., D.Sc.

President of Queen's College, Cork, 1873-1890.

Author of Celtic Studies; Sue.

W. L. R. C. WILLIAM LIEST READWIN GATES (1821-1895).

Editor of Dictionary of General Biography. Author of A History of England from
the Death of Edward the Confessor to the Death of King John ; &c. Part author of
Encyclopaedia of Chronology.

W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

See the biographical article : ROSSETTI, D. G.

W. N. WALTER NERNST, PH.D.

Professor of Physical Chemistry in the University of Berlin. Director of the
Physico-Chemical Institute in the University. Member of the Royal Prussian
Academy of Science. Author of Theoretische Chemie ; &c.

W. 0. B. VEN. WINFRID OLDFIELD BURROWS, M.A.

Archdeacon of Birmingham. Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford, 1884-1891, and
Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891-1900.

W. R. S.* WILLIAM ROY SMITH, M.A., PH.D.

Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania.
Sectionalism in Pennsylvania during the Revolution ; &c.

W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.

See the biographical article : SMITH, W. R.

W. W. F.* WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans;
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period; &c.

W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
Author of Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen.

Clan.

-j Chronology (in part).

/ Cimabue;

I Claude of Lorraine.

1 Chemical Action.

J Confession: Religion;
\ Confirmation.

Author of -I Compromise Measures of 1850.
| Chronicles, Books of (in part).

Club: Greek and Roman.
Clement III., IV, V.

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Chatham, Earl of.

Chatterji.

Chatterton.

Cheering.

Chess.

Chicago.

Child.

Chilean Civil War.

Chile-Peruvian War.

Chillingworth.

Chino-Japanese War.

Chlorine.

Cholera.

Chopin.

Christian Science.

Chrysanthemum.

Chrysostom.

Churchill, Charles.

Cibber.

Cinque Ports.

Civil List.

Civil Service.

Clausewitz.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.

Clemenceau.

Clive, Lord.

Club-foot.

Cnossus.

Cobbett.

Cobden.

Cock-fighting.

Coco-nut Palm.

Code.

Coke, Sir Edward.

Collier, Jeremy.

Colony.

Colorado.

Colours, Military.

Commerce.

Common Order, Book of.

Communism.

Compositae.

Condorcet.

Condottiere.

Confirmation of Bishops.

Congreve, Sir William.

Conic Section.

Connecticut.

Conservative Party.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VI

CHATELET (from Med. Lat. castella), the word, sometimes
also written castillet, used in France for a building designed for the
defence of an outwork or gate, sometimes of great strength or
size, but distinguished from the ch&teau, or castle proper, in
being purely defensive and not residential. In Paris, before the
Revolution, this word was applied both to a particular building
and to the jurisdiction of which it was the seat. This build"ing,
the original Chatelet, had been first a castle defending the ap-
proach to the Cite. Tradition traced its existence back to Roman
times, and in the i8th century one of the rooms in the great
tower was still called the chambre de Cesar. The jurisdiction was
that of the provostship (pr&vdte) and viscountship of Paris, which
was certainly of feudal origin, probably going back to the counts
of Paris.

It was not till the time of Saint Louis that, with the appoint-
ment of Etienne Boileau, the provostship of Paris became a
prevote en garde, i.e. a public office no longer put up to sale.
When the baillis (see BAILIFF AND BAILIE) were created, the
provost of Paris naturally discharged the duties and functions
of a bailli, in which capacity he heard appeals from the seigniorial
and inferior judges of the city and its neighbourhood, keeping,
however, his title of provost. When under Henry II. certain
bailliages became presidial jurisdictions(presidiaux) , i.e. received
to a certain extent the right of judging without appeal, the
Chatelet, the court of the provost of Paris, was made a presidial
court, but without losing its former name. Finally, various
tribunals peculiar to the city of Paris, i.e. courts exercising
jurisdictions outside the common law or corresponding to certain
fours d'exceplion which existed in the provinces, were united with
the Chatelet, of which they became divisions (chambres). Thus
the lieutenant-general of police made it the seat of his juris-
diction, and the provost of the lie de France, who had the same
criminal jurisdiction as the provosts of the marshals of France
in other provinces, sat there also. As to the personnel of the
Chatelet, it was originally the same as in the bailliages, except
that after the i4th century it had some special officials, the
auditors and the examiners of inquests. Like the baillis, the
provost had lieutenants who were deputies for him, and in
addition gradually acquired a considerable body of ex officio
councillors. This last staff, however, was not yet in existence at
the end of the uth century, for it is not mentioned in the Registre
criminel du Chdlelet (1389-1392), published by the Societe des
Bibliophiles Francab. In 1674 the whole personnel was doubled,
at the time when the new Chatelet was established side by side
with the old, the two being soon after amalgamated. On the eve
of the Revolution it comprised, beside the provost whose office
had become practically honorary, the lieutenant civil, who
presided over the chambre de pr&vdte au pare civil or court of first
instance; the lieutenant criminel, who presided over the criminal

VI. I

court; two lieutenants particuliers, who presided in turn over
the chambre du presidial or court of appeal from the inferior
jurisdictions; a juge auditeur; sixty-four councillors (con-
seillers); the procureur du roi, four avocals du roi, and eight
substituts, i.e. deputies of the procureur (see PROCURATOR), beside
a host of minor officials. The history of the Chatelet under the
Revolution may be briefly told: the Constituent Assembly em-
powered it to try cases of lese-nation, and it was also before this
court that was opened the inquiry following on the events of
the sth and 6th of August 1789. It was suppressed by the law
of the i6th of August 1790, together with the other tribunals of
the ancien regime. (J. P. E.)

CHATELLERAULT, a town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Vienne, 19 m. N.N.E.
of Poitiers on the Orleans railway between that town and
Tours. Pop. (1906) 15,214. Chatellerault is situated on the
right and eastern bank of the Vienne; it is connected with the
suburb of Chateauneuf on the opposite side of the river by a
stone bridge of the i6th and I7th centuries, guarded at the
western extremity by massive towers. The manufacture of
cutlery is carried on on a large scale in villages on the banks of
the Clain, south of the town. Of the other industrial establish-
ments the most important is the national small-arms factory,
which was established in 1815 in Chateauneuf, and employs
from 1500 to 5500 men. Chatellerault (or Chatelherault :
Castellum Airaldi) derives its name from a fortress built in
the loth century by Airaud, viscount of its territory. In 1515
it was made a duchy in favour of Francois de Bourbon, but it
was not long after this date that it became reunited to the
crown. In 1548 it was bestowed on James Hamilton, 2nd earl
of Arran (see HAMILTON).

CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, ist EARL OF (1708-1778), English
statesman, was born at Westminster on the isth of November
1708. He was the younger son of Robert Pitt of Boconnoc,
Cornwall, and grandson of Thomas Pitt (1653-1726), governor
of Madras, who was known as " Diamond " Pitt, from the fact
of his having sold a diamond of extraordinary size to the regent
Orleans for something like £135,000. It was mainly by this
fortunate transaction that the governor was enabled to raise
his family, which was one of old standing, to a position of wealth
and political influence. The latter he acquired by purchasing
the burgage tenures of Old Sarum.

William Pitt was educated at Eton, and in January 1727 was
entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford.
There is evidence that he was an extensively read, if not a
minutely accurate classical scholar; and it is interesting to
know that Demosthenes was his favourite author, and that he
diligently cultivated the faculty of expression by the practice of
translation and re-translation. An hereditary gout, from which

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VI

CHATELET (from Med. Lat. caslella), the word, sometimes
also written castillet, used in France for a building designed for the
defence of an outwork or gate, sometimes of great strength or
size, but distinguished from the chateau, or castle proper, in
being purely defensive and not residential. In Paris, before the
Revolution, this word was applied both to a particular building
and to the jurisdicticn of which it was the seat. This building,
the original Chatelet, had been first a castle defending the ap-
proach to the Cite. Tradition traced its existence back to Roman
times, and in the i8th century one of the rooms in the great
tower was still called the chambre de Cesar. The jurisdiction was
that of the provostship (prevote) and viscountship of Paris, which
was certainly of feudal origin, probably going back to the counts
of Paris.

It was not till the time of Saint Louis that, with the appoint-
ment of Etienne Boileau, the provostship of Paris became a
prevote en garde, i.e. a public office no longer put up to sale.
When the baillis (see BAILIFF AND BAILIE) were created, the
provost of Paris naturally discharged the duties and functions
of a bailli, in which capacity he heard appeals from the seigniorial
and inferior judges of the city and its neighbourhood, keeping,
however, his title of provost. When under Henry II. certain
bailliages became presidial ]urisdictions(pr^sidiaux) , i.e. received
to a certain extent the right of judging without appeal, the
Chatelet, the court of the provost of Paris, was made a presidial
court, but without losing its former name. Finally, various
tribunals peculiar to the city of Paris, i.e. courts exercising
jurisdictions outside the common law or corresponding to certain
tours d'exception which existed in the provinces, were united with
the Chatelet, of which they became divisions (chambres). Thus
the lieutenant-general of police made it the seat of his juris-
diction, and the provost of the lie de France, who had the same
criminal jurisdiction as the provosts of the marshals of France
in other provinces, sat there also. As to the personnel of the
Chatelet, it was originally the same as in the bailliages, except
that after the i4th century it had some special officials, the
auditors and the examiners of inquests. Like the baillis, the
provost had lieutenants who were deputies for him, and in
addition gradually acquired a considerable body of ex officio
councillors. This last staff, however, was not yet in existence at
the end of the i4th century, for it is not mentioned in the Registre
criminel du Chdtelet (1389-1392), published by the Societe des
Bibliophiles Francab. In 1674 the whole personnel was doubled,
at the time when the new Chatelet was established side by side
with the old, the two being soon after amalgamated. On the eve
of the Revolution it comprised, beside the provost whose office
had become practically honorary, the lieutenant civil, who
presided over the chambre de prevote au pare civil or court of first
instance; the lieutenant criminel, who presided over the criminal

VI. I

court; two lieutenants particuliers, who presided in turn over
the chambre du presidial or court of appeal from the inferior
jurisdictions; a juge auditeur; sixty-four councillors (con-
seillers); the procureur du roi, four avocals du roi, and eight
substituts, i.e. deputies of the procureur (see PROCURATOR), beside
a host of minor officials. The history of the Chatelet under the
Revolution may be briefly told: the Constituent Assembly em-
powered it to try cases of lese-nation, and it was also before this
court that was opened the inquiry following on the events of
the 5th and 6th of August 1789. It was suppressed by the law
of the 1 6th of August 1790, together with the other tribunals of
the ancien regime. (J. P. E.)

CHATELLERAULT, a town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Vienne, 19 m. N.N.E.
of Poitiers on the Orleans railway between that town and
Tours. Pop. (1906) 15,214. Chatellerault is situated on the
right and eastern bank of the Vienne; it is connected with the
suburb of Chateauneuf on the opposite side of the river by a
stone bridge of the i6th and I7th centuries, guarded at the
western extremity by massive towers. The manufacture of
cutlery is carried on on a large scale in villages on the banks of
the Clain, south of the town. Of the other industrial establish-
ments the most important is the national small-arms factory,
which was established in 1815 in Chateauneuf, and employs
from 1500 to 5500 men. Chatellerault (or Chatelherault :
Castellum Airaldi) derives its name from a fortress built in
the loth century by Airaud, viscount of its territory. In 1515
it was made a duchy in favour of Francois de Bourbon, but it
was not long after this date that it became reunited to the
crown. In 1548 it was bestowed on James Hamilton, 2nd earl
of Arran (see HAMILTON).

CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, ist EARL OF (1708-1778), English
statesman, was born at Westminster on the isth of November
1708. He was the younger son of Robert Pitt of Boconnoc,
Cornwall, and grandson of Thomas Pitt (1653-1726), governor
of Madras, who was known as " Diamond " Pitt, from the fact
of his having sold a diamond of extraordinary size to the regent
Orleans for something like £135,000. It was mainly by this
fortunate transaction that the governor was enabled to raise
his family, which was one of old standing, to a position of wealth
and political influence. The latter he acquired by purchasing
the burgage tenures of Old Sarum.

William Pitt was educated at Eton, and in January 1727 was
entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford.
There is evidence that he was an extensively read, if not a
minutely accurate classical scholar; and it is interesting to
know that Demosthenes was his favourite author, and that he
diligently cultivated the faculty of expression by the practice of
translation and re-translation. An hereditary gout, from which

CHATHAM, EARL OF

he had suffered even during his school-days, compelled him to
leave the university without taking his degree, in order to travel
abroad. He spent some time in France and Italy; but the
disease proved intractable, and he continued subject to attacks
of growing intensity at frequent intervals till the close of his life.
In 1727 his father had died, and on his return home it was
necessary for him, as the younger son, to choose a profession.
Having chosen the army, he obtained through the interest of his
friends a cornet's commission in the dragoons. But his military
career was destined to be short. His elder brother Thomas
having been returned at the general election of 1734 both for
Oakhampton and for Old Sarum, and having preferred to sit for
the former, the family borough fell to the younger brother by the
sort of natural right usually recognized in such cases. Accord-
ingly, in February 1735, William Pitt entered parliament as
member for Old Sarum. Attaching himself at once to the formid-
able band of discontented Whigs known as the Patriots, whom
Walpole's love of exclusive power had forced into opposition
under Pulteney, he became in a very short time one of its most
prominent members. His maiden speech was delivered in April
1736, in the debate on the congratulatory address to the king on
the marriage of the prince of Wales. The occasion was one of
compliment, and there is nothing striking in the speech as re-
ported; but it served to gain for him the attention of the house
when he presented himself, as he soon afterwards did, in debates
of a party character. So obnoxious did he become as a critic of
the government, that Walpole thought fit to punish him by
procuring his dismissal from the army. Some years later he had
occasion vigorously to denounce the system of cashiering officers
for political differences, but with characteristic loftiness of spirit
he disdained to make any reference to his own case. The loss
of his commission was soon made up to him. The heir to the
throne, as was usually the case in the house of Hanover, if not
in reigning families generally, was the patron of the opposition,
and the ex-cornet became groom of the bed-chamber to the
prince of Wales. In this new position his hostility to the govern-
ment did not, as may be supposed, in any degree relax. He had
all the natural gifts an orator could desire — a commanding pres-
ence, a graceful though somewhat theatrical bearing, an eye of
piercing brightness, and a voice of the utmost flexibility. His
style, if occasionally somewhat turgid, was elevated and passion-
ate, and it always bore the impress of that intensity of conviction
which is the most powerful instrument a speaker can have to sway
the convictions of an audience. It was natural, therefore, that
in the series of stormy debates, protracted through several years,
that ended in the downfall of Walpole, his eloquence should have
been one of the strongest of the forces that combined to bring
about the final result. Specially effective, according to contem-
porary testimony, were his speeches against the Hanoverian
subsidies, against the Spanish convention in 1739, and in favour
of the motion in 1 742 for an investigation into the last ten years
of Walpole's administration. It must be borne in mind that the
reports of these speeches which have come down to us were made
from hearsay, or at best from recollection, and are necessarily
therefore most imperfect. The best-known specimen of Pitt's
eloquence, his reply to the sneers of Horatio Walpole at his youth
anddeclamatory manner,which has found a place in somanyhand-
books of elocution, is evidently, in form at least, the work, not of
Pitt, but of Dr Johnson, who furnished the report to the Gentle-
man's Magazine. Probably Pitt did say something of the kind
attributed to him, though even this is by no means certain in view
of Johnson's repentant admission that he had often invented not
merely the form, but the substance of entire debates.

In 1742 Walpole was at last forced to succumb to the long-
continued attacks of opposition, and was succeeded as prime
minister by the earl of Wilmington, though the real power in
the new government was divided between Carteret and the
Pelhams. Pitt's conduct on the change of administration was
open to grave censure. The relentless vindictiveness with
which he insisted on the prosecution of Walpole, and supported
the bill of indemnity to witnesses against the fallen minister,
was in itself not magnanimous; but it appears positively un-

worthy when it is known that a short time before Pitt had offered,
on certain conditions, to use all his influence in the other direction.
Possibly he was embittered at the time by the fact that, owing
to the strong personal dislike of the king, caused chiefly by the
contemptuous tone in which he had spoken of Hanover, he did
not by obtaining a place in the new ministry reap the fruits of
the victory to which he had so largely contributed. The so-called
" broad-bottom " administration formed by the Pelhams in
1744, after the dismissal of Carteret, though it included several
of those with whom he had been accustomed to act, did not at
first include Pitt himself even in a subordinate office. Before
the obstacle to his admission was overcome, he had received a
remarkable accession to his private fortune. The eccentric
duchess of Marlborough, dying in 1744, at the age of ninety,
left him a legacy of £10,000 as an " acknowledgment of the
noble defence he had made for the support of the laws of England
and to prevent the rum of his country." As her hatred was
known to be at least as strong as her love, the legacy was probably
as much a mark of her detestation of Walpole as of her admiration
of Pitt. It may be mentioned here, though it does not come in
chronological order, that Pitt was a second time the object of a
form of acknowledgment of public virtue which few statesmen
have had the fortune to receive even once. About twenty years
after the Marlborough legacy, Sir William Pynsent, a Somerset-
shire baronet to whom he was personally quite unknown, left
him his entire estate, worth about three thousand a year, in
testimony of approval of his political career.

It was with no very good grace that the king at length consented
to give Pitt a place in the government, although the latter did
all he could to ingratiate himself at court, by changing his tone
on the questions on which he had made himself offensive. To
force the matter, the Pelhams had to resign expressly on the
question whether he should be admitted or not, and it was only
after all other arrangements had proved impracticable, that they
were reinstated with the obnoxious politician as vice- treasurer
of Ireland. This was in February 1746. In May of the same
year he was promoted to the more important and lucrative office
of paymaster-general, which gave him a place in the privy council,
though not in the cabinet. Here he had an opportunity of display-
ing his public spirit and integrity in a way that deeply impressed
both the king and the country. It had been the usual practice
of previous paymasters to appropriate to themselves the interest
of all money lying in their hands by way of advance, and also to
accept a commission of \ % on all foreign subsidies. Although
there was no strong public sentiment against the practice, Pitt
altogether refused to profit by it. All advances were lodged by
him in the Bank of England until required, and all subsidies
were paid over without deduction, even though it was pressed
upon him, so that he did not draw a shilling from his office
beyond the salary legally attaching to it. Conduct like this,
though obviously disinterested, did not go without immediate
and ample reward, in the public confidence which it created,
and which formed the mainspring of Pitt's power as a statesman.

The administration formed in 1746 lasted without material
change till 1754. It would appear from his published corre-
spondence that Pitt had a greater influence in shaping its policy
than his comparatively subordinate position would in itself have
entitled him to. His conduct in supporting measures, such as
the Spanish treaty and the continental subsidies, which he
had violently denounced when in opposition, had been much
criticized; but within certain limits, not indeed very well
defined, inconsistency has never been counted a vice in an English
statesman. The times change, and he is not blamed for changing
with the times. Pitt in office, looking back on the commencement
of his public life, might have used the plea " A good deal has
happened since then," at least as justly as some others have
done. Allowance must always be made for the restraints and
responsibilities of office. In Pitt's case, too, it is to be borne in
mind that the opposition with which he had acted gradually
dwindled away, and that it ceased to have any organized existence
after the death of the prince of Wales in 1731. Then in regard
to the important question with Spain as to the right of search,

CHATHAM, EARL OF

Pitt has disarmed criticism by acknowledging that the course
he followed during Wapole's administration was indefensible.
All due weight being given to these various considerations, it
must be admitted, nevertheless, that Pitt did overstep the
limits within which inconsistency is usually regarded as venial.
His one great object was first to gain office, and then to make
his tenure of office secure by conciliating the favour of the king.
The entire revolution which much of his policy underwent in
order to effect this object bears too close a resemblance to the
sudden and inexplicable changes of front habitual to placemen
of the Tadpole Stamp to be altogether pleasant to -con template
in a politician of pure aims and lofty ambition. Humiliating
is not too strong a term to apply to a letter in which he expresses
his desire to " efface the past by every action of his life," in order
that he may stand well with the king.

In 1754 Henry Pelham died, and was succeeded at the head of
affairs by his brother, the duke of Newcastle. To Pitt the change
brought no advancement, and he had thus an opportunity of
testing tfce truth of the description of his chief given by Sir
Robert Walpole, " His name is treason." But there was for a
time no open breach. Pitt continued at his post; and at the
general election which took place during the year he even
accepted a nomination for the duke's pocket borough of Aid-
borough. He had sat for Seaford since 1747. When parliament
met, however, he was not long in showing the state of his feelings.
Ignoring Sir Thomas Robinson, the political nobody to whom
Newcastle had entrusted the management of the Commons,
he made frequent and vehement attacks on Newcastle himself,
though still continuing to serve under him. In this strange
state matters continued for about a year. At length, just after
the meeting of parliament in November 1751, Pitt was dismissed
from office, having on the debate on the address spoken at great
length against a new system of continental subsidies, proposed by
the government of which he was a member. Fox, who had
just before been appointed secretary of state, retained his place,
and though the two men continued to be of the same party, and
afterwards served again in the same government, there was
henceforward a rivalry between them, which makes the celebrated
opposition of their illustrious sons seem like an inherited quarrel.
. Another year had scarcely passed when Pitt was again in
power. The inherent weakness of the government, the vigour
and eloquence of his opposition, and a series of military disasters
abroad combined to rouse a public feeling of indignation which
could not be withstood, and in December 1756 Pitt, who now
sat for Okehampton, became secretary of state, and leader of
the Commons under the premiership of the duke of Devonshire.
He had made it a condition of his joining any administration
that Newcastle should be excluded from it, thus showing a
resentment which, though natural enough, proved fatal to the
lengthened existence of his government. With the king un-
friendly, and Newcastle, whose corrupt influence was still
dominant in the Commons, estranged, it was impossible to
carry on a government by the aid of public opinion alone, how-
ever emphatically that might have declared itself on his side.
In April 1757, accordingly, he found himself again dismissed
from office on account of his opposition to the king's favourite
continental policy. But the power that was insufficient to keep
him in office was strong enough to make any arrangement that
excluded him impracticable. The public voice spoke in a way
that was not to be mistaken. Probably no English minister
ever received in so short a time so many proofs of the confidence
and admiration of the public, the capital and all the chief towns

I voting him addresses and the freedom of their corporations.
From the political deadlock that ensued relief could only be had
by an arrangement between Newcastle and Pitt. After some
weeks' negotiation, in the course of which the firmness and
moderation of " the Great Commoner," as he had come to be
called, contrasted favourably with the characteristic tortuosities
sf the crafty peer, matters were settled on such a basis that,
while Newcastle was the nominal, Pitt was the virtual head of
the government. On his acceptance of office he was chosen
member for Bath.

This celebrated administration was formed in June 1757, and
continued in power till 1761. During the four years of its
existence it has been usual to say that the biography of Pitt is
the history of England, so thoroughly was he identified with the
great events which make this period, in so far as the external
relations of the country are concerned, one of the most glorious
in her annals. A detailed account of these events belongs to
history; all that is needed in a biography is to point out the
extent to which Pitt's personal influence may really be traced
in them. It is scarcely too much to say that, in the general
opinion of his contemporaries, the whole glory of these years
was due to his single genius; his alone was the mind that planned,
and his the spirit that animated the brilliant achievements of
the British arms in all the four quarters of the globe. Posterity,
indeed, has been able to recognize more fully the independent
genius of those who carried out his purposes. The heroism of
Wolfe would have been irrepressible, Clive would have proved
himself " a heaven-born general," and Frederick the Great
would have written his name in history as one of the most skilful
strategists the world has known, whoever had held the seals of
office in England. But Pitt's relation to all three was such as to
entitle him to a large share in the credit of their deeds. It was
his discernment that selected Wolfe to lead the attack on Quebec,
and gave him the opportunity of dying a victor on the heights of
Abraham. He had personally less to do with the successes in
India than with the other great enterprises that shed an undying
lustre on his administration; but his generous praise in parlia-
ment stimulated the genius of Clive, and the forces that acted
at the close of the struggle were animated by his. indomitable
spirit. Pitt, the first real Imperialist in modern English history,
was the directing mind in the expansion of his country, and
with him the beginning of empire is rightly associated. The
Seven Years' War might well, moreover, have been another
Thirty Years' War if Pitt had not furnished Frederick with
an annual subsidy of £700,000, and in addition relieved him of
the task of defending western Germany against France.

Contemporary opinion was, of course, incompetent to estimate
the permanent results gained, for the country by the brilliant
foreign policy of Pitt. It has long been generally agreed that
by several of his most costly expeditions nothing was really won
but glory. It has even been said that the only permanent
acquisition that England owed directly to him was her Canadian
dominion; and, strictly speaking, this is true, it being admitted
that the campaign by which the Indian empire was virtually won
was not planned by him, though brought to a successful issue
during his ministry. But material aggrandizement, though
the only tangible, is not the only real or lasting effect of a war
policy. More may be gained by crushing a formidable rival than
by conquering a province. The loss of her Canadian possessions
was only one of a series of disasters suffered by France, which
radically affected the future of Europe and the world. Deprived
of her most valuable colonies both in the East and in the West,
and thoroughly defeated on the continent, her humiliation was
the beginning of a new epoch in history. The victorious policy
of Pitt destroyed the military prestige which repeated experience
has shown to be in France as in no other country the very life
of monarchy, and thus was not the least considerable of the many
influences that slowly brought about the French Revolution.
It effectually deprived her of the lead in the councils of Europe
which she had hitherto arrogated to herself, and so affected the
whole course of continental politics. It is such far-reaching
results as these, and not the mere acquisition of a single colony,
however valuable, that constitute Pitt's claim to be considered
as on the whole the most powerful minister that ever guided the
foreign policy of England.

The first and most important of a series of changes which
ultimately led to the dissolution of the ministry was the death
of George II. on the 2Sth of October 1760, and the accession of
his grandson, George III. The new king had, as was natural, new
counsellors of his own, the chief of whom, Lord Bute, was at once
admitted to the cabinet as a secretary of state. Between Bute
and Pitt there speedily arose an occasion of serious difference.

CHATHAM, EARL OF

The existence of the so-called family compact by which the
Bourbons of France and Spain bound themselves in an offensive
alliance against England having been brought to light, Pitt urged
that it should be met by an immediate declaration of war with
Spain. To this course Bute would not consent, and as his refusal
was endorsed by all his colleagues save Temple, Pitt had no
choice but to leave a cabinet in which his advice on a vital
question had been rejected. On his resignation, which took
place in October 1761, the king urged him to accept some signal
mark of royal favour in the form most agreeable to himself.
Accordingly he obtained a pension of £3000 a year for three lives,
and his wife, Lady Hester Grenville, whom he had married in
1754, was created Baroness Chatham in her own right. In con-
nexion with the latter gracefully bestowed honour it may be
mentioned that Pitt's domestic life was a singularly happy one.

Pitt's spirit was too lofty to admit of his entering on any
merely factious opposition to the government he had quitted.
On the contrary, his conduct after his retirement was dis-
tinguished by a moderation and disinterestedness which, as
Burke has remarked, " set a seal upon his character." The war
with Spain, in which he had urged the cabinet to take the initia-
tive, proved inevitable; but he scorned to use the occasion
for " altercation and recrimination," and spoke in support of
the government measures for carrying on the war. To the
preliminaries of the peace concluded in February 1763 he offered
an indignant resistance, considering the terms quite inadequate
to the successes that had been gained by the country. When the
treaty was discussed in parliament in December of the preceding
year, though suffering from a severe attack of gout, he was carried
down to the House, and in a speech of three hours' duration,
interrupted more than once by paroxysms of pain, he strongly
protested against its various conditions. The physical cause
which rendered this effort so painful probably accounts for the
infrequency of his appearances in parliament, as well as for much
that is otherwise inexplicable in his subsequent conduct. In
1763 he spoke against the obnoxious tax on cider, imposed by
his brother-in-law, George Grenville, and his opposition, though
unsuccessful in the House, helped to keep alive his popularity
with the country, which cordially hated the excise and all con-
nected with it. When next year the question of general warrants
was raised in connexion with the case of Wilkes, Pitt vigorously
maintained their illegality, thus defending at once the privileges
of Parliament and the freedom of the press. During 1765 he
seems to have been totally incapacitated for public business.
In the following year he supported with great power the pro-
posal of the Rockingham administration for the repeal of the
American Stamp Act, arguing that it was unconstitutional to
impose taxes upon the colonies. He thus endorsed the contention
of the colonists on the ground of principle, while the majority of
those who acted with him contented themselves with resisting the
disastrous taxation scheme on the ground of expediency. The
Repeal Act, indeed, was only passed pari passu with another
censuring the American assemblies, and declaring the authority
of the British parliament over the colonies " in all cases what-
soever "; so that the House of Commons repudiated in the most
formal manner the principle Pitt laid down. His language in
approval of the resistance of the colonists was unusually bold,
and perhaps no one but himself could have employed it with
impunity at a time when the freedom of debate was only im-
perfectly conceded.

Pitt had not been long out of office when he was solicited to
return to it, and the solicitations were more than once renewed.
Unsuccessful overtures were made to him in 1763, and twice
in 1765, in May and June — the negotiator in May being the
king's uncle, the duke of Cumberland, who went down in person
to Hayes, Pitt's seat in Kent. It is known that he had the
opportunity of joining the marquis of Rockingham's short-lived
administration at any time on his own terms, and his conduct
in declining an arrangement with that minister has been more
generally condemned than any other step in his public life. In
July 1766 Rockingham was dismissed, and Pitt was entrusted by
the king with the task of forming a government entirely on his

own conditions. The result was a cabinet, strong much beyond
the average in its individual members, but weak to powerlessness
in the diversity of its composition. Burke, in a memorable
passage of a memorable speech, has described this " chequered
and speckled " administration with great humour, speaking of
it as " indeed a very curious show, but utterly unsafe to touch
and unsure to stand on." Pitt chose for himself the office of
lord privy seal, which necessitated his removal to the House of
Lords; and in August he became earl of Chatham and Viscount
Pitt.

By the acceptance of a peerage the great commoner lost at
least as much and as suddenly in popularity as he gained in
dignity. One significant indication of this may be mentioned.
In view of his probable accession to power, preparations were
made in the city of London for a banquet and a general illumina-
tion to celebrate the event. But the celebration was at once
countermanded when it was known that he had become earl of
Chatham. The instantaneous revulsion of public feeling was
somewhat unreasonable, for Pitt's health seems now to have
been beyond doubt so shattered by his hereditary malady, that
he was already in old age though only fifty-eight. It was natural,
therefore, that he should choose a sinecure office, and the ease of
the Lords. But a popular idol nearly always suffers by removal
from immediate contact with the popular sympathy, be the
motives for removal what they may.

One of the earliest acts of the new ministry was to lay an
embargo upon corn, which was thought necessary in order to
prevent a dearth resulting from the unprecedentedly bad
harvest of 1 766. The measure was strongly opposed, and Lord
Chatham delivered his first speech in the House of Lords in
support of it. It proved to be almost the only measure intro-
duced by hisgovernment in which hepersonally interes ted himself .
His attention had been directed to the growing importance of
the affairs of India, and there is evidence in his correspondence
that he was meditating a comprehensive scheme for transferring
much of the power of the company to the crown, when he was
withdrawn from public business in a manner that has always
been regarded as somewhat mysterious. It may be questioned,
indeed, whether even had his powers been unimpaired he could
have carried out any decided policy on any question with a
cabinet representing interests so various and conflicting; but,
as it happened, he was incapacitated physically and mentally
during nearly the whole period of his tenure of office. He
scarcely ever saw any of his colleagues though they repeatedly
and urgently pressed for interviews with him, and even an offer
from the king to visit him in person was declined, though in the
language of profound and almost abject respect which always
marked his communications with the court. It has been in-
sinuated both by contemporary and by later critics that being
disappointed at his loss of popularity, and convinced of the
impossibility of co-operating with his colleagues, he exaggerated
his malady as a pretext for the inaction that was forced upon
him by circumstances. But there is no sufficient reason to doubt
that he was really, as his friends represented, in a state that
utterly unfitted him for business. He seems to have been freed
for a time from the pangs of gout only to be afflicted with a
species of mental alienation bordering on insanity. This is the
most satisfactory, as it is the most obvious, explanation of
his utter indifference in presence of one of the most momentous
problems that ever pressed for solution on an English statesman.
Those who are able to read the history in the light of what
occurred later may perhaps be convinced that no policy whatever
initiated after 1766 could have prevented or even materially
delayed the declaration of American independence; but to the
politicians of that time the coming event had not yet cast so
dark a shadow before as to paralyse all action, and if any man
could have allayed the growing discontent of the colonists and
prevented the ultimate dismemberment of the empire, it would
have been Lord Chatham. The fact that he not only did nothing
to remove existing difficulties, but remained passive while his
colleagues took the fatal step which led directly to separation,
is in itself clear proof of his entire incapacity. The imposition

CHATHAM

S

of the import duty on tea and other commodities was the project
of Charles Townshend, and was carried into effect in 1 767 without
consultation with Lord Chatham, if not in opposition to his
wishes. It is probably the most singular thing in connexion
with this singular administration, that its most pregnant measure
should thus have been one directly opposed to the well-known
principles of its head.

For many months things remained in the curious position that
he who was understood to be the head of the cabinet had as little
share in the government of the country as an unenfranchised
peasant. As the chief could not or would not lead, the sub-
ordinates naturally chose their own paths and not his. The
lines of Chatham's policy were abandoned in other cases besides
the imposition of the import duty; his opponents were taken
into confidence; and friends, such as Amherst and Shelburne,
were dismissed from their posts. When at length in October
1768 he tendered his resignation on the ground of shattered
health, he did not fail to mention the dismissal of Amherst and
Shelburne as a personal grievance.

Soon after his resignation a renewed attack of gout freed
Chatham from the mental disease under which he had so long
suffered. He had been nearly two years and a half in seclusion
when, in July 1769, he again appeared in public at a royal levee.
It was not, however, until 1770 that he resumed his seat in the
House of Lords. He had now almost no personal following,
mainly owing to the grave mistake he had made in not forming
an alliance with the Rockingham party. But his eloquence was
as powerful as ever, and all its power was directed against the
government policy in the contest with America, which had
become the question of all-absorbing interest. His last appear-
ance in the House of Lords was on the 7th of April 1778, on the
occasion of the duke of Richmond's motion for an address
praying the king to conclude peace with America on any terms.
In view of the hostile demonstrations of France the various
parties had come generally to see the necessity of such a measure.
But Chatham could not brook the thought of a step which
implied submission to the " natural enemy " whom it had been
the main object of his life to humble, and he declaimed for a
considerable time, though with sadly diminished vigour, against
the motion. After the duke of Richmond had replied, he rose
again excitedly as if to speak, pressed his hand upon his breast,
and fell down in a fit. He was removed to his seat at Hayes,
where he died on the nth of May. With graceful unanimity
all parties combined to show their sense of the national loss.
The Commons presented an address to the king praying that the
deceased statesman might be buried with the honours of a public
funeral, and voted a sum for a public monument which was
erected over his grave in Westminster Abbey. Soon after the
funeral a bill was passed bestowing a pension of £4000 a year
on his successors in the earldom, He had a family of three
sons and two daughters, of whom the second son, William,
was destined to add fresh lustre to a name which is one of the
greatest in the history of England.

Dr Johnson is reported to have said that " Walpole was a
minister given by the king to the people, but Pitt was a minister
given by the people to the king," and the remark correctly
indicates Chatham's distinctive place among English statesmen.
He was the first minister whose main strength lay in the support
of the nation at large as distinct from its representatives in the
Commons, where his personal following was always small. He
was the first to discern that public opinion, though generally
slow to form and slow to act, is in the end the paramount power
in the state; and he was the first to use it not in an emergency
merely, but throughout a whole political career. He marks the
commencement of that vast change in th.e movement of English
politics by which it has come about that the sentiment of the
great mass of the people now tells effectively on the action of
the government from day to day, — almost from hour to hour.
He was well fitted to secure the sympathy and admiration of his
countrymen, for his virtues and his failings were alike English.
He was often inconsistent, he was generally intractable and
overbearing, and he was always pompous and affected to a

degree which, Macaulay has remarked, seems scarcely compatible
with true greatness. Of the last quality evidence is furnished
in the stilted style of his letters, and in the fact recorded by
Seward that he never permitted his under-secretaries to sit in
his presence. Burke speaks of " some significant, pompous,
creeping, explanatory, ambiguous matter, in the true Chathamic
style." But these defects were known only to the inner circle
of his associates. To the outside public he was endeared as a
statesman who could do or suffer " nothing base," and who had
the rare power of transfusing his own indomitable energy and
courage into all who served under him. " A spirited foreign
policy " has always been popular in England, and Pitt was the
most popular of English ministers, because he was the most
successful exponent of such a policy. In domestic affairs his
influence was small and almost entirely indirect. He himself
confessed his unfitness for dealing with questions of finance. The
commercial prosperity that was produced by his war policy was
in a great part delusive, as prosperity so produced must always
be, though it had permanent effects of the highest moment in the
rise of such centres of industry as Glasgow. This, however, was
a remote result which he could have neither intended nor foreseen.
The correspondence of Lord Chatham, in four volumes, was
published in 1838-1840; and a volume of his letters to Lord Camel-
ford in 1804. The Rev. Francis Thackeray's History of the Rt. Hon.
William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (2 vols., 1827), is a ponderous and
shapeless work. Frederic Harrison's Chatham, in the " Twelve
English Statesmen " series (1905), though skilfully executed, takes a
rather academic and modern Liberal view. A German work, William
Pitt, Graf von Chatham, by Albert von Ruville (3 vols., 1905; English
trans. 1907), is the best and most thorough account of Chatham,
his period, and his policy, which has appeared. See also the separate
article on William Pitt, and the authorities referred tc, especially
the Rev. William Hunt's appendix i. to his vol. x. of The Political
History of England (1905).

CHATHAM, also called MIRAMICHI, an incorporated town and
portof entryin Northumberland county, New Brunswick, Canada,
on the Miramichi river, 24 m. from its mouth and 10 m. by rail
from Chatham junction on the Intercolonial railway. Pop. (1901)
5000. The town contains the Roman Catholic pro-cathedral,
many large saw-mills, pulp-mills, and several establishments
for curing and exporting fish. The lumber trade, the fisheries,
and the manufacture of pulp are the chief industries.

CHATHAM, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and
the capital of Kent county, situated 64 m. S.W. of London,
and 1 1 m. N. of Lake Erie, on the Thames river and the Grand
Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Lake Erie & Detroit River railways.
Pop. (1901) 9068. It has steamboat connexion with Detroit and
the cities on Lakes Huron and Erie. It is situated in a rich agri-
cultural and fruit-growing district, and carries on a large export
trade. It contains a large wagon factory, planing and flour mills,
manufactories of fanning mills, binder-twine, woven wire goods,
engines, windmills, &c.

CHATHAM, a port and municipal and parliamentary borough
of Kent, England, on the right bank of the Medway, 34 m.
E.S.E. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1891) 31,657; (1901) 37,057. Though a distinct borough
it is united on the west with Rochester and on the east with
Gillingham, so that the three boroughs form, in appearance, a
single town with a population which in 1901 exceeded 110,000.
With the exception of the dockyards and fortifications there are
few objects of interest. St Mary's church was opened in 1903, but
occupies a site which bore a church in Saxon times, though the
previous building dated only from 1786. A brass commemorates
Stephen Borough (d. 1584), discoverer of the northern passage
to Archangel in Russia (1553). St Bartholomew's chapel,
originally attached to the hospital for lepers (one of the first in
England), founded by Gundulph, bishop of Rochester, in 1070,
is in part Norman. The funds for the maintenance of the hospital
were appropriated by decision of the court of chancery to the
hospital of St Bartholomew erected in 1863 within the boundaries
of Rochester. The almshouse established in 1592 by Sir John
Hawkins for decayed seamen and shipwrights is still extant, the
building having been re-erected in the 1 9th century; but the fund
called the Chatham Chest, originated by Hawkins and Drake in

6

CHATHAM ISLANDS

1588, was incorporated with Greenwich Hospital in 1802. In
front of the Royal Engineers' Institute is a statue (1890) of
General Gordon, and near the railway station another (1888) to
Thomas Waghorn, promoter of the overland route to India. In
1905 King Edward VII. unveiled a fine memorial arch com-
memorating Royal Engineers who fell in the South African War.
It stands in the parade ground of the Brompton barracks, facing
the Crimean arch. There are numerous brickyards, lime-kilns
and flour-mills in the district neighbouring to Chatham; and the
town carries on a large retail trade, in great measure owing to
the presence of the garrison. The fortifications are among the
most elaborate in the kingdom. The so-called Chatham Lines
enclose New Brompton, a part of the borough of Gillingham.
They were begun in 1758 and completed in 1807, but have been
completely modernized. They are strengthened by several
detached forts and redoubts. Fort Pitt, which rises above the
town to the west, was built in 1779, and is used as a general
military hospital. It was regarded as the principal establishment
of the kind in the country till the foundation of Netley in Hamp-
shire. The lines include the Chatham, the Royal Marine, the
Brompton, the Hut, St Mary's and naval barracks; the garrison
hospital, Melville hospital for sailors and marines, the arsenal,
gymnasium, various military schools, convict prison, and finally
the extensive dockyard system for which the town is famous.
This dockyard covers an area of 516 acres, and has a river
frontage of over 3 m. It was brought into its present state by
the extensive works begun about 1867. Before that time there
was no basin or wet-dock, though the river Medway to some
extent answered the same purpose, but a portion of the adjoin-
ing salt-marshes was then taken in, and three basins have been
constructed, communicating with each other by means of large
locks, so that ships can pass from the bend of the Medway at
Gillingham to that at Upnor. Four graving docks were also
formed, opening out of the first (Upnor) basin. Subsequent
improvements included dredging operations in the Medway to
improve the approach, and the provision of extra dry-dock
accommodation under the Naval Works Acts.

The parliamentary borough returns one member. The town
was incorporated in 1890, and is governed by a mayor, six alder-
men and eighteen councillors. Area, 4355 acres. The borough
includes the suburb (an ecclesiastical parish) of Luton, in which
are the waterworks of Chatham and the adjoining towns.

Chatham (Ceteham, Chetham) belonged at the time of the
Domesday Survey to Odo, bishop of Bayeux. During the
middle ages it formed a suburb of Rochester, but Henry VIII.
in founding a regular navy began to establish dockyards, and the
harbour formed by the deep channel of the Medway was utilized
by Elizabeth, who built a dockyard and established an arsenal
here. The dockyard was altered and improved by Charles I.
and Charles II., and became the chief naval station of England.
In 1708 an act was passed for extending the fortifications of
Chatham. During the excavations on Chatham Hill after 1 758 a
number of tumuli containing human remains, pottery, coins, &c.,
suggestive of an ancient settlement, were found. Chatham was
constituted a parliamentary borough by the Reform Bill of 1832.
In the time of Edward III. the lord of the manor had two fairs,
one on the 24th of August and the other on the 8th of September.
A market to be held on Tuesday, and a fair on the 4th, 5th and
6th of May, were granted by Charles II. in 1679, and another
provision market on Saturday by James II. in 1688. In 1738
fairs were held on the 4th of May and the 8th of September, and
a market every Saturday.

CHATHAM ISLANDS, a small group in the Pacific Ocean,
forming part of New Zealand, 536 m. due E. of Lyttelton in the
South Island, about 44° S., 177° W. It consists of three
islands, a large one called Whairikauri, or Chatham Island, a
smaller one, Rangihaute, or Pitt Island, and a third, Rangatira,
or South-east Island. There are also several small rocky islets.
Whairikauri, whose highest point reaches about 1000 ft., is
remarkable for the number of lakes and tarns it contains, and for
the extensive bogs which cover the surface of nearly the whole
of the uplands. It is of very irregular form, about 38 m. in

length and 25 m. in extreme breadth, with an area of 321 sq. m.
— a little larger than Middlesex. The geological formation is
principally of volcanic rocks, with schists and tertiary limestone;
and an early physical connexion of the islands with New Zealand
is indicated by their geology and biology. The climate is colder
than that of New Zealand. In the centre of Whairikauri is a
large brackish lake called Tewanga, which at the southern end
is separated from the sea by a sandbank only 1 50 yds. wide, which
it occasionally bursts through. The southern part of the island
has an undulating surface, and is covered either with an open
forest or with high ferns. In general the soil is extremely fertile,
and where it is naturaDy drained a rich vegetation of fern and
flax occurs. On the north-west are several conical hills of basalt,
which are surrounded by oases of fertile soil. On the south-
western side is Petre Bay, on which, at the mouth of the river
Mantagu, is Waitangi, the principal settlement.

The islands were discovered in 1791 by Lieutenant W. R.
Broughton (1762-1821), who gave them the name of Chatham
from the brig which he commanded. He described the natives
as a bright, pleasure-loving people, dressed in sealskins or mats,
and calling themselves Morioris or Maiorioris. In 1831 they
were conquered by 800 Maoris who were landed from a European
vessel. They were almost exterminated, and an epidemic of
influenza in 1839 killed half of those left; ten years later there
were only 90 survivors out of a total population of 1 200. They
subsequently decreased still further. Their language was allied
to that of the Maoris of New Zealand, but they differed somewhat
from them in physique, and they were probably a cross between
an immigrating Polynesian group and a lower indigenous Melan-
esian stock. The population of the islands includes about 200
whites of various races and the same number of natives (chiefly
Maoris). Cattle and sheep are bred, and a trade is carried on in
them with the whalers which visit these seas. The chief export
from the group is wool, grown upon runs farmed both by Euro-
peans and Morioris. There is also a small export by the natives
of the flesh of young albatrosses and other sea-birds, boiled down
and cured, for the Maoris of New Zealand, by whom it is reckoned
a delicacy. The imports consist of the usual commodities '
required by a population where little of the land is actually
cultivated.

There are no indigenous mammals; the reptiles belong to
New Zealand species. The birds — the largest factor hi the fauna
— have become very greatly reduced through the introduction
of cats, dogs and pigs, as well as by the constant persecution of
every sort of animal by the natives. The larger bell-bird (Anlh-
ornis melanocephala) has become quite scarce ; the magnificent
fruit-pigeon (Carpophaga chathamensis), and the two endemic
rails (Nesolimnas dieffenbachii and Cabalus modes tits), the one of
which was confined to Whairikauri and the other to Mangare
Island, are extinct. Several fossil or subfossil avian forms, very
interesting from the point of view of geographical distribution,
have been discovered by Dr H. O. Forbes, namely, a true species
of raven (Palaeocorax moriorum), a remarkable rail (Diaphora-
pteryx), closely related to the extinct Aphanapteryx of Mauritius,
and a large coot (Palaeolimnas chathamensis). There have also
been discovered the remains of a species of swan belonging to
the South American genus Chenopis, and of the tuatara (Halteria)
lizard, the unique species of an ancient family now surviving only
in New Zealand. The swan is identical with an extinct species
found in caves and kitchen-middens hi New Zealand, which was
contemporaneous with the prehistoric Maoris and was largely
used by them for food. One of the finest of the endemic flower-
ing plants of the group is the boraginaceous " Chatham Island
lily " (Myositidium nobile), a gigantic forget-me-not, which grows
on the shingly shore in a few places only, and always just on
the high-water mark, where it is daily deluged by the waves;
while dracophyllums, leucopogons and arborescent ragworts are
characteristic forms in the vegetation.

See Bruno Weiss, Funpig Jahre auf Chatham Island (Berlin,
1900) ; H. O. Forbes, " The Chatham Islands and their Story,"
Fortnightly Review (1893), vol. liii. p. 665, "The Chatham Islands,
their relation to a former Southern Continent," Supplementary

CHATILLON— CHATTANOOGA

Paper}, R.G.S., vol. iii. (1893); J. H. Scott, "The Osteology of
the Maori and the Moriori," Trans. New Zealand Institute, vol. xxvi.
(1893); C. W. Andrews, "The Extinct Birds of the Chatham
Islands," Novitates Zoologicae, vol. ii. p. 73 (1896).

CHATILLON, the name of a French family whose history has
furnished material for a large volume in folio by A. du Chesne,
a learned Frenchman, published in 1621. But in spite of its
merits this book presents a certain number of inaccurate state-
ments, some of which it is important to notice. If, for instance,
it be true that the Chatillons came from Chatillon-sur-Marne
(Marne, arrondissement of Reims), it is now certain that, since
the nth century, this castle belonged to the count of Cham-
pagne, and that the head of the house of Chatillon was merely
tenant in that place. One of them, however, Gaucher of Chatillon,
lord of Cr6cy and afterwards constable of France, became in
1290 lord of Chatillon-sur-Marne by exchange, but since 1303 a
new agreement allotted to him the countship of Porcien, while
Chatillon reverted to the domain of the counts of Champagne.
It may be well to mention also that, in consequence of a resem-
blance of their armorial bearings, du Chesne considered wrongly
that the lords of Bazoches and those of Chateau-Porcien of the
j 2th and i3th centuries drew their descent from the house of
Chatillon.

The most important branches of the house of Chatillon were
those of (i) St Pol, beginning with Gaucher III. of Chatillon,
who became count of St Pol in right of his wife Isabelle in 1205,
the last male of the line being Guy V. (d. 1360); (2) Blois,
founded by the marriage of Hugh of Chatillon-St Pol (d. 1 248)
with Mary, daughter of Margaret of Blois (d. 1230), — this branch
became extinct with the death of Guy II. in 1397; (3) Porcien,
from 1303 to 1400, when Count John sold the countship to Louis,
duke of Orleans; (4) Penthievre, by the marriage of Charles of
Blois (d. 1364) with Jeanne (d. 1384), heiress of Guy, count of
Penthievre (d. 1331), the male line becoming extinct in 1457.

See A. du Chesne, Histoire genealogique de la maison de Chastillon-
sur-Marne (1621); Anselme, Histoire genealogique de la maison
royale de France, vi. 91-124 (1730). (A. Lo.)

CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE, a town of eastern France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of C6te-d'Or, on the
Eastern and Paris-Lyon railways, 67 m. N.N.W. of Dijon,
between that city and Troyes. Pop. (1906) 4430. It is situated
on both banks of the upper Seine, which is swelled at its
entrance to the town by the Douix, one of the most abundant
springs in France. Chatillon is constructed on ample lines and
rendered attractive by beautiful promenades. Some ruins on
an eminence above it mark the jite of a chateau of the dukes of
Burgundy. Near by stands the church of St Vorle of the loth
century, but with many additions of later date; it contains a
sculptured Holy Sepulchre of the i6th century and a number of
frescoes. In a fine park stands a modern chateau built by
Marshal Marmont, duke of Ragusa, born at Chatillon in 1774.
It was burnt in 1871, and subsequently rebuilt. The town
preserves several interesting old houses. Chatillon has a sub-
prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a school
of agriculture and a communal college. Among its industries
are brewing, iron-founding and the manufacture of mineral and
other blacks. It has trade in wood, charcoal, lithographic and
other stone. Chatillon anciently consisted of two parts, Chau-
mont, belonging to the duchy of Burgundy, and Bourg, ruled by
the bishop of Langres; it did not coalesce into one town till the
end of the i6th century. It was taken by the English in 1360 and
by Louis XI. in 1475, during his struggle with Charles the Bold.
Chatillon was one of the first cities to adhere to the League, but
suffered severely from the oppression of its garrisons and gover-
nors, and in 1 595 made voluntary submission to Henry IV. In
modern times it is associated with the abortive conference of
1814 between the representatives of Napoleon and the Allies.

CHATSWORTH, a village of Derbyshire, England, containing
a seat belonging to the duke of Devonshire, one of the most
splendid private residences in England. Chatsworth House is
situated close to the left bank of the river Derwent, 2$ m. from
Bakewell. It is Ionic in style, built foursquare, and enclosing a
large open courtyard, with a fountain in the centre. In front,

a beautiful stretch of lawn slopes gradually down to the riverside,
and a bridge, from which may best be seen the grand facade of
the building, as it stands out in relief against the wooded ridge
of Bunker's Hill. The celebrated gardens are adorned with
sculptures by Gabriel Gibber; Sir Joseph Paxton designed the
great conservatory, unrivalled in Europe, which covers an acre;
and the fountains, which include one with a jet 260 ft. high, are
said to be surpassed only by those at Versailles. Within the
house there is a very fine collection of pictures, including the
well-known portraits by Reynolds of Georgiana, duchess of
Devonshire. Other paintings are asccribed to Holbein, Dtirer,
Murillo, Jan van Eyck, Dolci, Veronese and Titian. Hung in the
gallery of sketches there are some priceless drawings attributed
to Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Raffaelle, Correggio, Titian
and other old masters. Statues by Canova, Thorwaldsen,
Chantrey and R. J. Wyatt are included among the sculptures.
In the state apartments the walls and window-panes are in some
cases inlaid with marble or porphyry; the woodcarving, mar-
vellous for its intricacy, grace and lightness of effect, is largely
the work of Samuel Watson of Heanor (d. 1715). Chatsworth
Park is upwards of n m. in circuit, and contains many noble
forest-trees, the whole being watered by the Derwent, and
surrounded by high moors and uplands. Beyond the river, and
immediately opposite the house, stands the model village of
Edensor, where most of the cottages were built in villa style, with
gardens, by order of the 6th duke. The parish church, restored
by the same benefactor, contains an old brass in memory of
John Beaton, confidential servant to Mary, queen of Scots, who
died in 1570; and in the churchyard are the. graves of Lord
Frederick Cavendish, murdered in 1882 in Phoenix Park,
Dublin, and of Sir Joseph Paxton.

Chatsworth (Chetsvorde, Chetdsvorde, " the court of Chetel ")
took its name from Chetel, one of its Saxon owners, who held it
of Edward the Confessor. It belonged to the crown and was
entrusted by the Conqueror to the custody of William Peverell.
Chatsworth afterwards belonged for many generations to the
family of Leech, and was purchased in the reign of Elizabeth
by Sir William Cavendish, husband of the famous Bess of
Hardwick. In 1557 he began to build Chatsworth House, and
it was completed after his death by his widow, then countess of
Shrewsbury. Here Mary, queen of Scots, spent several years of
her imprisonment under the care of the earl of Shrewsbury.
During the Civil War, Chatsworth was occasionally occupied
as a fortress by both parties. It was pulled down, and the
present house begun by William, ist duke of Devonshire in 1688.
The little village consists almost exclusively of families employed
upon the estate.

CHATTANOOGA, a city and the county-seat of Hamilton
county, Tennessee, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, about
300 m. S. of Cincinnati, Ohio, and 150 m. S.E. of Nashville,
Tennessee, on the Tennessee river, and near the boundary line
between Tennessee and Georgia. Pop. (1860) 2545; (1870)
•6093; (1880) 12,892; (1890) 29,100; (1900)30,154, of whom 994
were foreign-born and 13,122 were negroes; (U. S. census, 1910)
44,604. The city is served by the Alabama Great Southern (Queen
and Crescent), the Cincinnati Southern (leased by the Cincinnati,
New Orleans & Texas Pacific railway company), the Nashville,
Chattanooga & St Louis (controlled by the Louisville & Nash-
ville), and its leased line, the Western & Atlantic (connecting
with Atlanta, Ga.), the Central of Georgia, and the Chattanooga
Southern railways, and by freight and passenger steamboat
lines on the Tennessee river, which is navigable to and beyond
this point during eight months of the year. That branch of
the Southern railway extending from Chattanooga to Memphis
was formerly the Memphis & Charleston, under which name it
became famous in the American Civil War. Chattanooga
occupies a picturesque site at a sharp bend of the river. To the
south lies Lookout Mountain, whose summit (2126 ft. above the
sea; 1495 ft. above the river) commands a magnificent view.
To the east rises Missionary Ridge. Fine driveways and electric
lines connect with both Lookout Mountain (the summit of which
is reached by an inclined plane on which cars are operated by

8

CHATTANOOGA

cable) and Missionary Ridge, where there are Federal reserva-
tions, as well as with the National Military Park (15 sq. m.;
dedicated 1895) on the battlefield of Chickamauga (q.v.); this
park was one of the principal mobilization camps of the United
States army during the Spanish-American War of 1898. Among
the principal buildings are the city hall, the Federal building,
the county court house, the public library, the high school and
the St Vincent's and the Baroness Erlanger hospitals. Among
Chattanooga's educational institutions are two commercial
colleges, the Chattanooga College for Young Ladies (non-
sectarian), the Chattanooga Normal University, and the Uni-
versity of Chattanooga, until June 1907, United States Grant
University (whose preparatory department, " The Athens
School," is at Athens, Tenn.), a co-educational institution under
Methodist Episcopal control, established in 1867; it has a school
of law (1899), a medical school (1889), and a school of theology
(1888). East of the city is a large national cemetery containing
more than 13,000 graves of Federal soldiers. Chattanooga is
an important produce, lumber, coal and iron market, and is the
principal trade and jobbing centre for a large district in Eastern
Tennessee and Northern Georgia and Alabama. The proximity
of coalfields and iron mines has made Chattanooga an iron
manufacturing place of importance, its plants including car
shops, blast furnaces, foundries, agricultural implement and
machinery works, and stove factories; the city has had an
important part in the development of the iron and steel industries
in this part of the South. There are also flour mills, tanneries
(United States Leather Co.), patent medicine, furniture, coffin,
woodenware and wagon factories, knitting and spinning mills,,
planing mills, and sash, door and blind factories — the lumber
being obtained from logs floated down the river and by rail. The
value of the city's factory products increased from $10,517,886
in 1900 to $15,193,909 in 1905 or 44-5%.

Chattanooga was first settled about 1835, and was long known
as Ross's Landing. It was incorporated in 1851 as Chattanooga,
and received a city charter in 1866. Its growth for the three
decades after the Civil War was very rapid. During the American
Civil War it was one of the most important strategic points in
the Confederacy, and in its immediate vicinity were fought two
great battles. During June 1862 it was threatened by a Federal
force under General O. M. Mitchel, but the Confederate army
of General Braxton Bragg was transferred thither by rail from
Corinth, Miss., before Mitchel was able to advance. In
September 1863, however, General W. S. Rosecrans, with the
Union Army of the Cumberland out-manceuvred Bragg, con-
centrated his numerous columns in the Chickamauga Valley, and
occupied the town, to which, after the defeat of Chickamauga
(q.v.), he retired.

From the end of September to the 24th of November the Army
of the Cumberland was then invested in Chattanooga by the
Confederates, whose position lay along Missionary Ridge from
its north end near the river towards Rossville, whence their
entrenchments extended westwards to Lookout Mountain, which
dominates the whole ground, the Tennessee running directly
beneath it. Thus Rosecrans was confined to a semicircle of
low ground around Chattanooga itself, and his supplies had to
make a long and difficult detour from Bridgeport, the main road
being under fire from the Confederate position on Lookout and
in the Wauhatchie valley adjacent. Bragg indeed expected that
Rosecrans would be starved into retreat. But the Federals once
more, and this time on a far larger scale, concentrated in the face
of the enemy. The XI. and XII. corps from Virginia under
Hooker were transferred by rail to reinforce Rosecrans; other
troops were called up from the Mississippi, and on the i6th of
October the Federal government reconstituted the western
armies under the supreme command of General Grant. The
XV. corps of the Army of the Tennessee, under Sherman, was
on the march from the Mississippi. Hooker's troops had already
arrived when Grant reached Chattanooga on the 23rd of October.
The Army of the Cumberland was now under Thomas, Rosecrans
having been recalled. The first action was fought at Brown's
Ferry in the Wauhatchie valley, where Hooker executed with

complete precision a plan for the revictualling of Chattanooga,
established himself near Wauhatchie on the 28th, and repulsed
a determined attack on the same night. But Sherman was still
far distant, and the Federal forces at Knoxville, against which
a large detachment of Bragg's army under Longstreet was now
sent, were in grave danger. Grant waited for Sherman's four
divisions, but prepared everything for battle in the meantime.
His plan was that Thomas in the Chattanooga lines should
contain the Confederate centre on Missionary Ridge, while
Hooker on the right at Wauhatchie was to attack Lookout
Mountain, and Sherman farther up the river was to carry out
the decisive attack against Bragg's extreme right wing at the
end of Missionary Ridge. The last marches of the XV. corps
were delayed by stormy weather, Bragg reinforced Longstreet,
and telegraphic communication between Grant and the Federals
at Knoxville had already ceased. But Grant would not move
forward without Sherman, and the battle of Chattanooga was
fought more than two months after Chickamauga. On the 23rd
of November a forward move of Thomas's army, intended as a

Confederate line of defence. X X X X Union troops, ..^m

demonstration, developed into a serious and successful action,
whereby the first line of the Confederate centre was driven in
for some distance. Bragg was now much weakened by successive
detachments having been sent to Knoxville, and on the 24th the
real battle began. Sherman's corps was graudally brought over
the river near the mouth of Chickamauga Creek, and formed up
on the east side.

The attack began at i P.M. and was locally a complete success.
The heights attacked were in Sherman's hands, and fortified
against counter-attack, before nightfall. Hooker in the mean-
while had fought the " Battle above the Clouds " on the steep
face of Lookout Mountain, and though opposed by an equal
force of Confederates, had completely driven the enemy from
the mountain. The 24th then had been a day of success for the
Federals, and the decisive attack of the three armies in concert
was to take place on the 25th. But the maps deceived Grant
and Sherman as they had previously deceived Rosecrans.
Sherman had captured, not the north point of Missionary Ridge,
but a detached hill, and a new and more serious action had to be
fought for the possession of Tunnel Hill, where Bragg's right now
lay strongly entrenched. The Confederates used every effort to
hold the position and all Sherman's efforts were made in vain.
Hooker, who was moving on Rossville, had not progressed far,
and Bragg was still free to reinforce his right. Grant therefore
directed Thomas to move forward on the centre to relieve the

CHATTEL— CHATTERJI

pressure on Sherman. The Army of the Cumberland was, after
all, to strike the decisive blow. About 3.30 P.M. the centre
advanced on the Confederate's trenches at the foot of Missionary
Ridge. These were carried at the first rush, and the troops were
ordered to lie down and await orders. Then occurred one of
the most dramatic episodes of the war. Suddenly, and without
orders either from Grant or the officers at the front, the whole
line of the Army of the Cumberland rose and rushed up the ridge.
Two successive lines of entrenchments were carried at once.
In a short time the crest was stormed, and after a last attempt
at resistance the enemy's centre fled in the wildest confusion.
The pursuit was pressed home by the divisional generals, notably
by Sheridan. Hooker now advanced in earnest on Rossville,
and by nightfall the whole Confederate army, except the troops
on Tunnel Hill, was retreating in disorder. These too were
withdrawn in the night, and the victory of the Federals was
complete. Bragg lost 8684 men killed, wounded and prisoners
out of perhaps 34,000 men engaged; Grant, with 60,000 men,
lost about 6000.

CHATTEL (for derivation see CATTLE), a term used in English
law as equivalent to " personal property," that is, property
which, on the death of the owner, devolves on his executor or
administrator to be distributed (unless disposed of by will)
among the next of kin according to the Statutes of Distributions.
Chattels are divided into chattels real and chattels personal.
Chattels real are those interests in land for which no " real
action " (see ACTION) lies; estates which are less than freehold
(estates for years, at will, or by sufferance) are chattels real.
Chattels personal are such things as belong immediately to the
person of the owner, and for which, if they are injuriously
withheld from him, he has no remedy other than by a personal
action. Chattels personal are divided into chases in possession
and chases in action (see CHOSE).

A chattel mortgage, in United States law, is a transfer of
personal property as security for a debt or obligation in such
form that the title to the property will pass to the mortgagee
upon the failure of the mortgagor to comply with the terms of
the contract. At common law a chattel mortgage might be
made without writing, and was valid as between the parties,
and even as against third parties if accompanied by possession
in the mortgagee, but in most states of the Union legislation
now requires a chattel mortgage to be in writing and duly
recorded in order to be valid against third parties. At common
law a mortgage ran be given only of chattels actually in existence
and belonging to the mortgagor, though if he acquired title
afterwards the mortgage would be good as between the parties,
but not as against subsequent purchasers or creditors. In
equity, on the other hand, a chattel mortgage, though not good
as a conveyance, is valid as an executory agreement.

Goods and chattels is a phrase which, in its widest signification,
includes any property other than freehold. The two words,
however, have come to be synonymous, and the expression,
now practically confined to wills, means merely things movable
in possession.

CHATTERIS, a market town in the Wisbech parliamentary
division of Cambridgeshire, England, 25^ m. N. by W. of Cam-
bridge by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 4711. It lies in the midst of the flat Fen country. The
church of St Peter is principally Decorated; and there are
fragments of a Benedictine convent founded in the loth century
and rebuilt after fire in the first half of the i4th. The town has
breweries, and engineering and rope-making works. To the
north runs the great Forty-foot Drain, also called Vermuyden's,
after the Dutch engineer whose name is associated with the fen
drainage works of the middle of the i7th century.

CHATTERJI, BANKIM CHANDRA [BANKIMACHANDRA
CHATTARADH-VAYA] (1838-1894), Indian novelist, was born in
the district of the Twenty-four Parganas in Bengal en the 27th
of June 1838, and was by caste a Brahman. He was educated
at the Hugli College, at the Presidency College in Calcutta, and
at Calcutta University, where he was the first to take the degree
of B.A. (1858). He entered the Indian civil service, and served

as deputy magistrate in various districts of Bengal, his official
services being recognized, on his retirement in 1891, by the
title of rai bahadur and the C.I.E. He died on the 8th of April
1894.

Bankim Chandra was beyond question the greatest novelist
of India during the igth century, whether judged by the amount
and quality of his writings, or by the influence which they have
continued to exercise. His education had brought him into
touch with the works of the great European romance writers,
notably Sir Walter Scott, and he created in India a school of
fiction on the European model. His first historical novel, the
Durges-Nandini or Chiefs Daughter, modelled on Scott, made
a great sensation in Bengal; and the Kapala-Kundala and
Mrinalini, which followed it, established his fame as a writer
whose creative imagination and power of delineation had never
been surpassed in India. In 1872 he brought out his first social
novel, the Bisha-Brikkha or Poison Tree, which was followed by
others in rapid succession. It is impossible to exaggerate the
effect they produced; for over twenty years Bankim Chandra's
novels were eagerly read by the educated public of Bengal,
including the Hindu ladies in the zenanas; and though numerous
works of fiction are now produced year by year in every province
of India, his influence has increased rather than diminished.
Of all his works, however, by far the most important from its
astonishing political consequences was the Ananda Math, which
was published in 1882, about the time of the agitation arising
out of the Ilbert Bill. The story deals with the Sannyasi (i.e.
fakir or hermit) rebellion of 1772 near Purmea, Tirhut and
Dinapur, and its culminating episode is a crushing victory won
by the rebels over the united British and Mussulman forces,
a success which was not, however, followed up, owing to the
advice of a mysterious " physician " who, speaking as a divinely-
inspired prophet, advises Satyananda, the leader of " the
children of the Mother," to abandon further resistance, since a
temporary submission to British rule is a necessity; for Hinduism
has become too speculative and unpractical, and the mission of
the English in India is to teach Hindus how to reconcile theory
and speculation with the facts of science. The general moral
of the Ananda Math, then, is that British rule and British
education are to be accepted as the only alternative to Mussulman
oppression, a moral which Bankim Chandra developed also in
his Dharmatattwa, an elaborate religious treatise in which he
explained his views as to the changes necessary in the moral and
religious condition of his fellow-countrymen before they could
hope to compete on equal terms with the British and Mahom-
medans. But though the Ananda Math is in form an apology
for the loyal acceptance of British rule, it is none the less inspired
by the ideal of the restoration, sooner or later, of a Hindu
kingdom in India. This is especially evident in the occasional
verse? in the book, of which the Bande Mataram is the most
famous.

As to the exact significance of this poem a considerable
controversy has raged. Bande Mataram is the Sanskrit for
" Hail to thee, Mother!" or more literally " I reverence thee,
Mother!", and according to Dr G. A. Grierson (The Times,
Sept. 12, 1906) it can have no other possible meaning than an
invocation of one of the " mother " goddesses of Hinduism, in
his opinion Kali " the goddess of death and destruction." Sir
Henry Cotton, on the other hand (ib. Sept. 13, 1906), sees in
it merely an invocation of the " mother-land " Bengal, and
quotes in support of this view the free translation of the poem
by the late W. H. Lee, a proof which, it may be at once said,
is far from convincing. But though, as Dr Grierson points out,
the idea of a " mother-land " is wholly alien to Hindu ideas, it is
quite possible that Bankim Chandra may have assimilated it
with his European culture, and the true explanation is probably
that given by Mr J. D. Anderson in The Times of September 24,
1906. He points out that in the nth chapter of the ist book of
the Ananda Math the Sannyasi rebels are represented as having
erected, in addition to the image of Kali, " the Mother who Has
Been," a white marble statue of " the Mother that Shall Be,"
which " is apparently a representation of the mother-land.

IO

CHATTERTON

The Bande Mataram hymn is apparently addressed to both
idols."

The poem, then, is the work of a Hindu idealist who personified
Bengal under the form of a purified and spiritualized Kali.
Of its thirty-six lines, partly written in Sanskrit, partly in
Bengali, the greater number are harmless enough. But if the
poet sings the praise of the " Mother "

" As Lachmi, bowered in the flower
That in the water grows,"

he also praises her as " Durga, bearing ten weapons," and lines
10, ii and 12 are capable of very dangerous meanings in the
mouths of unscrupulous agitators. Literally translated these
run, " She has seventy millions of throats to sing her praise,
twice seventy millions of hands to fight for her, how then
is Bengal powerless?" As S. M. Mitra points out (Indian
Problems, London, 1908), this language is the more significant
as the Bande Mataram in the novel was the hymn by singing
which the Sannyasis gained strength when attacking the British
forces.

During Bankim Chandra Chatterji's lifetime the Bande
Mataram, though its dangerous tendency was recognized, was
not used as a party war-cry; it was not raised, for instance,
during the Ilbert Bill agitation, nor by the students who flocked
round the court during the trial of Surendra Nath Banerji in
1883. It has, however, obtained an evil notoriety in the agita-
tions that followed the partition of Bengal. That Bankim
Chandra himself foresaw or desired any such use of it is impossible
to believe. According to S. M. Mitra, he composed it " in a fit
of patriotic excitement after a good hearty dinner, which he
always enjoyed. It was set to Hindu music, known as the
Mallar-Kawali-Tal. The extraordinarily stirring character of
the air, and its ingenious assimilation of Bengali passages with
Sanskrit, served to make it popular."

Circumstances have made the Bande Mataram the most
famous and the most widespread in its effects of Bankim
Chandra's literary works. More permanent, it may be hoped,
was the wholesome influence he exercised on the number of
literary men he gathered round him, who have left their im-
press on the literature of Bengal. In his earlier years he served
his apprenticeship in literature under Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar,
the chief poet and satirist of Bengal during the earlier half of the
1 9th century. Bankim Chandra's friend and colleague, Dina
Bandhu Mitra, was virtually the founder of the modern Bengali
drama. Another friend of his, Hem Chandra Banerji, was a poet
of recognized merit and talent. And among the younger men
who venerated Bankim Chandra, and benefited by his example
and advice, may be mentioned two distinguished poets, Nalein
Chandra Sen and Rabindra Nath Tagore.

Of Bankim Chandra's novels some have been translated into
English by H. A. D. Phillips and by Mrs M. S. Knight.

CHATTERTON, THOMAS (1752-1770), English poet, was born
at Bristol on the 2oth of November 1752. His pedigree has a
curious significance. The office of sexton of St Mary Redcliffe,
at Bristol, one of the most beautiful parish churches in England,
had been transmitted for nearly two centuries in the Chatter-
ton family; and throughout the brief life of the poet it was
held by his uncle, Richard Phillips. The poet's father, Thomas
Chatterton, was a musical genius, somewhat of a poet, a numis-
matist, and a dabbler in occult arts. He was one of the sub-
chanters of Bristol cathedral, and master of the Pyle Street free
school, near Redcliffe church. But whatever hereditary ten-
dencies may have been transmitted from the father, the sole
training of the boy necessarily devolved on his mother, who was
in the fourth month of her widowhood at the time of his birth.
She established a girls' school, took in sewing and ornamental
needlework, and so brought up her two children, a girl and a
boy, till the latter attained his eighth year, when he was admitted
to Colston's Charity. But the Bristol blue-coat school, in which
the curriculum was limited to reading, writing, arithmetic and
the Church Catechism, had little share in the education of its
marvellous pupil. The hereditary race of sextons had come to
regard the church of St Mary Redcliffe as their own peculiar

domain; and, under the guidance of his uncle, the child found
there his favourite haunt. The knights, ecclesiastics and civic
dignitaries, recumbent on its altar tombs, became his familiar
associates ; and by and by, when he was able to spell his way
through the inscriptions graven on their monuments, he found
a fresh interest in certain quaint oaken chests in the muniment
room over the porch on the north side of the nave, where parch-
ment deeds, old as the Wars of the Roses, long lay unheeded
and forgotten. They formed the child's playthings almost from
his cradle. He learned his first letters from the illuminated
capitals of an old musical folio, and learned to read out of a
black-letter Bible. He did not like, his sister said, reading out
of small books. Wayward, as it seems, almost from his earliest
years, and manifesting no sympathy with the ordinary pastimes
of children, he was regarded for a time as deficient in intellect.
But he was even then ambitious of distinction. His sbter relates
that on being asked what device he would like painted on a bowl
that was to be his, he replied, " Paint me an angel, with wings,
and a trumpet, to trumpet my name over the world."

From his earliest years he was liable to fits of abstraction,
sitting for hours in seeming stupor, or yielding after a time to
tears, for which he would assign no reason. He had no one near
him to sympathize in the strange world of fancy which his
imagination had already called into being; and circumstances
helped to foster his natural reserve, and to beget that love of
mystery which exercised so great an influence on the develop-
ment of his genius. When the strange child had attained his
sixth year his mother began to recognize his capacity; at eight
he was so eager for books that he would read and write all day
long if undisturbed; and in his eleventh year he had become a
contributor to Felix Farley's Bristol Journal. The occasion of
his confirmation inspired some religious poems published in this
paper. In 1763 a beautiful cross of curious workmanship, which
had adorned the churchyard of St Mary Redcliffe for upwards of
three centuries, was destroyed by a churchwarden. The spirit
of veneration was strong in the boy, and he sent to the local
journal on the 7th of January 1764 a clever satire on the parish
Vandal. But his delight was to lock himself in a little attic
which he had appropriated as his study; and there, with books,
cherished parchments, saved from the loot of the muniment room
of St Mary Redcliffe, and drawing materials, the child lived in
thought with his 15th-century heroes and heroines. The first of
his literary mystifications, the duologue of " Elinoure and Juga,"
was written before he was twelve years old, and he showed his
poem to the usher at Colston's hospital, Thomas Phillips, as the
work of a 15th-century poet.

Chatterton remained an inmate of Colston's hospital for
upwards of six years, and the slight advantages gained from
this scanty education are traceable to the friendly sympathy of
Phillips, himself a writer of verse, who encouraged his pupils to
write. Three of Chatterton's companions are named as youths
whom Phillips's taste for poetry stimulated to rivalry; but
Chatterton held aloof from these contests, and made at that
time no confidant of his own more daring literary adventures.
His little pocket-money was spent in borrowing books from a
circulating library; and he early ingratiated himself with book
collectors, by whose aid he found access to Weever, Dugdale
and Collins, as well as to Speght's edition of Chaucer, Spenser
and other books.

His "Rowleian" jargon appears to have been chiefly the
result of the study of John Kersey's Dictionarium Anglo-Bri-
tannicum, and Prof. W. W. Skeat seems to think his knowledge
of even Chaucer was very slight. His holidays were mostly
spent at his mother's house; and much of them in the favourite
retreat of his attic study there. He had already conceived the
romance of Thomas Rowley, an imaginary monk of the isth
century, and lived for the most part in an ideal world of his own,
in that elder time when Edward IV. was England's king, and
Master William Canynge — familiar to him among the recum-
bent effigies in Redcliffe church — still ruled in Bristol's civic
chair. Canynge is represented as an enlightened patron of
literature, and Rowley's dramatic interludes were written for

CHATTERTON

1 1

performance at his house. In order to escape a marriage urged
by the king, Canynge retired to the college of Westbury in
Gloucestershire, where he enjoyed the society of Rowley, and
eventually became dean of the institution. In " The Storie of
William Canynge," one of the shorter pieces of his ingenious
romance, his early history is recorded.

" Straight was I carried back to times of yore,
Whilst Canynge swathed yet in fleshly bed,
And saw all actions which had been beiore,

And all the scroll of Fate unravelled ;
And when the fate-marked babe acome to sight,
I saw him eager gasping after light.
In all his sheepen gambols and child's play,

In every merrymaking, fair, or wake,
I kenn'd a perpled light of wisdom's ray ;

He ate down learning with the wastel-cake ;
As wise as any of the aldermen,
He'd wit enow to make a mayor at ten."

This beautiful picture of the childhood of the ideal patron of
Rowley is in reality that of the poet himself — " the fate-marked
babe," with his wondrous child-genius, and all his romantic
dreams realized. The literary masquerade which thus consti-
tuted the life-dream of the boy was wrought out by him in
fragments of prose and verse into a coherent romance, until the
credulous scholars and antiquaries of his day were persuaded
into the belief that there had lain in the parish chest of Redcliffe
church for upwards of three centuries, a collection of MSS. of
rare merit, the work of Thomas Rowley, an unknown priest of
Bristol in the days of Henry VI. and his poet laureate, John
Lydgate.

Among the Bristol patrons of Chatterton were two pewterers,
George Catcott and his partner Henry Burgum. Catcott was one
of the most zealous believers in Rowley, and continued to collect
his reputed writings long after the death of their real author.
On Burgum, who had risen in life by his own exertions, the blue-
coat boy palmed off the de Bergham pedigree, and other equally
apocryphal evidences of the pewterer's descent from an ancestry
old as the Norman Conquest. The de Bergham quartering,
blazoned on a piece of parchment doubtless recovered from the
Redcliffe muniment chest, was itself supposed to have lain for
centuries in that ancient depository. The pedigree was pro-
fessedly collected by Chatterton from original records, including
" The Rowley MSS." The pedigree still exists in Chatterton's
own handwriting, copied into a book in which he had previously
transcribed portions of antique verse, under the title of " Poems
by Thomas Rowley, priest of St. John's, in the city of Bristol ";
and in one of these, " The Tournament," Syrr Johan de Berg-
hamme plays a conspicuous part. The ennobled pewterer
rewarded Chatterton with five shillings, and was satirized for
this valuation of a noble pedigree in some of Chatterton's
latest verse.

On the ist of July 1767, Chatterton was transferred to the office
of John Lambert, attorney, to whom he was bound apprentice
as a clerk. There he was left much alone; and after fulfilling
the routine duties devolving on him, he found leisure for his own
favourite pursuits. An ancient stone bridge on the Avon, built
in the reign of Henry II., and altered by many later additions
into a singularly picturesque but inconvenient thoroughfare,
had been displaced by a structure better adapted to modern
requirements. In September 1768, when Chatterton was in the
second year of his apprenticeship, the new bridge was partially
opened for traffic. Shortly afterwards the editor of Felix Farley's
Journal received from a correspondent, signing himself Dunelmus
Bristoliensis, a " description of the mayor's first passing over the
old bridge," professedly derived from an ancient MS. William
Barrett, F.S.A., surgeon and antiquary, who was then accumu-
lating materials for a history of Bristol, secured the original
manuscript, which is now preserved in the British Museum, along
with other Chatterton MSS., most of which were ultimately
incorporated by the credulous antiquary into a learned quarto
volume, entitled the History and Antiquities of the City of Bristol,
published nearly twenty years after the poet's death. It was
at this time that the definite story made its appearance — over

which critics and antiquaries wrangled for nearly a century—
of numerous ancient poems and other MSS. taken by the elder
Chatterton from a coffer in the muniment room of Redcliffe
church, and transcribed, and so rescued from oblivion, by his
son. The pieces include the " Bristowe Tragedie, or the Dethe
of Syr Charles Bawdin," a ballad celebrating the death of the
Lancastrian knight, Charles Baldwin; " JEMa.," a "Tragycal
Enterlude," as Chattertpn styles it, but in reality a dramatic
aoem of sustained power and curious originality of structure;
" Goddwyn," a dramatic fragment; " Tournament," " Battle
of Hastings," " The Parliament of Sprites," " Balade of Charitie,"
with numerous shorter pieces, forming altogether a volume of
poetry, the rare merit of which is indisputable, wholly apart from
the fact that it was the production of a mere boy. Unfortunately
for him, his ingenious romance had either to be acknowledged as
his own creation, and so in all probability be treated with con-
tenipt, or it had to be sustained by the manufacture of spurious
antiques. To this accordingly Chatterton resorted, and found
no difficulty in gulling the most learned of his credulous dupes
with his parchments.

The literary labours of the boy, though diligently pursued at
bis desk, were not allowed to interfere with the duties of Mr
Lambert's office. Nevertheless the Bristol attorney used to
search his apprentice's drawer, and tear up any poems or other
manuscripts that he could lay his hands upon; so that it was
only during the absences of Mr Lambert from Bristol that he
was able to expend his unemployed time in his favourite pursuits.
But repeated allusions, both by Chatterton and others, seem to
indicate that such intervals of freedom were of frequent occur-
rence. Some of his modern poems, such as the piece entitled
" Resignation," are of great beauty; and these, with the satires, in
which he took his revenge on all the local celebrities whose
vanity or meanness had excited his ire, are alone sufficient to fill
a volume. The Catcotts, Burgum, Barrett and others of his
patrons, figure in these satires, in imprudent yet discriminating
caricature, along with mayor, aldermen, bishop, dean and other
notabilities of Bristol. Towards Lambert his feelings were of too
keen a nature to find relief in such sarcasm.

In December 1768, in his seventeenth year, he wrote to
Dodsley, the London publisher, offering to procure for him
" copies of several ancient poems, and an interlude, perhaps
the oldest dramatic piece extant, wrote by one Rowley, a priest
in Bristol, who lived in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV."
To this letter he appended the initials of his favourite pseudonym,
Dunelmus Bristoliensis, but directed the answer to be sent to
the care of Thomas Chatterton, Redcliffe Hill, Bristol. To this,
as well as to another letter enclosing an extract from the tragedy
of "jElla," no answer appears to have been returned. Chatter-
ton, conceiving the idea of finding sympathy and aid at the hand
of some modern Canynge, bethought him of Horace Walpole,
who not only indulged in a medieval renaissance of his own, but
was the reputed author of a spurious antique in the Castle of
Otranto. He wrote to him offering him a document entitled
" The Ryse of Peyncteyne yn Englande, wroten by T. Rowleie,
1469, for Mastre Canynge," accompanied by notes which included
specimens of Rowley's poetry. To this Walpole replied with
courteous acknowledgments. He characterized the verses as
" wonderful for their harmony and spirit," and added, " Give me
leave to ask you where Rowley's poems are to be had ? I should
not be sorry to print them; or at least a specimen of them, if
they have never been printed." Chatterton replied, enclosing
additional specimens of antique verse, and telling Walpole that
he was the son of a poor widow, and clerk to an attorney, but
had a taste for more refined studies; and he hinted a wish that
he might help him to some more congenial occupation. Walpole's
manner underwent an abrupt change. The specimens of verse
had been submitted to his friends Gray and Mason, the poets,
and pronounced modern. They did not thereby forfeit the
wonderful harmony and spirit which Walpole had already
professed to recognize in them. But he now coldly advised the
boy to stick to the attorney's office; and " when he should
have made a fortune," he might betake himself to more favourite

12

CHATTERTON

studies. Chatterton had to write three times before he recovered
his MSS. Walpole has been loaded with more than his just
share pf responsibility for the fate of the unhappy poet, of
whom he admitted when too late, " I do not believe there ever
existed so masterly a genius."

Chatterton now turned his attention to periodical literature
and politics, and exchanged Felix Farley's Bristol Journal for
the Town and County Magazine and other London periodicals.
Assuming the vein of Junius — then in the full blaze of his
triumph — he turned his pen against the duke of Grafton, the
earl of Bute, and the princess of Wales. He had'just despatched
one of his political diatribes to the Middlesex Journal, when he
sat down on Easter Eve, lyth April 1770, and penned his " Last
Will and Testament," a strange satirical compound of jest and
earnest, in which he intimated his intention of putting an end
to his life the following evening. Among his satirical bequests,
such as his " humility " to the Rev. Mr Camplin, his " religion "
to Dean Barton, and his " modesty " along with his " prosody
and grammar " to Mr Burgum, he leaves " to Bristol all his
spirit and disinterestedness, parcels of goods unknown on its
quay since the days of Canynge and Rowley." In more genuine
earnestness he recalls the name of Michael Clayfield, a friend to
whom he owed intelligent sympathy. The will was probably
purposely prepared in order to frighten his master into letting
him go. If so, it had the desired effect. Lambert cancelled his
indentures; his friends and acquaintance made him up a purse;
and on the 25th or 26th of the month he arrived in London.

Chatterton was already known to the readers of the Middlesex
Journal as a rival of Junius, under the nom de plume of Decimus.
He had also been a contributor to Hamilton's Town and County
Magazine, and speedily found access to the Freeholder's Magazine,
another political miscellany strong for Wilkes and liberty. His
contributions were freely accepted; but the editors paid little
or nothing for them. He wrote in the most hopeful terms to his
mother and sister, and spent his first earnings in buying gifts
for them. His pride and ambition were amply gratified by the
promises and interested flattery of editors and political adven-
turers; Wilkes himself had noted his trenchant style, " and
expressed a desire to know the author "; and Lord Mayor
Beckford graciously acknowledged a political address of his,
and greeted him " as politely as a citizen could." But of actual
money he received but litUe. He was extremely abstemious,
his diligence was great, and his versatility wonderful. He could
assume the style of Junius or Smollett, reproduce the satiric
bitterness of Churchill, parody Macpherson's Ossian, or write in
the manner of Pope, or with the polished grace of Gray and
Collins. He wrote political letters, eclogues, lyrics, operas and
satires, both in prose and verse. In June 1 7 70 — after Chatterton
had been some nine weeks in London — he removed from Shore-
ditch, where he had hitherto lodged with a relative, to an attic
in Brook Street, Holborn. But for most of his productions the
payment was delayed; and now state prosecutions of the press
rendered letters in the Junius vein no longer admissible, and
threw him back on the lighter resources of his pen. In Shoreditch,
as in his lodging at the Bristol attorney's, he had only shared a
room; but now, for the first time, he enjoyed uninterrupted
solitude. His bed-fellow at Mr Walmsley's, Shoreditch, noted
that much of the night was spent by him in writing; and now
he could write all night. The romance of his earlier years
revived, and he transcribed from an imaginary parchment of
the old priest Rowley his " Excelente Balade of Charitie." This
fine poem, perversely disguised in archaic language, he sent to
the editor of the Town and County Magazine, and had it rejected.

The high hopes of the sanguine boy had begun to fade. He
had not yet completed his second month in London, and already
failure and starvation stared him in the face. Mr Cross, a neigh-
bouring apothecary, repeatedly invited him to join him at dinner
or supper; but he refused. His landlady also, suspecting his
necessity, pressed him to share her dinner, but in vain. " She
knew," as she afterwards said, " that he had not eaten anything
for two or three days." But he was offended at her urgency,
and assured her that he was not hungry. The note of his actual

receipts, found in his pocket-book after his death, shows that
Hamilton, Fell and other editors who had been so liberal in
flattery, had paid him at the rate of a shilling for an article, and
somewhat less than eightpence each for his songs; while much
which had been accepted was held in reserve, and still unpaid
for. The beginning of a new month revealed to him the indefinite
postponement of the publication and payment of his work. He
had wished, according to his foster-mother, to study medicine
with Barrett; in his desperation he now reverted to this, and
wrote to Barrett for a letter to help him to an opening as a
surgeon's assistant on board an African trader. He appealed
also to Mr Catcott to forward his plan, but in vain. On the
24th of August 1770, he retired for the last time to his attic in
Brook Street, carrying with him the arsenic which he there
drank, after tearing into fragments whatever literary remains
were at hand.

He was only seventeen years and nine months old; but the
best of his numerous productions, both in prose and verse,
require no allowance to be made for the immature years of their
author, when comparing him with the ablest of his contem-
poraries. He pictures Lydgate, the monk of Bury St Edmunds,
challenging Rowley to a trial at versemaking, and under cover
of this fiction, produces his " Songe of ^Ella," a piece of rare
lyrical beauty, worthy of comparison with any antique or modern
production of its class. Again, in his " Tragedy of Goddwyn,"
of which only a fragment has been preserved, the " Ode to
Liberty," with which it abruptly closes, may claim a place among
the finest martial lyrics in the language. The collection of poems
in which such specimens occur furnishes by far the most remark-
able example of intellectual precocity in the whole history of
letters. Collins, Burns, Keats, Shelley and Byron all awaken
sorrow over the premature arrestment of their genius; but the
youngest of them survived to his twenty-fifth year, while
Chatterton was not eighteen when he perished in his miserable
garret. The death of Chatterton attracted little notice at the
time; for the few who then entertained any appreciative
estimate of the Rowley poems regarded him as their mere
transcriber. He was interred in a burying-ground attached to
Shoe Lane Workhouse, in the parish of St Andrew's, Holborn,
which has since been converted into a site for Farringdon Market.
There is a discredited story that the body of the poet was re-
covered, and secretly buried by his uncle, Richard Phillips, in
Redcliffe Churchyard. There a monument has since been erected
to his memory, with the appropriate inscription, borrowed
from his " Will," and so supplied by the poet's own pen — " To
the memory of Thomas Chatterton. Reader! judge not. If
thou art a Christian, believe that he shall be judged by a Superior
Power. To that Power only is he now answerable."

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Poems supposed to have been written at Bristol
by Thomas Rowley and others, in the Fifteenth Century (1777) was edited
by Thomas Tyrwhitt; Thomas Warton, in his History of English
Poetry (1778), vol. ii. section viii., gives Rowley a place among the
1 5th century poets; but neither of these critics believed in the
antiquity of the poems. In 1782 a new edition of Rowley's poems
appeared, with a " Commentary, in which the antiquity of them is
considered and defended," by Jeremiah Milles, dean of Exeter.
The controversy which raged round the Rowley poems is discussed
in A. Kippis, Biographia Britannica (vol. iv., 1789), where there is a
detailed account by G. Gregory of Chatterton's life (pp. 573-619).
This was reprinted in the edition (1803) of Chatterton s Works by
R. Southey and J. Cottle, published for the benefit of the poet s
sister. The neglected condition of the study of earlier English in
the 1 8th century alone accounts for the temporary success of
Chatterton's mystification. It has long been agreed that Chatterton
was solely responsible for the Rowley -Poems, but the language and
style are analysed in confirmation of this view by Prof. W. W.
Skeat in an introductory essay prefaced to vol. ii. of The Poetical
Works of Thomas Chatterton (1871) in the " Aldine Edition of the
British Poets." This, which is the most convenient edition, also
contains a memoir of the poet by Edward Bell. The spelling of the
Rowley poems is there modernized, and many of the archaic words
are replaced by modern equivalents provided in many cases from
Chatterton's own notes, the theory being that Chatterton usually
composed in modern English, and inserted his peculiar words and
his complicated orthography afterwards. For some criticism of
Prof. Skeat's success in the very difficult task of reconstituting the
text, see H. B. Forman, Thomas Chatterton and his latest Editor (1874).

CHATTI— CHAUCER

The Chatterton MSS., originally in the possession of William Barrett
of Bristol, were left by his heir to the British Museum in 1800.
Others are preserved in the Bristol library.

Chatterton's genius and his tragic death arc commemorated by
Shelley in Adonais, by Wordsworth in " Resolution and Independ-
ence," by Coleridge in " A Monody on the Death of Chattertpn,"
by D. G. Rossetti in " Five English Poets," and John Keats inscribed
Endymion " to the memory of Thomas Chattertpn." Alfred de
Vigny's drama of Chatterton gives an altogether fictitious account of
the poet. Herbert Croft (q.v.), in his Love and Madness, interpolated
a long and valuable account of Chatterton, giving many of the
poet's letters, and much information obtained from his family and
friends (pp. 125-244, letter li.). There is a valuable collection of
" Chattertoniana " in the British Museum, consisting of separate
works by Chatterton, newspaper cuttings, articles, dealing with the
Rowley controversy and other subjects, with MS. notes by Joseph
Haslewood, and several autograph letters.

Among biographies of Chatterton may be mentioned Chatterton:
A Biographical Study (1869), by Daniel Wilson; Chatterton: A
Biography (1899; first printed 1856 in a volume of essays), by
D. Masson; "Thomas Chatterton " (1900), by Helene Richter, in
Wiener Beitrdge zur engl. Philologie; Chatterton, by C. E. Russell
(1909).

CHATTI, an ancient German tribe inhabiting the upper
reaches of the rivers Weser, Eder, Fulda and Werra, a district
approximately corresponding to Hesse-Cassel, though probably
somewhat more extensive. They frequently came into conflict
with the Romans during the early years of the ist century.
Eventually they formed a portion of the Franks and were
incorporated in the kingdom of Clovis probably with the Ripuarii,
at the beginning of the 6th century. ;„ ; ;

Tacitus, Annals, i. 2, n, 12, 13; Germania, 30-31; Strabo p.
291 f.

CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (? 1340-1400), English poet. The
name Chaucer, a French form of the Latin cakearius, a shoe-
maker, is found in London and the eastern counties as early as
the second half of the I3th century. Some of the London
Chaucers lived in Cordwainer Street, in the shoemakers' quarter;
several of them, however, were vintners, and among others the
poet's father John, and probably also his grandfather Robert.
Legal pleadings inform us that in December 1324 John Chaucer
was not much over twelve years old, and that he was still un-
married in 1328, the year which used to be considered
that of Geoffrey's birth. The poet was probably born
from eight to twelve years later, since in 1386, when giving
evidence in Sir Richard le Scrope's suit against Sir Robert
Grosvenor as to the right to bear certain arms, he was set down
as " del age de xl ans et plus, armeez par xxvij ans." At a later
date, and probably at the time of the poet's birth, his father
lived in Thames Street, and had to wife a certain Agnes, niece
of Hamo de Compton, whom we may regard as Geoffrey Chaucer's
mother. In 1357 Geoffrey is found, apparently as a lad, in the
service of Elizabeth, countess of Ulster, wife of Lionel, duke of
Clarence, entries in two leaves of her household accounts,
accidentally preserved, showing that she paid in April, May and
December various small sums for his clothing and expenses.
In 1359, as we learn from his deposition in the Scrope suit, Chaucer
went to the war in France. At some period of the campaign he
was at " Retters," i.e. Rethel, near Reims, and subsequently
had the ill luck to be taken prisoner. On the ist of March 1360
the king contributed £16 to his ransom, and by a year or two
later Chaucer must have entered the royal service, since on the
2oth of June 1367 Edward granted him a pension of twenty
marks for his past and future services. A pension of ten marks
had been granted by the king the previous September to a
Philippa Chaucer for services to .the queen as one of her " domi-
cellae " or " damoiselles," and it seems probable that at this date
Chaucer was already married and this Philippa his wife, a con-
clusion which used to be resisted on the ground of allusions in
his early poems to a hopeless love-affair, now reckoned part of
his poetical outfit. Philippa is usually said to have been one of
two daughters of a Sir Payne Roet, the other being Katherine,
who after the death of her first husband, Sir Hugh de Swynford,
in 1372, became governess to John of Gaunt's children, and
subsequently his mistress and (in 1396) his wife. It is possible
that Philippa was sister to Sir Hugh and sister-in-law to

Katherine. In either case the marriage helps to account
for the favour subsequently shown to Chaucer by John of
Gaunt.

In the grant of his pension Chaucer is called " dilectus vallectus
noster," our beloved yeoman; before the end of 1368 he had
risen to be one of the king's esquires. In September of the
following year John of Gaunt's wife, the duchess Blanche, died at
the age of twenty-nine, and Chaucer wrote in her honour The
Book of the Duchesse, a poem of 1334 lines in octosyllabic couplets,
the first of his undoubtedly genuine works which can be connected
with a definite date. In June 1370 he went abroad on the king's
service, though on what errand, or whither it took him, is not
known. He was back probably some time before Michaelmas,
and seems to have remained in England till the ist of December
1372, when he started, with an advance of 100 marks in his
pocket, for Italy, as one of the three commissioners to treat with
the Genoese as to an English port where they might have special
facilities for trade. The accounts which he delivered on his
return on the 23rd of May 1373 show that he had also visited
Florence on the king's business, and he probably went also to
Padua and there made the acquaintance of Petrarch.

In the second quarter of 1374 Chaucer lived in a whirl of
prosperity. On the 23rd of April the king granted him a pitcher
of wine daily, subsequently commuted for an annuity of 20
marks. From John of Gaunt, who in August 1372 had granted
Philippa Chaucer £10 a year, he himself now received (June 13)
a like annuity in reward for his own and his wife's services.
On the 8th of June he was appointed Comptroller of the Custom
and Subsidy of Wools, Hides and Woodfells and also of the
Petty Customs of Wine in the Port of London. A month before
this appointment, and probably in anticipation of it, he took
(May 10, 1374) a lease for life from the city of London of the
dwelling-house above the gate of Aldgate, and here he lived for
the next twelve years. His own and his wife's income now
amounted to over £60, the equivalent of upwards of £1000 in
modern money. In the next two years large windfalls came to
him in the form of two wardships of Kentish heirs, one of whom
paid him £104, and a grant of £71: 4: 6; the value of some
confiscated wool. In December 1376 he was sent abroad on the
king's service in the retinue of Sir John Burley; in February
1377 he was sent to Paris and Montreuil in connexion probably
with the peace negotiations between England and France, and
at the end of April (after a reward of £20 for his good services)
he was again despatched to France.

On the accession of Richard II. Chaucer was confirmed in his
offices and pensions. In January 1378 he seems to have been
in France in connexion with a proposed marriage between
Richard and the daughter of the French king; and on the 28th
of May of the same year he was sent with Sir Edward de Berkeley
to the lord of Milan and Sir John Hawkwood to treat for help in
the king's wars, returning on the igth of September. This was
his last diplomatic journey, and the close of a period of his life
generally considered to have been so unprolific of poetry that
little beyond the Clerk's " Tale of Grisilde," one or two other of
the stories afterwards included in the Canterbury Tales, and a
few short poems, are attributed to it, though the poet's actual
absences from England during the eight years amount to little
more than eighteen months. During the next twelve or fifteen
years there is no question that Chaucer was constantly engaged
in literary work, though for the first half of them he had no lack
of official employment. Abundant favour was shown him by the
new king. He was paid £22 as a reward for his later missions in
Edward III.'s reign, and was allowed an annual gratuity of 10
marks in addition to his pay of £10 as comptroller of the customs
of wool. In April 1382 a new comptrollership, that of the petty
customs in the Port of London, was given him, and shortly after
he was allowed to exercise it by deputy, a similar licence being
given him in February 13^5, at the instance of the earl of Oxford,
as regards the comptrollership of wool. In October 1385 Chaucer
was made a justice of the peace for Kent. In February 1386 we
catch a glimpse of his wife Philippa being admitted to the
fraternity of Lincoln cathedral in the company of Henry, earl of

CHAUCER

Derby (afterwards Henry IV.), Sir Thomas de Swynford and
other distinguished persons. In August 1386 he was elected one
of the two knights of the shire for Kent, and with this dignity,
though it was one not much appreciated in those days, his good
fortune reached its climax. In December of the same year he
was superseded in both his comptrollerships, almost certainly
as a result of the absence of his patron, John of Gaunt, 'in Spain,
and the supremacy of the duke of Gloucester. In the following
year the cessation of Philippa's pension suggests that she died
between Midsummer and Michaelmas. In May 1388 Chaucer
surrendered to the king his two pensions of 20 marks each, and
they were re-granted at his request to one John Scalby. The
transaction was unusual and probably points to a pressing need
for ready money, nor for the next fourteen months do we know
of any source of income possessed by Chaucer beyond his annuity
of £10 from John of Gaunt.

In July 1389, after John of Gaunt had returned to England,
and the king had taken the government into his own hands,
(jjhaucer was appointed clerk of the works at various royal
palaces at a salary of two shillings a day, or over £31 a year,
worth upwards of £500 present value. To this post was sub-
sequently added the charge of some repairs at St George's Chapel,
Windsor. He was also made a commissioner to maintain the
banks of the Thames between Woolwich and Greenwich, afid was
given by the earl of March (grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence,
his old patron) a sub-forestership at North Petherton, Devon,
obviously a sinecure. While on the king's business, in September
1390, Chaucer was twice robbed by highwaymen, losing £20 of
the king's money. In June 1391 he was superseded in his office
of clerk of the works, and seems to have suffered another spell of
misfortune, of which the first alleviation came in January 1393
when the king made him a present of £10. In February 1394
he was granted a new pension of £20. It is possible, also, that
about this time, or a little later, he was in the service of the earl
of Derby. In 1397 he received from King Richard a grant of a
butt of wine yearly. For this he appears to have asked in terms
that suggest poverty, and in May 1398 he obtained letters of pro-
tection against his creditors, a step perhaps rendered necessary
by an action for debt taken against him earlier in the year.
On the accession of Henry IV. a new pension of 40 marks was
conferred on Chaucer (i3th of October 1399) and Richard II. 's
grants were formally confirmed. Henry himself, however, was
probably straitened for ready money, and no instalment of the
new pension was paid during the few months of his reign that the
poet lived. Nevertheless, on the strength of his expectations,
on the 24th of December 1399 he leased a tenement in the garden
of St Mary's Chapel, Westminster, and it was probably here that
he died, on the 2$th of the following October. He was buried in
Westminster Abbey, and his tomb became the nucleus of what
is now known as Poets' Corner.

The portrait of Chaucer, which the affection of his disciple,
Thomas Hoccleve, caused to be painted in a copy of the latter's
Regement of Princes (now Harleian MS. 4866 in the British
Museum), shows him an old man with white hair; he has a
fresh complexion, grey eyes, a straight nose, a grey moustache
and a small double-pointed beard. His dress and hood are black,
and he carries in his hands a string of beads. We may imagine
that it was thus that during the last months of his life he used
to walk about the precincts of the Abbey.

Henry IV.'s promise of an additional pension was doubtless
elicited by the Compleynt to his Purs, in the envoy to which
Worts Chaucer addresses him as the " conquerour of Brutes
Albioun." Thus within the last year of his life the
poet was still writing. Nevertheless, as early as 1393-1394, in
lines to his friend Scogan, he had written as if his day for poetry
were past, and it seems probable that his longer poems were
all composed before this date. In the preceding fifteen — or, if
another view be taken, twenty — years, his literary activity was
very great, and with the aid of the lists of his works which he gives
in the Legende of Good Women (Iines4i4-43i),and the talk on the
road which precedes the " Man of Law's Tale " (Canterbury
Tales, B. 46-76), the order in which his main works were written

can be traced with approximate certainty,1 while a few both of
these and of the minor poems can be connected with definite
dates.

The development of his genius has been attractively summed
up as comprised in three stages, French, Italian and English,
and there is a rough approximation to the truth in this formula,
since his earliest poems are translated from the French or based
on French models, and the two great works of his middle period
are borrowed from the Italian, while his latest stories have no
such obvious and direct originals and in their humour and free-
dom anticipate the typically English temper of Henry Fielding.
But Chaucer's indebtedness to French poetry was no passing
phase. For various reasons — a not very remote French origin
of his own family may be one of them — he was in no way inter-
ested in older English literature or in the work of his English
contemporaries, save possibly that of " the moral Gower." On
the other hand he knew the Roman de la rose as modern English
poets know Shakespeare, and the full extent of his debt to his
French contemporaries, not merely in 1369, but in 1385 and in
1393 (the dates are approximate), is only gradually being dis-
covered. To be in touch throughout his life with the best French
poets of the day was much for Chaucer. Even with their stimulus
alone he might have developed no small part of his genius. But
it was his great good fortune to add to this continuing French
influence, lessons in plot and construction derived from Boc-
caccio's Filostrato and Teseide, as well as some glimpses of the
higher art of the Divina Commedia. He shows acquaintance also
with one of Petrarch's sonnets, and though, when all is said, the
Italian books with which he can be proved to have been intimate
are but few, they sufficed. His study of them was but an
episode in his literary life, but it was an episode of unique im-
portance. Before it began he had already been making his own
artistic experiments, and it is noteworthy that while he learnt
so much from Boccaccio he improved on his originals as he
translated them. Doubtless his busy life in the service of the
crown had taught him self-confidence, and he uses his Italian
models in his own way and with the most triumphant and assured
success. When he had no more Italian poems to adapt he had
learnt his lesson. The art of weaving a plot out of his own
imagination was never his, but he could take what might be little
more than an anecdote and lend it body and life and colour with
a skill which has never been surpassed.

The most direct example of Chaucer's French studies is his
translation of Lc Roman de la rose, a poem written in some
4000 lines by Guillaume Lorris about 1237 and extended to over
22,000 by Jean Clopinel, better known as Jean de Meun, forty
years later. We know from Chaucer himself that he translated
this poem, and the extant English fragment of 7698 lines was
generally assigned to him from 1532, when it was first printed,
till its authorship was challenged in the early years of the Chaucer
Society. The ground of this challenge was its wide divergence
from Chaucer's practice in his undoubtedly genuine works as to
certain niceties of rhyme, notable as to not rhyming words ending
in -y with others ending -ye. It was subsequently discovered,
however, that the whole fragment was divisible linguistically
into three portions, of which the first and second end respectively
at lines 1705 and 5810, and that in the first of these three sections
the variations from Chaucer's accepted practice are insignificant.
Lines 1-1705 have therefore been provisionally accepted as
Chaucer's, and the other two fragments as the work of unknown
translators (James I. of Scotland has been suggested as one of
them), which somehow came to be pieced together. If, however,
the difficulties in the way of this theory are less than those which
confront any other, they are still considerable, and the question
can hardly be treated as closed.

While our knowledge of Chaucer's Romaunt of the Rose is
in this unsatisfactory state, another translation of his from
the French, the Book of the Lyon (alluded to in the " Retrac-
tion " found, in some manuscripts, at the end of the Canterbury
Tales), which must certainly have been taken from Guillaume

1 The positions of the House of Fame and Palamon and Arcyte are
still matters of controversy.

CHAUCER

Machault's Le Dit du lion, has perished altogether. The strength
of French influence on Chaucer's early work may, however, be
amply illustrated from the first of his poems with which we are
on sure ground, the Book of the Duchesse, or, as it is alternatively
called, the Deth of Blaunche. Here not only are individual
passages closely imitated from Machault and Froissart, but the
dream, the May morning, and the whole machinery of the poem
are taken over from contemporary French conventions. But
even at this stage Chaucer could prove his right to borrow by
the skill with which he makes his materials serve his own purpose,
and some of the lines in the Deth of Blaunche are among the most
tender and charming he ever wrote.

Chaucer's A. B.C., a poem in honour of the Blessed Virgin, of
which the stanzas begin with the successive letters of the alpha-
bet, is another early example of French influence. It is taken
from the Pelerinage de la vie humaine, written by Guillaume de
Deguilleville about 1330. The occurrence of some magnificent
lines in Chaucer's version, combined with evidence that he did
not yet possess the skill to translate at all literally as soon as
rhymes had to be considered, accounts for this poem having been
dated sometimes earlier than the Book of the Duchesse, and
sometimes several years later. With it is usually moved up and
down, though it should surely be placed in the 'seventies, the
Compleynt to Pity, a fine poem which yet, from its slight obscurity
and absence of Chaucer's usual ease, may very well some day
prove to be a translation from the French.

While Chaucer thus sought to reproduce both the matter
and the style of French poetry in England, he found other
materials in popular Latin books. Among his lost works are
renderings of " Origenes upon the Maudeleyne," and of Pope
Innocent III. on " The Wreced Engendring of Mankinde "
(De miser ia conditionis humanae). He must have begun his
attempts at straightforward narrative with the Lyf of Seynt
Cecyle (the weakest of all his works, the second Nun's Tale in
the Canterbury series) from the Legenda Aurea of Jacobus de
Voragine, and the story of the patience of Grisilde, taken from
Petrarch's Latin version of a tale by Boccaccio. In both of these
he condenses a little, but ventures on very few changes, though
he lets his readers see his impatience with his originals. In his
story of Constance (afterwards ascribed to the Man of Law),
taken from the Anglo-Norman chronicle of Nicholas Trivet,
written about 1334, we find him struggling to put some substance
into another weak tale, but still without the courage to remedy
its radical faults, though here, as with Grisilde, he does as much
for his heroine as the conventional exaltation of one virtue at
a time permitted. It is possible that other tales which now stand
in the Canterbury series were written originally at this period.
What is certain is that at some time in the 'seventies three or four
Italian poems passed into Chaucer's possession, and that he set
to work busily to make use of them. One of the most interesting
of the poems reclaimed for him by Professor Skeat is a fragment-
ary " Compleynt," part of which is written in terza rima. While
he thus experimented with the metre of the Divina Corn-media,
he made his first attempt to use the material provided by
Boccaccio's Teseide in another fragment of great interest, that of
Quene Anelida and Pals Arcyte. More than a third of this is
taken up with another, and quite successful, metrical experiment
in Anelida's " compleynt," but in the introduction of Anelida
herself Chaucer made the first of his three unsuccessful efforts
to construct a plot for an important poem out of his own head,
and the fragment which begins so well breaks off abruptly at
line 357.

For a time the Teseide seems to have been laid aside, and it
was perhaps at this moment, in despondency at his failure, that
Chaucer wrote his most important prose work, the translation of
the De Consolatione Philosophiae of Boethius. Reminiscences
of this helped to enrich many of his subsequent poems, and
inspired five of his shorter pieces (The Former Age, Fortune,
Truth, Gentilesse and Lak of Stedfaslnesse) , but the translation
itself was only a partial success. To borrow his own phrase, his
" Englysh was insufficient " to reproduce such difficult Latin.
The translation is often barely intelligible without the original,

and it is only here and there that it flows with any ease or
rhythm.

If Chaucer felt this himself he must have been speedily con-
sold by achieving in Troilus and Criseyde his greatest artistic
triumph. Warned by his failure in Anelida and Arcyte, he was
content this time to take his plot unaltered from the FUostrato,
and to follow Boccaccio step by step through the poem. But
he did not follow him as a mere translator. He had done his
duty manfully for the saints " of other holinesse " in Cecyle,
Grisilde and Constance, whom he was forbidden by the rules of
the game to clothe with complete flesh and blood. In this great
love-story there were no such restrictions, and the characters
which Boccaccio's treatment left thin and conventional became
in Chaucer's hands convincingly human. No other English poem
is so instinct with the glory and tragedy of youth, and in the
details of the story Chaucer's gifts of vivid colouring, of humour
and pity, are all at their highest.

An unfortunate theory that the reference in the Legende of
Good Women to " al the love of Palamon and Arcyte " is to a
hypothetical poem in seven-line stanzas en this theme, which
Chaucer is imagined, when he came to plan the Canterbury Tales,
to have suppressed in favour of a new version in heroic couplets,
has obscured the close connexion in temper and power between
whaf>we know as the " Knight's Tale " and the Troilus. The
poem may have been more or less extensively revised before, with
admirable fitness, it was assigned to the Knight, but that its
main composition can be separated by several years from that of
Troilus is aesthetically incredible. Chaucer's art here again is at
its highest. He takes the plot of Boccaccio's Teseide, but only
as much of it as he wants, and what he takes he heightens and
humanizes with the same skill which he had shown in trans-
forming the FUostrato. Of the individual characters Theseus
himself, the arbiter of the plot, is most notably developed;
Emilie and her two lovers receive just as much individuality as
they will bear without disturbing the atmosphere of romance.
The whole story is pulled together and made more rapid and
effective. A comparison of almost any scene as told by the two
poets suffices to show Chaucer's immense superiority. At some
subsequent period the " Squire's Tale " of Cambuscan, the fair
Canacee and the Horse of Brass, was gallantly begun in some-
thing of the same key, but Chaucer took for it more materials
than he could use, and for lack of the help of a leader like Boc-
caccio he was obliged to leave the story, in Milton's phrase,
" half-told," though the fragment written certainly takes us
very much less than half-way.

Meanwhile, in connexion (as is reasonably believed) with the
betrothal or marriage of Anne of Bohemia to Richard II. (i.e.
about 1381-1382), Chaucer had brought to a successful com-
pletion the Parlement of Foules, a charming sketch of 699 lines,
in which the other birds, on Saint Valentine's day, counsel the
" Formel Egle " on her choice of a mate. His success here, as in
the case of the Deth of Blaunche the Duchesse, was due to the
absence of any need for a climax; and though the materials
which he borrowed were mainly Latin (with some help from
passages of the Teseide not fully needed for Palamon and Arcyte)
his method of handling them would have been quite approved
by his friends among the French poets. A more ambitious
venture, the Hous of Fame, in which Chaucer imagines himself
borne aloft by an eagle to Fame's temple, describes what he
sees and hears there, and then breaks off in apparent inability
to get home, shows a curious mixture of the poetic ideals of the
Roman de la rose and reminiscences of the Divina Commedia.

As the Hous of Fame is most often remembered and quoted
for the personal touches and humour of Chaucer's conversation
with the eagle, so the most-quoted passages in the Prologue to
the Legende of Good Women are those in which Chaucer professes
his affection for the daisy, and the attack on his loyalty by
Cupid and its defence by Alceste. Recent discoveries have
shown, however, that (besides obligations to Machault) some of
the touches about the daisy and the controversy between the
partisans of the Flower and of the Leaf are snatches from poems
by his friends Froissart and Deschamps, which Chaucer takes up

i6

CHAUCER

and returns to them with pretty compliments, and that he was
indebted to Froissart for some of the framework of his poem.1
Both of the two versions of the Prologue to the Legende are
charming, and some of the tales, notably that of Cleopatra,
rank with Chaucer's best work. When, however, he had written
eight and part of the ninth he tired of his scheme, which was
planned to celebrate nineteen of Cupid s faithful " saints," with
Alcestis as their queen. With his usual hopefulness he had
overlooked the risk of monotony, which obviously weighed
heavily on him ere he broke off, and the loss of the other ten
stories is less to be regretted than that of the celebration of
Alceste, and a possible epilogue which might have exceeded in
charm the Prologue itself.

Chaucer's failure to complete the scheme of the Legende of
Good Women may have been partly due to the attractions of the
Canterbury Tales, which were probably taken up in
Canter- immediate succession to it. His guardianship of two
Tales. Kentish wards, his justiceship of the peace, his repre-
senting the county in the parliament of 1386, his
commissionership of the river-bank between Greenwich and
Woolwich, all make it easy to understand his dramatic use of the
merry crowds he saw on the Canterbury road, without supposing
him to have had recourse to Boccaccio's Decamerone, a book
which there is no proof of his having seen. The pilgrims whom
he imagines to have assembled at the Tabard Inn in Southwark,
where Harry Bailey was host, are said to have numbered " wel
nyne and twenty in a company," and the Prologue gives full-
length sketches of a Knight, a Squire (his son), and their
Yeoman; of a Prioress, Monk, Friar, Oxford Clerk, and Parson,
with two disreputable hangers-on of the church, a Summoner
and Pardoner; of a Serjeant-at-Law and a Doctor of Physic,
and of a Franklin, or country gentleman, Merchant, Shipman,
Miller, Cook, Manciple, Reeve, Ploughman (the Parson's brother)
and the ever-famous Wife of Bath. Five London burgesses are
described in a group, and a Nun and Priest2 are mentioned as
in attendance on the Prioress. Each of these, with Chaucer
himself making the twenty-ninth, was pledged to tell two tales,
but including one second attempt and a tale told by the Yeoman
of a Canon, who overtakes the pilgrims on the road, we have
only twenty finished stories, two unfinished and two interrupted
ones. As in the case of the Legende of Good Women, our loss is
not so much that of the additional stories as of the completed
framework. The wonderful character sketches of the Prologue
are carried yet farther by the Talks on the Road which link the
different tales, and two of these Talks, in which the Wife of
Bath and the Pardoner respectively edify the company, have the
importance of separate Tales, but between the Tales that have
come down to us there are seven links missing,3 and it was left
to a later and weaker hand to narrate, in the " Tale of Beryn,"
the adventures of the pilgrims at Canterbury.

The reference to the Lyf of Seynt Cecyle in the Prologue to
the Legende of Good Women gives external proof that Chaucer
included earlier work in the scheme of the Canterbury Tales,
and mention has been made of other stories which are indisput-
ably early. In the absence of any such metrical tests as have

1 The French influences on this Prologue, its connexion with the
Flower and the Leaf controversy, and the priority of what had pre-
viously been reckoned as the second or " B " form of the Prologue
over the " A," were demonstrated in papers by Prof. Kittredge on
" Chaucer and some of his Friends " in Modern Philology, vol. i.
(Chicago, 1903), and by Mr J. L. Lowes on " The Prologue to the
Legend of Good Women " in Publications of the Modern Language
Association of America, vol. xix., December 1904.

2 The Talks on the Road show clearly that only one Priest in
attendance on the Prioress, and two tales to each narrator, were
originally contemplated, but the " Prestes thre " in line 164 of the
Prologue, and the bald couplet (line 793 sq.) explaining that each
pilgrim was to tell two tales each way, were probably both alterations
made by Chaucer in moments of amazing hopefulness. The journey
was reckoned a 3} davs' ride, and eight or nine tales a day would
surely have been a sufficient allowance.

* The absence of these links necessitates the division cf the
Canterbury Tales into nine groups, to which, for purposes of quota-
tipn, the letters A to I have been assigned, the line numeration of the
Tales in each group being continuous.

proved useful in the case of Shakespeare, the dates at which
several of the Tales were composed remain doubtful, while in
the case of at least two, the Clerk's tale of Grisilde and the
Monk's tragedies, there is evidence of early work being revised
and supplemented. It is fortunately impossible to separate the
prologue to the charmingly told story of " yonge Hugh of
Lincoln " from the tale itself, and with the " quod sche " in the
second line as proof that Chaucer was here writing specially for
his Prioress we are forbidden to limit the new stories to any one
metre or tone. There can be no doubt, however, that what may
be called the Tales of the Churls (Miller, Reeve, Summoner,
Friar, &c.), and the conversational outpourings of the Pardoner
and Wife of Bath, form, with the immortal Prologue, the most
important and distinctive additions to the older work. In these,
and in the Pardoner's story of Death and the Three Revellers,
and the Nun's Priest's masterly handling of the fable of the
Cock and Fox, both of them free from the grossness which marks
the others, Chaucer takes stories which could have been told
in a short page of prose and elaborates them with all the skill
in narration which he had sedulously cultivated. The conjugal
reminiscences of the Wife of Bath and the Reeve's Tale with its
abominable climax (lightened a little by Aleyn's farewell, lines
316-319) are among the great things in Chaucer, as surely as
Troilus, and Palamon and Arcyte and the Prologue. They help
notably to give him the width of range which may certainly be
claimed for him.

In or soon after 1391 Chaucer wrote in prose for an eleven-
year-old reader, whom he addresses as " Litel Lowis my son,"
a treatise on the use of the Astrolabe, its short prologue being
the prettiest specimen of his prose. The wearisome tale of
" Melibee and his wyf Prudence," which was perhaps as much
admired in English as it had been in Latin and French, may have
been translated at any time. The sermon on Penitence, used as
the Parson's Tale, was probably the work of his old age. " En-
voys " to his friends Scogan and Bukton, a translation of some
balades by Sir Otes de Granson, and the Compleynt to his Purs
complete the record of his minor poetry. We have his own
statement that in his youth he had written many Balades,
Roundels and Virelayes in honour of Love, and the two songs
embedded respectively in the Parlement of Foules and the Pro-
logue to the Legende of Good Women are charming and musical.
His extant shorter poems, however, whether early or late,
offer no excuse for claiming high rank for him as a lyrist. He
had very little sheer singing power, and though there are fine
lines in his short poems, witness the famous " Flee fro the prees
and dwell with soothfastnesse," they lack the sustained concen-
tration of great work. From the drama, again, Chaucer was cut
off, and it is idle to argue from the innumerable dramatic touches
in his poems and his gift of characterization as to what he
might have done had he lived two centuries later. His own age
delighted in stories, and he gave it the stories it demanded
invested with a humanity, a grace and strength which place him
among the world's greatest narrative poets, and which bring the
England of his own day, with all the colour and warmth of life,
wonderfully near to all his readers.

The part played by Chaucer in the development of the English
language has often been overrated. He neither corrupted it, as
used to be said, by introducing French words which
it would otherwise have avoided, nor bore any such lan"ence-
part in fixing it as was afterwards played by the translators
of the Bible. When he was growing up educated society
in England was still bilingual, and the changes in vocabulary
and pronunciation which took place during his life were the
natural results of a society, which had been bilingual with a
bias towards French, giving an exclusive preference to English.
The practical identity of Chaucer's language with that of Gower
shows that both merely used the best English of their day with
the care and slightly conservative tendency which befitted poets.
Chaucer's service to the English language lies in his decisive
success having made it impossible for any later English poet to
attain fame, as Gower had done, by writing alternatively in
Latin and French. The claim which should be made for him is

CHAUDESAIGUES— CHAUMETTE

that, at least as regards poetry, he proved that English was
" sufficient."

Chaucer borrowed both his stanza forms and his " deca-
syllabic " couplets (mostly with an extra syllable at the end
of the line) from Guillaume Machault, and his music, like that
of his French master and his successors, depends very largely
on assigning to every syllable its full value, and more especially
on the due pronunciation of the final -e. The slower movement
of change in Scotland allowed time for Chaucer to exercise a
potent influence on Scottish poetry, but in England this final
-e, to which most of the earlier grammatical forms by Chaucer's
time had been reduced, itself fell rapidly into disuse during the
1 5th century, and a serious barrier was thus raised to the apprecia-
tion of the artistic value of his verse. His disciples, Hoccleve
and Lydgate, who at first had caught some echoes of his rhythms,
gradually yielded to the change in pronunciation, so that there
was no living tradition to hand down his secret, while successive
copyists reduced his text to a state in which it was only by
accident that lines could be scanned correctly. For fully three
centuries his reputation was sustained solely by his narrative
power, his warmest panegyrists betraying no consciousness
that they were praising one of the greatest technical masters
of poetry. Even when thus maimed, however, his works found
readers and lovers in every generation, and every improvement
in his text has set his fame on a surer basis.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The Canterbury Tales have always beenChaucer's
most popular work, and, including fragments, upwards of sixty
15th-century manuscripts of it still survive. Two thin volumes of
his minor poems were among the little quartos which Caxton printed
by way of advertisement immediately on his return to England;
the Canterbury Tales and Boethius followed in 1478, Troilus and a
second edition of the Tales in 1483, the Hous of Fame in 1484. The
Canterbury Tales were subsequently printed in 1492 (Pynson), 1498
(de Worde) and 1526 (Pynson); Troilus in 1517 (de Worde) and
1526 (Pynson); the Hous of Fame in 1526 (Pynson); the Parlement
of Faults in 1526 (Pynson) and 1530 (de Worde). and the Mars,

Venus " and Envoy to Bukton by Julyan Notary about 1500.
Pynson's three issues in 1526 almost amounted to a collected edition,
but the first to which the title The Workes of Geffray Chaucer was
given was that edited by William Thynne in 1532 for Thomas
Godfray. Of this there was a new edition in 1542 for John Reynes
and William Bonham, and an undated reprint a few years later for
Bonham, Kele, Petit and Toye, each of whom put his name on part
of the edition. In 1561 a reprint, with numerous additions, edited
by John Stowe, was printed by J. Kyngston for J. Wight, and this
was re-edited, with fresh additions by Thomas Speght, in 1598 for
G. Bishop and again in 1602 for Adam Islip. In 1687 there was an
anonymous reprint, and in 1721 John Urry produced the last and
worst of the folios. By this time the paraphrasers were already at
work, Dryden rewriting the tales of the Knight, the Nun's Priest
and the VVife of Bath, and Pope the Merchant's. In 1737 (reprinted
in 1740) the Prologue and Knight's Tale were edited (anonymously)
by Thomas MoreTl " from the most authentic manuscripts," and
here, though by dint of much violence and with many mistakes,
Chaucer's lines were for the first rime in print given in a form in
which they could be scanned. This promise of better things (Morell
still thought it necessary to accompany his text with the paraphrases
by Betterton and Dryden) was fulfilled by a fine edition of the
Canterbury Tales (1775-1778), in which Thomas Tyrwhitt's scholarly
instincts produced a comparatively good text from second-rate
manuscripts and accompanied it with valuable illustrative notes.
The next edition of any importance was that edited by Thomas
Wright for the Percy Society in 1848-1851, based on the erratic
but valuable British Museum manuscript Harley 7334, containing
readings which must be either Chaucer's second thoughts or the
emendations of a brilliantly clever scribe. In 1866 Richard Morris
re-edited this text in a more scholarly manner for the Aldine edition
of the British Poets, and in the following year produced for the
Clarendon Press Series a school edition of the Prologue and Tales
of the Knight and Nun's Priest, edited with the fulness and care
previously bestowed only on Greek and Latin classics.

In 1868 the foundation of the Chaucer Society, with Dr Furnivall
as its director and chief worker, and Henry Bradshaw as a leading
spirit, led to the publication of a six-text edition of the Canterbury
Tales, and the consequent discovery that a manuscript belonging
to the Earl of Ellesmere, though undoubtedly " edited," contained
the best available text. The Chaucer Society also printed the best
manuscripts of Troilus and Criseyde and of all the minor poems,
and thus cleared the way for the " Oxford " Chaucer, edited by
Professor Skeat, with a wealth of annotation, for the Clarendon Press
in 1894, the text of which was used for the splendid folio printed
two years later by William Morris at the Kelmscott Press, with
illustrations by Sir Edward Burne-Jones. A supplementary volume

of the Oxford edition, entitled Chaucerian and other Pieces, issued
by Professor Skeat in 1897, contains the prose and verse which his
early publishers and editors, from Pynson and Thynne onwards,
included among his Works by way of illustration, but which had
gradually come to be regarded as forming part of his text. The
reasons for their rejection are fully stated by Professor Skeat in the
work named and also in The Chaucer Canon (1900). Many of these
pieces have now been traced to other authors, and their exclusion
lias helped to clear not only Chaucer's text but also his biography,
which used (as in the " Life " published by William Godwin in two
quarto volumes in 1803) to be encumbered with inferences from
works now known not to be Chaucer's, notably the Testament of
Love written by Thomas Usk. All information about Chaucer's
life available in 1900 will be found summarized by Mr R. E. G.
Kirk in Life-Records of Chaucer, part iv., published by the Chaucer
Society in that year. See also Chaucer; a Bibliographical Manual,
by Eleanor P. Hammond (1909). (A. W. Po.)

CHAUDESAIGUES, a village of central France, in the depart-
ment of Cantal, at the foot of the mountains of Aubrac, 19 m.
S.S.W. of St Flour by road. Pop. (1906) town, 937; commune,
1558. It is celebrated for its hot mineral springs, which vary
in temperature from 135° to 177° Fahr., and at their maximum
rank as the hottest in France. The water, which contains
bicarbonate of soda, is employed not only medicinally (for
rheumatism, &c.), but also for the washing of fleeces, the incuba-
tion of eggs, and various other economic purposes; and it
furnishes a ready means of heating the houses of the town during
winter. In the immediate neighbourhood is the cold chalybeate
spring of Condamine. The warm springs were known to the
Romans, and are mentioned by Sidonius Apollinaris.

CHAUFFEUR (from Fr. chau/er, to heat, a term primarily
used in French of a man in charge of a forge OF furnace, and so
of a stoker on a locomotive or in a steamship, but in its anglicized
sense more particularly confined to a professional driver of a
motor vehicle. (See also BRIGANDAGE.)

CHAULIEU, GUILLAUME AMFRYE DE (1630-1720), French
poet and wit, jvas born at Fontenay, Normandy, in 1639. His
father, maltre des comptts of Rouen, sent him to study at the
College de Navarre. Guillaume early showed the wit that was
to distinguish him, and gained the favour of the duke of Vend6me,
who procured for him the abbey of Aumale and other benefices.
Louis Joseph, duke of Vendome, and his brother Philippe, grand
prior of the Knights of Malta in France, at that time had a joint
establishment at the Temple, where they gathered round them
a very gay and reckless circle. Chaulieu became the constant
companion and adviser of the two princes. He made an expedi-
tion to Poland in the suite of the marquis de Bethune, hoping to
make a career for himself in the court of John Sobieski; he saw
one of the Polish king's campaigns in Ukraine, but returned to
Paris without securing any advancement. Saint-Simon says that
the abbe helped his patron the grand prior to rob the duke of
Vendome, and that the king sent orders that the princes should
take the management of their affairs from him. This account
has been questioned by Sainte-Beuve, who regards Saint-Simon
as a prejudiced witness. In his later years Chaulieu spent much
time at the little court of the duchesse du Maine at Sceaux.
There he became the trusted and devoted friend of Mdlle
Delaunay, with whom he carried on an interesting correspond-
ence. Among his poems the best known are " Fontenay " and
" La Retraite." Chaulieu died on the 27th of June 1720.

His works were edited with those of his friend the marquis de la
Fare in 1714, 1750 and 1774. See also C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Causeries
du lundi, vol. i. ; and Lettres inedites (1850), with a notice by
Raymond, marquis de Berenger.

CHAUMETTE, PIERRE GASPARD (1763-1794), French
revolutionist, was born at Nevers. Until the Revolution he
lived a somewhat wandering life, interesting himself particularly
in botany. He was a student of medicine at Paris in 1790,
became one of the orators of the club of the Cordeliers, and
contributed anonymously to the Revolutions de Paris. As
member of the insurrectionary Commune of the loth of August
1792, he was delegated to visit the prisons, with full power to
arrest suspects. He was accused later of having taken part in
the massacres of September, but was able to prove that at that
time he had been sent by the provisional executive council to
Normandy to oversee a requisition of 60,000 men. Returning

i8

CHAUMONT-EN-BASSIGNY— CHAUNCY

from this mission, he pronounced an eloquent discourse in favour
of the republic. His simple manners, easy speech, ardent
temperament and irreproachable private life gave him great
influence in Paris, and he was elected president of the Commune,
defending the municipality in that capacity at the bar of the
Convention on the 3ist of October 1792. Re-elected in the
municipal elections of the 2nd of December 1792, he was soon
charged with the functions of procurator of the Commune, and
contributed with success to the enrolments of volunteers by his
appeals to the populace. Chaumette was one of the ringleaders
in the attacks of the 3ist of May and of the 2nd of June 1793
on the Girondists, toward whom he showed himself relentless.
He demanded the formation of a revolutionary army, and
preached the extermination of all traitors. He was one of the
promoters of the worship of Reason, and on the loth of November
1793 he presented the goddess to the Convention in the guise of
an actress. On the 23rd of the same month he obtained a decree
closing all the churches of Paris, and placing the priests under
strict surveillance; but on the 2Sth he retraced his steps and
obtained from the Commune the free exercise of worship. He
wished to save the Hfibertists by a new insurrection and struggled
against Robespierre; but a revolutionary decree promulgated
by the Commune on his demand was overthrown by the Con-
vention. Robespierre had him accused with the Hebertists; he
was arrested, imprisoned in the Luxembourg, condemned by the
Revolutionary tribunal and executed on the I3th of April 1794.
Chaumette's career had its brighter side. He was an ardent
social reformer; he secured the abolition of corporal punishment
in the schools, the suppression of lotteries, of houses of ill-fame
and of obscene literature; he instituted reforms in the hospitals,
and insisted on the honours of public burial for the poor.

Chaumette left some printed speeches and fragments, and memoirs
published in the Amateur d'autographes. His memoirs on the loth
of August were published by F. A. Aulard, preceded by a biographical
study.

CHAUMONT-EN-BASSIGNY, a town of eastern France,
capital of the department of Haute-Marne, a railway junction
163 m. E.S.E. of Paris on the main line of the Eastern railway
to Belfort. Pop. (1906) 12,089. Chaumont is picturesquely
situated on an eminence between the rivers Marne and Suize
in the angle formed by their confluence. To the west a lofty
viaduct over the Suize carries the railway. The church of
St-Jean-Baptiste dates from the I3th century, the choir and
lateral chapels belonging to the isth and i6th. In the interior
the sculptured triforium (isth century), the spiral staircase in
the transept and a Holy Sepulchre are of interest. The lycee
and the hospital have chapels of the I7th and i6th centuries
respectively. The Tour Hautef euille (a keep of the 1 1 th century)
is the principal relic of a chateau of the counts of Champagne;
the rest of the site is occupied by the law courts. In the Place
de 1'Escargot stands a statue of the chemist Philippe Lebon
(1767-1804), born in Haute-Marne. Chaumont is the seat of
a prefect and of a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a Iyc6e, training colleges, and a
branch of the Bank of France. The main industries are glove-
making and leather-dressing. The town has trade in grain, iron,
mined in the vicinity, and leather. In 1 190 it received a charter
from the counts of Champagne. It was here that in 1814 Great
Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia concluded the treaty (dated
March i, signed March 9) by which they severally bound them-
selves not to conclude a separate peace with Napoleon, and to
continue the war until France should have been reduced within
the boundaries of 1792.

CHAUNCEY, ISAAC (1772-1840), American naval com-
mander, was born at Black Rock, Connecticut, on the 2oth of
Februaryi772. He was brought up in the merchant service,and
entered the United States navy as a lieutenant in 1 798. His first
services were rendered against the Barbary pirates. During these
operations, more especially at Tripoli, he greatly distinguished
himself, and was voted by Congress a sword of honour, which,
however, does not appear to have been given him. The most
active period of his life is that of his command on the Lakes during

the War of 1812. He took the command at Sackett's Harbor on
Lake Ontario in October 1812. There was at that time only one
American vessel, the brig " Oneida " (16), and one armed prize,
a schooner, on the lake. But Commodore Chauncey brought
from 400 to 500 officers and men with him, and local resources
for building being abundant, he had by November formed a
squadron of ten vessels, with which he attacked the Canadian
port, York, taking it in April 1813, capturing one vessel and
causing the destruction of another then building. He returned
to Sackett's Harbor. In May Sir James Lucas Yeo (1732-1818)
came out from England with some 500 officers and men, to
organize a squadron for service on the Lakes. By the end of
the month he was ready for service with a squadron of eight
ships and brigs, and some small craft. The governor, Sir G.
Prevost, gave him no serious support. On the 29th of May, dur-
ing Chauncey 's absence at Niagara, the Americans were attacked
at Sackett's Harbor and would have been defeated if Prevost had
not insisted on a retreat at the very moment when the American
shipbuilding yard was in danger of being burnt, with a ship of more
than eight hundred tons on the stocks. The retreat of the British
force gave Chauncey time to complete this vessel, the " General
Pike," which was so far superior to anything under Yeo's com-
mand that she was said to be equal in effective strength to
the whole of the British flotilla. The American commodore was
considered by many of his subordinates to have displayed
excessive caution. In August he skirmished with Sir James Yeo's
small squadron of six vessels, but made little effective use of
his own fourteen. Two of his schooners were upset in a squall,
with the loss of all hands, and he allowed two to be cut off by
Yeo. Commodore Chauncey showed a preference for relying on
his long guns, and a disinclination to come to close quarters.
He was described as chasing the British squadron all round the
lake, but his encounters did not go beyond artillery duels at
long range, and he allowed his enemy to continue in existence
long after he might have been destroyed. The winter suspended
operations, and both sides made exertions to increase their forces.
The Americans had the advantage of commanding greater
resources for shipbuilding. Sir James Yeo began by blockading
Sackett's Harborin the early part of 1814, but when the American
squadron was ready he was compelled to retire by the disparity
of the forces. The American commodore was now able to
blockade the British flotilla at Kingston. When the cruising
season of the lake was nearly over he in his turn retired to
Sackett's Harbor, and did not leave it for the rest of the war.
During his later years he served as commissioner of the navy,
and was president of the board of naval commissioners from
1833 till his death at Washington on the 27th of February 1840.
See Roosevelt's War of 1812 (1882) ; and A. T. Mahan, Sea-Power
in its Relations to the War of 1812 (1905).

CHAUNCY, CHARLES (1592-1672), president of Harvard
College, was born at Yardley-Bury, Hertfordshire, England, in
November 1592, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
of which he became a fellow. He was in turn vicar at Ware,
Hertfordshire (1627-1633), and at Marston St Lawrence, North-
amptonshire (1633-1637). Refusing to observe the ecclesiastical
regulations of Archbishop Laud, he was brought before the court
of high commission in 1629, and again in 1634, when, for opposing
the placing of a rail around the communion table, he was sus-
pended and imprisoned. His formal recantation in February
1637 caused him lasting self-reproach and humiliation. In 1637
he emigrated to America, and from 1638 until 1641 was an
associate pastor at Plymouth, where, however, his advocacy of
the baptism of infants by immersion caused dissatisfaction.
He was the pastor at Scituate, Massachusetts, from 1641 until
r6s4, and from 1654 until his death was president of Harvard
College, as the successor of the first president Henry Dunster
(c. 1612-1659). He died on the I9th of February 1672. By
his sermons and his writings he exerted a great influence in
colonial Massachusetts, and according to Mather was " a most
incomparable scholar." His writings include: The Plain
Doctrine of the Justification of a Sinner in the Sight of God (1659)
and Antisynodalia Scripts. Americana (1662). His son, Isaac

CHAUNY— CHAUVIN

Chauncy (1632-1712), who removed to England, was a volu-
minous writer on theological subjects.

There are biographical sketches of President Chauncy in Cotton
Mather's Magnolia Christi Americana (London, 1702), and in W. C.
Fowler's Memorials of the Chauncys, including President Chauncy
(Boston, 1858).

President Chauncy's great-grandson, CHARLES CHAUNCY
(1705-1787), a prominent American theologian, was born in
Boston, Massachusetts, on the ist of January 1705, and gradu-
ated at Harva rd in 1721. Ini727hewas chosen as the colleague
of Thomas Foxcroft (1697-1769) in the pastorate of the First
Church of Boston, continuing as pastor of this church until his
death. At the time of the " Great Awakening " of 1 740-1 743 and
afterwards, Chauncy was the leader of the so-called " Old Light "
party in New England, which strongly condemned the White-
fieldian revival as an outbreak of emotional extravagance. His
views were ably presented in his sermon Enthusiasm and in his
Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Religion in New England
(1743), written in answer to Jonathan Edwards's Some Thoughts
Concerning the Present Revival of Religion in New England (1742).
He also took a leading part in opposition to the projected estab-
lishment of an Anglican Episcopate in America, and before and
during the American War of Independence he ardently sup-
ported the whig or patriot party. Theologically he has been
classed as a precursor of the New England Unitarians. He died
in Boston on the loth of February 1787. His publications in-
clude : Compleat View of Episcopacy, as Exhibited in the Fathers
of the Christian Church, until the close of the Second Century (1771);
Salvation of All Men, Illustrated and Vindicated as a Scripture
Doctrine (1782); The Mystery Hid from Ages and Generations
made manifest by the Gospel- Revelation (1783); and Five Dis-
sertations on the Fall and its Consequences (1785).

See P. L. Ford's privately printed Bibliotheca Chaunciana (Brook-
lyn, N. Y., 1884) ; and Williston Walker's Ten New England Leaders
(New York, 1901).

CHAUNY, a town of northern France in the department of
Aisne, 19 m. S. by W. of St Quentin by rail. Pop. (1906)
10,127. The town is situated on the Oise (which here becomes
navigable) and at the junction of the canal of St Quentin with the
lateral canal of the Oise, and carries on an active trade. It
contains mirror-polishing works, subsidiary to the mirror-works
of St Gobain, chemical works, sugar manufactories, metal
foundries and breweries. Chauny was the scene of much fighting
in the Hundred Years' War.

CHAUTAUQUA, a village on the west shore of Chautauqua
Lake in the town of Chautauqua, Chautauqua county, New York,
U.S.A. Pop. of the town (1900), 359°; (1905) 3505; (1910)
351 5; of the village (1908) about 750. The lake is a beautiful
body of water over 1300 ft. above sea-level, 20 m. long, and
from a few hundred yards to 3 m. in width. The town of Chau-
tauqua is situated near the north end and is within easy reach
by steamboat and electric car connexions with the main railways
between the east and the west. The town is known almost solely
as being the permanent home of the Chautauqua Institution, a
system of popular education founded in 1874 by Lewis Mijler
(1820-1899) of Akron, Ohio, and Bishop John H. Vincent
(b. 1832). The village, covering about three hundred acres of
land, is carefully laid out to provide for the work of the
Institution.

The Chautauqua Institution began as a Sunday-School
Normal Institute, and for nearly a quarter of a century the
administration was in the hands of Mr Miller, who was responsible
for the business management, and Bishop Vincent, who was
head of the instruction department. Though founded by
Methodists, in its earliest years it became non-sectarian and has
furnished a meeting-ground for members of all sects and de-
nominations. At the very outset the activities of the assembly
were twofold: (i) the conducting of a summer school for
Sunday-school teachers, and (2) the presentation of a series of
correlated lectures and entertainments. Although the move-
ment was and still is primarily religious, it has always been
assumed that the best religious education must necessarily take

advantage of the best that the educational world can afford in
the literatures, arts and sciences. The scope of the plan rapidly
broadened, and in 1879 a regular group of schools with graded
courses of study was established. At about the same time, also,
the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, providing a
continuous home-reading system, was founded. The season
lasts during June, July and August. In 1907 some 325 lectures,
concerts, readings and entertainments were presented by a
group of over 190 lecturers, readers and musicians, while at the
same time 200 courses in the summer schools were offered by a
faculty of instructors drawn from the leading colleges and
normal schools of the country.

The Chautauqua movement has had an immense influence on
education in the United States, an influence which is especially
marked in three directions: (i) in the establishment of about
300 local assemblies or " Chautauquas " in the United States
patterned after the mother Chautauqua; (2) in the promotion
of the idea of summer education, which has been followed by
the founding of summer schools or sessions at a large number
of American universities, and of various special summer schools,
such as the Catholic Summer School of America, with head-
quarters at Cliff Haven, Clinton county, New York, and the
Jewish Chautauqua Society, with headquarters at Buffalo, N. Y. ;
and (3) in the establishment of numerous correspondence schools
patterned in a general way after the system provided by the
Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.

See John Heyl Vincent, The Chautauqua Movement (Boston, 1886),
and Frank C. Bray, A Reading Journey through Chautauqua (Chicago,
1905)-

CHAUVELIN, BERNARD FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1766-
183 2) , French diplomatist and administrator. Though master of
the king's wardrobe in 1789, he joined in the Revolution. He
served in the army of Flanders, and then was sent to London
in February 1792, to induce England to remain neutral in the
war which was about to break out between France and "the
king of Bohemia and Hungary." He was well received at first,
but after the loth of August 1792 he was no longer officially
recognized at court, and on the execution of Louis XVI. (2istof
January 1793) he was given eight days to leave England. After
an unsuccessful embassy in Tuscany, he was imprisoned as a
suspect during the Terror, but freed after the 9th Thermidor.
Under Napoleon he became a member of the council of state, and
from 1812 to 1814 he governed Catalonia under the title of
intendant-general, being charged to win over the Catalonians
to King Joseph Bonaparte. He remained in private life during
the Restoration and the Hundred Days. In 1816 he was elected
deputy, and spoke in favour of liberty of the press and extension
of the franchise. Though he was again deputy in 1827 he played
no part in public affairs, and resigned in 1829.

See G. Pallain, La Mission de Talleyrand a Londres en 1792
(Paris, 1889).

CHAUVIGNY, a town of western France, in the department
of Vienne, 20 m. E. of Poitiers by rail. Pop. (1906) 2326. The
town is finely situated overlooking the Vienne and a small
torrent, and has two interesting Romanesque churches, both
restored in modern times. There are also ruins of a chateau of
the bishops of Poitiers, and of other strongholds. Near Chau-
vigny is the curious bone-cavern of Jioux, the entrance to which
is fortified by large blocks of stone. The town carries on lime-
burning and plaster-manufacture, and there are stone quarries
in the vicinity. Trade is in wool and feathers.

CHAUVIN, ETIENNE (1640-1725), French Protestant divine,
was born at Nimes on the i8th of April 1640. At the revocation
of the Edict of Nantes he retired to Rotterdam, where he was for
some years preacher at the Walloon church; in 1695 the elector
of Brandenburg appointed him pastor and professor of philo-
sophy, and later inspector of the French college at Berlin, where
he enjoyed considerable reputation as a representative of
Cartesianism and as a student of physics. His principal work
is a laborious Lexicon Rationale, sive Thesaurus Philosophicus
(Rotterdam, 1692; new and enlarged edition, Leuwarden, 1713).

20

CHAUVINISM— CHEBOYGAN

He also wrote Theses de Cognitione Dei (1662), and started the
Nouveau Journal des Savans (1694-1698).

See E. and E. Haag, La France Protestante, vol. iv. (1884).

CHAUVINISM, a term for unreasonable and exaggerated
patriotism, the French equivalent of " Jingoism." The word
originally signified idolatry of Napoleon, being taken from a
much-wounded veteran, Nicholas Chauvin, who, by his adoration
of the emperor, became the type of blind enthusiasm for national
military glory.

CHAUX DE FONDS, LA, a large industrial town in the Swiss
canton of Neuchatel. It is about 19 m. by rail N. W. of Neuchatel,
and stands at a height of about 3255 ft. in a valley (5 m. long)
of the same name in the Jura. Pop. (1900) 35,968 (only 13,659
in 1850); (1905) 38,700, mainly French-speaking and Pro-
testants; of the 6114 "Catholics" the majority are "Old
Catholics." It is a centre of the watch-making industry, especi-
ally of gold watch cases; about 70% of those manufactured
in Switzerland are turned out here. In 1900 it exported watches
to the value of nearly £3,000,000 sterling. There is a school of
industrial art (engraving and enamelling watch cases) and a
school of watch-making (including instruction in the manufacture
of chronometers and other scientific instruments of precision).
It boasts of being le plus gros milage de I' Europe, and certainly
has preserved some of the features of a big village. Leopold
Robert (1794-1835), the painter, was born here. (W. A. B. C.).

CHAVES, a town of northern Portugal, in the district of Villa
Real, formerly included in the province of Traz os Monies;
8 m. S. of the Spanish frontier, on the right bank of the river
Tamega. Pop. (1900) 6388. Chaves is the ancient Aquae
Flaviae, famous for its hot saline springs, which are still in use.
A fine Roman bridge of 18 arches spans the Tamega. In the i6th
century Chaves contained 20,000 inhabitants; it was long one of
the principal frontier fortresses, and in fact derives its present
name from the position which makes it the " keys," or chaves, of
the north. One of its churches contains the tomb of Alphonso I.
of Portugal (1139-1185). In 1830 the town gave the title of
marquess to Pinto da Fonseca, a leader of the Miguelite party.

CHAZELLES, JEAN MATHIEU DE (1657-1710), French
hydrographer, was born at Lyons on the 24th of July 1657.
He was nominated professor of hydrography at Marseilles in
1685, and in that capacity carried out various coast surveys. In
1693 he was engaged to publish a second volume of the Neptune
fran^ais, which was to include the hydrography of the Mediter-
ranean. For this purpose he visited the Levant and Egypt.
When in Egypt he measured the pyramids, and, finding that
the angles formed by the sides of the largest were in the direction
' of the four cardinal points, he concluded that this position must
have been intended, and also that the poles of the earth and
meridians had not deviated since the erection of those structures.
He was made a member of the Academy in 1695, and died in
Paris on the i6th of January 1710.

CHEADLE, a town in the Altrincham parliamentary division
of Cheshire, England, 6 m. S. of Manchester, included in the
urban district of Cheadle and Gatley. Pop. (1901) 7916. This
is one of the numerous townships of modern growth which fringe
the southern boundaries of Manchester, and practically form
suburbs of that city. Stockport lies immediately to the east.
The name occurs in the formerly separate villages of Cheadle
Hulme, Cheadle Bulkeley and Cheadle Moseley. There are
cotton printing and bleaching works in the locality. The parish
church of St Giles, Cheadle, is Perpendicular, containing an altar-
tomb of the 1 5th century for two knights.

CHEADLE, a market town in the Leek parliamentary divi-
sion of Staffordshire, England, 13 m. N.E. of Stafford, and
the terminus of a branch line from Cresswell on the North
Staffordshire railway. Pop. (1901) 5186. The Roman Catholic
church of St Giles, with a lofty spire, was designed by Pugin
and erected in 1846. The interior is lavishly decorated. There
are considerable collieries in the neighbourhood, and silk and
tape works in the town. In the neighbouring Froghall district
limestone is quarried, and there are manufactures of copper.
In Cheadle two fairs of ancient origin are held annually.

CHEATING, " the fraudulently obtaining the property of
another by any deceitful practice not amounting to felony, which
practice is of such a nature that it directly affects, or may
directly affect, the public at large" (Stephen, Digest of Criminal
Law, chap. xl. § 367). Cheating is either a common law or
statutory offence, and is punishable as a misdemeanour. An
indictment for cheating at common law is of comparatively rare
occurrence, and the statutory crime usually presents itself in the
form of obtaining money by false pretences (q.v.). The word
" cheat " is a variant of " escheat," i.e. the reversion of land to
a lord of the fee through the failure of blood of the tenant.
The shortened form " cheater " for " escheator " is found early
in the legal sense, and chetynge appears in the Promptorium
Parvulorum, c. 1440, as the equivalent of confiscalio. In the
i6th century " cheat " occurs in vocabularies of thieves and other
slang, and in such works as the Use of Dice-Play (1532). It is
frequent in Thomas Herman's Caveat or Warening for. . . Vaga-
bones (1567), in the sense of " thing," with a descriptive word
attached, e.g. smeling chete = nose. In the tract M ihil Mumchance,
his Discoverie of the Art of Cheating, doubtfully attributed to
Robert Greene (1560-1592), we find that gamesters call them-
selves cheaters, " borrowing the term from the lawyers." The
sense development is obscure, but it would seem to be due to the
extortionate or fraudulent demands made by legal " escheators."

CHEBICHEV, PAFNUTIY LVOVICH (1821-1894), Russian
mathematician, was born at Borovsk on the 26th of May 1821.
He was educated at the university of Moscow, and in 1859
became professor of mathematics in the university of St Peters-
burg, a position from which he retired in 1880. He was chosen
a correspondent of the Institute of France in 1860, and succeeded
to the high honour of associe elranger in 1874. He was also a
foreign member of the Royal Society of London. After N. I.
Lobachevskiy he probably ranks as the most distinguished
mathematician Russia has produced. In 1841 he published a
valuable paper, " Sur la convergence de la serie de Taylor," in
Crelle's Journal. His best-known papers, however, deal with
prime numbers; in one of these ("Sur les nombres premiers,"
1850) he established the existence of limits within which must
be comprised the sum of the logarithms of the primes inferior
to a given number. Another question to which he devoted much
.attention was that of obtaining rectilinear motion by linkage.
The parallel motion known by his name is a three-bar linkage,
which gives a very close approximation to exact rectilinear
motion, but in spite of all his efforts he failed to devise one that
produced absolutely true rectilinear motion. At last, indeed, he
came to the conclusion that to do so was impossible, and in that
conviction set to work to find a rigorous proof of the impossibility.
While he was engaged on this task the desired linkage, which
moved the highest admiration of J. J. Sylvester, was discovered
and exhibited to him by one of his pupils, named Lipkin, who,
however, it was afterwards found, had been anticipated by
A. PeauceUier. Chebichev further constructed an instrument
for drawing large circles, and an arithmetical machine with
continuous motion. His mathematical writings, which account
for some forty entries in the Royal Society's catalogue of scien-
tific papers, cover a wide range of subjects, such as the theory of
probabilities, quadratic forms, theory of integrals, gearings, the
construction of geographical maps, &c. He also published a
Traite de la theorie des nombres. He died at St Petersburg on
the 8th of December 1894.

CHEBOYGAN, a city and the county-seat of Cheboygan
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on South Channel (between Lakes
Michigan and Huron), at the mouth of Cheboygan river, in the
N. part of the lower peninsula. Pop. (1890) 6235; (1900)
6489, of whom 2101 were foreign-born; (1904) 6730; (1910)
6859. It is served by the Michigan Central and the Detroit &
Mackinac railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Mil-
waukee, Detroit, Sault Ste Marie, Green Bay and other lake
ports; and is connected by ferry with Mackinac and Pointe aux
Pins. During a great part of the year small boats ply between
Cheboygan and the head of Crooked Lake, over the " Inland
Route." Cheboygan is situated in a fertile farming region, for

CHECHENZES— CHEERING

21

which it is a trade centre, and it has lumber mills, tanneries,
paper mills, boiler works, and other manufacturing establish-
ments. The water-works are owned and operated by the munici-
pality. The city, at first called Duncan, then Inverness, and
finally Cheboygan, was settled in 1846, incorporated as a village
in 1871, reincorporated in 1877, and chartered as a city in
1889.

CHECHENZES, TCHETCHEN, or KHISTS (Kisii), the last being
the name by which they are known to the Georgians, a people
of the eastern Caucasus occupying the whole of west Daghestan.
They call themselves Nakhtche, " people." A wild, fierce people,
they fought desperately against Russian aggression in the i8th
century under Daud Beg and Oman Khan and Shamyl, and in
the 1 9th under Khazi-Mollah, and even now some are inde-
pendent in the mountain districts. On the surrender of the
chieftain Shamyl to Russia in 1859 numbers of them migrated
into Armenia. In physique the Chechenzes resemble the Cir-
cassians, and have the same haughtiness of carriage. They are
of a generous temperament, very hospitable, but quick to re-
venge. They are fond of fine clothes, the women wearing rich
robes with wide, pink silk trousers, silver bracelets and yellow
sandals. Their houses, however, are mere hovels, some dug
out of the ground, others formed of boughs and stones. Before
their subjection to Russia they were remarkable for their inde-
pendence of spirit and love of freedom. Everybody was equal,
and they had no slaves except prisoners of war. Government
in each commune was by popular assembly, and the adminis-
tration of justice was in the hands of the wronged. Murder and
robbery with violence could be expiated only by death, unless
the criminal allowed his hair to grow and the injured man
consented to shave it himself and take an oath of brotherhood
on the Koran. Otherwise the law of vendetta was fully carried
out with curious details. The wronged man, wrapped in a white
woollen shroud, and carrying a coin to serve as payment to a
priest for saying the prayers for the dead, started out in search
of his enemy. When the offender was found he must fight to a
finish. A remarkable custom among one tribe is that if a
betrothed man or woman dies on the eve of her wedding, the
marriage ceremony is still performed, the dead being formally
united to the living before witnesses, the father, in case it is the
girl who dies, never failing to pay her dowry. The religion of
the Chechenzes is Mahommedanism, mixed, however, with
Christian doctrines and observances. Three churches near Kistin
in honour of St George and the Virgin are visited as places of
pilgrimage, and rams are there offered as sacrifices. The
Chechenzes number upwards of 200,000. They speak a distinct
language, of which there are said to be twenty separate dialects.

See Ernest Chanter, Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase
(Lypn, 1885-1887) ; D. G. Brinton, Races of Man (1890) ; Hutchinson,
Living Races of Mankind (London, 1901).

CHECKERS, the name by which the game of draughts (q.v.)
is known in America. The origin of the name is the same as that
of " chess " (q.v.).

CHEDDAR, a small town in the Wells parliamentary division
of Somersetshire, England, 22 m. S.W. of Bristol by a branch
of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1975. The town,
with its Perpendicular church and its picturesque market-cross,
lies below the south-western face of the Mendip Hills, which rise
sharply from 600 to 800 ft. To the west stretches the valley of
the river Axe, broad, low and flat. A fine gorge opening from
the hills immediately upon the site of the town is known as
Cheddar cliffs from the sheer walls which flank it; the contrast
of its rocks and rich vegetation, and the falls of a small stream
traversing it, make up a beautiful scene admired by many
visitors. Several stalactitical caverns are also seen, and pre-
historic British and Roman relics discovered in and near them
are preserved in a small museum. The two caverns most fre-
quently visited are called respectively Cox's and Cough's; in
each, but especially in the first, there is a remarkable collection
of fantastic and beautiful stalactitical forms. There are other
caverns of greater extent but less beauty, but their extent is not
completely explored. The remains discovered in the caves give

evidence of British and Roman settlements at Cheddar (Cedre,
Chedare), which was a convenient trade centre. The manor of
Cheddar was a royal demesne in Saxon times, and the witenage-
mot was held there in 966 and 968. It was granted by John in
1204 to Hugh, archdeacon of Wells, who sold it to the bishop of
Bath and Wells in 1229, whose successors were overlords until
1553, when the bishop granted it to the king. It is now owned
by the marquis of Bath. By a charter of 1 23 1 extensive liberties
in the manor of Cheddar were granted to Bishop Joceline, who
by a charter of 1235 obtained the right to hold a weekly market
and fair. By a charter of Edward III. (1337) Cheddar was
removed from the king's forest of Mendip. The market was
discontinued about 1690. Fairs are now held on the 4th of May
and the 2gth of October under the original grants. The name
of Cheddar is given to a well-known species of cheese (see DAIRY) ,
the manufacture of which began in the I7th century in the
town and neighbourhood.

CHEDUBA, or MAN-AUNG, an island in the Bay of Bengal,
situated 10 m. from the coast of Arakan, between 18° 40' and
18° 56' N. lat., and between 93° 31' and 93° 50' E. long. It
forms part of the Kyaukpyu district of Arakan. It extends
about 20 m. in length from N. to S., and 17 m. from E. to W.,
and its area of 220 sq. m. supports a population of 26,899 (in
1901). The channel between the island and the mainland is
navigable for boats, but not for large vessels. The surface of the
interior is richly diversified by hill and dale, and in the southern
portion some of the heights exceed a thousand feet in elevation.
There are various indications of former volcanic activity, and
along the coast are earthy cones covered with green-sward, from
which issue springs of muddy water emitting bubbles of gas.
Copper, iron and silver ore have been discovered; but the
island is chiefly noted for its petroleum wells, the oil derived
from which is of excellent quality, and is extensively used in the
composition of paint, as it preserves wood from the ravages of
insects. Timber is not abundant, but the gamboge tree and
the wood-oil tree are found of a good size. Tobacco, cotton,
sugar-cane, hemp and mdigo are grown, and the staple article
is rice, which is of superior quality, and the chief article of export.
The inhabitants of the island are mainly Maghs. Cheduba fell
to the Burmese in the latter part of the i8th century. From
them it was captured in 1824 by the British, whose possession
of it was confirmed in 1826 by the treaty concluded with the
Burmese at Yandaboo.

CHEERING, the uttering or making of sounds encouraging,
stimulating or exciting to action, indicating approval or acclaim-
ing or welcoming persons, announcements of events and the
like. The word " cheer " meant originally face, countenance,
expression, and came through the O. Fr. into Mid. Eng. in the
1 3th century from the Low Lat. cara, head; this is generally
referred to the Gr. Kapa. Cara is used by the 6th-century poet
Flavius Cresconius Corippus, " Postquam venere verendam
Caesaris ante caram " (In Laudem Justini Minoris). " Cheer "
was at first qualified with epithets, both of joy and gladness and
of sorrow; compare " She thanked Dyomede for alle ... his
gode chere " (Chaucer, Troylus) with " If they sing . . . 'tis
with so dull a cheere " (Shakespeare, Sonnets, xcvii.). An early
transference in meaning was to hospitality or entertainment,
and hence to food and drink, " good cheer." The sense of a
shout of encouragement or applause is a late use. Defoe (Captain
Singleton) speaks of it as a sailor's word, and the meaning does
not appear in Johnson. Of the different words or rather sounds
that are used in cheering, " hurrah," though now generally
looked on as the typical British form of cheer, is found in various
forms in German, Scandinavian, Russian (urd), French (houra).
It is probably onomatopoeic in origin; some connect it with
such words as " hurry," " whirl "; the meaning would then be
" haste," to encourage speed or onset in battle. The English
" hurrah " was preceded by " huzza," stated to be a sailor's
word, and generally connected with " heeze," to hoist, probably
being one of the cries that sailors use when hauling or hoisting.
The German hoch, seen in full in hoch lebe der Kaiser, &c., the
French vine, Italian and Spanish viva, ewiva, are cries rather

22

CHEESE— CHEFFONIER

of acclamation than encouragement. The Japanese shout
banzai became familiar during the Russo-Japanese War. In
reports of parliamentary and other debates the insertion of
" cheers " at any point in a speech indicates that approval was
shown by members of the House by emphatic utterances of
" hear hear." Cheering may be tumultuous, or it may be
conducted rhythmically by prearrangement, as in the case of
the " Hip-hip-hip " by way of introduction to a simultaneous
" hurrah."

Rhythmical cheering has been developed to its greatest
extent in America in the college yells, which may be regarded as
a development of the primitive war-cry; this custom has no
real analogue at English schools and universities, but the New
• Zealand football team in 1907 familiarized English crowds at
their matches with a similar sort of war-cry adopted from the
Maoris. In American schools and colleges there is usually one
cheer for the institution as a whole and others for the different
classes. The oldest and simplest are those of the New England
colleges. The original yells of Harvard and Yale are identical
in form, being composed of rah (abbreviation of hurrah) nine
times repeated, shouted in unison with the name of the university
at the end. The Yale cheer is given faster than that of Harvard.
Many institutions have several different yells, a favourite
variation being the name of the college shouted nine times in a
slow and prolonged manner. The best known of these variants
is the Yale cheer, partly taken from the Frogs of Aristophanes,
which runs thus:

" Brekekekex, ko-ax, ko-ax,
Brekekekex, ko-ax, ko-ax,
O-6p, O-6p, parabalou,
Yale, Yale, Yale,

Rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah,
Yale! Yale! Yale!"

The regular cheer of Princeton is:

" H'ray, h'ray, h'ray, tiger,
Siss, boom, ah; Princeton!"

This is expanded into the " triple cheer ":
" H'ray, h'ray, h'ray,
Tiger, tiger, tiger,
Siss, siss, siss,
Boom, boom, boom,
Ah, ah, ah,
Princet6n, Princeton, Princeton!"

The " railroad cheer " is like the foregoing, but begun very
slowly and broadly, and gradually accelerated to the end, which
is enunciated as fast as possible. Many cheers are formed
like that of Toronto University:

" Varsity, varsity,
V-a-r-s-i-t-y (spelled)
VARSIT-Y (spelled staccato)
Var-si-ty,
Rah, rah, rah ! "

Another variety of yell is illustrated by that of the School
of Practical Science of Toronto University:

"Who are we? Can't you guess?
We are from the S.P.S. ! "

The cheer of the United States Naval Academy is an imita-
tion of a nautical syren. The Amherst cheer is:

" Amherst ! Amherst ! Amherst ! Rah ! Rah !
Amherst ! Rah ! Rah !
Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Amherst !"

Besides the cheers of individual institutions there are some
common to all, generally used to compliment some successful
athlete or popular professor. One of the oldest examples of
these personal cheers is:

" Who was George Washington ?
First in war,
First in peace,
Ffrst in the hearts of his countryman,"

followed by a stamping on the floor in the same rhythm.

College yells are used particularly at athletic contests. In
any large college there are several leaders, chosen by the students,
who stand in front and call for the different songs and cheers,

directing with their arms in the fashion of an orchestral con-
ductor. This cheering and singing form one of the distinctive
features of inter-collegiate and scholastic athletic contests in
America.

CHEESE (Lat. caseus), a solidified preparation from milk, the
essential constituent of which is the proteinous or nitrogenous
substance casein. All cheese contains in addition some proportion
of fatty matter or butter, and in the more valuable varieties the
butter present is often greater in amount than the casein. Cheese
being thus a compound substance of no definite composition is
found in commerce of many different varieties and qualities;
and such qualities are generally recognized by the names of the
localities in which they are manufactured. The principal dis-
tinctions arise from differences in the composition and condition
of the milk operated upon, from variations in the method of
preparation and curing, and from the use of the milk of other
animals besides the cow, as, for example, the goat and the ewe,
from the milk of both of which cheese is manufactured on a
commercial scale. For details about different cheeses and cheese-
making, see DAIRY. From the Urdu chiz (" thing ") comes the
slang expression " the cheese," meaning " the perfect thing,"
apparently from Anglo-Indian usage.

A useful summary of the history and manufacture of all sorts of
cheeses, under their different names, is given in Bulletin 105 of the
Bureau of Animal Industry (United States Dep. of Agriculture),
Varieties of Cheese, by C. F. Doane and H. W. Lawson (Washington,
1908).

CHEESE CLOTH, the name given to cloth, usually made from
flax or tow yarns, of an open character, resembling a fine riddle
or sieve, used for wrapping cheese. A finer quality and texture
is made for women's gowns. A similar cloth is used for inside
linings in the upholstery trade, and for the ground of embroidery.

CHEETA (CHITA), or HUNTING-LEOPARD (Cynaelurus jubalus,
formerly known as Gueparda jubala), a member of the family
Felidae, distinguished by its claws being only partially retractile
(see CARNIVORA). The cheeta attains a length of 3 to 4 ft.;
it is of a pale fulvous colour, marked with numerous spots of
black on the upper surface and sides, and is nearly white beneath.
The fur is somewhat crisp, altogether lacking the sleekness which
characterizes the fur of the typical cats, and the tail is long and
somewhat bushy at the extremity. In confinement the cheeta
soon becomes fond of those who are kind to it, and gives evidence
of its attachment in an open, dog-like manner. The cheeta is
found throughout Africa and southern Asia, and has been em-
ployed-for centuries in India and Persia in hunting antelopes
and other game. According to Sir W. Jones, this mode of
hunting originated with Hushing, king of Persia, 865 B.C., and
afterwards became so popular that certain of the Mongol
emperors were in the habit of being accompanied in their sport-
ing expeditions by a thousand hunting leopards. In prosecuting
this sport at the present day the cheeta is conveyed to the field
in a low car without sides, hooded and chained like hunting-
birds in Europe in the days of falconry. When a herd of deer
or antelopes is seen, the car, which bears a close resemblance to
the ordinary vehicles used by the peasants, is usually brought
within 200 yds. of the game before the latter takes alarm; the
cheeta is then let loose and the hood removed from its eyes. No
sooner does it see the herd, than dropping from the car on the side
remote from it sprey, it approaches stealthily, making use of
whatever means of concealment the nature of the ground permits,
until observed, when making a few gigantic bounds, it generally
arrives in the midst .of the herd and brings down its victim with
a stroke of its paw. The sportsman then approaches, draws off
a bowl of the victim's blood, and puts it before the cheeta, which
is again hooded and led back to the car. Should it not succeed
in reaching the herd in the first few bounds, it makes no further
effort to pursue, but retires seemingly dispirited to the car. In
Africa the cheeta is only valued for its skin, which is worn by
chiefs and other people of rank. It should be added that in
India the name cheeta (chita) is applied also to the leopard.

CHEFFONIER, properly CHIFFONIER, a piece of furniture
differentiated from the sideboard by its smaller size and by the

CHEH-KIANG— CHELMSFORD, LORD

enclosure of the whole of the front by doors. Its name (which
comes from the French for a rag-gatherer) suggests that it was
originally intended as a receptacle for odds and ends which had
no place elsewhere, but it now usually serves the purpose of a
sideboard. It is a remote and illegitimate descendant of the
cabinet; it has rarely been elegant and never beautiful. It was
"one of the many curious developments of the mixed taste, at
once cumbrous and bizarre, which prevailed in furniture during
the Empire period in England. The earliest cheffoniers date
from that time; they are usually of rosewood — the favourite
timber of that moment; their " furniture " (the technical name
for knobs, handles and escutcheons) was most commonly of
brass, and there was very often a raised shelf with a pierced brass
gallery at the back. The doors were well panelled and often
edged with brass-beading, while the feet were pads or claws, or,
in the choicer examples, sphinxes in gilded bronze. Cheffoniers
are-still made in England in cheap forms and in great number.

CHEH-KIANG, an eastern province of China, bounded N. by
the province of Kiang-su, E. by the sea, S. by the province of
Fu-kien, and W. by the provinces of Kiang-si and Ngan-hui.
It occupies an area of about 36,000 sq. m., and contains a popu-
lation of 11,800,000. With the exception of a small portion of
the great delta plain, which extends across the frontier from the
province of Kiang-su, and in which are situated the famous
cities of Hu Chow, Ka-hing, Hang-chow, Shao-Sing and Ning-po,
the province forms a portion of the Nan-shan of south-eastern
China, and is hilly throughout. The Nan-shan ranges run
through the centre of the province from south-west to north-
east, and divide 'it into a northern portion, the greater part of
which is drained by the Tsien-t'ang-kiang, and a southern
portion which is chiefly occupied by the Ta-chi basin. The
valleys enclosed between the mountain ranges are numerous,
fertile, and for the most part of exquisite beauty. The hilly
portion of the province furnishes large supplies of tea, and in the
plain which extends along the coast, north of Ning-po, a great
quantity of silk is produced. In minerals the province is poor.
Coal and iron are occasionally met with, and traces of copper
ore are to be found in places, but none of these minerals exists
in sufficiently Jarge deposits to make mining remunerative. The
province, however, produces cotton, rice, ground-nuts, wheat,
indigo, tallow and beans in abundance. The principal cities
are Hang-chow, which is famed for the beauty of its surroundings,
Ning-po, which has been frequented by foreign ships ever since
the Portuguese visited it in the i6th century, and W£nchow.
Opposite Ning-po, at a distance of about 50 m., lies the island of
Chusan, the largest of a group bearing that general name. This
island is 21 m. long, and about 50 m. in circumference. It is
very mountainous, and is surrounded by numerous islands and
islets. On its south side stands the walled town of Ting-hai,
in front of which is the principal harbour. The population is
returned as 50,000.

CHEKE, SIR JOHN (1514-1557), English classical scholar,
was the son of Peter Cheke, esquire-bedell of Cambridge Univer-
sity. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where
he became a fellow in 1529. While there he adopted the prin-
ciples of the Reformation. His learning gained him an exhibition
from the king, and in 1540, on Henry VIII. 's foundation of the
regius professorships, he was elected to the chair of Greek.
Amongst his pupils at St John's were Lord Burghley, who married
Cheke's sister Mary, and Roger Ascham, who in The School-
master gives Cheke the highest praise for scholarship and
character. Together with Sir Thomas Smith, he introduced
a new method of Greek pronunciation very similar to that com-
monly used in England in the igth century. It was strenuously
opposed in the University, where the continental method
prevailed, and Bishop Gardiner, as chancellor, issued a decree
against it (June 1542); but Cheke ultimately triumphed. On
the loth of July 1554, he was chosen as tutor to Prince Edward,
and after his pupil's accession to the throne he continued his in-
structions. Cheke took a fairly active share in public life; he
aat, as member for Bletchingley, for the parliaments of 1 547 and
; he was made provost of King's College, Cambridge

23

(April i, 1548), was one of the commissioners for visiting that
university as well as Oxford and Eton, and was appointed with
seven divines to draw up a body of laws for the governance
of the church. On the nth of October 1551 he was knighted;
in 1553 he was made one of the secretaries of state, and sworn
of the privy council. His zeal for Protestantism induced him
to follow the duke of Northumberland, and he filled the office
of secretary of state for Lady Jane Grey during her nine days'
reign. In consequence Mary threw him into the Tower (July 27,
i553)> and confiscated his wealth. He was, however, released
on the I3th of September 1554, and granted permission to travel
abroad. He went first to Basel, then visited Italy, giving
lectures in Greek at Padua, and finally settled at Strassburg,
teaching Greek for his living. In the spring of 1556 he visited
Brussels to see his wife; on his way back, between Brussels and
Antwerp, he and Sir Peter Carew were treacherously seized
(May 1 5) by order of Philip of Spain, hurried over to England,
and imprisoned in the Tower. Cheke was visited by two priests
and by Dr John Feckenham, dean of St Paul's, whom he had
formerly tried to convert to Protestantism, and, terrified by a
threat of the stake, he gave way and was received into the Church
of Rome by Cardinal Pole, being cruelly forced to make two
public recantations. Overcome with shame, he did not long sur-
vive, but died in London on the i3th of September 1557, carry-
ing, as T. Fuller says {Church History), " God's pardon and all
good men's pity along with him." About 1547 Cheke married
Mary, daughter of Richard Hill, sergeant of the wine-cellar to
Henry VIII., and by her he had three sons. The descendants
of one of these, Henry, known only for his translation of an
Italian morality play Freewyl (Tragedio del Libero Arbilrio) by
Nigri de Bassano, settled at Pyrgo in Essex.

Thomas Wilson, in the epistle prefixed to his translation of the
Olynthiacs of Demosthenes (1570), has a long and most interesting
eulogy of Cheke; and Thomas Nash, in To the Gentlemen Students,
prefixed to Robert Greene's Menaphon (1589), calls him " the
Exchequer of eloquence, Sir Ihon Cheke, a man of men, super-
naturally traded in all tongues." Many of Cheke's works are still
in MS., some have been altogether lost. One of the most interesting
from a historical point of view is the Hurt of Sedition how greueous
it is to a Communewelth (1549), written on the occasion of Ket's
rebellion, republished in 1569, 1576 and 1641, on the last occasion
with a life of the author by Gerard Langbaine. Others are D.
Joannis Chrysostomi homiliae duae (1543), D. Joannis Chrysostomi de
providentia Dei (1545), The Gospel according to St Matthew . . .
translated
Buceri
dedicated

in Antonium Deneium (1551!, De pronuntiatione Graecae . '. . linguae
(Basel, 1555). He also translated several Greek works, and lectured
admirably upon Demosthenes.

His Lrfe was written by John Strype (1821); additions by J.
Gough Nichols in Archaeologia (1860), xxxviii. 98, 127.

CHELLIAN, the name given by the French anthropologist
G. de Mortillet to the first epoch of the Quaternary period when
the earliest human remains are discoverable. The word is
derived from the French town Chelles in the department of
Seine-et-Marne. The climate of the Chellian epoch was warm
and humid as evidenced by the wild growth of fig-trees and
laurels. The animals characteristic of the epoch are the Elephas
antiquus, the rhinoceros, the cave-bear, the hippopotamus and
the striped hyaena. Man existed and belonged to the Neander-
thal type. The implements characteristic of the period are flints
chipped into leaf-shaped forms and held in the hand when used.
The drift-beds of St Acheul (Amiens) , of Menchecourt (Abbeville) ,
of Hoxne (Suffolk), and the detrital laterite of Madras are con-
sidered by de Mortillet to be synchronous with the Chellian beds.

See Gabriel de Mortillet, Le Prfhistorique (1900) ; Lord Avebury,
Prehistoric Times (1900).

CHELHSFORD, FREDERIC THESIGER, IST BARON (1794-
1878), lord chancellor of England, was the third son of Charles
Thesiger, and was born in London on the isth of April 1794.
His father, collector of customs at St Vincent's, was the son of
a Saxon gentleman who had migrated to England and become
secretary to Lord Rockingham, and was the brother of Sir
Frederic Thesiger, naval A.D.C. to Nelson at Copenhagen.
Young Frederic Thesiger was originally destined for a naval

CHELMSFORD— CHELSEA

career, and he served as a midshipman on board the " Cambrian "
frigate in 1807 at the second bombardment of Copenhagen. His
only surviving brother, however, died about this time, and he
became entitled to succeed to a valuable estate in the West
Indies, so it was decided that he should leave the navy and
study law, with a view to practising in the West Indies and
eventually managing his property in person. Another change
of fortune, however, awaited him, for a volcano destroyed the
family estate, and he was thrown back upon his prospect of a
legal practice in the West Indies. He proceeded to enter at
Gray's Inn in 1813, and was called on the i8th of November
1818, another change in his prospects being brought about by
the strong advice of Godfrey Sykes, a special pleader in whose
chambers he had been a pupil, that he should remain to try his
fortune in England. He accordingly joined the home circuit,
and soon got into good practice at the Surrey sessions, while he
also made a fortunate purchase in buying the right to appear
in the old palace court (see LORD STEWARD). In 1824 he dis-
tinguished himself by his defence of Joseph Hunt when on his
trial at Hertford with John Thurtell for the murder of Wm.
Weare; and eight years later at Chelmsford assizes he won a
hard-fought action in an ejectment case after three trials, to
which he attributed so much of his subsequent success that when
he was raised to the peerage he assumed the title Lord Chelms-
ford. In 1834 he was made king's counsel, and in 1833 was
briefed in the Dublin election inquiry which unseated Daniel
O'Connell. In 1840 he was elected M.P. for Woodstock. In
1844 he became solicitor-general, but having ceased to enjoy
the favour of the duke of Marlborough, lost his seat for Wood-
stock and had to find another at Abingdon. In 1845 he became
attorney-general, holding the post until the fall of the Peel
administration on the 3rd of July 1846. Thus by three days
Thesiger missed being chief justice of the common pleas, for on
the 6th of July Sir Nicholas Tindal died, and the seat on the
bench, which would have been Thesiger's as of right, fell to
the Liberal attorney-general, Sir Thomas Wilde. Sir Frederic
Thesiger remained in parliament, changing his seat, however,
again in 1852, and becoming member for Stamford. During
this period he enjoyed a very large practice at the bar, being
employed in many causes celsbres. On Lord Derby coming into
office for the second time in 1858, Sir Frederic Thesiger was
raised straight from the bar to the lord chancellorship (as were
Lord Brougham, Lord Selborne and Lord Halsbury). In the
following year Lord Derby resigned and his cabinet was broken
up. Again in 1866, on Lord Derby coming into office for the third
time, Lord Chelmsford became lord chancellor for a short period.
In 1868 Lord Derby retired, and Disraeli, who took his place as
prime minister, wished for Lord Cairns as lord chancellor. Lord
Chelmsford was very sore at his supersession and the manner
of it, but, according to Lord Malmesbury he retired under a
compact made before he took office. Ten years later Lord
Chelmsford died in London on the 5th of October 1878. Lord
Chelmsford had married in 1822 Anna Maria Tinling. He left
four sons and three daughters, of whom the eldest, Frederick
Augustus, 2nd Baron Chelmsford (1827-1905), earned distinction
as a soldier, while the third, Alfred Henry Thesiger (1838-1880)
was made a lord justice of appeal and a privy councillor in 1877,
at the early age of thirty-nine, but died only three years later.

See Lives of the Chancellors (1908), by J. B. Atlay, who has had the
advantage of access to an unpublished autobiography of Lord
Chelmsford's.

CHELMSFORD, a market town and municipal borough, and
the county town of Essex, England, in the Chelmsford parlia-
mentary division, 30 m. E.N.E. from London by the Great
Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 12,580. It is situated in the
valley of the Chelmer, at the confluence of the Cann, and has
communication by the river with Maldon and the Blackwater
estuary n m. east. Besides the parish church of St Mary, a
graceful Perpendicular edifice, largely rebuilt, the town has
a grammar school founded by Edward VI., an endowed charity
school and a museum. It is the seat of the county assizes and
quarter sessions, and has a handsome shire hall ; the county gaol

is near the town. Its corn and cattle markets are among the
largest in the county; for the first a fine exchange is provided.
In the centre of the square in which the corn exchange is situated
stands a bronze statue of Lord Chief-Justice Tindal (1776-1846),
a native of the parish. There are agricultural implement and
iron foundries, large electric light and engineering works,
breweries, tanneries, mailings and extensive corn mills. There '
is a race-course 2 m. south of the town. The borough is under
a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area 2308 acres.

A place of settlement since Palaeolithic times, Chelmsford
(Chilmersford, Chelmeresford, Chelmesford) owed its importance
to its position on the road from London to Colchester. It con-
sisted of two manors: that of Moulsham, which remained in the
possession of Westminster Abbey from Saxon times till the reign
of Henry VIII., when it was granted to Thomas Mildmay; and
that of Bishop's Hall, which was held by the bishops of London
from the reign of Edward the Confessor to 1545, when it passed
to the crown and was granted to Thomas Mildmay in 1563. The
medieval history of Chelmsford centred round the manor of
Bishop's Hall. Early in the I2th century Bishop Maurice built
the bridge over the Chelmer which brought the road from London
directly through the town, thus making it an important stopping-
place. The town was not incorporated until 1888. In 1225
Chelmsford was made the centre for the collection of fifteenths
from the county of Essex, and in 1227 it became the regular seat
of assizes and quarter-sessions. Edward I. confirmed Bishop
Richard de Gravesend in his rights of frank pledge in Chelmsford
in 1290, and in 1395 Richard II. granted the return of writs to
Bishop Robert de Braybroke. In 1377 writs were issued for the
return of representatives from Chelmsford to parliament, but
no return of members has been found. In 1199 the bishop
obtained the grant of a weekly market at the yearly rent of one
palfrey, and in 1201 that of an annual fair, now discontinued,
for four days from the feast of St Philip and St James.

CHELSEA, a western metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded E. by the city of Westminster, N.W. by
Kensington, S.W. by Fulham, and S. by the river Thames.
Pop. (1901) 73,842. Its chief thoroughfare is Sloane Street,
containing handsome houses and good shops, running south from
Knightsbridge to Sloane Square. Hence King's Road leads
west, a wholly commercial highway, named in honour of Charles
II., and recalling the king's private road from St James's Palace
to Fulham, which was maintained until the reign of George IV.
The main roads south communicate with the Victoria or Chelsea,
Albert and Battersea bridges over the Thames. The beautiful
Chelsea embankment, planted with trees and lined with fine
houses and, in part, with public gardens, stretches between
Victoria and Battersea bridges. The better residential portion
of Chelsea is the eastern, near Sloane Street and along the river;
the western, extending north to Fulham Road, is mainly a poor
quarter.

Chelsea, especially the riverside district, abounds in historical
associations. At Cealchythe a synod was held in 785. A
similar name occurs in a Saxon charter of the nth century and
in Domesday; in the i6th century it is Chelcith. The later
termination ey or ea was associated with the insular character of
the land, and the prefix with a gravel bank (ceosol; cf. Chesil
Bank, Dorsetshire) thrown up by the river; but the early
suffix hythe is common in the meaning of a haven. The manor
was originally in the possession of Westminster Abbey, but its
history is fragmentary until Tudor times. It then came into
the hands of Henry VIII., passed from him to his wife Catharine
Parr, and thereafter had a succession of owners, among whom
were the Howards, to whom it was granted by Queen Elizabeth,
and the Cheynes, from whom it was purchased in 1712 by Sir
Hans Sloane, after which it passed to the Cadogans. The
memorials which crowd the picturesque church and churchyard
of St Luke near the river, commonly known as the OJd Church,
to a great extent epitomize the history of Chelsea. Such are
those of Sir Thomas More (d. 1535); Lord. Bray, lord of the
manor (1539), his father and son; Lady Jane Guyldeford,
duchess of Northumberland, who died " at her maner of Chelse "

CHELSEA— CHELTENHAM

in 1555; Lord and Lady Dacre (1594-1595); Sir John Lawrence
(1638); Lady Jane Cheyne (1698); Francis Thomas, "director
of the china porcelain manufactory, Lawrence Street, Chelsea "
(1770); Sir Hans Sloane (1753); Thomas Shad well, poet
laureate (1602); Woodfall the printer of Junius (1844), and
many others. More's tomb is dated 1 532, as he set it up himself,
though it is doubtful whether he lies beneath it. His house was
near the present Beaufort Street. In the i8th and igth centuries
Chelsea, especially the parts about the embankment and Cheyne
Walk, was the home of many eminent men, particularly of
writers and artists, with whom this pleasant quarter has long
been in favour. Thus in the earlier part of the period named,
Atterbury and Swift lived in Church Lane, Steele and Smollett
in Monmouth House. Later, the names of Turner, Rossetti,
Whistler, Leigh Hunt, Carlyle (whose house in Cheyne Row
is preserved as a public memorial), Count D'Orsay, and Isambard
Brunei, are intimately connected with Chelsea. At Lindsey
House Count Zinzendorf established a Moravian Society (c. 1 7 50) .
Sir Robert Walpole's residence was extant till 1810; and till 1824
the bishops of Winchester had a palace in Cheyne Walk. Queen's
House, the home of D. G. Rossetti (when it was called Tudor
House), is believed to take name from Catharine of Braganza.

Chelsea was noted at different periods for two famous places
of entertainment, Ranelagh (q.v.) in the second half of the i8th
century, and Cremorne Gardens (q.v.) in the middle of the igth.
Don Saltero's museum, which formed the attraction of a popular
coffee-house, was formed of curiosities from Sir Hans Sloane's
famous collections. It was Sloane who gave to the Apothecaries'
Company the ground which they had leased in 1673 for the
Physick Garden, which is still extant, but ceased in 1902 to be
maintained by the Company. At Chelsea Sir John Danvers
(d. 1655) introduced the Italian style of gardening which was
so greatly admired by Bacon and soon after became prevalent
in England. Chelsea was formerly famous for a manufacture
of buns; the original Chelsea bun-house, claiming royal patron-
age, stood until 1839, and one of its successors until 1888. The
porcelain works existed for some 25 years before 1769, when
they were sold and removed to Derby. Examples of the original
Chelsea ware (see CERAMICS) are of great value.

Of buildings and institutions the most notable is Chelsea
Royal Hospital for invalid soldiers, initiated by Charles II.
(according to tradition on the suggestion of Nell Gwynne), and
opened in 1694. The hospital itself accommodates upwards of
500 men, but a system of out-pensioning was found necessary
from the outset, and now relieves large numbers throughout
the empire. The picturesque building by Wren stands in exten-
sive grounds, which include the former Ranelagh Gardens. A
theological college (King James's) formerly occupied the site;
it was founded in 1610 and was intended to be of great size, but
the scheme was unsuccessful, and only a small part of the build-
ings was erected. In the vicinity are the Chelsea Barracks
(not actually in the borough). The Royal Military Asylum for
boys, commonly called the Duke of York's school, founded in
1801 by Frederick, duke of York, for the education of children
connected with the army, was removed in 1909 to new quarters
at Dover. Other institutions are the Whitelands training
college for school-mistresses, in which Ruskin took deep interest;
the St Mark's college for school-masters; the Victoria and the
Cheyne hospitals for children, a cancer hospital, the South-
western polytechnic, and a public library containing an excellent
collection relative to local history.

The parliamentary borough of Chelsea returns one member,
and includes, as a detached portion, Kensal Town, north of
Kensington. The borough council consists of a mayor, 6 alder-
men and 36 councillors. Area, 659-6 acres.

CHELSEA, a city of Suffolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
a suburb of Boston. Pop. (1890) 27,909; (1900) 34,072, of
whom 11,203 were foreign-born; (1910) 32,452. It is situ-
ated on a peninsula between the Mystic and' Chelsea rivers,
and Charlestown and East Boston, and is connected with
East Boston and Charlestown by bridges. It is served by the
Boston & Maine and (for freight) by the Boston & Albany

railways. The United States maintains here naval and marine
hospitals, and the state a soldiers' home. Chelsea's interests
are primarily industrial. The value of the city's factory products
in 1905 was $13,879,159, the principal items being rubber and
elastic goods ($3,635,211) and boots and shoes ($2,044,250.)
The manufacture of stoves, and of mucilage and paste are
important industries. Flexible tubing for electric wires (first
made at Chelsea 1889) and art tiles are important products.
The first settlement was established in 1624 by Samuel Maverick
(c. i6oz-c. 1670), the first settler (about 1629) of Noddle's
Island (or East Boston), and one of the first slave-holders in
Massachusetts; a loyalist and Churchman, in 1664 he was
appointed with three others by Charles II. on an important
commission sent to Massachusetts and the other New England
colonies (see NICOLLS, RICHARD), and spent the last years of
his life in New York. Until.i739, under the name of Winnisim-
met, Chelsea formed a part of Boston, but in that year it was
made a township; it became a city in 1857. In May 1775 a
British schooner in the Mystic defended by a force of marines
was taken by colonial militia under General John Stark and
Israel Putnam, — one of the first conflicts of the War of Inde-
pendence. A terrible fire swept the central part of the city on
the 1 2th of April 1908.

See Mellen Chamberlain (and others), History of Chelsea(2 vols.,
Boston, 1908), published by the Massachusetts Historical Society.

CHELTENHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Gloucestershire, England, 109 m. W. by N. of London by the
Great Western railway; served also by the west and north
line of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 49,439. The town is
well situated in the valley of the Chelt, a small tributary of the
Severn, under the high line of the Cotteswold Hills to the east,
and is in high repute as a health resort. Mineral springs were
accidentally discovered in 1716. The Montpellier and Pittville
Springs supply handsome pump rooms standing in public
gardens, and are the property of the corporation. The Mont-
pellier waters are sulphated, and are valuable for their diuretic
effect, and as a stimulant to the liver and alimentary canal. The
alkaline-saline waters of Pittville are efficacious against diseases
resulting from excess of uric acid. The parish church of St Mary
dates from the i4th century, but is almost completely modern-
ized. The town, moreover, is wholly modern in appearance.
Assembly rooms opened in 1815 by the duke of Wellington were
removed in 1901. A new town hall, including a central spa and
assembly rooms, was opened in 1903. There are numerous other
handsome buildings, especially in High Street, and the Promen-
ade forms a beautiful broad thoroughfare, lined with trees.
The town is famous as an educational centre. Cheltenham
College (1842) provides education for boys in three departments,
classical, military and commercial; and includes a preparatory
school. The Ladies' College (1854), long conducted by Miss
Beale (?.».), is one of the most successful in England. The
Normal Training College was founded in 1846 for the training
of teachers, male and female, in national and parochial schools.
A free grammar school was founded in 1568 by Richard Pate,
recorder of Gloucester. The art gallery and museum may be
mentioned also. The parliamentary borough returns one
member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 18 councillors. Area, 4726 acres. The urban district of
Charlton Kings (pop. 3806) forms a south-eastern suburb of
Cheltenham.

The site of a British village and burying-ground, Chelter ham
(Celtanhomme, Chiltham, Chelteham) was a village with a church
in 803. The manor belonged to the crown; it was granted to
Henry de Bohun, earl of Hereford, late in the i2th century, but
in 1199 was exchanged for other lands with the king. It was
granted to William de Longespee, earl of Salisbury, in 1219, but
resumed on his death and granted in dower to Eleanor of Pro-
vence in 1243. In 1252 the abbey of Fecamp purchased the
manor, and it afterwards belonged to the priory of Cormeille,
but was confiscated in 1415 as the possession of an alien priory,
and was granted in 1461 to the abbey of Lyon, by which it was
held until, once more returning to the crown at the Dissolution,

26

CHELYABINSK— CHEMICAL ACTION

it was granted to the family of Button. The town is first men-
tioned in 1223, when William de Longespe'e leased the benefit
of the markets, fairs and hundred of Cheltenham to the men of
the town for three years; the lease was renewed by Henry III.
in 1226, and again in 1230 for ten years. A market town in the
time of Camden, it was governed by commissioners from the
i8th century in 1876, when it was incorporated; it became a
parliamentary borough in 1832. Henry III. in 1230 had granted
to the men of Cheltenham a market on each Thursday, and a fair
on the vigil, feast and morrow of St James. Although Camden
mentions a considerable trade in malt, the spinning of woollen
yarn was the only industry in 1779. After the discovery of
springs in 1 7 1 6, and the erection of a pump-room in 1 738, Chelten-
ham rapidly became fashionable, the visit of George III. and the
royal princesses in 1788 ensuring its popularity.

See S. Moreau, A Tow to Cheltenham Spa (Bath, 1738).

CHELYABINSK, a town of Russia, in the Orenburg govern-
ment, at the east foot of the Urals, is the head of the Siberian
railway, 624 m. by rail E.N.E. of Samara and 154 m. by rail
S.S.E. of Ekaterinburg. Pop. (1900) 25,505. It has tanneries
and distilleries, and is the centre of the trade in corn and pro-
duce of cattle for the Ural iron-works. The town was founded
in 1658.

CHELYS (Gr. \k\\K, tortoise; Lat. testudo), the common lyre
of the ancient Greeks, which had a convex back of tortoise-
shell or of wood shaped like the shell. The word chelys was used
in allusion to the oldest lyre of the Greeks which was said to
have been invented by Hermes. According to tradition he was
attracted by sounds of music while walking on the banks of the
Nile, and found they proceeded from the shell of a tortoise across
which were stretched tendons which the wind had set in vibration
(Homeric Hymn to Hermes, 47-51). The word has been applied
arbitrarily since classic times to various stringed instruments,
some bowed and some twanged, probably owing to the back
being much vaulted. Kircher (Musurgia, i. 486) applied the
name of chelys to a kind of viol with eight strings. Numerous
representations of the chelys lyre or testudo occur on the Greek
vases, in which the actual tortoiseshell is depicted; a good illus-
tration is given in Le AntichitA di Ercolano (vol. i. pi. 43). Pro-
pertius (iv. 6) calls the instrument the lyra testudinea. Scaliger
(on Manilius, Astronomicon, Proleg. 420) was probably the first
writer to draw attention to the difference between chelys and
cithara (q.v.). (K. S.)

CHEMICAL ACTION, the term given to any process in which
change in chemical composition occurs. Such processes may be
set up by the application of some form of energy (heat, light,
electricity, &c.) to a substance, or by the mixing of two or more
substances together. If two or more substances be mixed one of
three things may occur. First, the particles may be mechani-
cally intermingled, the degree of association being dependent
upon the fineness of the particles, &c. Secondly, the substances
may intermolecularly penetrate, as in the case of gas-mixtures
and solutions. Or thirdly they may react chemically. The
question whether, in any given case, we have to deal with a
physical mixture or a chemical compound is often decided by
the occurrence of very striking phenomena. To take a simple
example: — oxygen and hydrogen are two gases which may be
mixed in all proportions at ordinary temperatures, and it is easy
to show that the properties of the products are simply those of
mixtures of the two free gases. If, however, an electric spark
be passed through the mixtures, powerful chemical union ensues,
with its concomitants, great evolution of heat and consequent
rise of temperature, and a compound, water, is formed which
presents physical and chemical properties entirely different from
those of its constituents.

In general, powerful chemical forces give rise to the evolution
of large quantities of heat, and the properties of the resulting sub-
stance differ vastly more from those of its components than is the
case with simple mixtures. This constitutes a valuable criterion
as to whether mere mixture is involved on the one hand, or strong
chemical union on the other. When, however, the chemical
forces are weak and the reaction, being incomplete, leads to a

state of chemical equilibrium, in which all the reacting substances
are present side by side, this criterion vanishes. For example, the
question whether a salt combines with water molecules when
dissolved in water cannot be said even yet to be fully settled,
and, although there can be no doubt that solution is, in many
cases, attended by chemical processes, still we possess as yet no
means of deciding, with certainty, how many molecules of
water have bound themselves to a single molecule of the dissolved
substance (solute) . On the other hand, we possess exact methods
of testing whether gases or solutes in dilute solution react one
with another and of determining the equilibrium state which is
attained. For if one solute react with another on adding the
latter to its solution, then corresponding to the decrease of its
concentration there must also be a decrease of vapour pressure,
and of solubility in other solvents; further, in the case of a
mixture of gases, the concentration of each single constituent
follows from its solubility in some suitable solvent. We thus
obtain the answer to the question: whether the concentration
of a certain constituent has decreased during mixing, i.e. whether
it has reacted chemically.

When a compound can be obtained in a pure state, analysis
affords us an important criterion of its chemical nature, for
unlike mixtures, the compositions of which are always variable
within wider or narrower limits, chemical compounds present
definite and characteristic mass-relations, which find full expres-
sion in the atomic theory propounded by Dal ton (see ATOM).
According to this theory a mixture is the result of the mutual
interpenetration of the molecules of substances, which remain
unchanged as such, whilst chemical union involves changes more
deeply seated, inasmuch as new molecular species appear.
These new substances, if well-defined chemical compounds, have
a perfectly definite composition and contain a definite, generally
small, number of elementary atoms, and therefore the law of
constant proportions follows at once, and the fact that only ah
integral number of atoms of any element may enter into the
composition of any molecule determines the law of multiple
proportions.

These considerations bring us face to face with the task of
more closely investigating the nature of chemical
forces, in other words, of answering the question: Nature of
what forces guide the atoms in the formation of a new cfg^^"'
molecular species? This problem is still far from
being completely answered, so that a few general remarks must
suffice here.

It is remarkable that among the most stable chemical com-
pounds, we find combinations of atoms of one and the same
element. Thus, the stability of the di-atomic molecule N2 is
so great, that no trace of dissociation has yet been proved even
at the highest temperatures, and as the constituent atoms of the
molecule N2 must be regarded as absolutely identical, it is clear
that " polar " forces cannot be the cause of all chemical action.
On the other hand, especially powerful affinities are also
at work when so-called electro-positive and electro-negative
elements react. The forces which here come into play appear to
be considerably greater than those just mentioned; for instance,
potassium fluoride is perhaps the most stable of all known
compounds.

It is also to be noticed that the combinations of the electro-
negative elements (metalloids) with one another exhibit a
metalloid character, and also we find, in the mutual combinations
of metals, all the characteristics of the metallic state; but in
the formation of a salt from a metal and a metalloid we have an
entirely new substance, quite different from its components;
and at the same time, the product is seen to be an electrolyte,
i.e. to have the power of splitting up into a positively and a
negatively charged constituent when dissolved hi some solvent.
These considerations lead to the conviction that forces of a
" polar " origin play an important part here, and indeed we may
make the general surmise that in the act of chemical combination
forces of both a non-polar and polar nature play a part, and that
the latter are in all probability identical with the electric forces.

It now remains to be asked — what are the laws which govern

CHEMICAL ACTION

the action of these forces? This question is of fundamental
importance, since it leads directly to those laws which regulate
the chemical process. Besides the already mentioned funda-
mental law of chemical combination, that of constant and
multiple proportions, there is the law of chemical mass-action,
discovered by Guldberg and Waage in 1867, which we will now
develop from a kinetic standpoint.

Kinetic Basis of the Law of Chemical Mass-action. — We will
assume that the molecular species AI, A2, . . . A'i, A'2) . . .
are present in a homogeneous system, where they can react on
each other only according to the scheme

A,+A2+ ...^A'.+A'z-r- ...;
this is a special case of the general equation

BiAj+njAj-r- . . . £> n'iA'i+n',A'2+ ....

in which only one molecule of each substance takes part in the
reaction. The reacting substances may be either gaseous or
form a liquid mixture, or be dissolved in some selected solvent;
but in each case we may state the following considerations
regarding the course of the reaction. For a transformation to
take place from left to right in the sense of the reaction equation,
all the molecules AI, A2, . . . must clearly collide at one point;
otherwise no reaction is possible, since we shall not consider
side-reactions. Such a collision need not of course bring about
that transposition of the atoms of the single molecules which
constitutes the above reaction. Much rather must it be of such
a kind as is favourable to that loosening of the bonds that bind
the atoms in the separate molecules, which must precede this
transposition. Of a large number of such collisions, therefore,
only a certain smaller number will involve a transposition from
left to right in the sense of the equation. But this number will
be the same under the same external conditions, and the greater
the more numerous the collisions; in fact a direct ratio must
exist between the two. Bearing in mind now, that the number
of collisions must be proportional to each of the concentrations
of the bodies AI, A2, . . ., and therefore, on the whole, to the
product of all these concentrations, we arrive at the conclusion
that the velocity » of the transposition from left to right in the
sense of the reaction equation is v = kciCi . . ., in which Ci, c2,
. . . represent the spatial concentrations, i.e. the number of
gram-molecules of the substances Aj, A2, . . . present in one
litre, and k is, at a given temperature, a constant which may be
called the velocity-coefficient.

Exactly the same consideration applies to the molecules
A'i, A'z . . . Here the velocity of the change from right to
left in the sense of the reaction-equation increases with the
number of collisions of all these molecules at one point, and this
is proportional to the product of all the concentrations. If
k' denotes the corresponding proportionality-factor, then the
velocity if of the change from right to left in the sense of the
reaction-equation is n' = £'cV2 . . . These spatial concentra-
tions are often called the " active masses " of the reacting com-
ponents. Hence the reaction- velocity in the sense of the reaction-
equation from left to right, or the reverse, is proportional to the
product of the " active-masses " of the left-hand or right-hand
components respectively.

Neither v nor jf can be separately investigated, and the
measurements of the course of a reaction always furnish only
the difference of these two quantities. The reaction-
c"^n°ical velocity actually observed represents the difference
statics. of these two partial reaction-velocities, whilst the
amount of change observed during any period of time
is equal to the change in the one direction, minus the change in
the opposite direction. It must not be assumed, however, that
on the attainment of equilibrium all action has ceased, but
rather that the velocity of change in one direction has become
equal to that in the opposite direction, with the result that no
further total change can be observed, i.e. the system has reached
equilibrium, for which the relation »— »' = o must therefore hold,
or what is the same thing

kcid. . . = k'c\c'i. .. ;
this is the fundamental law of chemical statics.

The conception that the equilibrium is not to be attributed
to absolute indifference between the reacting bodies, but that
these continue to exert their mutual actions undiminished and
the opposing changes now balance, is of fundamental significance
in the interpretation of changes of matter in general. This is
generally expressed in the form: the equilibrium in this and
other analogous cases is not static but dynamic. This conception
was a direct result of the kinetic-molecular considerations, and
was applied with special success to the development of the kinetic
theory of gases. Thus with Clausius, we conceive the equilibrium
of water-vapour with water, not as if neither water vaporized
nor vapour condensed, but rather as though the two processes
went on unhindered in the equilibrium state, i.e. during contact
of saturated vapour with water, in a given time, as many water
molecules passed through the water surface in one direction as
in the opposite direction. This view, as applied to chemical
changes, was first advanced by A. W. Williamson (1851), and
further developed by C. M. Guldberg and P. Waage and
others.

From the previous considerations it follows that the reaction-
velocity at every moment, i.e. the velocity with
which the chemical process advances towards the
equilibrium state, is given by the equation kinetics.

V=v-v' = kclc2...-k'c',c'i...;

this states the fundamental law of chemical kinetics.

The equilibrium equation is simply a special case of this more
general one, and results when the total velocity is written
zero, just as in analytical mechanics the equilibrium conditions
follow at once by specialization of the general equations of
motion.

. No difficulty presents itself in the generalization of the previous
equations for the reaction which proceeds after the scheme

njA,+«jA,+ . . . =n'iA'i+n'sA',+ . . . ,

where MtjWz, . . .,«'i, w'2, . . . denote the numbers of molecules
of the separate substances which take part in the reaction, and
are therefore whole, mostly small, numbers (generally one or
two, seldom three or more). Here as before, » and if are to be
regarded as proportional to the number of collisions at one point
of all molecules necessary to the respective reaction, but now ni
molecules of AI, «2 molecules of A2, &c., must collide for the
reaction to advance from left to right in the sense of the equation ;
and similarly n\ molecules of A'i, «'2 molecules of A'2, &c.,
must collide for the reaction to proceed in the opposite direction.
If we consider the path of a single, arbitrarily chosen molecule
over a certain time, then the number of its collisions with other
similar molecules will be proportional to the concentration C
of that kind of molecule to which it belongs. The number of
encounters between two molecules of the kind in question, during
the same time, will be in general C times as many, i.e. the number
of encounters of two of the same molecules is proportional to
the square of the concentration C; and generally, the number
of encounters of n molecules of one kind must be regarded as
proportional to the wth power of C, i.e. O.

The number of collisions of n\ molecules of AI, ni molecules
of A2 . . . is accordingly proportional to Cr'CJ2 . . . , and the
reaction-velocity corresponding to it is therefore

v = kC"lC^...,

and similarly the opposed reaction-velocity is
»' = £'C;"'C;n''...;

the resultant reaction-velocity, being the difference of these
two partial velocities, is therefore

V=v-v'=kC?C?. . . -k'C'^C'S'1. . .

This is the most general expression of the law of chemical mass-
action, for the case of homogeneous systems.

Equating V to zero, we obtain the equation for the equilibrium
state, viz.

K is called the " equilibrium-constant."

CHEMICAL ACTION

These formulae hold for gases and for dilute solutions, but
assume the system to be homogeneous, i.e. to be either a homo-
LimHa- geneous gas-mixture or a homogeneous dilute solution.
tions ana The case in which other states of matter share in the
applies- equilibrium permits of simple treatment when the
substances in question may be regarded as pure, and
consequently as possessing definite vapour-pressures
or solubilities at a given temperature. In this case the molecular
species in question, which is, at the same time, present in excess
and is hence usually, called a Bodenkorper, must possess a constant
concentration in the gas-space or solution. But since the left-
hand side of the last equation contains only variable quantities,
it is simplest and most convenient to absorb these constant
concentrations into the equilibrium-constant; whence we have
the rule: leave the molecular species present as Bodenkorper
out of account, when determining the concentration-product.
Guldberg and Waage expressed this in the form " the active
mass of a solid substance is constant." The same is true of
liquids when these participate in the pure state in the equilibrium,
and possess therefore a definite vapour-pressure or solubility.
When, finally, we are not dealing with a dilute solution but with
any kind of mixture whatever, it is simplest to apply the law
of mass-action to the gaseous mixture in equilibrium with this.
The composition of the liquid mixture is then determinable
when the vapour-pressures of the separate components are
known. This, however, is not often the case; but in principle
this consideration is important, since it involves the possibility
of extending the law of chemical mass-action from ideal gas-
mixtures and dilute solutions, for which it primarily holds, to
any other system whatever.

The more recent development of theoretical chemistry, as
well as the detailed study of many chemical processes which
have found technical application, leads more and more con-
vincingly to the recognition that in the law of chemical mass-
action we have a law of as fundamental significance as the law
of constant and multiple proportions. It is therefore not without
interest to briefly touch upon the development of the doctrine
of chemical affinity.

Historical Development of the Law of Mass-action. — The theory
developed by Torbern Olof Bergman in 1775 must be regarded
as the first attempt of importance to account for the mode of
action of chemical forces. The essential principle of this may
be stated as follows: — The magnitude of chemical affinity may
be expressed by a definite number; if the affinity of the sub-
stance A is greater for the substance B than for the substance
C, then the latter (C) will be completely expelled by B from its
compound with A, in the sense of the equation A- C+B = A-B-j- C.
This theory fails, however, to take account of the influence of
the relative masses of the reacting substances, and had to be
abandoned as soon as such an influence was noticed. An
attempt to consider this factor was made by Claude Louis
Berthollet (1801), who introduced the conception of chemical
equilibrium. The views of this French chemist may be summed
up in the following sentence: — Different substances have differ-
ent affinities for each other, which only come into play on im-
mediate contact. The condition of equilibrium depends not only
upon the chemical affinity, but also essentially upon the relative
masses of the reacting substances.

Essentially, Berthollet's idea is to-day the guiding principle
of the doctrine of affinity. This is especially true of our con-
ceptions of many reactions which, in the sense of Bergman's idea,
proceed to completion, i.e. until the reacting substances are all
used up; but only for this reason, viz. that one or more of the
products of the reaction is removed from the reaction mixture
(either by crystallization, evaporation or some other process),
and hence the reverse reaction becomes impossible. Following
Berthollet's idea, two Norwegian investigators, C. M. Guldberg
and Peter Waage, succeeded in formulating the influence of the
reacting masses in a simple law — the law of chemical mass-action
already defined. The results of their theoretical and experi-
mental studies were published at Christiania in 1867 (£tudes sur
les affinitis chimiques); this work marks a new epoch in the

history of chemistry. Even before this, formulae to describe the
progress of certain chemical reactions, which must be regarded
as applications of the law of mass-action, had been put forward
by Ludwig Wilhelmy (1850), and by A. G. Vernon-Harcourt
and William Esson (1856), but the service of Guldberg and
Waage in having grasped the law in its full significance and
logically applied it in all directions, remains of course un-
•diminished. Their treatise remained quite unknown; and so
it happened that John Hewitt Jellett (1873), J. H. van't Hoff
(1877), and others independently developed the same law.
The thermodynamic basis of the law of mass-action is primarily
due to Horstmann, J. Willard Gibbs and van't Hoff.

Applications. — Let us consider, as an example of the appli-
cation of the law of mass-action, the case of the dissociation of
water-vapour, which takes place at high temperatures in the
sense of the equation 2H2O = 2H2-)-O2. Representing the con-
centrations of the corresponding molecular species by [Hj, &c.,
the expression [Hj2 [Oj/tH^]2 must be constant at any given
temperature. This shows that the dissociation is set back by
increasing the pressure; for if the concentrations of all three
kinds of molecules be increased by strong compression, say to
ten times the former amounts, then the numerator is increased
one thousand, the denominator only one hundred times. Hence
if the original equilibrium-constant is to hold, the dissociation
must go back, and, what is more, by an exactly determinable
amount. At 2000° C. water-vapour is only dissociated to the
extent of a few per cent; therefore, even when only a small
excess of oxygen or hydrogen be present, the numerator in the
foregoing expression is much increased, and it is obvious that in
order to restore the equilibrium state, the concentration of the
other component, hydrogen or oxygen as the case may be, must
diminish. In the case of slightly dissociated substances, there-
fore, even a relatively small excess of one component is sufficient
to set back the dissociation substantially.

Chemical Kinetics. — It has been already mentioned that the
law of chemical mass-action not only defines the conditions for
chemical equilibrium, but contains at the same time the prin-
ciples of chemical kinetics. The previous considerations show
indeed that the actual progress of the reaction is determined by
the difference of the reaction-velocities in the one and the other
(opposed) direction, in the sense of the corresponding reaction -
equation. Since the reaction-velocity is given by the amount of
chemical change in a small interval of time, the law of chemical
mass-action supplies a differential equation, which, when in-
tegrated, provides formulae which, as numerous experiments
have shown, very happily summarize the course of the reaction.
For the simplest case, in which a single species of molecule under-
goes almost complete decomposition, so that the reaction-
velocity in the reverse direction may be neglected, we have the
simple equation

dxldt = k(a-x),

and if x = o when t = o we have by integration
k=l-nog{a/(a-x)}.

We will now apply these conclusions to the theory of the
ignition of an explosive gas-mixture, and in particular to the
combustion of " knallgas " (a mixture of hydrogen Theory of
and oxygen) to water-vapour. At ordinary tempera- expio-
tures knallgas undergoes practically no change, and slve f0™-
it might be supposed that the two gases, oxygen and
hydrogen, have no affinity for each other. This conclusion,
however, is shown to be incorrect by the observation that it is
only necessary to add some suitable catalyst such as platinum-
black in order to immediately start the reaction. We must
therefore conclude that even at ordinary temperatures strong
chemical affinity is exerted between oxygen and hydrogen, but
that at low temperatures this encounters great frictional resist-
ances, or in other words that the reaction-velocity is very small.
It is a matter of general experience that the resistances which
the chemical forces have to overcome diminish with rising
temperature, i.e. the reaction-velocity increases with temperature.
Therefore, when we warm the knallgas, the number of collisions
of oxygen and hydrogen molecules favourable to the formation

CHEMICAL ACTION

of water becomes greater and greater, until at about 500° the
gradual formation of water is observed, while at still higher
temperatures the reaction-velocity becomes enormous. We
are now in a position to understand what is the result of a strong
local heating of the knallgas, as, for example, by an electric spark.
The strongly heated parts of the knallgas combine to form
water-vapour with great velocity and the evolution of large
amounts of heat, whereby the adjacent parts are brought to a
high temperature and into a state of rapid reaction, i.e. we
observe an ignition of the whole mixture. If we suppose the
knallgas to be at a very high temperature, then its combustion
will be no longer complete owing to the dissociation of water-
vapour, whilst at extremely high temperatures it would practi-
cally disappear. Hence it is clear that knallgas appears to be
stable at low temperatures only because the reaction-velocity
is very small, but that at very high temperatures it is really
stable, since no chemical forces are then active, or, in other
words, the chemical affinity is very small.

The determination of the question whether the failure of
some reaction is due to an inappreciable reaction-velocity or to
absence of chemical affinity, is of fundamental importance, and
only in the first case can the reaction be hastened by catalysts.

Many chemical compounds behave like knallgas. Acetylene
is stable at ordinary temperatures, inasmuch as it only decom-
poses slowly; but at the same time it is explosive, for the
decomposition when once started is rapidly propagated, on
account of the heat evolved by the splitting up of the gas into
carbon and hydrogen. At very high temperatures, however,
acetylene acquires real stability, since carbon and hydrogen
then react to form acetylene.

Many researches have shown that the combustion of an
inflammable gas-mixture which is started at a point, e.g. by an
electric spark, may be propagated in two essentially
waves.""' different ways. The characteristic of the slower
combustion consists in this, viz. that the high tempera-
ture of the previously ignited layer spreads by conduction,
thereby bringing the adjacent layers to the ignition-temperature;
the velocity of the propagation is therefore conditioned in the
first place by the magnitude of the conductivity f<5r heat, and
more particularly, in the second place, by the velocity with
which a moderately heated layer begins to react chemically,
and so to rise gradually in temperature, i.e. essentially by the
change of reaction-velocity with temperature. A second
entirely independent mode of propagation of the combustion
lies at the basis of the phenomenon that an explosive gas-mixture
can be ignited by strong compression or — more correctly — by
the rise of temperature thereby produced. The increase of the
concentrations of the reacting substances consequent upon this
increase of pressure raises the reaction-velocity in accordance
with the law of chemical mass-action, and so enormously favours
the rapid evolution of the heat of combustion.

It is therefore clear that such a powerful compresskm-wave
can not only initiate the combustion, but also propagate it with
extremely high velocity. Indeed a compression-wave of this
kind passes through the gas-mixture, heated by the combustion
to a very high temperature. It must, however, be propagated
considerably faster than an ordinary compression-wave, for
the result of ignition in the compressed (still unburnt) layer is
the production of a very high pressure, which must in accordance
with the principles of wave-motion increase the velocity of
propagation. The absolute velocity of the explosion-wave
would seem, in the light of these considerations, to be susceptible
of accurate calculation. It is at least clear that it must be
considerably higher than the velocity of sound in the mass of
gas strongly heated by the explosion, and this is confirmed by
actual measurements (see below) which show that the velocity
of the explosion-wave is from one and a half times to double
that of sound-waves at the combustion temperature.

We are now in a position to form the following picture of the
processes which follow upon the ignition of a combustible gas-
mixture contained in a long tube. First we have the condition
of slow combustion; the heat is conveyed by conduction to the

Velocity of Wave in

Reacting Mixture

Metres per second.

Berthelot.

Dixon.

Hydrogen

and oxygen,

H2+0 . .

2810

2821

Hydrogen and nitrous oxide,
Methane and oxygen,

H2+N20 .
CH4+4O .

2284 '
2287

2305
2322

Ethylene

M ,i

C2H4+6O.

22IO

2364

Acetylene

j, ii

C2H2+5O .

2482

2391

Cyanogen

M »t

C2N2+4O .

2195

2321

Hydrogen

and chlorine,

H2+CI2 .

1730

••

„

2H2+C12 .

1849

adjacent layers, and there follows a velocity of propagation of
a few metres per second. But since the combustion is accom-
panied by a high increase of pressure, the adjacent, still unburnt
layers are simultaneously compressed, whereby the reaction-
velocity increases, and the ignition proceeds faster. This
involves still greater compression of the next layers, and so if
the mixture be capable of sufficiently rapid combustion, the
velocity of propagation of the ignition must continually increase.
As soon as the compression in the still unburnt layers becomes
so great that spontaneous ignition results, the now much
more pronounced compression-waves excited with simultaneous
combustion must be propagated with very great velocity, i.e.
we have spontaneous development of an " explosion-wave."
M.P.E. Berthelot, who discovered the presence of such explosion-
waves, proved their velocity of propagation to be independent
of the pressure, the cross-section of the tubes in which the
explosive gas-mixture is contained, as well as of the material
of which these are made, and concluded that this velocity is a
constant, characteristic of the particular mixture. The deter-
mination of this velocity is naturally of the highest interest.

In the following table Berthelot's results are given along with
the later (1891) concordant ones of H. B. Dixon, the velocities
of propagation of explosions being given in metres per second.

The maximum pressure of the explosion-wave possesses very
high values; it appears that a compression of from i to 30-40
atmospheres is necessary to produce spontaneous ignition of
mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen. But since the heat evolved
in the path of the explosion causes a rise of temperature of
20oo°-300o°, i.e. a rise of absolute temperature about four
times that directly following upon the initial compression, we are
here concerned with pressures amounting to considerably more
than 100 atmospheres. Both the magnitude of this pressure
and the circumstance that it so suddenly arises are peculiar to
the very powerful forces which distinguish the explosion-wave
from the slow combustion-wave.

Nascent State. — The great reactive power of freshly formed
or nascent substances (status nascens) may be very simply
referred to the principles of mass-action. As is well known,
this phenomenon is specially striking in the case of hydrogen,
which may therefore be taken as a typical example. The law
of mass-action affirms the action of a substance to be the greater
the higher its concentration, or, for a gas, the higher its partial-
pressure. Now experience teaches that those metals which
liberate hydrogen from acids are able to supply the latter under
extremely high pressure, and we may therefore assume that the
hydrogen which results, for example, from the action of zinc
upon sulphuric acid is initially under very high pressures which
are then afterwards relieved. Hence the hydrogen during
liberation exhibits much more active powers of reduction than
the ordinary gas.

A deeper insight into the relations prevailing here is offered
from the atomistic point of view. From this we are bound to
conclude that the hydrogen is in the first instance evolved in
the form of free atoms, and since the velocity of the reaction
H+H=H2 at ordinary temperatures, though doubtless very
great, is not practically instantaneous, the freshly generated
hydrogen will contain a remnant of free atoms, which are able to
react both more actively and more rapidly. Similar considera-
tions are of course applicable to other cases.

Ion-reactions. — The application of the law of chemical mass-

CHEMICAL ACTION

action is much simplified in the case in which the reaction-
velocity is enormously great, when practically an instantaneous
adjustment of the equilibrium results. Only in this case can the
state of the system, which pertains after mixing the different
components, be determined merely from knowledge of the
equilibrium-constant. This case is realized in the reactions
between gases at very high temperatures, which have, however,
been little investigated, and especially by the reactions between
electrolytes, the so-called ion-reactions. In this latter case,
which has been thoroughly studied on account of its fundamental
importance for inorganic qualitative and quantitative analysis,
the degrees of dissociation of the various electrolytes (acids,
bases and salts) are for the most part easily determined by the
aid of the freezing-point apparatus, or of measurements of the
electric conductivity; and from these data the equilibrium-
constant K may be calculated. Moreover, it can be shown
that the state of the system can be determined when the equi-
librium constants of all the electrolytes which are present in the
common solution are known. If this be coupled with the law
that the solubility of solid substances, as with vapour-pressures,
is independent of the presence of other electrolytes, it is sufficient
to know the solubilities of the electrolytes in question, in order
to be able to determine which substances must participate in the
equilibrium in the solid state, i.e. we arrive at the theory of the
formation and solution of precipitates.

As an illustration of the application of these principles, we
shall deal with a problem of the doctrine of affinity, namely,
that of the relative strengths of acids and bases. It
was 1u'te an early an(i often repeated observation
and bases, that the various acids and bases take part with very
varying intensity or avidity in those reactions in
which their acid or basic nature comes into play. No success
attended the early attempts at giving numerical expression to
the strengths of acids and bases, i.e. of finding a numerical
coefficient for each acid and base, which should be the quantita-
tive expression of the degree of its participation in those specific
reactions characteristic of acids and bases respectively. Julius
Thomsen and W. Ostwald attacked the problem in a far-seeing
and comprehensive manner, and arrived at indisputable proof
that the property of acids and bases of exerting their effects
according to definite numerical coefficients finds expression not
only in salt-formation but also in a large number of other, and
indeed very miscellaneous, reactions.

When Ostwald compared the order of the strengths of acids
deduced from their competition for the same base, as determined
by Thomsen's thermo-chemical or his own volumetric method,
with that order in which the acids arrange themselves according
to their capacity to bring calcium oxalate into solution, or to
convert acetamide into ammonium acetate, or to split up
methyl acetate into methyl alcohol and acetic acid catalytically,
or to invert cane-sugar, or to accelerate the mutual action of
hydriodic on bromic acid, he found that in all these well-investi-
gated and very miscellaneous cases the same succession of acids
in the order of their strengths is obtained, whichever one of the
above chemical processes be chosen as measure of these strengths.
It is to be noticed that all these chemical changes cited took
place in dilute aqueous solution, consequently the above order
of acids refers only to the power to react under these circum-
stances. The order of acids proved to be fairly independent
of temperature. While therefore the above investigations
afforded a definite qualitative solution of the order of acids
according to strengths, the determination of the quantitative
relations offered great difficulties, and the numerical coefficients,
determined from the separate reactions, often displayed great
variations, though occasionally also surprising agreement.
Especially great were the variations of the coefficients with the
concentration, and in those cases in which the concentration
of the acid changed considerably during the reaction, the calcu-
lation was naturally quite uncertain. Similar relations were
found in the investigation of bases, the scope of which, however,
was much more limited.

These apparently rather complicated relations were now

cleared up at one stroke, by the application of the law of chemical
mass-action on the lines indicated by S. Arrhenius in 1887, when
he put forward the theory of electrolytic dissociation to explain
that peculiar behaviour of substances in aqueous solution first
recognized by van't Hoff in 1885. The formulae which must
be made use of here in the calculation of the equilibrium-relations
follow naturally by simple application of the law of mass-action
to the corresponding ion-concentrations.

The peculiarities which the behaviour of acids and bases
presents, and, according to the theory of Arrhenius, must
present — peculiarities which found expression in the very early
distinction between neutral solutions on the one hand, and acid
or basic ones on the other, as well as in the belief in a polar
antithesis between the two last — must now, in the light of the
theory of electrolytic dissociation, be conceived as follows: —

The reactions characteristic of acids in aqueous solution,
which are common to and can only be brought about by acids,
find their explanation in the fact that this class of bodies gives
rise on dissociation to a common molecular species, namely, the

positively charged hydrogen-ion (jj). The specific chemical

actions peculiar to acids are therefore to be attributed to the
hydrogen-ion just as the actions common to all chlorides are to
be regarded as those of the free chlorine-ions. In like manner,
the reactions characteristic of bases in solution are to be attri-
buted to the negatively charged hydroxyl-ions (QH)> wrlich
result from the dissociation of this class of bodies.

A solution has an acid reaction when it contains an excess of
hydrogen-ions, and a basic reaction when it contains an excess
of hydroxyl-ions. If an acid and an alkaline solution be brought
together mutual neutralization must result, since the positive
H-ions and the negative OH-ions cannot exist together in view
of the extremely weak conductivity of pure water and its conse-
quent slight electrolytic dissociation, and therefore they must at
once combine to form electrically neutral molecules, in the sense
of the equation + _

H+OH = H2O.

In this lies the simple explanation of the " polar " difference
between acid and basic solutions. This rests essentially upon the
fact that the ion peculiar to acids and the ion peculiar to bases
form the two constituents of water, i.e. of that solvent in which
we usually study the course of the reaction. The idea of the
" strength " of an acid or base at once arises. If we compare
equivalent solutions of various acids, the intensity of those
actions characteristic of them will be the greater the more free
hydrogen-ions they contain; this is an immediate consequence
of the law of chemical mass-action. The degree of electrolytic
dissociation determines, therefore, the strength of acids, and a
similar consideration leads to the same result for bases.

Now the degree of electrolytic dissociation changes with
concentration in a regular manner, which is given by the law of
mass-action. For if C denote the concentration of the electrolyte
and a its degree of dissociation, the above law states that

CV/C(i -a) =Ca2/(i -a) =K.

At very great dilutions the dissociation is complete, and equiva-
lent solutions of the most various acids then contain the same
number of hydrogen-ions, or, in other words, are equally strong;
and the same is true of the hydroxyl-ions of bases. The dis-
sociation also decreases with increasing concentration, but at
different rates for different substances, and the relative
" strengths " of acids and bases must hence change with concen-
tration, as was indeed found experimentally. The dissociation-
constant K is the measure of the variation of the degree of
dissociation with concentration, and must therefore be regarded
as the measure of the strengths of acids and bases. So that in
this special case we are again brought to the result which was
stated in general terms above, viz. that the dissociation-coefficient
forms the measure of the reactivity of a dissolved electrolyte.
Ostwald's series of acids, based upon the investigation of the
most various reactions, should therefore correspond with the
order of their dissociation-constants, and further with the

CHEMICAL ACTION

order of their freezing-point depressions in equivalent solutions,
since the depression of the freezing-point increases with the
degree of electrolytic dissociation. Experience confirms this
conclusion completely. The degree of dissociation of an acid,
at a given concentration, for which its molecular conductivity
is A, is shown by the theory of electrolytic dissociation to be
a=A/A.; A», the molecular conductivity at very great dilu-
tion in accordance with the law of Kohlrausch, is «+», where
a and v are the ionic-mobilities (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC).
Since u, the ionic-mobility of the hydrogen ion, is generally
more than ten times as great as v, the ionic-mobility of the
negative acid-radical, A«, has approximately the same value
(generally within less than 10%) for the different acids, and the
molecular-conductivity of the acids in equivalent concentration
is at least approximately porportional to the degree of electrolytic
dissociation, i.e. to the strength.

In general, therefore, the order of conductivities is identical
with that in which the acids exert their specific powers. This
remarkable parallelism, first perceived by Arrhenius and Ostwald
in 1885, was the happy development which led to the discovery
of electrolytic dissociation (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC; and
SOLUTION).

Catalysis. — We have already mentioned the fact, early known
to chemists, that many reactions proceed with a marked increase
of velocity in presence of many foreign substances. With
Berzelius we call this phenomenon " catalysis," by which we
understand that general acceleration of reactions which also
progress when left to themselves, in the presence of certain
bodies which do not change in amount (or only slightly) during
the course of the reaction. Acids and bases appear to act
catalytically upon all reactions involving consumption or
liberation of water, and indeed that action is proportional to the
concentration of the hydrogen or hydroxyl-ions. Further, the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is " catalysed " by iodine-
ions, the condensation of two molecules of benzaldehyde to
benzoin by cyanogen-ions. One of the earliest known and
technically most important instances of catalysis is that of the
oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid by oxygen in the
presence of oxides of nitrogen. Other well-known and remark-
able examples are the catalysis of the combustion of hydrogen
and of sulphur dioxide in oxygen by finely-divided platinum.
We may also mention the interesting work of Dixon and Baker,
which led to the discovery that a large number of gas-reactions,
e.g. the combustion of carbon monoxide, the dissociation of
sal-ammoniac vapour, and the action of sulphuretted hydrogen
upon the salts of heavy metals, cease when water-vapour is
absent, or at least proceed with greatly diminished velocity.

"Negative catalysis," i.e. the retardation of a reaction by
addition of some substance, which is occasionally observed,
appears to depend upon the destruction of a " positive catalyte "
by the body added.

A catalyte can have no influence, however, upon the affinity
of a process, since that would be contrary to the second law of
thermodynamics, according to which affinity of an isothermal
process, which is measured by the maximum work, only depends
upon the initial and final states. The effect of a catalyte is
therefore limited to the resistances opposing the progress of a
reaction, and does not influence its driving-force or affinity.
Since the catalyte takes no part in the reaction its presence has
no effect on the equilibrium-constant. This, in accordance
with the law of mass-action, is the ratio of the separate reaction-
velocities in the two contrary directions. A catalyte must
therefore always accelerate the reverse-reaction. If the velocity
of formation of a body be increased by addition of some substance
then its velocity of decomposition must likewise increase. We
have an example of this in the well-known fact that the formation,
and no less the saponification, of esters, proceeds with increased
velocity in the presence of acids, while the observation that in
absence of water-vapour neither gaseous ammonium chloride
dissociates nor dry ammonia combines with hydrogen chloride
becomes clear on the same grounds.

A general theory of catalytic phenomena does not at present

exist. The formation of intermediate products by the action
of the reacting substance upon the catalyte has often been
thought to be the cause of these. These intervening products,
whose existence in many cases has been proved, then split up
into the catalyte and the reaction-product. Thus chemists
have sought to ascribe the influence of oxides of nitrogen on the
formation of sulphuric acid to the initial formation of nitrosyl-
sulphuric acid, SO2(OH)(NO2), from the mixture of sulphur
dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and air, which then reacted with water
to form sulphuric and nitrous acids. When the velocity of such
intermediate reactions is greater than that of the total change,
such an explanation may suffice, but a more certain proof of this
theory of catalysis has only been reached in a few cases, though
in many others it appears very plausible. Hence it is hardly
possible to interpret all catalytic processes on these lines.

In regard to catalysis in heterogeneous systems, especially
the hastening of gas-reactions by platinum, it is very probable
that it is closely connected with the solution or absorption of the
gases on the part of the metal. From the experiments of G.
Bredig it seems that colloidal solutions of a metal act like the
metal itself. The action of a colloidal-platinum solution on the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is still sensible even at a
dilution of 1/70,000,000 grm.-mol. per litre; indeed the activity
of this colloidal-platinum solution calls to mind in many ways
that of organic ferments, hence Bredig has called it an " inorganic
ferment." This analogy is especially striking in the change of
their activity with time and temperature, and in the possibility,
by means of bodies like sulphuretted hydrogen, hydrocyanic
acid, &c., which act as strong poisons upon the latter, of "poison-
ing " the former also, i.e. of rendering it inactive. In the case
of the catalytic action of water-vapour upon many processes
of combustion already mentioned, a part of the effect is prob-
ably due to the circumstance, disclosed by numerous experi-
ments, that the union of hydrogen and oxygen proceeds,
between certain temperature limits at least, after the equation
H2 + O2 = H2O2, that is, with the preliminary formation of
hydrogen peroxide, which then breaks down into water and
oxygen, and further, above all, to the fact that this substance
results from oxygen and water at high temperatures with great
velocity, though indeed only in small quantities.

The view now suggests itself, that, for example, in the com-
bustion of carbon monoxide at moderately high temperatures,
the reaction

(I.) 2CO+02=2C02

advances with imperceptible speed, but that on the contrary the
two stages

(II.) 2H2O+O*=2H202,

(III.) 2CO+2H202=2CO2+2H2O,

which together result in (I.), proceed rapidly even at moderate
temperatures.

Temperature and Reaction-Velocity. — There are few natural
constants which undergo so marked a change with temperature
as those of the velocities of chemical changes. As a rule a rise
of temperature of 10° causes a twofold or threefold rise of
reaction-velocity.

If the reaction-coefficient k, in the sense of the equation
derived above, viz. k = t~l Idg \a/(a-x)\, be determined for the
inversion of cane-sugar by an acid of given co'ncentration, the
following values are obtained: —

Temperature = 25° 40° 45° 50° 55°
k =9.7 73 139 268 491;

here a rise of temperature of only 30° suffices to raise the speed of
inversion fifty times.

We possess no adequate explanation of this remarkable
temperature influence; but some account of it is given by the
molecular theory, according to which the energy of that motion
of substances in homogeneous gaseous or liquid systems which
constitutes heat increases with the temperature, and hence also
the frequency of collision of the reacting substances. When we
reflect that the velocity of motion of the molecules of gases, and
in all probability those of liquids also, are proportional to the
square root of the absolute temperature, and therefore rise by

CHEMICAL ACTION

only J% per degree at room-temperature, and that we must
assume the number of collisions proportional to the velocity of
the molecules, we cannot regard the actually observed increase
of reaction-velocity, which often amounts to 10 or 12 % per degree,
as exclusively due to the quickening of the molecular motion by
heat. It is more probable that the increase of the kinetic energy
of the atomic motions within the molecule itself is of significance
here, as the rise of the specific heat of gases with temperature
seems to show. The change of the reaction-coefficient k with
temperature may be represented by the empirical equation
log k= -AT"1 + B + CT, where A, B, C are positive constants.
For low temperatures the influence of the last term is as a
rule negligible, whilst for high temperatures the first term on the
right side plays a vanishingly small part.

Definition of Chemical Affinity. — We have still to discuss the
question of what is to be regarded as the measure of chemical
affinity. Since we are not in a position to measure directly the
intensity of chemical forces, the idea suggests itself to determine
the strength of chemical affinity from the amount of the work
which the corresponding reaction is able to do. To a certain
extent the evolution of heat accompanying the reaction is a
measure of this work, and attempts have been made to measure
chemical affinities thermo-chemically, though it may be easily
shown that this definition was not well chosen. For when, as is
clearly most convenient, affinity is so defined that it determines
under all circumstances the direction of chemical change, the
above definition fails in so far as chemical processes often take
place with absorption of heat, that is, contrary to affinities so
defined. But even in those cases in which the course of the
reaction at first proceeds in the sense of the evolution of heat,
it is often observed that the reaction advances not to com-
pletion but to a certain equilibrium, or, in other words, stops
before the evolution of heat is complete.

A definition free from this objection is supplied by the second
law of thermodynamics, in accordance with which all processes
must take place in so far as they are able to do external work.
When therefore we identify chemical affinity with the maximum
work which can be gained from the process in question, we reach
such a definition that the direction of the process is under all
conditions determined by the affinity. Further, this definition
has proved serviceable in so far as the maximum work in many
cases may be experimentally measured, and moreover it stands
in a simple relation to the equilibrium constant K. Thermo-
dynamics teaches that the maximum work A may be expressed
as A = RT log K, when R denotes the gas-constant, T the absolute
temperature. In this it is further assumed that both the mole-
cular species produced as well as those that disappear are present
in unit concentration. The simplest experimental method of
directly determining chemical affinity consists in the measure-
ment of electromotive force. The latter at once gives us the work
which can be gained when the corresponding galvanic element
supplies the electricity, and, since the chemical exchange of one
gram-equivalent from Faraday's law requires 96,540 coulombs,
we obtain from the product of this number and the electromotive
force the work per gram-equivalent in watt-seconds, and this
quantity when multiplied by 0-23872 is obtained in terms of the
usual unit, the gram-calorie. Experience teaches that, especially
when we have to deal with strong affinities, the affinity so deter-
mined is"_for the most part almost the same as the heat-evolution,
whilst in the case in which only solid or liquid substances in the
pure state take part in the reaction at low temperatures, heat-
evolution and affinity appear to possess a practically identical
value.

Hence it seems possible to calculate equilibria for low tem-
peratures from heats of reaction, by the aid of the two equations

A = Q, A = RTlogK;

and since the change of A with temperature, as required by the
principles of thermodynamics, follows from the specific heats of
the reacting substances, it seems further possible to calculate
chemical equilibria from heats of reaction and specific heats.
The circumstance that chemical affinity and heat-evolution
so nearly coincide at low temperatures may be derived from the

hypothesis that chemical processes are the result of forces of
attraction between the atoms of the different elements. If we
may disregard the kinetic energy of the atoms, and this is
legitimate for low temperatures, it follows that both heat-evolu-
tion and chemical affinity are merely equal to the decrease of the
potential energy of the above-mentioned forces, and it is at once
clear that the evolution of heat during a reaction between only
pure solid or pure liquid substances possesses special importance.

More complicated is the case in which gases or dissolved sub-
stances take part. This is simplified if we first consider the
mixing of two mutually chemically indifferent gases. Thermo-
dynamics teaches that external work may be gained by the mere
mixing of two such gases (see DIFFUSION), and these amounts of
work, which assume very considerable proportions at high
temperatures, naturally afreet the value of the maximum work
and so also of the affinity, in that they always come into play
when gases or solutions react. While therefore we regard as
chemical affinity in the strictest sense the decrease of potential
energy of the forces acting between the atoms, it is clear that the
quantities here involved exhibit the simplest relations under the
experimental conditions just given, for when only substances
in a pure state take part in a reaction, all mixing of different
kinds of molecules is excluded; moreover, the circumstance
that the respective substances are considered at very low tempera-
tures reduces the quantities of energy absorbed as kinetic
energy by their molecules to the smallest possible amount.

Chemical Resistance. — When we know the chemical affinity of
a reaction, we are in a position to decide in which direction the
process must advance, but, unless we know the reaction- velocity
also, we can in many cases say nothing as to whether or not the
reaction in question will progress with a practically inappreciable
velocity so that apparent chemical indifference is the result.
This question may be stated in the light of the law of mass-
action briefly as follows: — From a knowledge of the chemical
affinity we can calculate the equilibrium, i.e. the numerical
value of the constant K = k/k'; but to be completely informed
of the process we must know not only the ratio of the two
velocity-constants k and k', but also the separate absolute values
of the same.

In many respects the following view is more comprehensive,
though naturally in harmony with the one just expressed.
Since the chemical equilibrium is periodically attained, it follows
that, as in the case of the motion of a body or of the diffusion of
a dissolved substance, it must be opposed by very great friction.
In all these cases the velocity of the process at every instant is
directly proportional to the driving-force and inversely pro-
portional to the frictional resistance. We hence arrive at the
result that an equation of the form

reaction-velocity = chemical force/chemical resistance
must also hold for chemical change; here we have an analogy
with Ohm's law. The " chemical force " at every instant may
be calculated from the maximum work (affinity); as yet little
is known about " chemical resistance," but it is not improbable
that it may be directly measured or theoretically deduced.
The problem of the calculation of chemical reaction-velocity in
absolute measure would then be solved; so far we possess indeed
only a few general facts concerning the magnitude of chemical
resistance. It is immeasurably small at ordinary temperatures
for ion-reactions, and, on the other hand, fairly large for nearly all
reactions in which carbon-bonds must be loosened (so-called
" inertia of the carbon-bond ") and possesses very high values
for most gas-reactions also. With rising temperature it always
strongly diminishes; on the other hand, at very low tempera-
tures its values are always enormous, and at the absolute zero
of temperature may be infinitely great. Therefore at that
temperature all reactions cease, since the denominator in the
above expression assumes enormous values.

It is a very remarkable phenomenon that the chemical resist-
ance is often small in the case of precisely those reactions in
which the affinity is also small; to this circumstance is to be
traced the fact that in many chemical changes the most stable
condition is not at once reached, but is preceded by the formation

CHEMISTRY

33

of more or less unstable intermediate products. Thus the un-
stable ozone is very often first formed on the evolution of oxygen,
whilst in the reaction between oxygen and hydrogen water is
often not at once formed, but first the unstable hydrogen
peroxide as an intermediate product.

Let us now consider the chemical process in the light of the
equation

reaction-velocity = chemical force/ chemical resistance.

Thermodynamics shows that at very low temperatures, i.e.
in the immediate vicinity of the absolute zero, there is no
equilibrium, but every chemical process advances to completion
in the one or the other direction. The chemical forces therefore
act in the one direction towards complete consumption of the
reacting substance. But since the chemical resistance is now
immensely great, they can produce practically no appreciable
result.

At higher temperatures the reaction always proceeds, at least
in homogeneous systems, to a certain equilibrium, and as the
chemical resistance now has finite values this equilibrium will
always finally be reached after a longer or shorter time. Finally,
at very high temperatures the chemical resistance is in every case
very small, and the equilibrium is almost instantaneously
reached ; at the same time, the affinity of the reaction, as in the
case of the mutual affinity between oxygen and hydrogen, may
very strongly diminish, and we have then chemical indifference
again, not because, as at low temperatures, the denominator
of the previous expression becomes very great, but because the
numerator now assumes vanishingly small values. (W. N.)

CHEMISTRY (formerly " chymistry " ; Gr. \vntLa; for deri-
vation see ALCHEMY), the natural science which has for its pro-
vince the study of the composition of substances. In common
with physics it includes the determination of properties or
characters which serve to distinguish one substance from another,
but while the physicist is concerned with properties possessed by
all substances and with processes in which the molecules remain
intact, the chemist is restricted to those processes in which the
molecules undergo some change. For example, the physicist
determines the density, elasticity, hardness, electrical and
thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, &c.; the chemist,
on the other hand, investigates changes in composition, such as
may be effected by an electric current, by heat, or when two or
more substances are mixed. A further differentiation of the
provinces of chemistry and physics is shown by the classifications
of matter. To the physicist matter is presented in three leading
forms — solids, liquids and gases; and although further sub-
divisions have been rendered necessary with the growth of
knowledge the same principle is retained, namely, a classification
based on properties having no relation to composition. The
fundamental chemical classification of matter, on the other
hand, recognizes two groups of substances, namely, elements,
which are substances not admitting of analysis into other
substances, and compounds, which do admit of analysis into
simpler substances and also of synthesis from simpler substances.
Chemistry and physics, however, meet on common ground in
a well-defined branch of science, named physical chemistry,
which is primarily concerned with the correlation of physical
properties and chemical composition, and, more generally,
with the elucidation of natural phenomena on the molecular
theory.

It may be convenient here to state how the whole subject of
chemistry is treated in this edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The present article includes the following sections : —

I. History. — This section is confined to tracing the general trend
of the science from its infancy to the foundations of the modern
theory. The history of the alchemical period is treated in more
detail in the article ALCHEMY, and of the latrochemical in the article
MEDICINE. The evolution of the notion of elements is treated under
ELEMENT; the molecular hypothesis of matter under MOLECULE;
and the genesis of, and deductions from, the atomic theory of
Dalton receive detailed analysis in the article ATOM.

II. Principles. — This section treats of such subjects as nomen-
clature, formulae, chemical equations, chemical change and similar
subjects. It is intended to provide an introduction, necessarily
brief, to the terminology and machinery of the chemist.

VI. 2

III. Inorganic Chemistry.— Here is treated'the history of descrip-
tive inorganic chemistry; reference should be made to the articles
on the separate elements for an account of their preparation,
properties, &c.

IV. Organic Chemistry. — This section includes a brief history of
the subject, and proceeds to treat of the principles underlying the
structure and interrelations of organic compounds.

V. Analytical Chemistry. — This section treats of the qualitative
detection and separation of the metals, and the commoner methods
employed in quantitative analysis. The analysis of organic com-
pounds is also noticed.

VI. Physical Chemistry. — This section is restricted to an account
of the relations existing between physical properties and chemical
composition. Other branches of this subject are treated in the
articles CHEMICAL ACTION; ENERGETICS; SOLUTION; ALLOYS;
THERMOCHEMISTRY.

I. HISTORY

Although chemical actions must have been observed by man
in the most remote times, and also utilized in such processes
as the extraction of metals from their ores and in the arts of
tanning and dyeing, there is no evidence to show that, beyond
an unordered accumulation of facts, the early developments of
these industries were attended by any real knowledge of the
nature of the processes involved. All observations were the
result of accident or chance, or possibly in some cases of experi-
mental trial, but there is no record of a theory or even a general
classification of the phenomena involved, although there is no
doubt that the ancients had a fair knowledge of the properties
and uses of the commoner substances. The origin of chemistry
is intimately bound up with the arts which we have, indicated;
in this respect it is essentially an experimental science. A
unifying principle of chemical and physical changes wa? provided
by metaphysical conceptions of the structure of matter. We
find the notion of " elements," or primary qualities, which
confer upon all species of matter their distinctive qualities by
appropriate combination, and also the doctrine that
matter is composed of minute discrete particles,
prevailing in the Greek schools. These " elements," sophy.
however, had not the significance of the elements of
to-day; the connoted physical appearances or qualities rather
than chemical relations; and the atomic theory of the ancients
is a speculation based upon metaphysical considerations, having,
in its origin, nothing in common with the modern molecular
theory, which was based upon experimentally observed properties
of gases (see ELEMENT; MOLECULE).

Although such hypotheses could contribute nothing directly
to the development of a science which laid especial claim to
experimental investigations, yet indirectly they stimulated
inquiry into the nature of the " essence " with which the four
elements " were associated. This quinta essenlia had been
speculated upon by the Greeks, some regarding it as immaterial
or aethereal, and others as material; and a school of philosophers
termed alchemists arose who attempted the isolation of this
essence. The existence of a fundamental principle, unalterable
and indestructible, prevailing alike through physical and chemical
changes, was generally accepted. Any change which a substance
may chance to undergo was simply due to the discarding or
taking up of some proportion of the primary " elements " or
qualities: of these coverings " water," " air," " earth " and
" fire " were regarded as clinging most tenaciously to the essence,
while " cold," " heat," " moistness " and " dryness " were
more easily cast aside or assumed. Several origins have been
suggested for the word alchemy, and there seems to Alchemy
have been some doubt as to the exact nature and
import of the alchemical doctrines. According to M. P. E.
Berthelot, " alchemy rested partly on the industrial processes
of the ancient Egyptians, partly on the speculative theories
of the Greek philosophers, and partly on the mystical reveries
of the Gnostics and Alexandrians." The search for this essence
subsequently resolved itself into the desire to effect the trans-
mutation of metals, more especially the base metals, into silver
and gold. It seems that this secondary principle became the
dominant idea in alchemy, and in this sense the word is used
in Byzantine literature of the 4th century; Suidas, writing in

34

CHEMISTRY

[HISTORY

the nth century, defines chemistry as the " preparation of
silver and gold " (see ALCHEMY).

From the Alexandrians the science passed to the Arabs,
who made discoveries and improved various methods of separat-
ing substances, and afterwards, from the nth century, became
seated in Europe, where the alchemical doctrines were assidu-
ously studied until the I5th and i6th centuries. It is readily
understood why men imbued with the authority of tradition
should prosecute the search for a substance which would
confer unlimited wealth upon the fortunate discoverer. Some
alchemists honestly laboured to effect the transmutation and to
discover the " philosopher's stone," and in many cases believed
that they had achieved success, if we may rely upon writings
assigned to them. The period, however, is one of literary
forgeries; most of the MSS. are of uncertain date and authorship,
and moreover are often so vague and mystical that they are of
doubtful scientific value, beyond reflecting the tendencies of
the age. The retaining of alchemists at various courts shows
the high opinion which the doctrines had gained. It is really
not extraordinary that Isaac Hollandus was able to indicate
the method of the preparation of the " philosopher's stone "
from " adamic " or " virgin " earth, and its action when medicin-
ally employed; that in the writings assigned to Roger Bacon,
Raimon Lull, Basil Valentine and others are to be found the
exact quantities of it to be used in transmutation; and that
George Ripley, in the isth century, had grounds for regarding
its action as similar to that of a ferment.

In the view of some alchemists, the ultimate principles of
matter were Aristotle's four elements; the proximate constituents
were a " sulphur " and a " mercury," the father and mother
of the metals; gold was supposed to have attained to the
perfection of its nature by passing in succession through the
forms of lead, brass and silver; gold and silver were held to
contain very pure red sulphur and white quicksilver, whereas
in the other metals these materials were coarser and of a different
colour. From an analogy instituted between the healthy human
being and gold, the most perfect of the metals, silver, mercury,
copper, iron, lead and tin, were regarded in the light of lepers
that required to be healed.

Notwithstanding the false idea which prompted the researches
of the alchemists, many advances were made in descriptive
latro- chemistry, the metals and their salts receiving much
chemistry, attention, and several of our important acids being
discovered. Towards the i6th century the failure
of the alchemists to achieve their cherished purpose, and the
general increase of medical knowledge, caused attention to be
given to the utilization of chemical preparations as medicines.
As early as the isth century the alchemist Basil Valentine had
suggested this application, but the great exponent of this
doctrine was Paracelsus, who set up a new definition: "The
true use of chemistry is not to make gold but to prepare medi-
cines." This relation of chemistry to medicine prevailed until
the 1 7th century, and what in the history of chemistry is termed
the iatrochemical period (see MEDICINE) was mainly fruitful
in increasing the knowledge of compounds; the contributions
to chemical theory are of little value, the most important con-
troversies ranging over the nature of the " elements," which were
generally akin to those of Aristotle, modified so as to be more
in accord with current observations. At the same time,
however, there were many who, opposed to the Paracelsian
definition of chemistry, still laboured at the problem of the
alchemists, while others gave much attention to the chemical
industries. Metallurgical operations, such as smelting, roasting
and refining, were scientifically investigated, and in some degree
explained, by Georg Agricola and Carlo Biringuiccio; ceramics
was studied by Bernard Palissy, who is also to be remembered as
an early worker in agricultural chemistry, having made experi-
ments on the effect of manures on soils and crops; while general
technical chemistry was enriched by Johann Rudolf Glauber.1

1 The more notable chemists of this period were Turquet de
Mayerne(i573-i665), a physician of Paris.who rejected the Galenian
doctrines and accepted the exaggerations of Paracelsus ; Andreas

The second half of the I7th century witnessed remarkable
transitions and developments in all branches of natural science,
and the facts accumulated by preceding generations
during their generally unordered researches were re-
placed by a co-ordination of- experiment and deduction. From
the mazy and incoherent alchemical and iatrochemical doctrines,
the former based on false conceptions of matter, the latter on
erroneous views of life processes and physiology, a new science
arose — the study of the composition of substances. The formula-
tion of this definition of chemistry was due to Robert Boyle.
In his Sceptical Chemist (1662) he freely criticized the prevailing
scientific views and methods, with the object of showing that
true knowledge could only be gained by the logical application
of the principles of experiment and deduction. Boyle's masterly
exposition of this method is his most important contribution to
scientific progress. At the same time he clarified the conception
of elements and compounds, rejecting the older notions, the
four elements of the " vulgar Peripateticks " and the three
principles of the " vulgar Stagyrists," and defining an element
as a substance incapable of decomposition, and a compound
as composed of two or more elements. He explained chemical
combination on the hypotheses that matter consisted of minute
corpuscles, that by the coalescence of corpuscles of different sub-
stances distinctly new corpuscles of a compound were formed, and
that each corpuscle had a certain affinity for other corpuscles.

Although Boyle practised the methods which he expounded,
he was unable to gain general acceptance of his doctrine of
elements; and, strangely enough, the theory which
next dominated chemical thought was an alchemical
invention, and lacked the lucidity and perspicuity
of Boyle's views. This theory, named the phlogistic theory,
was primarily based upon certain experiments on combustion
and calcination, and in effect reduced the number of -the
alchemical principles, while setting up a new one, a principle
of combustibility, named phlogiston (from ^Xoyurros, burnt).
Much discussion had centred about fire or the "igneous principle."
On the one hand, it had been held that when a substance was
burned or calcined, it combined with an '.'air"; on the other
hand, the operation was supposed to be attended by the destruc-
tion or loss of the igneous principle. Georg Ernst Stahl, following
in some measure the views held by Johann Joachim Becher, as,
for instance, that all combustibles contain a " sulphur " (which
notion is itself of older date than Becher's terra pinguis), regarded
all substances as capable of resolution into two components,
the inflammable principle phlogiston, and another element —
" water," " acid " or " earth." The violence or completeness
of combustion was proportional to the amount of phlogiston
present. Combustion meant the liberation of phlogiston.
Metals on calcination gave calces from which the metals could
be recovered by adding phlogiston, and experiment showed that
this could generally be effected by the action of coal or carbon,
which was therefore regarded as practically pure phlogiston;
the other constituent being regarded as an acid. At the hands
of Stahl and his school, the phlogistic theory, by exhibiting a
fundamental similarity between all processes of combustion
and by its remarkable flexibility, came to be a general theory
of chemical action. The objections of the antiphlogistonists,
such as the fact that calces weigh more than the original metals
instead of less as the theory suggests, were answered by postulat-
ing that phlogiston was a principle of levity, or even completely
ignored as an accident, the change of qualities being regarded
as the only matter of importance. It is remarkable that this
theory should have gained the esteem of the notable chemists
who flourished in the i8th century. Henry Cavendish, a care-
ful and accurate experimenter, was a phlogistonist, as were
J. Black, K. W. Scheele, A. S. Marggraf, J. Priestley and many
others who might be mentioned.

Libayius (d. 1616), chiefly famous for his Opera Omnia Medico-
chymica (1595) ; Jean Baptiste van Helmont (1577-1644), celebrated
for his researches on gases ; F. de la Boe Sylvius (1614-1672), who
regarded medicine as applied chemistry; and Otto Tachenius, who
elucidated the nature of salts.

HISTORY]

CHEMISTRY

35

Descriptive chemistry was now assuming considerable pro-
portions; the experimental inquiries suggested by Boyle were
being assiduously developed; and a wealth of observa-
tions was being accumulated, for the explanation of
which the resources of the dominant theory were sorely taxed.
To quote Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, "... chemists have
turned phlogiston into a vague principle, . . . which conse-
quently adapts itself to all the explanations for which it may be
required. Sometimes this principle has weight, and sometimes
it has not; sometimes it is free fire and sometimes it is fire
combined with the earthy element; sometimes it passes through
the pores of vessels, sometimes these are impervious to it; it
explains both causticity and non-causticity, transparency and
opacity, colours and their absence; it is a veritable Proteus
changing in form at each instant." Lavoisier may be justly
regarded as the founder of modern or quantitative chemistry.
First and foremost, he demanded that the balance must be used
in all investigations into chemical changes. He established as
fundamental that combustion and calcination were attended
by an increase of weight, and concluded, as did Jean Rey and
John Mayow in the lyth century, that the increase was due to
the combination of the metal with the air. The problem could
obviously be completely solved only when the composition of the
air, and the parts played by its components, had been determined.
At all times the air had received attention, especially since van
Helmont made his far-reaching investigations on gases. Mayow
had suggested the existence of two components, a spiritus nitro-
aerus which supported combustion, and a spirilus nitri acidi
which extinguished fire; J. Priestley and K. W. Scheele,
although they isolated oxygen, were fogged by the phlogistic
tenets; . and H. Cavendish, who had isolated the nitrogen
of the atmosphere, had failed to decide conclusively what
had really happened to the air which disappeared during
combustion.

Lavoisier adequately recognized and acknowledged how
much he owed to the researches of others; to himself is due
the co-ordination of these researches, and the welding of his
results into a doctrine to which the phlogistic theory ultimately
succumbed. He burned phosphorus in air standing over
mercury, and showed that (i) there was a limit to the amount
of phosphorus which could be burned in the confined air, (2)
that when no more phosphorus could be burned, one-fifth of the
air had disappeared, (3) that the weight of the air lost was nearly
equal to the difference in the weights of the white solid produced
and the phosphorus burned, (4) that the density of the residual
air was less than that of ordinary air. The same results were
obtained with lead and tin; and a more elaborate repetition
indubitably established their correctness. He also showed that
on heating mercury calx alone an " air " was liberated which
differed from other " airs," and was slightly heavier than ordinary
air; moreover, the weight of the " air " set free from a given
weight of the calx was equal to the weight taken up in forming
the calx from mercury, and if the calx be heated with charcoal,
the metal was recovered and a gas named " fixed air," the modern
carbon dioxide, was formed. The former experiment had been
performed by Scheele and Priestley, who had named the gas
" phlogisticated air "; Lavoisier subsequently named it oxygen,
regarding it as the " acid producer " (6£{js, sour). The theory
advocated by Lavoisier came to displace the phlogistic concep-
tion; but at first its acceptance was slow. Chemical literature
was full of the phlogistic modes of expression — oxygen was
" dephlogisticated air," nitrogen " phlogisticated air," &c. —
and this tended to retard its promotion. Yet really the transition
from the one theory to the other was simple, it being only
necessary to change the " addition or loss of phlogiston " into
the " loss or addition of oxygen." By his insistence upon the
use of the balance as a quantitative check upon the masses
involved in all chemical reactions, Lavoisier was enabled to
establish by his own investigations and the results achieved
by others the principle now known as the " conservation of
mass." Matter can neither be created nor destroyed; however
a chemical system be changed, the weights before and after are

equal.1 To him is also due a rigorous examination of the nature
of elements and compounds; he held the same views that were
laid down by Boyle, and with the same prophetic foresight
predicted that some of the elements which he himself accepted
might be eventually found to be compounds.

It is unnecessary in this place to recapitulate the many
results which had accumulated by the end of the i8th century,
or to discuss the labours and theories of individual workers
since these receive attention under biographical headings;
in this article only the salient features in the history of our
science can be treated. The beginning of the igth century
was attended by far-reaching discoveries in the nature of the
composition of compounds. Investigations proceeded in two
directions: — (i) the nature of chemical affinity, (2) the laws
of chemical combination. The first question has not
yet been solved, although it has been speculated upon
from the earliest times. The alchemists explained
chemical action by means of such phrases as " like attracts
like," substances being said to combine when one " loved "
the other, and the reverse when it " hated " it. Boyle rejected
this terminology, which was only strictly applicable to intelligent
beings; and he used the word " affinity " as had been previously
done by Stahl and others. The modern sense of the word, viz.
the force which holds chemically dissimilar substances together
(and also similar substances as is seen in di-, tri-, and poly-atomic
molecules), was introduced by Hermann Boerhaave, and made
more precise by Sir Isaac Newton. The laws of chemical com-
bination were solved, in a measure, by John Dalton, and the
solution expressed as Dalton's " atomic theory." Lavoisier
appears to have assumed that the composition of every chemical
compound was constant, and the same opinion was the basis
of much experimental inquiry at the hands of Joseph Louis
Proust during 1801 to i8ot), who vigorously combated the
doctrine of Claude Louis Berthollet (Essai de statique chimique,
1803), viz. that fixed proportions of elements and compounds
combine only under exceptional conditions, the general rule
being that the composition of a compound may vary continuously
between certain limits.2

This controversy was unfinished when Dalton published the
first part of his New System of Chemical Philosophy in 1808,
although the per saltum theory was the most popular. Dalton
Led thereto by speculations on gases, Dalton assumed
that matter was composed of atoms, that in the elements the
atoms were simple, and in compounds complex, being composed
of elementary atoms. Dalton furthermore perceived that the
same two elements or substances may combine in different
proportions, and showed that these proportions had always a
simple ratio to one another. This is the " law of multiple
proportions." He laid down the following arbitrary rules for
determining the number of atoms in a compound: — if only one
compound of two elements exists, it is a binary compound and
its atom is composed of one atom of each element; if two
compounds exist one is binary (say A + B) and the other ternary
(say A + 2B) ; if three, then one is binary and the others may be
ternary (A + 2B,and2A + B),andsoon. More important is his
deduction of equivalent weights, i.e. the relative weights of
atoms. He took hydrogen, the lightest substance known, to
be the standard. From analyses of water, which he regarded'
as composed of one atom of hydrogen and one of oxygen, he

1 This dictum was questioned by the researches of H. Land oh ,
A. Heydweiller and others. In a series of 75 reactions it was found
that in 61 there was apparently a diminution in weight, but in 1908,
after a most careful repetition and making allowance for all experi-
mental errors, Landolt concluded that no change occurred (see
ELEMENT).

2 The theory of Berthollet was essentially mechanical, and he
attempted to prove that the course of a reaction depended not on
affinities alone but also on the masses of the reacting components.
In this respect his hypothesis has much in common with the " law
of mass-action " developed at a much later date by the Swedish
chemists Guldberg and Waage, and the American, Willard Gibbs
(see CHEMICAL ACTION). In his classical thesis Berthollet vigorously
attacked the results deduced by Bergman, who had followed in his
table of elective attractions the path traversed by Stahl and S. F.
Geoff roy.

CHEMISTRY

[HISTORY

deduced the relative weight of the oxygen atom to be 6-5;
from marsh gas and olefiant gas he deduced carbon = 5, there
being one atom of carbon and two of hydrogen in the former
and one atom of hydrogen to one of carbon in the latter;
nitrogen had an equivalent of 5, and so on.1

The value of Dalton's generalizations can hardly be over-
estimated, notwithstanding the fact that in several cases they
needed correction. The first step in this direction was effected
by the co-ordination of Gay Lussac's observations on the
combining volumes of gases. He discovered that gases always
combined in volumes having simple ratios, and that the volume
of the product had a simple ratio to the volumes of the reacting
gases. For example, one volume of oxygen combined with two
of hydrogen to form two volumes of steam, three volumes of
hydrogen combined with one of nitrogen to give two volumes
of ammonia, one volume of hydrogen combined with one of
chlorine to give two volumes of hydrochloric acid. An immediate
inference was that the Daltonian " atom " must have parts
which enter into combination with parts of other atoms; in
other words, there must exist two orders of particles, viz. (i)
particles derived by limiting mechanical subdivision, the modern
molecule, and (2) particles derived from the first class by chemical
subdivision, i.e. particles which are incapable of existing alone,
but may exist in combination. Additional evidence as to the
structure of the molecule was discussed by Avogadro in 1811,
and by Ampere in 1814. From the gas-laws of Boyle and J. A. C.
Charles — viz. equal changes in temperature and pressure
occasion equal changes in equal volumes of all gases and vapours
— Avogadro deduced the law: — Under the same conditions
of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain
equal numbers of molecules; and he showed that the relative
weights of the molecules are determined as the ratios of the
weights of equal volumes, or densities. He established the
existence of molecules and atoms as we have defined above,
and stated that the number of atoms in the molecule is generally
2, but may be 4, 8, &c. We cannot tell whether his choice of the
powers of 2 is accident or design.

Notwithstanding Avogadro's perspicuous investigation, and
a similar exposition of the atom and molecule by A. M. Ampere,
Beneiius. tne yiews therein expressed were ignored both by
their own and the succeeding generation. In place
of the relative molecular weights, attention was concentrated
on relative atomic or equivalent weights. This may be due
in some measure to the small number of gaseous and easily
volatile substances then known, to the attention which the
study of the organic compounds received, and especially to the
energetic investigations of J. J. Berzelius, who, fired with
enthusiasm by the original theory of Dalton and the law of
multiple proportions, determined the equivalents of combining
ratios of many elements in an enormous number of compounds.2
He prosecuted his labours in this field for thirty years; as
proof of his industry it may be mentioned that as early as 1818
he had determined the combining ratios of about two thousand
simple and compound substances.

We may here notice the important chemical symbolism or notation
introduced by Berzelius, which greatly contributed to the definite
and convenient representation of chemical composition
Chemtcai an(j ^e tracing of chemical reactions. The denotation of
elements by symbols had been practised by the alchemists,
and it is interesting to note that the symbols allotted to the well-known
elements are identical with the astrological symbols of the sun and
the other members of the solar system. Gold, the most perfect metal,
had the symbol of the Sun, O ; silver, the semiperfect metal, had
the symbol of the Moon, 5>; copper, iron and antimony, the
imperfect metals of the gold class, had the symbols of Venus 9,
Mars rj1, and the Earth £ ; tin and lead, the imperfect metals of
the silver class, had the symbols of Jupiter Q(., and Saturn T? ;
while mercury, the imperfect metal of both the gold and silver
class, had the symbol of the planet, § . Torbern Olof Bergman used
an elaborate system in his Opuscula physica et chemica (1783); the

1 Dalton'satomic theory is treated in more detail in the article ATOM.

1 Berzelius, however, appreciated the necessity of differentiating
the atom and the molecule, and even urged Dalton to amend his
doctrine, but without success.

elements received symbols composed of circles, arcs of circles, and
lines, while certain class symbols, such as ^^7 for metals, -j-foracids,
@ for alkalies, Q forsalts,1^ for calces, &c., were used. Compounds
were represented by copulating simpler symbols, e.g. mercury calx
was ^f Cp •* Bergman's symbolism was obviously cumbrous, and
the system used in 1782 by Lavoisier was equally abstruse, since the
forms gave no clue as to composition ; for instance water, oxygen,
and nitric acid were\/ i^t, and

A partial clarification was suggested in 1787 by J. H. Hassenfratz
and Adet, who assigned to each element a symbol, and to each com-
pound a sign which should record the elements present and their
relative quantities. Straight lines and semicircles were utilized for
the non-metallic elements, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur
(the " simple acidifiable bases " of Lavoisier), and circles enclosing
the initial letter^ of their names for the metals. The " compound
acidifiable bases," i.e. the hypothetical radicals of acids, were denoted
by squares enclosing the initial letter of the base; an alkali was
denoted by a triangle, and the particular alkali by inserting the
initial letter. Compounds were denoted by joining the symbols of
the components, and by varying the manner of joining compounds
of the same elements were distinguished. The symbol V was used
to denote a liquid, and a vertical line to denote a gas. As an
example of the complexity of this system we may note the five
oxides of nitrogen, which were symbolized as

T r, f. V and VI,

the first three representing the gaseous oxides, and the last two the
liquid oxides.

A great advance was made by Dalton, who, besides introducing
simpler symbols, regarded the symbol as representing not only the
element or compound but also one atom of that element or com-
pound; in other words, his symbol denoted equivalent weights.4
This system, which permitted the correct representation of molecular
composition, was adopted by Berzelius in 1814, who, having replaced
the geometric signs of Dalton by the initial letter (or letters) of the
Latin names of the elements, represented a compound by placing a
plus sign between the symbols of its components, and the number of
atoms of each component (except in the case of only one atom) by
placing Arabic numerals before the symbols; for example, copper
oxide was Cu+O, sulphur trioxide S-|-3O. If two compounds com-
bined, the + signs of the free compounds were discarded, and the
number of atoms denoted by an Arabic index placed after the
elements, and from these modified symbols the symbol of the new
compound was derived in the same manner as simple compounds
were built up from their elements. Thus copper sulphate was
CuO+SO3, potassium sulphate 2SO3 + PoO2 (the symbol Po for
potassium was subsequently discarded in favour of K from kalium).
At a later date Berzelius denoted an oxide by dots, equal in number to
the number of oxygen atoms present, placed over the element ; this
notation survived longest in mineralogy. He also introduced barred
symbols, i.e. letters traversed by a horizontal bar, todenote the double
atom (or molecule). Although the system of Berzelius has been
modified and extended, its principles survive in the modern notation.

In the development of the atomic theory and the deduction
of the atomic weights of elements and the formulae of compounds,
Dalton's arbitrary rules failed to find complete accept- Extension
ance. Berzelius objected to the hypothesis that if of the
two elements form only one compound, then the *tomtc
atoms combine one and one; and although he agreed
with the adoption of simple rules as a first attempt at representing
a compound, he availed himself of other data in order to gain
further information as to the structure of compounds. For
example, at first he represented ferrous and ferric oxides by the
formulae FeOz, FeOs, and by the analogy of zinc and other
basic oxides he regarded these substances as constituted similarly
to Fe02, and the acidic oxides alumina and chromium oxide as
similar to FeOv He found, however, that chromic acid, which
he had represented as CrO6, neutralized a base containing \ the

3 The following symbols were also used by Bergman : —

0. (D. Q, 0, I, ~ 30 V V, cA>.

which represented zinc, manganese, cobalt, bismuth, nickel, arsenic,
platinum, water, alcohol, phlogiston.

4 The following are the symbols employed by Dalton : —

0. 0.®. O,1® ,©,©,©, 0, <D, O, O, ©.

which represent in order, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen,
phosphorus, sulphur, magnesia, lime, soda, potash, strontia, baryta,
mercury; iron, zinc, copper, lead, silver, platinum, and gold were
represented by circles enclosing the initial letter of the element.

HISTORY]

CHEMISTRY

37

quantity of oxygen. He inferred that chromic acid must
contain only three atoms of oxygen, as did sulphuric acid SO3 ;
consequently chromic oxide, which contains half the amount
of oxygen, must be Cr2O3, and hence ferric oxide must be Fe2O3.
The basic oxides must have the general formula MO. To these
results he was aided by the law of isomorphism formulated by
E. Mitscherlich in 1820; and he confirmed his conclusions by
showing the agreement with the law of atomic heat formulated
by Dulong and Petit in 1819.

While successfully investigating the solid elements and their
compounds gravimetrically, Berzelius was guilty of several
inconsistencies in his views on gases. He denied that gaseous
atoms could havfi parts, although compound gases could. This
attitude was due to his adherence to the " dualistic theory "
of the structure of substances, which he deduced from electro-
chemical researches. From the behaviour of substances on
electrolysis (q.v.) he assumed that all substances had two com-
ponents, one bearing a negative charge, the other a positive
charge. Combination was associated with the coalescence of
these charges, and the nature of the resulting compound showed
the nature of the residual electricity. For example, positive
iron combined with negative oxygen to form positive ferrous
oxide; positive sulphur combined with negative oxygen to
form negative sulphuric acid; positive ferrous oxide combined
with negative sulphuric acid to form neutral ferrous sulphate.
Berzelius elevated this theory to an important position in the
history of our science. He recognized that if an elementary
atom had parts, his theory demanded that these parts should
carry different electric charges when they entered into reaction,
and the products of the reaction should vary according as a
positive or negative atom entered into combination. For
instance if the reaction 2H2-|-O2=H2O-|-H2O be true, the
molecules of water should be different, for a negative oxygen
atom would combine in one case, and a positive oxygen atom
in the other. Hence the gaseous atoms of hydrogen and oxygen
could not have parts. A second inconsistency was presented
when he was compelled by the researches of Dumas to admit
Avogadro's hypothesis; but here he would only accept it for
the elementary gases, and denied it for other substances. It is
to be noticed that J. B. Dumas did not adopt the best methods
for emphasizing his discoveries. His terminology was vague
and provoked caustic criticism from Berzelius; he assumed
that all molecules contained two atoms, and consequently the
atomic weights deduced from vapour density determinations of
sulphur, mercury, arsenic, and phosphorus were quite different
from those established by gravimetric and other methods.

Chemists gradually tired of the notion of atomic weights on
account of the uncertainty which surrounded them; and the
suggestion made by W. H. Wollaston as early as 1814 to deal
only with " equivalents," i.e. the amount of an element which
can combine with or replace unit weight of hydrogen, came
into favour, being adopted by L. Gmelin in his famous text-book.

Simultaneously with this discussion of the atom and molecule,
great controversy was ranging over the constitution of com-
Atomic pounds, more particularly over the carbon or organic
and mole- compounds. This subject is discussed in section IV.,
cuiar Organic Chemistry. The gradual accumulation of data

x *' referring to organic compounds brought in its train a
revival of the discussion of atoms and molecules. A. Laurent
and C. F. Gerhardt attempted a solution by investigating chemical
reactions. They assumed the atom to be the smallest part of
matter which can exist in combination, and the molecule to be
the smallest part which can enter into a chemical reaction.
Gerhardt found that reactions could be best followed if one
assumed the molecular weight of an element or compound to be
that weight which occupied the same volume as two unit weights
of hydrogen, and this assumption led him to double the equiva-
lents accepted by Gmelin, making H=l, O=16, and C=12,
thereby agreeing with Berzelius, and also to halve the values
given by Berzelius to many metals. Laurent generally agreed,
except when the theory compelled the adoption of formulae
containing fractions of atoms; in such cases he regarded the

molecular weight as the weight occupying a volume equal to
four unit weights of hydrogen. The bases upon which Gerhardt
and Laurent founded their views were not sufficiently well
grounded to lead to the acceptance of their results; Gerhardt
himself returned to Gmelin's equivalents in his Lehrbuch der
Chemie (1853) as they were in such general use.

In 1860 there prevailed such a confusion of hypotheses as to
the atom and molecule that a conference was held at Karlsruhe
to discuss the situation. At the conclusion of the sitting,
Lothar Meyer obtained a paper written by Stanislas Cannizzaro
in 1858 wherein was found the final link required for the deter-
mination of atomic weights. This link was the full extension
of Avogadro's theory to all substances, Cannizzaro showing that
chemical reactions in themselves would not suffice. He chose
as his unit of reference the weight of an atom of hydrogen, i.e.
the weight contained in a molecule of hydrochloric acid, thus
differing from Avogadro who chose the weight of a hydrogen
molecule. From a study of the free elements Cannizzaro showed
that an element may have more than one molecular weight; for
example, the molecular weight of sulphur varied with the tem-
perature. And from the study of compounds he showed that
each element occurred in a definite weight or in some multiple
of this weight. He called this proportion the " atom," since
it invariably enters compounds without division, and the weight
of this atom is the atomic weight. This generalization was of
great value inasmuch as it permitted the deduction of the
atomic weight of a non-gasifiable element from a study of the
densities of its gasifiable compounds.

From the results 'obtained by Laurent and Gerhardt and their
predecessors it immediately followed that, while an element could
have but one atomic weight, it could have several equivalent
weights. From a detailed study of organic compounds Ger-
hardt had promulgated a " theory of types " which represented
a fusion of the older radical and type theories. This theory
brought together, as it were, the most varied compounds, and
stimulated inquiry into many fields. According to this theory,
an element in a compound had a definite saturation capacity,
an idea very old in itself, being framed in the law of multiple
proportions. These saturation capacities were assidu- Vaiea
ously studied by Sir Edward Frankland, who from
the investigation, not of simple inorganic compounds, but of the
organo-metallic derivatives, determined the kernel of the theory
of valency. Frankland showed that any particular element
preferentially combined with a definite number (which might
vary between certain limits) of other atoms; for example, some
atoms always combined with one atom of oxygen, some with two,
while with others two atoms entered into combination with one
of oxygen. If an element or radical combined with one atom
of hydrogen, it was termed monovalent; if with two (or with
one atom of oxygen, which is equivalent to two atoms of hydrogen)
it was divalent, and so on. The same views were expressed by
Cannizzaro, and also by A. W. von Hofmann, who materially
helped the acceptance of the doctrine by the lucid exposition in
his Introduction to Modern Cliemislry, 1865.

The recognition of the quadrivalency of carbon by A. Kekule
was the forerunner of his celebrated benzene theory in particular,
and of the universal application of structural formulae to the
representation of the most complex organic compounds equally
lucidly as the representation of the simplest salts. Alexander
Butlerow named the " structure theory," and contributed much
to the development of the subject. He defined structure " as the
manner of the mutual linking of the atoms in the molecule,"
but denied that any such structure could give information as to
the orientation of the atoms in space. He regarded the chemical
properties of a substance as due to (i) the chemical atoms
composing it, and (2) the structure, and he asserted that while
different compounds might have the same components (isomer-
ism),yet only one compound could have a particular structure.
Identity in properties necessitated identity in structure.

While the principle of varying valency laid down by Frankland
is still retained, Butlerow's view that structure had no spatial
significance has been modified. The researches of L. Pasteur,

CHEMISTRY

[HISTORY

Periodic
law.

J. A. Le Bel, J. Wislicenus, van't Hoff and others showed thajt
substances having the same graphic formulae vary in properties
and reactions, and consequently the formulae need modification in
order to exhibit these differences. Such isomerism, named stereo-
isomerism(?.».),hasbeenassiduouslydeveloped during recentyears;
it prevails among many different classes of organic compounds
and many examples have been found in inorganic chemistry.

The theory of valency as a means of showing similarity of
properties and relative composition became a dominant feature
of chemical theory, the older hypotheses of types, radicals, &c.
being more or less discarded. We have seen how its
utilization in the " structure theory "permitted great
clarification, and attempts were not wanting for the
deduction of analogies or a periodicity between elements. Frank-
land had recognized the analogies existing between the chemical
properties of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony,
noting that they act as tri- or penta-valent. Carbon was joined
with silicon, zirconium and titanium, while boron, being tri-
valent, was relegated to another group. A general classification
of elements, however, was not realized by Frankland, nor even by
Odling, who had also investigated the question from the valency
standpoint. The solution came abo'ut by arranging the elements
in the order of their atomic weights, tempering the arrangement
with the results deduced from the theory of valencies and
experimental observations. Many chemists contributed to the
establishment of such a periodicity, the greatest advances being
made by John Newlands in England, Lothar Meyer in Germany,
and D. J. Mendeleeff in St Petersburg. For the development of
this classification see ELEMENT.

In the above sketch we have briefly treated the history of the
main tendencies of our science from the earliest times to the
Summary, establishment of the modern laws and principles. We
have seen that the science took its origin in the arts
practised by the Egyptians, and, having come under the influence
of philosophers, it chose for its purpose the isolation of the
quinta essentia, and subsequently the " art of making gold and
silver." This spirit gave way to the physicians, who regarded
" chemistry as the art of preparing medicines," a denotation
which in turn succumbed to the arguments of Boyle, who regarded
it as the " science of the composition of substances," a definition
which adequately fits the science to-day. We have seen how
his classification of substances into elements and compounds,
and the definitions which he assigned to these species, have
similarly been retained; and how Lavoisier established the law
of the " conservation of mass," overthrew the prevailing phlogistic
theory, and became the founder of modern chemistry by the
overwhelming importance which he gave to the use of the balance.
The development of the atomic theory and its concomitants —
the laws of chemical combination and the notion of atoms and
equivalents — at the hands of Dalton and Berzelius, the extension
to the modern theory of the atom and molecule, and to atomic
and molecular weights by Avogadro, Ampere, Dumas, Laurent,
Gerhardt, Cannizzaro and others, have been noted. The
structure of the molecule, which mainly followed investigations
in organic compounds, Frankland's conception of valency, and
finally the periodic law, have also been shown in their chrono-
logical order. The principles outlined above constitute the
foundations of our science; and although it may happen that
experiments may be made with which they appear to be not in
complete agreement, yet in general they constitute a body of
working hypotheses of inestimable value.

Chemical Education. — It is remarkable that systematic in-
struction in the theory and practice of chemistry only received
earnest attention in our academic institutions during the opening
decades of the ipth century. Although for a long time lecturers
and professors had been attached to universities, generally their
duties had also included the study of physics, mineralogy and
other subjects, with the result that chemistry received scanty
encouragement. Of practical instruction there was none other
than that to be gained in a few private laboratories and in the
shops of apothecaries. The necessity for experimental demon-
stration and practical instruction, in addition to academic

lectures, appears to have been urged by the French chemists
L. N. Vauquelin, Gay Lussac, Thenard, and more especially by
A. F. Fourcroy and G. F. Rouelle, while in England Humphry
Davy expounded the same idea in the experimental demonstra-
tions which gave bis lectures their brilliant charm. But the real
founder of systematic instruction in our science was Justus von
Liebig, who, having accepted the professorship at Giessen in
1824, made his chemical laboratory and course of instruction
the model of all others. He emphasized that the practical
training should include (i) the qualitative and quantitative
analysis of mixtures, (2) the preparation of substances according
to established methods, (3) original research — a course which has
been generally adopted. The pattern set by Liebig at Giessen
was adopted by F. Wohler at Gottingen in 1836, by R. W.
Bunsen at Marburg in 1840, and by O. L. Erdmann at Leipzig
in 1843; and during the 'fifties and 'sixties many other labora-
tories were founded. A new era followed the erection of the
laboratories at Bonn and Berlin according to the plans of A. W.
von Hofmann in 1867, and of that at Leipzig, designed by Kolbe
in 1868. We may also mention the famous laboratory at Munich
designed by A. von Baeyer in 1875.

In Great Britain the first public laboratory appears to have
been opened in 1817 by Thomas Thomson at Glasgow. But the
first important step in providing means whereby students could
systematically study chemistry was the foundation of the College
of Chemistry in 1845. This institution was taken over by the
Government in 1853, becoming the Royal College of Chemistry,
and incorporated with the Royal School of Mines; in 1881 the
names were changed to the Normal School of Science and Royal
School of Mines, and again in 1890 to the Royal College of
Science. In 1907 it was incorporated in the Imperial College of
Science and Technology. Under A. W. von Hofmann, who
designed the laboratories and accepted the professorship in 1845
at the instigation of Prince Albert, and under his successor (in
1864) Sir Edward Frankland, this institution became one of
the most important centres of chemical instruction. Oxford
and Cambridge sadly neglected the erection of convenient
laboratories for many years, and consequently we find technical
schools and other universities having a far better equipment and
offering greater facilities. In the provinces Victoria University
at Manchester exercised the greater impetus, numbering among
its professors Sir W. H. Perkin and Sir Henry Roscoe.

In America public laboratory instruction was first instituted at
Yale College during the professorship of Benjamin Silliman. To
the great progress made in recent years F. W. Clarke, W. Gibbs,
E. W. Morley, Ira Remsen, and T. W. Richards have especially
contributed.

In France the subject was almost entirely neglected until
late in the igth century. The few laboratories existing in the
opening decades were ill-fitted, and the exorbitant fees con-
stituted a serious bar to general instruction, for these institutions
received little government support. In 1869 A. Wurtz reported
the existence of only one efficient laboratory in France, namely
the Ecole Normale Sup6rieure, under the direction of H. Sainte
Claire Deville. During recent years chemistry has become
one of the most important subjects in the curriculum of technical
schools and universities, and at the present time no general
educational institution is complete until it has its full equip-
ment of laboratories and lecture theatres.

Chemical Literature. — The growth of chemical literature since the
publication of Lavoisier's famous Traite de chimie in 1789, and of
Berzelius1 Lehrbuch der Chemie in 1808-1818, has been enormous.
These two works, and especially the latter, were the models followed
by Thenard, Liebig, Strecker, Wohler and many others, including
Thomas Graham, upon whose Elements of Chemistry was founded
Otto's famous Lehrbuch der Chemie, to which H. Kopp contributed
the general theoretical part, Kolbe the organic, and Buff and
Zamminer the physico-chemical. Organic chemistry was especially
developed by the publication of Gerhardt's Traitf de chimie organique
in 1853-1856, and of Kekule's Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie in
1861-1882. General theoretical and physical chemistry was treated
with conspicuous acumen by Lothar Meyer in his Moderne Theorien,
by W. Ostwald in his Lehrbuch der allgem. Chemie (1884-1887), and
by Nernst in his Theoretische Chemie. In English, Roscoe and
Schorlemmer's Treatise on Chemistry is a standard work ; it records

PRINCIPLES]

CHEMISTRY

39

a successful attempt to state the theories and facts of chemistry,

The elements are usually divided into two classes, the metallic

not in condensed epitomes, but in an easily read form. The Traite
de chimie minerals, edited by H. Moissan, and the Handbuch der
anorganischen Chemie, edited by Abegg, are of the same type.

and the non-metallic slements; the following are classed as
non-metals, and the remainder as metals: —

O. Dammer's Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie and F. Beilstein's

Hydrogen Oxygen Boron Neon

Handbuch der organischen Chemie are invaluable works of reference.

Chlorine Sufpnur Carbon Krypton

Of the earlier encyclopaedias we may notice the famous Hand-

Bromine Selenium Silicon Xenon

worterbuch der reinen ttnd angcwandten Chemie, edited by Liebig;

Iodine Tellurium Phosphorus Helium

Fremy's Encyclopedic de chimie, Wurtz's Dictionnaire de chimie

Fluorine Nitrogen Argon

pure et appliquee, Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry, and Ladenburg's
Handworterbuch der Chemie.

Of these hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen, argon,

The number of periodicals devoted to chemistry has steadily

neon, krypton, -xenon and helium are gases, bromine is a liquid,

increased since the early part of the igth century. In England the

and the remainder are solids. All the metals are solids at ordinary

most important is the Journal of the Chemical Society of London,
first published in 1848. Since 1871 abstracts of papers appearing
in the other journals have been printed. In 1904 a new departure
was made in issuing Annual Reports, containing resumes of the most

temperatures with the exception of mercury, which is liquid.
The metals are mostly bodies of high specific gravity; they
exhibit, when polished, a peculiar brilliancy or metallic lustre,

important researches of the year. The Chemical News, founded by

and they are good conductors of heat and electricity; the non-

Sir W. Crookes in 1860, may also be noted. In America the chief
periodical is the American Chemical Journal, founded in 1879.
Germany is provided with a great number of magazines. The
Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, published by the

metals, on the other hand, are mostly bodies of low specific
gravity, and bad conductors of heat and electricity, and do not
exhibit metallic lustre. The non-metallic elements are also

Berlin Chemical Society, the Chemisches Centralblatt, which is con-
fined to abstracts of papers appearing in other journals, the Zeitschrift
fur Chemie, and Liebig s Annalen der Chemie are the most important
of the general magazines. Others devoted to special phases are the
Journal filr praktische Chemie, founded by Erdmann in 1834, the

sometimes termed metalloids, but this appellation, which signifies
metal-like substances (Gr. e?5os, like), strictly belongs to certain
elements which do not possess the properties of the true metals,
although they more closely resemble them than the non-metals

Zeitschrift fur anorganische Chemie and the Zeitschrift fur physi-

in many respects; thus, selenium and tellurium, which are

kalische Chemie. Mention may also be made of the invaluable
Jahresberichte and the Jahrbuch der Chemie. In France, the most
important journals are the Annales de chimie et de physique, founded
in 1789 with the title Annales de chimie, and the Comptes rendus,

closely allied to sulphur in their chemical properties, although
bad conductors of heat and electricity, exhibit metallic lustre
and have relatively high specific gravities. But when the

published weekly by the Academic francaise since 1835.

properties of the elements are carefully contrasted together it

II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES

is found that no strict line of demarcation can be drawn dividing

The substances with which the chemist has to deal admit of
classification into elements and compounds. Of the former
about eighty may be regarded as well characterized, although
many more have been described.
Elements. — The following table gives the names, symbols
and atomic weights of the perfectly characterized elements: —

them into two classes; and if they are arranged in a series,
those which are most closely allied in properties being placed
next to each other, it is observed that there is a more or less
regular alteration in properties from term to term in the series.
When binary compounds, or compounds of two elements, are
decomposed by an electric current, the two elements make their
appearance at opposite poles. TJjose elements which are dis-

International Atomic Weights, 1910.

engaged at the negative pole are termed electro-positive, or

Atomic
Name. Symbol. Weights.
0=16.

Atomic
Name. Symbol. Weights.
0 = 16.

positive, or basylous elements, whilst those disengaged at the
positive pole are termed electro-negative, or negative, or chlorous

Aluminium . . Al 27-1

Mercury . . . Hg 200-0

elements. But the difference between these two classes of

Antimony . . Sb 120-2

Molybdenum . Mo 96-0

elements is one of degree only, and they gradually merge into

Argon ... A 39-9

Neodymium . . Nd 144-3

each other; moreover the electric relations of elements are not

Arsenic ... As 74-96
Barium Ba I37'37

Neon . . . . Ne 20
Nickel . . . Ni 58-68

absolute, but vary according to the state of combination in

Beryllium or Be ) _ f

Nitrogen . . . N 14-01

which they exist, so that it is just as impossible to divide the

Glucinum Gl )

Osmium . . . Os 190-9

elements into two classes according to this property as it is to

Bismuth . Bi 208-0

Oxygen . . . O 16-00

separate them into two distinct classes of metals and non-metals.

Boron . . . B u-o
Bromine . . • Br 79'92

Palladium . . Pd 106-7
Phosphorus . . P 31-0

The following, however, are negative towards the remaining

Cadmium . . Cd 112-40

Platinum . . Pt 195-0

elements which are more or less positive: — Fluorine, chlorine,

Caesium . . . Cs 132-81

Potassium . . K 39-10

bromine, iodine, oxygen, sulphur, selenium, tellurium.

Calcium . . . Ca 40-09

Praseodymium . Pr 140-6

The metals may be arranged in a series according to their

Carbon . . . C 12-0
Cerium . . . Ce 140-25

Radium . . . Ra 226-4
Rhodium , . . Rh 102-9

power of displacing one another in salt solutions, thus Cs, Rb,

Chlorine . . . Cl 35-46

Rubidium . . Rb 85-45

K, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cd, Tl, Fe, Co, Ni, Sn, Pb, (H), Sb, Bi,

Chromium . . Cr 52-0

Ruthenium . . Ru 101-7

As, Cu, Hg, Ag, Pd, Pt, Au.

Cobalt ... Co 58-97

Samarium . . Sa 150-4

Elements which readily enter into reaction with each other,

Columbium . . Cb )
or Niobium . Nb \ 93'5

Scandium . . Sc 44-1
Selenium . . . Se 79*2

and which develop a large amount of heat on combination, are

Copper . . . Cu 63-57

Silicon ... Si 28-3

said to have a powerful affinity for each other. The tendency

Dysprosium , . Dy 162-5

Silver . Ag 107-88

of positive elements to unite with positive elements, or of negative

Erbium . . . Er 167-4

Sodium . . . Na 23-0

elements to unite with negative elements, is much less than that

Europium . . Eu 152-0
Fluorine . . . F 10-0

Strontium . . Sr 87-62
Sulphur . . . S 32-07

of positive elements to unite with negative elements, and the

Gadolinium . . Gd 157-3

Tantalum . . Ta 181-0

greater the difference in properties between two elements the

Gallium . . . Ga 69-9

Tellurium . . Te 127-5

more powerful is their affinity for each other. Thus, the affinity

Germanium . . Ge 72-5

Terbium . . . Tb 159-2

of hydrogen and oxygen for each other is extremely powerful.

Gold .... Au 197-2
Helium . . . He 4-0

Thallium . . . T 204-0
Thorium . . . Th 232-42

much heat being developed by the combination of these two

Hydrogen . . H 1-008

Thulium . . . Tm 168-5

elements; when binary compounds of oxygen are decomposed

Indium ... In 114-8

Tin . . . . Sn 119-0

by the electric current, the oxygen invariably appears at the

Iodine ... I 126-92
Iridium . . . Ir 193-1
Iron Fe ^-8 5

Titanium. . . Ti 48-1
Tungsten. . . W 184-0
Uranium . . U 238-5

positive pole, being negative to all other elements, but the
hydrogen of hydrogen compounds is always disengaged at the

** - - • • * *- oo uv>
Krypton . . . Kr 83-0

Vanadium . .V 51-2

negative pole. Hydrogen and oxygen are, therefore, of very

Lanthanum . . La 139-0

Xenon . . . Xe 130-7

opposite natures, and this is well illustrated by the circumstance

Lead . . . . Pb 207-10
Lithium ... Li 7-00
Lutecium . . Lu 174

Ytterbium (Nco-
ytterbium) . Yb 172
Yttrium . . . Y 89-0

that oxygen combines, with very few exceptions, with all the
remaining elements, whilst compounds of only a limited number

Magnesium . . Mg 24-32

Zinc . . . . Zn 65-37

with hydrogen have been obtained.

Manganese . . Mn 54-93

Zirconium . . Zr 90-6

Compounds. — A chemical compound contains two or more

CHEMISTRY

[PRINCIPLES

elements; consequently it should be possible to analyse it,
i.e. separate it into its components, or te synthesize it, i.e. build
it up from its components. In general, a compound has pro-
perties markedly different from those of the elements of which
it is composed.

Laws of Chemical Combination. — A molecule may be defined
as the smallest part of a substance which can exist alone; an
atom as the smallest part of a substance which can exist in com-
bination. The molecule of every compound must obviously
contain at least two atoms, and generally the molecules of the
elements are also polyatomic, the elements with monatomic
molecules (at moderate temperatures) being mercury and the
gases of the argon group. The laws of chemical combination are
as follows: —

1. Law of Definite Proportions. — The same compound always
contains the same elements combined together in the same mass
proportion. Silver chloride, for example, in whatever manner
it may be prepared, invariably consists of chlorine and silver
in the proportions by weight of 35-45 parts of the former and
107-93 of the latter.

2. Law of Multiple Proportions. — When the same two elements
combine together to form more than one compound, the different
masses of one of the elements which unite with a constant mass
of the other, bear a simple ratio to one another. Thus, i part
by weight of hydrogen unites with 8 parts by weight of oxygen,
forming water, and with 16 or 8 X 2 parts of oxygen, forming
hydrogen peroxide. Again, in nitrous oxide we have a compound
of 8 parts by weight of oxygen and 14 of nitrogen; in nitric oxide
a compound of 16 or 8 X 2 parts of oxygen and 14 of nitrogen;
in nitrous anhydride a compound of 24 or 8 X 3 parts of oxygen
and 14 of nitrogen; in nitric peroxide a compound of 32 or 8 X 4
parts of oxygen and 14 of nitrogen; and lastly, in nitric anhy-
dride a compound of 40 or 8X5 parts of oxygen and 14 of
nitrogen.

3. Law of Reciprocal Proportions. — The masses of different
elements which combine separately with one and the same mass
of another element, are either the same as, or simple multiples
of, the masses of these different elements which combine with
each other. For instance, 35-45 parts of chlorine and 79-96
parts of bromine combine with 107-93 parts of silver; and when
chlorine and bromine unite it is in the proportion of 35-45 parts
of the former to 79-96 parts of the latter. Iodine unites with
silver in the proportion of 126-97 parts to 107-93 parts of the
latter, but it combines with chlorine in two proportions, viz. in
the proportion of 126-97 parts either to 35-45 or to three times
35-45 parts of chlorine.

There is a fourth law of chemical combination which only
applies to gases. This law states that: — gases combine with one
another in simple proportions by volume, and the volume of the
product (if gaseous) has -a simple ratio to the volumes of the
original mixtures; in other words, the densities of gases are
simply related to their combining weights.

Nomenclature. — If a compound contains two atoms it is
termed a binary compound, if three a ternary, if four a quaternary,
and so on. Its systematic name is formed by replacing the last
syllable of the electro-negative element by ide and prefixing
the name of the other element. For example, compounds of
oxygen are oxides, of chlorine, chlorides, and so on. If more than
one compound be formed from the same two elements, .the
difference is shown by prefixing such words as mono-, di-, tri-,
sesqui-, per-, sub-, &c., to the last part of the name, or the
suffixes -ous and -ic may be appended to the name of the first
element. For example take the oxides of nitrogen, N2O, NO,
N2O3, NO2, N2O5; these are known respectively as nitrous oxide,
nitric oxide, nitrogen trioxide, nitrogen peroxide and nitrogen
pentoxide. The affixes -ous and sub- refer to the compounds
containing more of the positive element, -ic and per- to those
containing less.

An acid (q.v.) is a compound of hydrogen, which element can
be replaced by metals, the hydrogen being liberated, giving
substances named salts. An alkali or base is a substance which
neutralizes an acid with the production of salts but with no

evolution of hydrogen. A base may be regarded as water in
which part of the hydrogen is replaced by a metal, or by a
radical which behaves as a metal. (The term radical is given
to a group of atoms which persist in chemical changes, behaving
as if the group were an element; the commonest is the
ammonium group, NHi, which forms salts similar to the salts
of sodium and potassium.) If the acid contains no oxygen it is a
hydracid, and its systematic name is formed from the prefix
hydro- and the name of the other element or radical, the last
syllable of which has been replaced by the termination -ic. For
example, the acid formed by hydrogen and chlorine is termed
hydrochloric acid (and sometimes hydrogen chloride). If an
acid contains oxygen it is termed an oxyacid. The nomenclature
of acids follows the same general lines as that for binary com-
pounds. If one acid be known its name is formed by the ter-
mination -ic, e.g. carbonic acid; if two, the one containing the
less amount of oxygen takes the termination -ous and the other
the termination -ic, e.g. nitrous acid, HNO2, nitric acid, HNO3.
If more than two be known, the one inferior in oxygen content
has the prefix hypo- and the termination -ous, and the one
superior in oxygen content has the prefix per- and the termination
-ic. This is illustrated in the four oxyacids of chlorine, HC1O,
HC1O2, HClOa, HClOi, which have the names hypochlorous,
chlorous, chloric and perchloric acids. An acid is said to be
monobasic, dibasic, tribasic, &c., according to the number of
replaceable hydrogen atoms; thus HNOj is monobasic, sulphuric
acid H2SO4 dibasic, phosphoric acid H3PO4 tribasic.

An acid terminating in -ous forms a salt ending in -ite, and an
oxyacid ending in -ic forms a salt ending in -ate. Thus the
chlorine oxyacids enumerated above form salts named respec-
tively hypochlorites, chlorites, chlorates and perchlorates. Salts
formed from hydracids terminate in -ide, following the rule
for binary compounds. An acid salt is one in which the whole
amount of hydrogen has not been replaced by metal; a normal
salt is one in which all the hydrogen has been replaced; and a
basic salt is one in which part of the acid of the normal salt has
been replaced by oxygen.

^Chemical Formulae. — Opposite the name of each element in
the second column of the above table, the symbol is given which
is always employed to represent it. This symbol, however, not
only represents the particular element, but a certain definite
quantity of it. Thus, the letter H always stands for i atom or
i part by weight of hydrogen, the letter N for i atom or 14 parts
of nitrogen, and the symbol Cl for i atom or 35-5 parts of chlor-
ine.1 Compounds are in like manner represented by writing the
symbols of their constituent elements side by side, and if more
than one atom of each element be present, the number is indicated
by a numeral placed on the right of the symbol of the element
either below or above the line. Thus, hydrochloric acid is
represented by the formula HC1, that is to say, it is a compound
of an atom of hydrogen with an atom of chlorine, or of i part
by weight of hydrogen with 35-5 parts by weight of chlorine;
again, sulphuric acid is represented by the formula H2SO4, which
is a statement that it consists of 2 atoms of hydrogen, i of sulphur,
and 4 of oxygen, and consequently of certain relative weights of
these elements. A figure placed on the right of a symbol only
affects the symbol to which it is attached, but when figures are
placed in front of several symbols all are affected by it, thus
2H2SO4 means H2SO4 taken twice.

The distribution of weight in chemical change is readily
expressed in the form of equations by the aid of these symbols;
the equation

2HCl+Zn = ZnCl2+H2,

for example, is to be read as meaning that from 73 parts of
hydrochloric acid and 65 parts of zinc, 136 parts of zinc chloride
and 2 parts of hydrogen are produced. The + sign is invariably
employed in this way either to express combination or action
upon, the meaning usually attached to the use of the sign = being
that from such and such bodies such and such other bodies
are formed.

1 Approximate values of the atomic weights are employed here.

PRINCIPLES]

CHEMISTRY

Usually, when the symbols of the elements are written or
printed with a figure to the right, it is understood that this
indicates a molecule of the element, the symbol alone representing
an atom. Thus, the symbols H2 and P4 indicate that the mole-
cules of hydrogen and phosphorus respectively contain 2 and 4
atoms. Since, according to the molecular theory, in all cases
of chemical change the action is between molecules, such symbols
as these ought always to be employed. Thus, the formation of
hydrochloric acid from hydrogen and chlorine is correctly
represented by the equation

H2+Clj=2HCl;

that is to say, a molecule of hydrogen and a molecule of chlorine
give rise to two molecules of hydrochloric acid; whilst the
following equation merely represents the relative weights of the
elements which enter into reaction, and is not a complete ex-
pression of what is supposed to take place: —

H+C1 = HC1.

In all cases it is usual to represent substances by formulae
which to the best of our knowledge express their molecular
composition in the state of gas, and not merely the relative
number of atoms which they contain; thus, acetic acid consists
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of one atom
of carbon, two of hydrogen, and one of oxygen, but its molecular
weight corresponds to the formula CzHjOj, which therefore is
always employed to represent acetic acid. When chemical
change is expressed with the aid of molecular formulae not
only is the distribution of weight represented, but by the mere
inspection of the symbols it is possible to deduce from the law
of gaseous combination mentioned above, the relative volumes
which the agents and resultants occupy in the state of gas -if
measured at the same temperature and under the same pressure.
Thus, the equation

2H,+Oj=2HjO

not only represents that certain definite weights of hydrogen
and oxygen furnish a certain definite weight of the compound
which we term water, but that if the water in the state of gas,
the hydrogen and the oxygen are all measured at the same
temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by the oxygen
is only half that occupied by the hydrogen, whilst the resulting
water-gas will only occupy the same volume as the hydrogen.
In other words, 2 volumes of oxygen and 4 volumes of hydrogen
furnish 4 volumes of water-gas. A simple equation like this,
therefore, when properly interpreted, affords a large amount of
information. One other instance may be given; the equation

represents the decomposition of ammonia gas into nitrogen and
hydrogen gases by the electric spark, and it not only conveys
the information that a certain relative weight of ammonia,
consisting of certain relative weights of hydrogen and nitrogen,
is broken up into certain relative weights of hydrogen and
nitrogen, but also that the nitrogen will be contained in half
the space which contained the ammonia, and that the volume
of the hydrogen will be one and a half times as great as that of
the original ammonia, so that in the decomposition of ammonia
the volume becomes doubled.

Formulae which merely express the relative number of atoms
of the different elements present in a compound are termed
empirical formulae, and the formulae of all compounds whose
molecular weights are undetermined are necessarily empirical.
The molecular formula of a compound, however, is always a
simple multiple of the empirical formula, if not identical with it;
thus, the empirical formula of acetic acid is CH2O, and its
molecular formula is C-fi&i, or twice'CH2O. In addition to
empirical and molecular formulae, chemists are in the habit of
employing various kinds of rational formulae, called structural,
constitutional or graphic formulae, &c., which not only express
the molecular composition of the compounds to which they
apply, but also embody certain assumptions as to the manner
in which the constituent atoms are arranged, and convey more
or less information with regard to the nature of the compound
•itself, viz. the class to which it belongs, the manner in which

it is formed, and the behaviour it will exhibit under various
circumstances. Before explaining these formulae it will be
necessary, however, to consider the differences in combining
power exhibited by the various elements.

Valency. — It is found that the number of atoms of a given
element, of chlorine, for example, which unite with an atom of
each of the other elements is very variable. Thus, hydrogen
unites with but a single atom of chlorine, zinc with two, boron
with three, silicon with four, phosphorus with five and tungsten
with six. Those elements which are equivalent in combining
or displacing power to a single atom of hydrogen are said to be
univalent or monad elements; whilst those which are equivalent
to two atoms of hydrogen are termed bivalent or dyad elements;
and those equivalent to three, four, five or six atoms of hydrogen
triad, tetrad, pentad or hexad elements. But not only is the
combining power orvalency (atomicity) of the elements different,
it is also observed that one element may combine with another
in several proportions, or that its valency may vary; for example,
phosphorus forms two chlorides represented by the formulae
PC13 and PCU, nitrogen the series of oxides represented by the
formulae N2O, NO, (N2O3), N2O4, N2O5, molybdenum forms the
chlorides MoCl2, MoCl3, MoCl4, MoCU, MoCl6(?), and tungsten
the chlorides WC12, WO,, WC1S, WCU.

In explanation of these facts it is supposed that each element
has a certain number of " units of affinity," which may be
entirely, or only in part, engaged when it enters into combination
with other elements; and in those cases in which the entire
number of units of affinity are not engaged by other Clements,
it is supposed that those which are thus disengaged neutralize
each other, as it were. For example, in phosphorus penta-
chloride the five units of affinity possessed by the phosphorus
atom are satisfied by the five monad atoms of chlorine, but in
the trichloride two are disengaged, and, it may be supposed,
satisfy each other. Compounds in which all the units of affinity
of the contained elements are engaged are said to be saturated,
whilst those in which the affinities of the contained elements are
not all engaged by other elements are said to be unsaturaled.
According to this view, it is necessary to assume that, in all
unsaturated compounds, two, or some even number of affinities
are disengaged; and also that all elements which combine
with an even number of monad atoms cannot combine with an
odd number, and vice versa, — in other words, that the number
of units of affinity active in the case of any given element must
be always either an even or an odd number, and that it cannot
be at one time an even and at another an odd number. There
are, however, a few remarkable exceptions to this " law."
Thus, it must be supposed that in nitric oxide, NO, an odd
number of affinities are disengaged, since a single atom of dyad
oxygen is united with a single atom of nitrogen, which in all its
compounds with other elements acts either as a triad or pentad.
When nitric peroxide, N2O4, is converted into gas, it decomposes,
and at about 180° C. its vapour entirely consists of molecules
of the composition NO2; while at temperatures between this
and o° C. it consists of a mixture in different proportions of the
two kinds of molecules, N2O4 and NO2. The oxide NOz must
be regarded as another instance of a compound in which an odd
number of affinities of one of the contained elements are dis-
engaged, since.it contains two atoms of dyad oxygen united with
a single atom of triad or pentad nitrogen. Again, when tungsten
hexachloride is converted into vapour it is decomposed into
chlorine and a pentachloride, having a normal vapour density,
but as in the majority of its compounds tungsten acts as a hexad,
we apparently must regard its pentachloride as a compound
in which an odd number of free affinities are' disengaged. Hither-
to no explanation has been given of these exceptions to what
appears to be a law of almost universal application, viz. that the
sum of the units of affinity of all the atoms in a compound is
an even number.

The number of units of affinity active in the case of any
particular element is largely dependent, however, upon the
nature of the element or elements with which it is associated.
Thus, an atom of iodine only combines with one of hydrogen,

CHEMISTRY

[PRINCIPLES

but may unite with three of chlorine, which never combines
with more than a single atom of hydrogen; an atom of phos-
phorus unites with only three atoms of hydrogen, but with five
of chlorine, or with four of hydrogen and one of iodine; and the
chlorides corresponding to the higher oxides of lead, nickel,
manganese and arsenic, PbO2, Ni2O3, MnO2 and As2O5 do not
exist as stable compounds, but the lower chlorides, PbCl2, NiCl2,
MnCl2 and AsCls, are very stable.

The valency of an element is usually expressed by dashes
or Roman numerals placed on the right of its symbol, thus:
H', O", B'", CIV, Pv, MoVI; but in constructing graphic formulae
the symbols of the elements are written with as many lines
attached to each symbol as the element which it represents
has units of affinity.

The periodic law (see ELEMENT) permits a grouping of the
elements according to their valency as follows: — Group O:
helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon appear to be devoid of
valency. Group I.: the alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and
also Ag, monovalent; Cu, monovalent and divalent; Au,
monovalent and trivalent. Group II. : the alkaline earth metals
Ca, Sr, Ba, and also Be (Gl), Mg, Zn, Cd, divalent; Hg, monovalent
and divalent. Group III.: B, trivalent; Al, trivalent, but
possibly also tetra-or penta-valent; Ga, divalent and trivalent;
In, mono-, di- and tri-valent; Tl, monovalent and trivalent.
Group IV.: C, Si, Ge, Zr, Th, tetravalent; Ti, tetravalent and
hexavalent; Sn, Pb, divalent and tetravalent; Ce, trivalent
and tetravalent. Group V. : N, trivalent and pentavalent, but
divalent in nitric oxide; P, As, Sb, Bi, trivalent and pentavalent,
the last being possibly divalent in BiO and BiCl2. Group VI.:
O, usually divalent, but tetravalent and possibly hexavalent in
oxonium and other salts; S, Se, Te, di-, tetra- and hexa-valent;
Cr, di-, tri- and hexa-valent; Mo, W, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta- and
hexa-valent. Group VII.: H (?), monovalent; the halogens F,
Cl, Br, I, usually monovalent, but possibly also tri- and penta-
valent; Mn, divalent and trivalent, and possibly heptavalent
in permanganates. Group VIII. : Fe, Co, divalent and trivalent ;
Ni, divalent; Os, Ru, hexavalent and octavalent; Pd, Pt,
divalent and tetravalent; Ir, tri-, tetra- and hexa-valent.
(See also VALENCY.)

Constitutional Formulae. — Graphic or constitutional formulae
are employed to express the manner in which the constituent
atoms of compounds are associated together; for example, the
trioxide of sulphur is usually regarded as a compound of an
atom of hexad sulphur with three atoms of dyad oxygen, and
this hypothesis is illustrated by the graphic formula

When this oxide is brought into contact with water it combines
with it forming sulphuric acid, H2SO4.

In this compound only" two of .the oxygen atoms are wholly
associated with the sulphur atom, each of the remaining oxygen
atoms being united by one of its affinities to the sulphur atoms,
and by the remaining affinity to an atom of hydrogen;
thus —

H-O^c^O

H-0>S<0.

The graphic formula of a sulphate is readily deduced by re-
membering that the hydrogen atoms are partially or entirely
replaced. Thus acid sodium sulphate, normal sodium sulphate,
and zinc sulphate have the formulae

Again, the reactions of acetic acid, C2H4O2, show that the four
atoms of hydrogen which it contains have not all the same
function, and also that the two atoms of oxygen have different
functions; the graphic formula which we are led to assign to
acetic acid, viz.

serves in a measure to express this, three of the atoms of hydrogen
being represented as associated with one of the atoms of carbon,

whilst the fourth atom is associated with an atom of oxygen
which is united by a single affinity to the second atom of carbon
to which, however, the second atom of oxygen is united by both
of its affinities. It is not to be supposed that there are anj
actual bonds of union between the atoms; graphic formulae
such as these merely express the hypothesis that certain of the
atoms in a compound come directly within the sphere of attrac-
tion of certain other atoms, and only indirectly within the
sphere of attraction of others, — an hypothesis to which chemists
are led by observing that it is often possible to separate a group
of elements from a compound, and to displace it by other elements
or groups of elements.

Rational formulae of a much simpler description than these
graphic formulae are generally employed. For instance, sulphuric
acid is usually represented by the formula SO2(OH)2, which
indicates that it may be regarded as a compound of the group
SO2 with twice the group OH. Each of these OH groups is
equivalent in combining or displacing power to a monad element,
since it consists of an atom of dyad oxygen associated with a
single atom of monad hydrogen, so that in this case the SO5
group is equivalent to an atom of a dyad element. This formula
for sulphuric acid, however, merely represents such facts as that
it is possible to displace an atom of hydrogen and an atom of
oxygen in sulphuric acid by a single atom of chlorine, thus
forming the compound SO3HC1; and that by the action of
water on the compound SO2C12 twice the group OH, or water
minus an atom of hydrogen, is introduced in place of the two
monad atoms of chlorine —

SO2C12+2HOH = SO2(OH)2 +2HC1.
Water. Sulphuric acid.

Constitutional formulae like these, in fact, are nothing more
than symbolic expressions of the character of the compounds
which they represent, the arrangement of symbols in a certain
definite manner being understood to convey certain information
with regard to the compounds represented.

Groups of two or more atoms like SO2 and OH, which are
capable of playing the part of elementary atoms (that is to say,
which can be transferred from compound to compound), are
termed compound radicals, the elementary atoms being simple
radicals. Thus, the atom of hydrogen is a monad simple radical,
the atom of oxygen a dyad simple radical, whilst the group OH
is a monad compound radical.

It is often convenient to regard compounds as formed upon
certain types; alcohol, for example, may be said to be a com-
pound formed upon the water type, that is to say, a compound
formed from water by displacing one of the atoms of hydrogen
by the group of elements C2H5, thus —

(H QJC2HS

0

('»
Water

Alcohol.

Constitutional formulae become of preponderating importance
when we consider the more complicated inorganic and especially
organic compounds. Their full significance is treated in the
section of this article dealing with organic chemistry, and in the
articles ISOMERISM and STEREO-ISOMERISM.

Chemical Action. — Chemical change or chemical action may
be said to take place whenever changes occur which involve an
alteration in the composition of molecules, and may be the
result of the action of agents such as heat, electricity or
light, or of two or more elements or compounds upon each
other.

Three kinds of changes are to be distinguished, viz. changes
which involve combination, changes which involve decomposi-
tion or separation, and changes which involve at the same time
both decomposition and combination. Changes of the first and
second kind, according to our views of the constitution of mole-
cules, are probably of very rare occurrence; in fact, chemical
action appears almost always to involve the occurrence of both
these kinds of change, for, as already pointed out, we must
assume that the molecules of hydrogen, oxygen and several
other elements are diatomic, or that they consist of two atoms.
Indeed, it appears probable that with few exceptions the elements

PRINCIPLES]

CHEMISTRY

43

are all compounds of similar atoms united together by one or
more units of affinity, according to their valencies. If this be
the case, however, it is evident that there is no real distinction
between the reactions which take place when two elements
combine together and when an element in a compound is dis-
placed by another.- The combination, as it is ordinarily termed,
of chlorine with hydrogen, and the displacement of iodine in
potassium iodide by the action of chlorine, may be cited as
examples; if these reactions are represented, as such reactions
very commonly are, by equations which merely express the
relative weights of the bodies which enter into reaction, and of
the products, thus —

H + Cl HC1

Hydrogen. Chlorine. Hydrochloric acid.

KI + Cl KC1 + I

Potassium iodide. Chlorine. Potassium chloride. Iodine.

they appear to differ in character; but if they are correctly
represented by molecular equations, or equations which express
the relative number of molecules which enter into reaction and
which result from the reaction, it will be obvious that the
character of the reaction is substantially the same in both cases,
and that both are instances of the occurrence of what is ordinarily
termed double decomposition —

H2 + Cl? = 2HC1
Hydrogen. Chlorine. Hydrochloric acid.
2KI + Cl? = 2KC1 + I2.

Potassium iodide. Chlorine. Potassium chloride. Iodine.

In all cases of chemical change energy in the form of heat is
either developed or absorbed, and the amount of heat developed
or absorbed in a given reaction is as definite as are the weights
of the substance engaged in the reaction. Thus, in the production
of hydrochloric acid from hydrogen and chlorine 22,000 calories
are developed; in the production of hydrobromic acid from
hydrogen and bromine, however, only 844ocaloriesaredeveloped ;
and in the formation cf hydriodic acid from hydrogen and
iodine 6040 calories are absorbed.

This difference in behaviour of the three elements, chlorine,
bromine and iodine, which in many respects exhibit considerable
resemblance, may be explained in the following manner. We
may suppose that in the formation of gaseous hydrochloric acid
from gaseous chlorine and hydrogen, according to the equation

H2+C12 = HC1+HC1,

a certain amount of energy is expended in separating the atoms
of hydrogen in the hydrogen molecule, and the atoms of chlorine
in the chlorine molecule, from each other; but that heat is
developed by the combination of the hydrogen atoms with
the chlorine atoms, and that, as more energy is developed by the
union of the atoms of hydrogen and chlorine than is expended
in separating the hydrogen atoms from each other and the
chlorine atoms from one'another, the result of the action of the
two elements upon each other is the development of heat, — the
amount finally developed in the reaction being the difference
between that absorbed in decomposing the elementary mole-
cules and that developed by the combination of the atoms of
chlorine and hydrogen. In the formation of gaseous hydrobromic
acid from liquid bromine and gaseous hydrogen —

H,-r-Br2 = HBr+HBr,

in addition to the energy expended in decomposing the hydrogen
and bromine molecules, energy is also expended in converting
the liquid bromine into the gaseous condition, and probably
less heat is developed by the combination of bromine and
hydrogen than by the combination of chlorine and hydrogen, so
that the amount of heat finally developed is much less than is
developed in the formation of hydrochloric acid. Lastly, in
the production of gaseous hydriodic acid from hydrogen and
solid iodine —

'

so much energy is expended in the decomposition of the hydrogen
and iodine molecules and in the conversion of the iodine into the
gaseous condition, that the heat which it may be supposed is
developed by the combination of the hydrogen and iodine atoms
insufficient to balance the expenditure, and the final result is

therefore negative; hence it is necessary in forming hydriodic
acid from its elements to apply heat continuously.

These compounds also afford examples of the fact that,
generally speaking, those compounds are most readily formed,
and are most stable, in the formation of which the most heat is
developed. Thus, chlorine enters into reaction with hydrogen,
and removes hydrogen from hydrogenized bodies, far more
readily than bromine ; and hydrochloric acid is a far more
stable substance than hydrobromic acid, hydriodic acid being
greatly inferior even to hydrobromic acid in stability. Com-
pounds formed with the evolution of heat are termed exothermic,
while those formed with an absorption are termed endothermic.
Explosives are the commonest examples of endothermic com-
pounds.

When two substances which by their action upon each other
develop much heat enter into reaction, the reaction is usually
complete without the employment of an excess of either; for
example, when a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, in the pro-
portions to form water —

2H,+O«=20H,,

is exploded, it is entirely converted into water. This is also
the case if two substances are brought together in solution, by
the action of which upon each other a third body is formed
which is insoluble in the solvent employed, and which also does
not tend to react upon any of the substances present; for
instance, when a solution of a chloride is added to a solution of
a silver salt, insoluble silver chloride is precipitated, and almost
the whole of the silver is removed from solution, even if the
amount of the chloride employed be not in excess of that
theoretically reauired.

But if there De no tendency to form an insoluble compound,
or one which is not liable to react upon any of the other substances
present, this is no longer the case. For example, when a solution
of a ferric salt is added to a solution of potassium thiocyanate,
a deep red coloration is produced, owing to the formation of
ferric thiocyanate. Theoretically the reaction takes place in
the case of ferric nitrate in the manner represented by the
equation

Fe(NO3)3 + 3KCNS = Fe(CNS), + 3KNO,;

Ferric nitrate. Potassium thiocyanate. Ferric thiocyanate. Potassium nitrate.

but it is found that even when more than sixty times the amount
of potassium thiocyanate required by this equation is added,
a portion of the ferric nitrate still remains unconverted, doubtless
owing to the occurrence of the reverse change —

Fe(CNS)3+3KNO3=Fe(NO3)3+3KCNS.

In this, as in most other cases in which substances act upon one
another under such circumstances that the resulting compounds
are free to react, the extent to which the different kinds of action
which may occur take place is dependent upon the mass of the
substances present in the mixture. As another instance of this
kind, the decomposition of bismuth chloride by water may be
cited. If a very large quantity of water be added, the chloride
is entirely decomposed in the manner represented by the
equation —

BiCl3 + OH2 = BiOCl + 2HCI,
Bismuth chloride. Bismuth oxychloride.

the oxychloride being precipitated; but if smaller quantities
of water be added the decomposition is incomplete, and it is
found that the extent to which decomposition takes place is
proportional to the quantity of water employed, the decom-
position being incomplete, except in presence of large quantities
of water, because of the occurrence of the reverse action —
BiOCl +2HC1 = BiCl,+O2H.

Chemical change which merely involves simple decomposition
is thus seen to be influenced by the masses of the reacting sub-
stances and the presence of the products of decomposition; in
other words the system of reacting substances and resultants
form a mixture in which chemical action has apparently ceased,
or the system is in equilibrium. Such reactions are termed
reversible (see CHEMICAL ACTION).

44

CHEMISTRY

[INORGANIC

III. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Inorganic chemistry is concerned with the descriptive study
of the elements and their compounds, except those of carbon.
Reference should be made to the separate articles on the different
elements and the more important compounds for their prepara-
tion, properties and uses. In this article the development of
this branch of the science is treated historically.

The earliest discoveries in inorganic chemistry are to be found
in the metallurgy, medicine and chemical arts of the ancients.
The Egyptians obtained silver, iron, copper, lead, zinc and tin,
either pure or as alloys, by smelting the ores; mercury is men-
tioned by Theophrastus (c. 300 B.C.). The manufacture of glass,
also practised in Egypt, demanded a knowledge of sodium or
potassium carbonates; the former occurs as an efflorescence
on the shores of certain lakes; the latter was obtained from
wood ashes. Many substances were used as pigments: Pliny
records white lead, cinnabar, verdigris and red oxide of iron;
and the preparation of coloured glasses and enamels testifies to
the uses to which these and other substances were put. Salts of
ammonium were also known; while alum was used as a mordant
in dyeing. Many substances were employed in ancient medicine :
galena was the basis of a valuable Egyptian cosmetic and drug;
the arsenic sulphides, realgar and orpiment, litharge, alum,
saltpetre, iron rust were also used. Among the Arabian and
later alchemists we find attempts made to collate compounds by
specific properties, and it is to these writers that we are mainly
indebted for such terms as "alkali," "sal," &c. The mineral
acids, hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acids, and also aqua
regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) were discovered,
and the vitriols, alum, saltpetre, sal-ammonfeic, ammonium
carbonate, silver nitrate [(lunar caustic) became better known.
The compounds of mercury attracted considerable attention,
mainly on account of their medicinal properties; mercuric
oxide and corrosive sublimate were known to pseudo-Geber, and
the nitrate and basic sulphate to " Basil Valentine." Antimony
and its compounds formed the subject of an elaborate treatise
ascribed to this last writer, who also contributed to our knowledge
of the compounds of zinc, bismuth and arsenic. All the com-
monly occurring elements and compounds appear to have
received notice by the alchemists; but the writings assigned
to the alchemical period are generally so vague and indefinite
that it is difficult to determine the true value of the results
obtained.

In the succeeding iatrochemical period, the methods of the
alchemists were improved and new ones devised. Glauber
showed how to prepare hydrochloric acid, spiritus sails, by
heating rock-salt with sulphuric acid, the method in common
use to-day; and also nitric acid from saltpetre and arsenic
trioxide. Libavius obtained sulphuric acid from many sub-
stances, e.g. alum, vitriol, sulphur and nitric acid, by distillation.
The action of these acids on many metals was also studied;
Glauber obtained zinc, stannic, arsenious and cuprous chlorides
by dissolving the metals in hydrochloric acid, compounds
hitherto obtained by heating the metals with corrosive subh'mate,
and consequently supposed to contain mercury. The scientific
study of salts dates from this period, especial interest being
taken in those compounds which possessed a medicinal or
technical value. In particular, the salts of potassium, sodium
and ammonium were carefully investigated, but sodium and
potassium salts were rarely differentiated.1 The metals of the
alkaline-earths were somewhat neglected; we find Georg
Agricola considering gypsum (calcium sulphate) as a compound
of lime, while calcium nitrate and chloride became known at
about the beginning of the I7th century. Antimonial, bismuth
and arsenical compounds were assiduously studied, a direct
consequence of their high medicinal importance; mercurial
and silver compounds were investigated for -the same reason.
The general tendency of this period appears to have taken the
form of improving and developing the methods of the alchemists;

1 The definite distinction' between potash and soda was first
established by Duhamel de Monceau (1700-1781).

few new fields were opened, and apart from a more complete
knowledge of the nature of salts, no valuable generalizations
were attained.

The discovery of phosphorus by Brand, a Hamburg alchemist,
in 1669 excited chemists to an unwonted degree; it was also
independently prepared by Robert Boyle and J. Kunckel,
Brand having kept his process secret. Towards the middle of
the 1 8th century two new elements were isolated: cobalt by
G. Brandt in 1742, and nickel by A. F. Cronstedt in 1750. These
discoveries were followed by Daniel Rutherford's isolation of
nitrogen in 1772, and by K. Scheele's isolation of chlorine and
oxygen in 1774 (J. Priestley discovered oxygen independently
at about the same time), and his investigation of molybdic and
tungstic acids in the following year; metallic molybdenum
was obtained by P. J. Hjelm in 1783, and tungsten by Don
Fausto d'Elhuyar; manganese was isolated by J. G. Gahn in
1 774. In 1 784 Henry Cavendish thoroughly examined hydrogen,
establishing its elementary nature; and he made the far-reaching
discovery that water was composed of two volumes of hydrogen
to one of oxygen.

The phlogistic theory, which pervaded the chemical doctrine
of this period, gave rise to continued study of the products of
calcination and combustion; it thus happened that the know-
ledge of oxides and oxidation products was considerably
developed. The synthesis of nitric acid by passing electric
sparks through moist air by Cavendish is a famous piece of
experimental work, for in the first place it determined the
composition of this important substance, and in the second
place the minute residue of air which would not combine, although
ignored for about a century, was subsequently examined by
Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay, who showed that it
consists of a mixture of elementary substances — argon, krypton,
neon and xenon (see ARGON).

The 1 8th century witnessed striking developments in
pneumatic chemistry, or the chemistry of gases, which had
been begun by van Helmont, Mayow, Hales and Boyle. Gases
formerly considered to be identical came to be clearly distin-
guished, and many new ones were discovered. Atmospheric
air was carefully investigated by Cavendish, who showed that
it consisted of two elementary constituents: nitrogen, which
was isolated by Rutherford in 1772, and oxygen, isolated in
1774; and Black established the presence, in minute quantity,
of carbon dioxide (van Helmont's gas sylveslre). Of the many
workers in this field, Priestley occupies an important position.
A masterly device, initiated by him, was to collect gases over
mercury instead of water; this enabled him to obtain gases
previously only known in solution, such as ammonia, hydro-
chloric acid, silicon fluoride and sulphur dioxide. Sulphuretted
hydrogen and nitric oxide were discovered at about the
same time.

Returning to the history of the discovery of the elements and
their more important inorganic compounds, we come in 1789 to
M. H. Klaproth's detection of a previously unknown constituent
of the mineral pitchblende. He extracted a substance to which
he assigned the character of an element, naming it uranium
(from Oiiparos, heaven) ; but it was afterwards shown by E. M.
Peligot, who prepared the pure metal, that Klaproth's product
was really an oxide. This element was investigated at a later
date by Sir Henry Roscoe, and more thoroughly and successfully
by C. Zimmermann and Alibegoff. Pitchblende attained con-
siderable notoriety towards the end of the I9th century on
account of two important discoveries. The first, made by Sir
William Ramsay in 1896, was that the mineral evolved a peculiar
gas when treated with sulphuric acid; this gas, helium (q.v.),
proved to be identical with a constituent of the sun's atmosphere,
detected as early as 1868 by Sir Norman Lockyer during a
spectroscopic examination of the sun's chromosphere. The
second discovery, associated with the Curies, is that of the
peculiar properties exhibited by the impure substance, and due
to a constituent named radium. The investigation of this
substance and its properties (see RADIOACTIVITY) has proceeded
so far as to render it probable that the theory of the unalterability

INORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

45

of elements, and also the hitherto accepted explanations of
various celestial phenomena — the source of solar energy and
the appearances of the tails of comets— may require recasting.

In the same year as Klaproth detected uranium, he also
isolated zirconia or zirconium oxide from the mineral variously
known as zircon, hyacinth, jacynth and jargoon ; but he failed
to obtain the metal, this being first accomplished some years
later by Berzelius, who decomposed the double potassium
zirconium fluoride with potassium. In the following year, 1795,
Klaproth announced the discovery of a third new element,
titanium; its isolation (in a very impure form), as in the case of
zirconium, was reserved for Berzelius.

Passing over the discovery of carbon disulphide by W. A.
Lampadius in 1796, of chromium by L. N. Vauquelin in 1797, and
Klaproth's investigation of tellurium in 1798, the next important
series of observations was concerned with platinum and the
allied metals. Platinum had been described by Antonio de Ulloa
in 1748, and subsequently discussed by H. T. Scheffer in 1752.
In 1803 W. H. Wollaston discovered palladium, especially
interesting for its striking property of absorbing (" occluding ")
as much as 376 volumes of hydrogen at ordinary temperatures,
and 643 volumes at 90°. In the following year he discovered
rhodium; and at about the same time Smithson Tennant added
two more to the list — iridium and osmium; the former was
so named from the changing tints of its oxides (Ipa, rainbow),
and the latter from the odour of its oxide (607x17, smell). The
most recently discovered " platinum metal," ruthenium,
was recognized by C. E. Claus in 1845. The great number
and striking character of the compounds of this group of
metals have formed the subject of many investigations, and
already there is a most voluminous literature. Berzelius was
an early worker in this field; he was succeeded by Bunsen,
and Deville and Debray, who worked out the separation of
rhodium; and at a later date by P. T. Cleve, the first to make
a really thorough study of these elements and their compounds.
Of especial note are the curious compounds formed by the union
of carbon monoxide with platinous chloride, discovered by Paul
Schtitzenberger and subsequently investigated by F. B. Mylius
and F. Foerster and by Pullinger; the phosphoplatinic com-
pounds formed primarily from platinum and phosphorus penta-
chloride; and also the '" ammino " compounds, formed by the
union of ammonia with the chloride, &c., of these metals, which
have been studied by many chemists, especially S. M. Jorgensen.
Considerable uncertainty existed as to the atomic weights of
these metals, the values obtained by Berzelius being doubtful.
K. F. O. Seubert redetermined this constant for platinum,
osmium and iridium; E. H. Reiser for palladium, and A. A.
Joly for ruthenium.

The beginning of the igth century witnessed the discovery
of certain powerful methods for the analysis of compounds and
the isolation of elements. Berzelius's investigation of the
action of the electric current on salts clearly demonstrated
the invaluable assistance that electrolysis could render to the
isolator of elements; and the adoption of this method by Sir
Humphry Davy for the analysis of the hydrates of the metals of
the alkalis and alkaline earths, and the results which he thus
achieved, established its potency. In 1808 Davy isolated
sodium and potassium; he then turned his attention to the
preparation of metallic calcium, barium, strontium and mag-
nesium. Here he met with greater difficulty, and it is to be
questioned whether he obtained any of these metals even in an
approximately pure form (see ELECTROMETALLURGY). The
discovery of boron by Gay Lussac and Davy in 1809 led
Berzelius to investigate silica (silex). In the following year he
announced that silica was the oxide of a hitherto unrecognized
element, which he named silicium, considering it to be a metal.
This has proved to be erroneous; it is non-metallic in character,
and its name was altered to silicon, from analogy with carbon
and boron. At the same time Berzelius obtained the element,
in an impure condition, by fusing silica with charcoal and iron
in a blast furnace; its preparation in a pure condition he first
accomplished in 1823, when he invented the method of heating

double potassium fluorides with metallic potassium. The
success which attended his experiments in the case of silicon led
him to apply it to the isolation of other elements. In 1824 he
obtained zirconium from potassium zirconium fluoride; the
preparation of (impure) titanium quickly followed, and in 1828
he obtained thorium. A similar process, and equally efficacious,
was introduced by F. Wohler in 1827. It consisted in heating
metallic chlorides with potassium, and was first applied to
aluminium, which was isolated in 1827; in the following year,
beryllium chloride was analysed by the same method, beryllium
oxide (berylla or glucina) having been known since 1798, when
it was detected by L. N. Vauquelin in the gem-stone beryl.

In 1812 B. Courtois isolated the element iodine from " kelp,"
the burnt ashes of marine plants. The chemical analogy of this
substance to chlorine was quickly perceived, especially after
its investigation by Davy and Gay Lussac. Cyanogen, a
compound which in combination behaved very similarly to
chlorine and iodine, was isolated in 1815 by Gay Lussac. This
discovery of the first of the then-styled " compound radicals "
exerted great influence on the prevailing views of chemical
composition. Hydrochloric acid was carefully investigated
at about this time by Davy, Faraday and Gay Lussac, its
composition and the elementary nature of chlorine being thereby
established.

In 1817 F. Stromeyer detected a new metallic element, cad-
mium, in certain zinc ores; it was rediscovered at subsequent
dates by other observers and its chemical resemblance to zinc
noticed. In the same year Berzelius discovered selenium in a
deposit from sulphuric acid chambers, his masterly investigation
including a study of the hydride, oxides and other compounds.
Selenic acid was discovered by E. Mitscherlich, who also observed
the similarity of the crystallographic characters of selenates
and sulphates, which afforded valuable corroboration of his doc-
trine of isomorphism. More recent and elaborate investigations
in this direction by A. E. H. Tutton have confirmed this view.

In 1818 L. J. Thenard discovered hydrogen dioxide, one of
the most interesting inorganic compounds known, which has
since been carefully investigated by H. E. Schone, M. Traube,
Wolfenstein and others. About the same time, J. A. Arfvedson,
a pupil of Berzelius, detected a new element, which he named
lithium, in various minerals — notably petalite. Although
unable to isolate the metal, he recognized its analogy to sodium
and potassium; this was confirmed by R. Bunsen and A.
Matthiessen in 1855, who obtained the metal by electrolysis
and thoroughly examined it and its compounds. Its crimson
flame-coloration was observed by C. G. Gmelin in 1818.

The discovery of bromine in 1826 by A. J. Balard completed
for many years Berzelius's group of " halogen " elements; the
remaining member, fluorine, notwithstanding many attempts,
remained unisolated until 1886, when Henri Moissan obtained
it by the electrolysis of potassium fluoride dissolved in hydro-
fluoric acid. Hydrobromic and hydriodic acids were investigated
by Gay Lussac and Balard, while hydrofluoric acid received
considerable attention at the hands of Gay Lussac, Thenard
and Berzelius. We may, in fact, consider that the descriptive
study of the various halogen compounds dates from about this
time. Balard discovered chlorine monoxide in 1834, investigat-
ing its properties and reactions; and his observations on hypo-
chlorous acid and hypochlorites led him to conclude that " bleach-
ing-powder " or " chloride of lime " was a compound or mixture
in equimolecular proportions of calcium chloride and hypo-
chlorite, with a little calcium hydrate. Gay Lussac investigated
chloric acid; Stadion discovered perchloric acid, since more
fully studied by G. S. Serullas and Roscoe; Davy and Stadion
investigated chlorine peroxide, formed by treating potassium
chlorate with sulphuric acid. Davy also described and partially
investigated the gas, named by him " euchlorine," obtained
by heating potassium chlorate with hydrochloric acid; this
gas has been more recently examined by Pebal. The oxy-acids
of iodine were investigated by Davy and H. G. Magnus; periodic
acid, discovered by the latter, is characterized by the striking
complexity of its salts as pointed out by Kimmins.

CHEMISTRY

[INORGANIC

In 1830 N. G. Sefstrom definitely proved the existence of a
metallic element vanadium, which had been previously detected
(in 1801) in certain lead ores by A. M. del Rio; subsequent
elaborate researches by Sir Henry Roscoe showed many in-
accuracies in the conclusions of earlier workers (for instance, the
substance considered to be the pure element was in reality an
oxide) and provided science with an admirable account of this
element and its compounds. B. W. Gerland contributed to our
knowledge of vanadyl salts and the vanadic acids. Chemically
related to vanadium are the two elements tantalum and colum-
bium or niobium. These elements occur in the minerals colum-
bite and tantalite, and their compounds became known in the
early part of the ipth century by the labours of C. Hatchett,
A. G. Ekeberg, W. H. Wollaston and Berzelius. But the
knowledge was very imperfect; neither was it much clarified
by H. Rose, who regarded niobium oxide as the element. The
subject was revived in 1866 by C. W. Blomstrand and J. C.
Marignac, to whom is due the credit of first showing the true
chemical relations of these elements. Subsequent researches by
Sainte Claire Deville and L. J. Troost, and by A. G. Kriiss and
L. E. Nilson, and subsequently (1904) by Hall, rendered notable
additions to our knowledge of these elements and their compounds.
Tantalum has in recent years been turned to economic service,
being employed, in the same manner as tungsten, for the pro-
duction of the filaments employed in incandescent electric
lighting.

In 1833 Thomas Graham, following the paths already traced
out by E. D. Clarke, Gay Lussac and Stromeyer, published his
masterly investigation of the various phosphoric acids and
their salts, obtaining results subsequently employed by J. von
Liebig in establishing the doctrine of the characterization and
basicity of acids. Both phosphoric and phosphorous acids
became known, although imperfectly, towards the end of the
i8th century; phosphorous acid was first obtained pure by
Davy in 1812, while pure phosphorous oxide, the anhydride
of phosphorous acid, remained unknown until T. E. Thorpe's
investigation of the products of the slow combustion of phos-
phorus. Of other phosphorus compounds we may here notice
Gengembre's discovery of phosphuretted hydrogen (phosphine)
in 1783, the analogy of which to ammonia was first pointed out
by Davy and supported at a later date by H. Rose; liquid
phosphuretted hydrogen was first obtained by Thenard in
1838; and hypophosphorous acid was discovered by Dulong
in 1816. Of the halogen compounds of phosphorus, the tri-
chloride was discovered by Gay Lussac and Thenard, while the
pentachloride was obtained by Davy. The oxychloride, bro-
mides, and other compounds were subsequently discovered;
here we need only notice Moissan's preparation of the trifluoride
and Thorpe's discovery of the pentafluoride, a compound of
especial note, for it volatilizes unchanged, giving a vapour of
normal density and so demonstrating the stability of a pentava-
lent phosphorus compound (the pentachloride and pentabromide
dissociate into a molecule of the halogen element and phosphorus
trichloride).

In 1840 C. F. Schonbein investigated ozone, a gas of peculiar
odour (named from the Gr. o£uv, to smell) observed in 1785 by
Martin van Marum to be formed by the action of a silent electric
discharge on the oxygen of the air; he showed it to be an
allotropic modification of oxygen, a view subsequently confirmed
by Marignac, Andrews and Soret. In 1 845 a further contribution
to the study of allotropy was made by Anton Schrotter, who
investigated the transformations of yellow and red phosphorus,
phenomena previously noticed by Berzelius, the inventor of the
term " allotropy." The preparation of crystalline boron in 1856
by Wohler and Sainte Claire Deville showed that this element
also existed in allotropic forms, amorphous boron having been
obtained simultaneously and independently in 1809 by Gay
Lussac and Davy. Before leaving this phase of inorganic
chemistry, we may mention other historical examples of allo-
tropy. Of great importance is the chemical identity of the
diamond, graphite and charcoal, a fact demonstrated in part by
Lavoisier in 1773, Smithson Tennant in 1796, and by Sir George

Steuart-Mackenzie (1780-1848), who showed that equal weights
of these three substances yielded the same weight of carbon
dioxide on combustion. The allotropy of selenium was first
investigated by Berzelius; and more fully in 1851 by J. W.
Hittorf, who carefully investigated the effects produced by heat;
crystalline selenium possesses a very striking property, viz.
when exposed to the action of light its electric conductivity
increases. Another element occurring in allotropic forms is
sulphur, of which many forms have been described. E. Mit-
scherlich was an early worker in this field. A modification
known as " black sulphur," soluble in water, was announced
by F. L. Knapp in 1848, and a colloidal modification was
described by H. Debus. The dynamical equilibrium between
rhombic, liquid and monosymmetric sulphur has been worked
out by H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom. The phenomenon of allo-
tropy is not confined to the non-metals, for evidence has been
advanced to show that allotropy is far commoner than hitherto
supposed. Thus the researches of Carey Lea, E. A. Schneider
and others, have proved the existence of " colloidal silver ";
similar forms of the metals gold, copper, and of the platinum
metals have been described. The allotropy of arsenic and
antimony is also worthy of notice, but in the case of the first
element the variation is essentially non-metallic, closely resemb-
ling that of phosphorus. The term allotropy has also been
applied to inorganic compounds, identical in composition, but
assuming different crystallographic forms. Mercuric oxide,
sulphide and iodide; arsenic trioxide; titanium dioxide and
silicon dioxide may be cited as examples.

The joint discovery in 1859 of the powerful method of spectrum
analysis (see SPECTROSCOPY) by G. R. Kirchhoff and R. W.
Bunsen, and its application to the detection and the characteriza-
tion of elements when in a state of incandescence, rapidly led
to the discovery of many hitherto unknown elements. Within
two years of the invention the authors announced the discovery
of two metals, rubidium and caesium, closely allied to sodium,
potassium and lithium in properties, in the mineral lepidolite
and in the Diirkheim mineral water. In 1861 Sir William Crookes
detected thallium (named from the Gr. ftiXXos, a green bud, on
account of a brilliant green line in its spectrum) in the selenious
mud of the sulphuric acid manufacture; the chemical affinities
of this element, on the one hand approximating to the metals
of the alkalis, and on the other hand to lead, were mainly
established by C. A. Lamy. Of other metals first detected by
the spectroscope mention is to be made of indium, determined
by F. Reich and H. T. Richter in 1863, and of gallium, detected
in certain zinc blendes by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875. The
spectroscope has played an all-important part in the character-
ization of the elements, which, in combination with oxygen,
constitute the group of substances collectively named the " rare
earths." The substances occur, in very minute quantity, in a
large number of sparingly-distributed and comparatively rare
minerals — euxenite, samarksite, cerite, yttrotantalite, &c.
Scandinavian specimens of these minerals were examined by
J. Gadolin, M. H. Klaproth, and especially by Berzelius; these
chemists are to be regarded as the pioneers in this branch of
descriptive chemistry. Since their day many chemists have
entered the lists, new and powerful methods of research have
been devised, and several new elements definitely characterized.
Our knowledge on many points, however, is very chaotic; great
uncertainty and conflict of evidence circulate around many of
the " new elements " which have been announced, so much so
that P. T. Cleve proposed to divide the " rare earth " metals into
two groups, (i) " perfectly characterized "; (2) " not yet
thoroughly characterized." The literature of this subject is
very large. The memorial address on J. C. G. de Marignac, a
noted worker in this field, delivered by Cleve, a high authority
on this subject, before the London Chemical Society (/. C. S.
Trans., 1895, p. 468), and various papers in the same journal
by Sir William Crookes, Bohuslav Brauner and others should
be consulted for details.

In the separation of the constituents of the complex mixture
of oxides obtained from the " rare earth " minerals, the methods

INORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

47

generally forced upon chemists are those of fractional precipita-
tion or crystallization; the striking resemblances of the com-
pounds of these elements rarely admitting of a complete separa-
tion by simple precipitation and filtration. The extraordinary
patience requisite to a successful termination of such an analysis
can only be adequately realized by actual research; an idea
may be obtained from Crookes's Select Methods in Analysis.
Of recent years the introduction of various organic compounds as
precipitants or reagents has reduced the labour of 'the process;
and advantage has also been taken of the fairly complex double
salts which these metals form with compounds. The purity of
the compounds thus obtained is checked by spectroscopic
observations. Formerly the spark- and absorption-spectra
were the sole methods available; a third method was introduced
by Crookes, who submitted the oxides, or preferably the basic
sulphates, to the action of a negative electric discharge in- vacua,
and investigated the phosphorescence induced spectroscopically.
By such a study in the ultra-violet region of a fraction prepared
from crude yttria he detected a new element victorium, and
subsequently by elaborate fractionation obtained the element
itself.

The first earth of this group to be isolated (although in an
impure form) was yttria, obtained by Gadolin in 1794 from the
mineral gadolinite, which was named after its discoverer and
investigator. Klaproth and Vauquelin also investigated this
earth, but without detecting that it was a complex mixture —
a discovery reserved for C. G. Mosander. The next discovery,
made independently and simultaneously in 1803 by Klaproth and
by W. Hisinger and Berzelius, was of ceria, the oxide of cerium,
in the mineral cerite found at Ridderhytta, Westmannland,
Sweden. These crude earths, yttria and ceria, have supplied
most if not all of the " rare earth " metals. In 1841 Mosander,
having in 1839 discovered a new element lanthanum in the
mineral cerite, isolated this element and also a hitherto un-
recognized substance, didymia, from crude yttria, and two years
later he announced the determination of two fresh constituents
of the same earth, naming them erbia and terbia. Lanthanum
has retained its elementary character, but recent attempts at
separating it from didymia have led to the view that didymium
is a mixture of two elements, praseodymium and neodymium
(see DIDYMIUM). Mosander's erbia has been shown to contain
various other oxides — thulia, holmia, &c. — but this has not yet
been perfectly worked out. In 1878 Marignac, having subjected
Mosander's erbia, obtained from gadolinite, to a careful examina-
tion, announced the presence of a new element, ytterbium;
this discovery was confirmed by Nilson, who in the following year
discovered another element, scandium, in Marignac's ytterbia.
Scandium possesses great historical interest, for Cleve showed
that it was one of the elements predicted by Mendeleeff about ten
years previously from considerations based on his periodic
classification of the elements (see ELEMENT). Other elements
predicted and characterized by Mendeleeff which have been
since realized are gallium, discovered in 1875, and germanium,
discovered in 1885 by Clemens Winkler.

In 1880 Marignac examined certain earths obtained from the
mineral samarskite, which had already in 1878 received attention
from Delafontaine and later from Lecoq de Boisbaudran. He
established the existence of two new elements, samarium and
gadolinium, since investigated more especially by Cleve, to whom
most of our knowledge on this subject is due. In addition to
the rare elements mentioned above, there are a score or so more
whose existence is doubtful. Every year is attended by fresh
" discoveries " in this prolific source of ejementary substances,
but the paucity of materials and the predilections of the investi-
gators militate in some measure against a just valuation being
accorded to such researches. After having been somewhat
neglected for the greater attractions and wider field pre-
sented by organic chemistry, the study of the elements
and their inorganic compounds is now rapidly coming into
favour; new investigators are continually entering the lists;
the beaten paths are being retraversed and new ramifications
pursued.

IV. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

While inorganic chemistry was primarily developed through
the study of minerals — a connexion still shown by the French
appellation chimie mintrale — organic chemistry owes its origin
to the investigation of substances occurring in the vegetable
and animal organisms. The quest of the alchemists for the
philosopher's stone, and the almost general adherence of the
iatrochemists to the study of the medicinal characters and
preparation of metallic compounds, stultified in some measure
the investigation of vegetable and animal products. It is true
that by the distillation of many herbs, resins and similar sub-
stances, several organic compounds had been prepared, and in a
few cases employed as medicines; but the prevailing classifica-
tion of substances by physical and, superficial properties led to
the correlation of organic and inorganic compounds, without
any attention being paid to their chemical composition. The
clarification and spirit of research so clearly emphasized by
Robert Boyle in the middle of the I7th century is reflected in
the classification of substances expounded by Nicolas L6mery,
in 1675, in his Cours de chymie. Taking as a basis the nature of
the source of compounds, he framed three classes: " mineral,"
comprising the metals, minerals, earths and stones; " vege-
table," comprising plants, resins, gums, juices, &c.; and
" animal," comprising animals, their different parts and excreta.
Notwithstanding the inconsistency of his allocation of substances
to the different groups (for instance, acetic acid was placed in
the vegetable class, while the acetates and the products of their
dry distillation, acetone, &c., were placed in the mineral class),
this classification came into favour. The phlogistonists en-
deavoured to introduce chemical notions to support it: Becher,
in his Physica subterranea (1669), stated that mineral, vegetable
and animal matter contained the same elements, but that more
simple combinations prevailed in the mineral kingdom; while
Stahl, in his Specimen Becherianum (1702), held the " earthy "
principle to predominate in the mineral class, and the " aqueous "
and " combustible " in the vegetable and animal classes. It
thus happened that in the earlier treatises on phlogistic chemistry
organic substances were grouped with all combustibles.

The development of organic chemistry from this time until
almost the end of the i8th century was almost entirely confined
to such compounds as had practical applications, especially in
pharmacy and dyeing. A new and energetic spirit was introduced
by Scheele; among other discoveries this gifted experimenter
isolated and characterized many organic acids, and proved the
general occurrence of glycerin (Olsuss) in all oils and fats.
Bergman worked in the same direction; while Rouelle was
attracted to the study of animal chemistry. Theoretical specula-
tions were revived by Lavoisier, who, having explained the nature
of combustion and determined methods for analysing com-
pounds, concluded that vegetable substances ordinarily contained
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, while animal substances generally
contained, in addition to these elements, nitrogen, and sometimes
phosphorus and sulphur. Lavoisier, to whom chemistry was
primarily the chemistry of oxygen compounds, having developed
the radical theory initiated by Guyton de Morveau, formulated
the hypothesis that vegetable and animal substances were oxides
of radicals composed of carbon and hydrogen; moreover, since
simple radicals (the elements) can form more than one oxide,
he attributed the same character to his hydrocarbon radicals:
he considered, for instance, sugar to be a neutral oxide and
oxalic acid a higher oxide of a certain radical, for, when oxidized
by nitric acid, sugar yields oxalic acid. At the same time, how-
ever, he adhered to the classification of Lemery; and it was
only when identical compounds were obtained from both vege-
table and animal sources that this subdivision was discarded, and
the classes were assimilated in the division organic chemistry.

At this time there existed a belief, held at a later date by
Berzelius, Gmelin and many others, that the formation of
organic compounds was conditioned by a so-called vital force;
and the difficulty of artificially realizing this action explained
the supposed impossibility of synthesizing organic compounds.

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

This dogma was shaken by Wohler's synthesis of urea in
1828. But the belief died hard; the synthesis of urea remained
isolated for many years; and many explanations were attempted
by the vitalists (as, for instance, that urea was halfway between
the inorganic and organic kingdoms, or that the carbon, from
which it was obtained, retained the essentials of this hypothetical
vital force), but only to succumb at a later date to the indubitable
fact that the same laws of chemical combination prevail in both
the animate and inanimate kingdoms, and that the artificial
or laboratory synthesis of any substance, either inorganic or
organic, is but a question of time, once its constitution is
determined.1

The exact delimitation of inorganic and organic chemistry
engrossed many minds for many years; and on this point there
existed considerable divergence of opinion for several decades.
In addition to the vitalistic doctrine of the origin of organic
compounds, views based on purely chemical considerations were
advanced. The atomic theory, and its correlatives — the laws
of constant and multiple proportions — had been shown to possess
absolute validity so far as well-characterized inorganic com-
pounds were concerned; but it was open to question whether
organic compounds obeyed the same laws. Berzelius, in 1813
and 1814, by improved methods of analysis, established that
the Daltonian laws of combination held in both the inorganic
and organic kingdoms; and he adopted the view of Lavoisier
that organic compounds were oxides of compound radicals, and
therefore necessarily contained at least three elements — carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. This view was accepted in 1817 by
Leopold Gmelin, who, in his Handbuch der Chemie, regarded
inorganic compounds as being of binary composition (the
simplest being oxides, both acid and basic, which by combination
form salts also of binary form), and organic compounds as
ternary, i.e. composed of three elements; furthermore, he
concluded that inorganic compounds could be synthesized,
whereas organic compounds could not. A consequence of this
empirical division was that marsh gas, ethylene and cyanogen
were regarded as inorganic, and at a later date many other
hydrocarbons of undoubtedly organic nature had to be included
in the same division.

The binary conception of compounds held by Berzelius received
apparent support from the observations of Gay Lussac, in 1815,
on the vapour densities of alcohol and ether, which pointed to
the conclusion that these substances consisted of one molecule
of water and one and two of ethylene respectively; and from
Pierre Jean Robiquet and Jean Jacques Colin, showing, in 1816,
that ethyl chloride (hydrochloric ether) could be regarded as
a compound of ethylene and hydrochloric acid.2 Compound
radicals came to be regarded as the immediate constituents of
organic compounds; and, at first, a determination of their
empirical composition was supposed to be sufficient to char-
acterize them. To this problem there was added another in
about the third decade of the ipth century — namely, to determine
the manner in which the atoms composing the radical were
combined; this supplementary requisite was due to the dis-
covery of the isomerism of silver fulminate and silver cyanate
by Justus von Liebig in 1823, and to M. Faraday's discovery of
butylene, isomeric with ethylene, in 1825.

The classical investigation of Liebig and Friedrich Wohler
on the radical of benzoic acid (" Uber das Radikal der Benzoe-
saure," Ann. Chem., 1832, 3, p. 249) is to be regarded as a most
important contribution to the radical theory, for it was shown
that a radical containing the elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, which they named benzoyl (the termination yl coming
from the Gr. OXij, matter), formed the basis of benzaldehyde,
benzoic acid, benzoyl chloride, benzoyl bromide and benzoyl
sulphide, benzamide and benzoic ether. Berzelius immediately
appreciated the importance of this discovery, notwithstanding

1 The reader is specially referred to the articles ALIZA RIN ; INDIGO ;
PURIN and TERPENES for illustrations of the manner in which
chemists have artificially prepared important animal and vegetable
products.

1 These observations were generalized by J. B. Dumas and
Polydore Boullay (1806-1835) in their " etherin theory " (vide infra).

that he was compelled to reject the theory that oxygen could
not play any part in a compound radical — a view which he
previously considered as axiomatic; and he suggested the
names " proin " or " orthrin " (from the Gr. irptai and 6p0pos,
at dawn). However, in 1833, Berzelius reverted to his earlier
opinion that oxygenated radicals were incompatible with his
electrochemical theory; he regarded benzoyl as an oxide of the
radical CnHio, which he named " picramyl " (from irucpfa,
bitter, and ayuirySaXij, almond), the peroxide being anhydrous
benzoic acid; and he dismissed the views of Gay Lussac and
Dumas that ethylene was the radical of ether, alcohol and ethyl
chloride, setting up in their place the idea that ether was a
suboxide of ethyl, (CzHj)^, which was analogous to KjO, while
alcohol was an oxide of a radical CjHe; thus annihilating any
relation between these two compounds. This view was modified
by Liebig, who regarded ether as ethyl oxide, and alcohol as the
hydrate. of ethyl oxide; here, however, he was in error, for he
attributed to alcohol a molecular weight double its true value.
Notwithstanding these errors, the value of the " ethvl theory "
was perceived; other radicals — formyl, methyl, amyl, acetyl,
&c. — were characterized; Dumas, in 1837, admitted the failure
of the etherin theory; and, in company with Liebig, he defined
organic chemistry as the "chemistry of compound radicals."
The knowledge of compound radicals received further increment
at the hands of Robert W. Bunsen, the discoverer of the cacodyl
compounds.

The radical theory, essentially dualistic in nature in view of
its similarity to the electrochemical theory of Berzelius, was
destined to succumb to a unitary theory. Instances had already
been recorded of cases where a halogen element replaced hydrogen
with the production of a closely allied substance: Gay Lussac
had prepared cyanogen chloride from hydrocyanic acid; Faraday,
hexachlorethane from ethylene dichloride, &c. Here the electro-
negative halogens exercised a function similar to electro-positive
hydrogen. Dumas gave especial attention to such substitutions,
named metakpsy GueraXr^is, exchange); and framed the
following empirical laws to explain the reactions: — (i) a body
containing hydrogen when substituted by a halogen loses one
atom of hydrogen for every atom of halogen introduced; (2) the
same holds if oxygen be present, except that when the oxygen
is present as water the latter first loses its hydrogen without
replacement, and then substitution according to (i) ensues.
Dumas went no further that thus epitomizing his observations;
and the next development was made in 1836 by Auguste Laurent,
who, having amplified and discussed the applicability of Dumas'
views, promulgated his Nucleus Theory, which assumed the
existence of " original nuclei or radicals " (radicaux or noyaux
fondamentaux) composed of carbon and hydrogen, and " derived
nuclei " (radicaux or noyaux derives) formed from the original
nuclei by the substitution of hydrogen or the addition of other
elements, and having properties closely related to the primary
nuclei.

Vigorous opposition was made by Liebig and Berzelius, the
latter directing his attack against Dumas, whom he erroneously
believed to be the author of what was, in his opinion, a pernicious
theory. Dumas repudiated the accusation, affirming that he
held exactly contrary views to Laurent; but only to admit
their correctness in 1839, when, from his own researches and
those of Laurent, Malaguti and Regnault, he formulated his
type theory. According to this theory a " chemical type "
embraced compounds containing the same number of equivalents
combined in a like manner and exhibiting similar properties;
thus acetic and trichloracetic acids, aldehyde and chloral, marsh
gas and chloroform are pairs of compounds referable to the same
type. He also postulated, with Regnault, the existence of
" molecular or mechanical types " containing substances which,
although having the same number of equivalents, are essentially
different in characters. His unitary conceptions may be sum-
marized: every chemical compound forms a complete whole,
and cannot therefore consist of two parts; and its chemical
character depends primarily upon the arrangement and number
of the atoms, and, in a lesser degree, upon their chemical nature.

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

49

More emphatic opposition to the dualistic theory of Berzelius
was hardly possible; this illustrious chemist perceived that the
validity of his electrochemical theory was called in question,
and therefore he waged vigorous war upon Dumas and his
followers. But he fought in a futile cause; to explain the facts
put forward by Dumas he had to invent intricate and involved
hypotheses, which, it must be said, did not meet with general
acceptance; Liebig seceded from him, and invited Wohler to
endeavour to correct him. Still, till the last Berzelius remained
faithful to his original theory; experiment, which he had hitherto
held to be the only sure method of research, he discarded, and
in its place he substituted pure speculation, which greatly injured
the radical theory. At the same time, however, the conception
of radicals could not be entirely displaced, for the researches of
Liebig and Wohler, and those made subsequently by Bunsen,
demonstrated beyond all doubt the advantages which would
accrue from theif correct recognition.

A step forward — the fusion of Dumas' type theory and the
radical theory — was made by Laurent and Charles Gerhardt.
As early as 1842, Gerhardt in his Prtcis de chimie organique
exhibited a marked leaning towards Dumas' theory, and it is
without doubt that both Dumas and Laurent exercised con-
siderable influence on his views. Unwilling to discard the strictly
unitary views of these chemists, or to adopt the copulae theory
of Berzelius, he revived the notion of radicals in a new form.
According to Gerhardt, the process of substitution consisted
of the union of two residues to form a unitary whole; these
residues, previously termed " compound radicals," are atomic
complexes which remain over from the interaction of two
compounds. Thus, he interpreted the interaction of benzene
and nitric acid as C,H6+HNO3= C6H6NO2+H2O, the "residues"
of benzene being CisH5 and H, and of nitric acid HO and NOj.
Similarly he represented the reactions investigated by Liebig
and Wohler on benzoyl compounds as double decompositions.

This rejuvenation of the notion of radicals rapidly gained
favour; and the complete fusion of the radical theory with the
theory of types was not long delayed. In 1849 C. A. Wurtz
discovered the amines or substituted ammonias, previously
predicted by Liebig; A. W. von Hofmann continued the investi-
gation, and established their recognition as ammonia in which
one or more hydrogen atoms had been replaced by hydrocarbon
radicals, thus formulating the " ammonia type." In 1850
A. W. Williamson showed how alcohol and ether were to be
regarded as derived from water by substituting one or both
hydrogen atoms by the ethyl group; he derived acids and the
acid anhydrides from the same type; and from a comparison
of many inorganic and the simple organic compounds he con-
cluded that this notion of a " water-type " clarified, in no small
measure, the conception of the structure of compounds.

These conclusions were co-ordinated in Gerhardt's " new
theory of types." Taking as types hydrogen, hydrochloric acid,
water and ammonia, he postulated that all organic compounds
were referable to these four forms: the hydrogen type included
hydrocarbons, aldehydes and ke tones; the hydrochloric acid
type, the chlorides, bromides and iodides; the water type, the
alcohols, ethers, monobasic acids, acid anhydrides, and the
analogous sulphur compounds; and the ammonia type, the
amines, acid-amides, and the analogous phosphorus and arsenic
compounds. The recognition of the polybasicity of acids,
which followed from the researches of Thomas Graham and
Liebig, had caused Williamson to suggest that dibasic acids could
be referred to a double water type, the acid radical replacing an
atom of hydrogen in each water molecule; while his discovery
of tribasic formic ether, CH(OC2HJ3, in 1854 suggested a triple
water type. These views were extended by William Odling, and
adopted by Gerhardt, but with modifications of Williamson's
aspects. A further generalization was effected by August
Kekule, who rejected the hydrochloric acid type as unnecessary,
and introduced the methane type and condensed mixed types.
Pointing out that condensed types can only be fused with a
radical replacing more than one atom of hydrogen, he laid the
foundation of the doctrine of valency, a doctrine of incalcul-

able service to the knowledge of the structure of chemical
compounds.

At about the same time Hermann Kolbe attempted a re-
habilitation, with certain modifications, of the dualistic con-
ception of Berzelius. He rejected the Berzelian tenet as to the
unalterability of radicals, and admitted that they exercised a
considerable influence upon the compounds with which they were
copulated. By his own investigations and those of Sir Edward
Frankland it was proved that the radical methyl existed in
acetic acid; and by the electrolysis of sodium acetate, Kolbe
concluded that he had isolated this radical; in this, however,
he was wrong, for he really obtained ethane, CjHj, and not
methyl, CH3. From similar investigations of valerianic acid
he was led to conclude that fatty acids were oxygen compounds
of the radicals hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, &c., combined with the
double carbon equivalent Cj. Thus the radical of acetic acid,
acetyl,1 was C2H3-C2. (It will be noticed that Kolbe used the
atomic weights H=i, C = 6, O = 8, S=i6, &c.; his formulae,
however, were molecular formulae, i.e. the molecular weights
were the same as in use to-day.) This connecting link, Cz, was
regarded as essential, while the methyl, ethyl, &c. was but a
sort of appendage; but Kolbe could not clearly conceive the
manner of copulation.

The brilliant researches of Frankland on the organo-metallic
compounds, and his consequent doctrine of saturation capacity
or valency of elements and radicals, relieved Kolbe's views of
all obscurity. The doctrine of copulae was discarded, and in
1859 emphasis was given to the view that all organic compounds
were derivatives of inorganic by simple substitution processes.
He was thus enabled to predict compounds then unknown,
e.g. the secondary and tertiary alcohols; and with inestimable
perspicacity he proved intimate relations between compounds
previously held to be quite distinct. Lactic acid and alanine
were shown to be oxy- and amino-propionic acids respectively;
glycollic acid and glycocoll, oxy- and amino-acetic acids; salicylic
and benzamic acids, oxy- and amino-benzoic acids.

Another consequence of the doctrine of valency was that it
permitted the graphic representation of the molecule. The
" structure theory " (or the mode of linking of the atoms) of
carbon compounds, founded by Butlerow, Kekule and Couper
and, at a later date, marvellously enhanced by the doctrine of
stereo-isomerjsm, due to J. H. van't Hoff and Le Bel, occupies
such a position in organic chemistry that its value can never
be transcended. By its aid the molecule is represented as a
collection of atoms connected together by valencies in such a
manner that the part played by each atom is represented;
isomerism, or the existence of two or more chemically different
substances having identical molecular weights, is adequately
shown; and, most important of all, once the structure is
determined, the synthesis of the -compound is but a matter of
time.

In this summary the leading factors which have contributed
to a correct appreciation of organic compounds have so far been
considered historically, but instead of continuing this method it
has been thought advisable to present an epitome of present-day
conclusions, not chronologically, but as exhibiting the principles
and subject-matter of our science.

Classification of Organic Compounds.

An apt definition of organic chemistry is that it is " the study
of the hydrocarbons and their derivatives." This description,
although not absolutely comprehensive, serves as a convenient
starting-point for a preliminary classification, since a great
number of substances, including the most important, are directly
referable to hydrocarbons, being formed by replacing one or
more hydrogen atoms by other atoms or groups. Two distinct
types of hydrocarbons exist: (i) those consisting of an open
chain of carbon atoms — named the " aliphatic series " (&\(i<pap,
oil or fat), and (2) those consisting of a closed chain — the
" carbocyclic series." The second series can be further divided

1 This must not be confused with the modern acetyl, CHj-CO,
which at that time was known as acetoxyl.

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

into two groups: (i) those exhibiting properties closely analo-
gous to the aliphatic series — the polymethylenes (q.v.), and (2)
a series exhibiting properties differing in many respects from the
aliphatic and polymethylene compounds, and characterized by
a peculiar stability which is to be associated with the disposi-
tion of certain carbon valencies not saturated by hydrogen —
the " aromatic series." There also exists an extensive class of
compounds termed the " heterocyclic series " — these compounds
are derived from ring systems containing atoms other than
carbon; this class is more generally allied to the aromatic
series than to the aliphatic.

We now proceed to discuss the types of aliphatic compounds;
then, the characteristic groupings having been established, an
epitome of their derivatives will be given. Carbocyclic rings
will next be treated, benzene and its allies in some detail; and
finally the heterocyclic nuclei.

Accepting the doctrine of the tetravalency 06 carbon (its
divalency in such compounds as carbon monoxide, various
isocyanides, fulminic acid, &c., and its possible trivalency in
M. Gomberg's triphenyl-methyl play no part in what follows),
it is readily seen that the simplest hydrocarbon has the formula
CH», named methane, in which the hydrogen atoms are of
equal value, and which may be pictured as placed at the vertices
of a tetrahedron, the carbon atom occupying the centre. This
tetrahedral configuration is based on the existence of only one
methylene dichloride, two being necessary if the carbon valencies
were directed from the centre of a plane square to its corners,
and on the existence of two optical isomers of the formula
C.A.B.D.E., C being a carbon atom and A.B.D.E. being different
monovalent atoms or radicals (see STEREO-!SOMERISM). The
equivalence of the four hydrogen atoms of methane rested on
indirect evidence, e.g. the existence of only one acetic acid,
methyl chloride, and other monosubstitution derivatives — until
the experimental proof by L. Henry (Zeit. f. Phys. Chem., 1888,
2. P- 553), who prepared the four nitromethanes, CH3N2O, each
atom in methane being successively replaced by the nitro-group.

Henry started with methyl iodide, the formula of which we write
in the form C\,Hi,lieHd. This readily gave with silver nitrite a
nitromethane in which we may suppose the nitro-group to replace
the a hydrogen atom, i.e. C(NO2)<.Hi,HcH<f. The same methyl iodide
gave with potassium cyanide, acetonitril, which was hydrolysed to
acetic acid; this must be C(COOH}«H!,H(;H<i. Chlorination of this
substance gave a monochloracetic acid ; we will assume the chlorine
atom to replace the b hydrogen atom. This acid with silver nitrite
gave nitroacetic acid, which readily gave the second nitromethane,
CHatNO^HcHd, identical with the first nitromethane. From the
nitroacetic acid obtained above, malonic acid was prepared, and
from this a monochlormalonic acid was obtained ; we assume the
chlorine atom to replace the c hydrogen atom. This acid gives with
silver nitrite the corresponding nitromalonic acid, which readily
yielded the third nitromethane, CHaH6(NO2)cH<i, also identical with
the first. The fourth nitromethane was obtained from the nitro-
malonic acid previously mentioned by a repetition of the method
by which the third was prepared ; this was identical with the other
three.

Let us now consider hydrocarbons containing 2 atoms of
carbon. Three such compounds are possible according to the
number of valencies acting directly between the carbon atoms.
Thus, if they are connected by one valency, and the remaining
valencies saturated by hydrogen, we obtain the compound
H3C-CH3, ethane. This compound may be considered as
derived from methane, CH4, by replacing a hydrogen atom by
the monovalent group CHa, known as methyl; hence ethane
may be named " methylmethane." If the carbon atoms are
connected by two valencies, we obtain a compound H2C:CH2,
ethylene; if by three valencies, HCiCH, acetylene. These last
two compounds are termed unsaturated, whereas ethane is
saturated. It is obvious that we have derived three combinations
of carbon with hydrogen, characterized by containing a single,
double, and triple linkage; and from each of these, by the
substitution of a methyl group for a hydrogen atom, compounds
of the same nature result. Thus ethane gives H3C-CH2-CH3,
propane; ethylene gives H2C:CH-CH3, propylene; and acety-
lene gives HC • C-CH3, allylene. By continuing the introduction
of methyl groups we obtain three series of homologous hydro-

carbons given by the general formulae CBH2n+2, CnH*,, and
CnH2n-2, each member differing from the preceding one of the
same series by CHj. It will be noticed that compounds contain-
ing two double linkages will have the same general formula as
the acetylene series; such compounds are known as the " diole-
fines." Hydrocarbons containing any number of double or
triple linkages, as well as both double and triple linkages, are
possible, and a considerable number of such compounds have
been prepared.

A more complete idea of the notion of a compound radical follows
from a consideration of the compound propane. We derived this
substance from ethane by introducing a methvl group; hence it
may be termed " methylethane." Equally well we may derive it
from methane by replacing a hydrogen atom by the monovalent
group CHj-CHs, named ethyl; hence propane may be considered
as " ethylmethane." Further, since methane may be regarded as
formed by the conjunction of a methyl group with a hydrogen atom,
it may be named "methyl hydride"; similarly ethane is "ethyl
hydride," propane, " propyl hydride," and so on. The importance
of such groups as methyl, ethyl, &c. in attempting a nomenclature
of organic compounds cannot be overestimated ; these compound
radicals, frequently termed alkyl radicals, serve a similar purpose to
the organic chemist as the elements to the inorganic chemist.

In methane and ethane the hydrogen atoms are of equal value,
and no matter which one may be substituted by another element
or group the same compound will result. In propane, on the
other hand, the hydrogen atoms attached to the terminal
carbon atoms differ from those joined to the medial atom; we
may therefore expect to obtain different compounds according
to the position of the hydrogen atom substituted. By intro-
ducing a methyl group we may obtain CH3- CH2- CH2- CH»,
known as " normal " or n-butane, substitution occurring at a
terminal atom, or CH3-CH(CH3)-CH3, isobutane, substitution
occurring at the medial atom. From n-butane we may derive,
by a similar substitution of methyl groups, the two hydrocarbons:

(1) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3, and (2) CH3-CH(CH,)-CH2-CH3;
from isobutane we may also derive two compounds, one identical
with (2), and a new one (3) CH3(CH3)C(CH3)CH3. These
three hydrocarbons are isomeric, i.e. they possess the same
formula, but differ in constitution. We notice that they may
be differentiated as follows: (i) is built up solely of methyl and
•CH2- (methylene) groups and the molecule consists of a single
chain; such hydrocarbons are referred to as being normal;

(2) has a branch and contains the group- CH (methine) in which
the free valencies are attached to carbon atoms; such hydro-
carbons are termed secondary or iso-; (3) is characterized by a
carbon atom linked directly to four other carbon atoms; such
hydrocarbons are known as tertiary.

Deferring the detailed discussion of cyclic or ringed hydro-
carbons, a correlation of the various types or classes of compounds
which may be derived from hydrocarbon nuclei will now be given.
It will be seen that each type depends upon a specific radical
or atom, and the copulation of this character with any hydro-
carbon radical (open or cyclic) gives origin to a compound of
the same class.

It is convenient first to consider the effect of introducing one,
two, or three hydroxyl (OH) groups into the -CH3, > CH2, and
>-CH groups, which we have seen to characterize the different
types of hydrocarbons. It may be noticed here that cyclic
nuclei can only contain the groups > CH2. and >• CH, the first
characterizing the polymethylene and reduced heterocyclic
compounds, the second true aromatic compounds.

Substituting one hydroxyl group into each of these residues, we
obtain radicals of the type-CH2-OH, >CH-OH, and >C-OH;
these compounds are known as alcohols (q.v.), and are termed primary,
secondary, and tertiary respectively. Polymethylenes can give only
secondary and tertiary alcohols, benzene only tertiary ; these latter
compounds are known as phenols. A second hydroxyl group may be
introduced into the residues -CH2-OH and >CH-OH, with the
production of radicals of the form -CH(OH)2 and >C(OH)2.
Compounds containing these groupings are, however, rarely observed
(see CHLORAL), and it is generally found that when compounds of
these types are expected, the elements of water are split off, and the
typical groupings are reduced to — CH : O and > C : O. Compounds
containing the group — CH:O are known as aldehydes (q.v.), while
the group >C:O (sometimes termed the carbonyl or keto group)
characterizes the ketones (q.v.). A third hydroxyl group may be

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

introduced into the — CH : O residue with the formation of the radical
— C(OH):O; this is known as the carboxyl group, and characterizes
the organic acids.

Sulphur analogues of these oxygen compounds are known. Thus
the thio-alcohols or mercaptans (q.v.) contain the group — CHj-SH;
and the elimination of the elements of sulphuretted hydrogen
between two molecules of a thio-alcohol results in the formation of a
thio-ether or sulphide, RzS. Oxidation of thio-etbers results in the
formation of sulphoxides, R2:S:O, and sulphones, R2:SO2;
oxidation of mercaptans yields sulphonic acids, R-SOsH, and of
sodium mercaptides sulphinic acids, R-Sp(OH). We may also
notice that thio-ethers combine with alkyl iodides to form sulphine
or sulphonium compounds, Ra • SI. Thio-aldehydes, thio-ketones
and thio-acids also exist.

We proceed to consider various simple derivatives of the
alcohols, which we may here regard as hydroxy hydrocarbons,
R-OH, where R is an alkyl radical, either aliphatic or cyclic in
nature.

Of these, undoubtedly the simplest are the ethers (q.v.), formed by
the elimination of the elements of water between two molecules of
the same alcohol, " simple ethers," or of different alcohols, " mixed
ethers." These compounds may be regarded as oxides in just the
same way as the alcohols are regarded as hydroxides. In fact, the
analogy between the alkyl groups and metallic elements forms a
convenient basis from which to consider many derivatives. Thus
from ethyl alcohol there can be prepared compounds, termed esters
(q.v.), or ethereal salts, exactly comparable in structure with corres-
ponding salts of, say, potassium; by the action of the phosphorus
haloids, the hydroxyl group is replaced by a halogen atom with the
formation of derivatives of the type R-Cl(Br,I); nitric acid forms
nitrates, R-O-NO2; nitrous acid, nitrites, R-O-NO; sulphuric acid
gives normal sulphates R2SO4, or acid sulphates, R-SO4H. Organic
acids also condense with alcohols to form similar compounds: the
fats, waxes, and essential oils are naturally occurring substances of
this class.

An important class of compounds, termed amines (q.v.), results
from the condensation of alcohols with ammonia, water being
eliminated between the alcoholic hydroxyl group and a hydrogen
atom of the ammonia. Three types of amines are possible and have
been prepared: primary, R-NH2; secondary, R2: NH; and tertiary,
R3:N;the examines, R3N:O, are closely related to the tertiary
ammonias, which also unite with a molecule of alkyl iodide to form
salts of quaternary ammonium bases, e.g. R»N-I. It is worthy of
note that phosphorus and arsenic bases analogous to the amines
are known (see PHOSPHORUS and ARSENIC). From the primary
amines are derived the diazo compounds (q.v.) and azo compounds
(q.v.); closely related are the hydrazines (q.v.). Secondary amines
yield nitrosamines, R2N-NO, with nitrous acid. By the action of
hydroxylamine or phenylhydrazine on aldehydes or ketones, con-
densation occurs between the carbonyl oxygen of the aldehyde or
ketone and the amino group of the hydroxylamine or hydrazine.
Thus with hydroxylamine aldehydes yield aldoximes, R-CH : N-OH,
and ketones, ketoximes, R2C:N-OH (see OXIMES), while phenyl
hydrazine gives phenylhydrazones, R2C:N-NH-CeH5 (see HYDRA-
ZONES). _ Oxyaldehydes and oxyketones (viz. compounds containing
an oxy in addition to an aldehydic or ketonic group) undergo
both condensation and oxidation when treated with phenylhydrazine,
forming compounds known as osozones; these are of great import-
ance in characterizing the sugars (q.v.).

The carboxyl group constitutes another convenient starting-
point for the orientation of many types of organic compounds.
This group may be considered as resulting from the fusion of a
carbonyl (:CO) and a hydroxyl (HO-) group; and we may
expect to meet with compounds bearing structural resemblances
to the derivatives of alcohols and aldehydes (or ketones).

Considering derivatives primarily concerned with transformations
of the hydroxyl group, we may regard our typical acid as a fusion
of a radical R-CO — (named acetyl, propionyl, butyl, &c., generally
according to the name of the hydrocarbon containing the same
number of carbon atoms) and a hydroxyl group. By replacing the
hydroxyl group by a halogen, acid-haloids result ; by the elimination
of the elements of water between two molecules, acid-anhydrides,
which may be oxidized to acid-peroxides; by replacing the hydroxyl
group by the group -SH, thio-acids; by replacing it by the amino
group, acid-amides (q.v.); by replacing it by the group — NH-NHj,
acid-hydra zides. The structural relations of these compounds are
here shown :

R-CO-OH; R-CO-C1; (R-CO)2O; R-CO-SH;

acid; acid-chloride; acid-anhydride; thio-acid;

R-CO-NH,; R-CO-NH-NH2.

acid-amide ; acid-hydrazide.

It is necessary clearly to distinguish such compounds as the
amino- (or amido-) acids and acid -amides; in the first case the
amino group is substituted in the hydrocarbon residue, in the second
it is substituted in the carboxyl group.

By transformations of the carbonyl group, and at the same time
of the hydroxyl group, many interesting types of nitrogen com-
pounds may be correlated.

Thus from the acid-amides, which we have seen to be closely related
to the acids themselves, we obtain, by replacing the carbonyl oxygen
by chlorine, the acidamido-chlorides, R-CClj-NHj, from which are
derived the imido-chlorides, R-CC1:NH, by loss of one molecule of
hydrochloric acid. By replacing the chlorine in the imido-chloride
by an oxyalkyl group we obtain the imido-ethers, R-C(OR'):NH;
and by an amino group, the amidines, R-C(NH»):NH. The
carbonyl oxygen may also be replaced by the oxime group, : N-OH ;
thus the acids yield the hydroxamic acids, R-C(OH) : NOH, and the
acid-amides the amidoximes, R-C(NH2) : NOH. Closely related to
the amidoximes are the nitrolic acids, R-C(NO2):NOH.

Cyclic Hydrocarbons and Nuclei.

Having passed in rapid review the various types of compounds
derived by substituting for hydrogen various atoms or groups of
atoms in hydrocarbons (the separate articles on specific com-
pounds should be consulted for more detailed accounts), we now
proceed to consider the closed chain compounds. Here we meet
with a great diversity of types: oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and
other elements may, in addition to carbon, combine together in a
great number of arrangements to form cyclic nuclei, which
exhibit characters Closely resembling open-chain compounds in
so far as they yield substitution derivatives, and behave as
compound radicals. In classifying closed chain compounds, the
first step consists in dividing them into: (i) carbocyclic, in which
the ring is composed solely of carbon atoms — these are also
known as homocyclic or isocyclic on account of the identity of the
members of the ring — and (2) heterocyclic, in which different
elements go to make up the ring. Two primary divisions of
carbocyclic compounds may be conveniently made: (i) those
in which the carbon atoms are completely saturated — these are
known by the generic term polymethylenes, their general formula
being (CH2)n: it will be noticed that they are isomeric with
ethylene and its homologues; they differ, however, from this
series in not containing a double linkage, but have a ringed
structure; and (2) those containing fewer hydrogen atoms than
suffice to saturate the carbon valencies — these are known as the
aromatic compounds proper, or as benzene compounds, from the
predominant part which benzene plays in their constitution.

It was long supposed that the simplest ring obtainable con-
tained six atoms of carbon, and the discovery of trimethylene
in 1 88 2 by August Freund by the action of sodium on trimethylene
bromide, Br(CH2)3Br, came somewhat as a surprise, especially
in view of its behaviour with bromine and hydrogen bromide.
In comparison with the isomeric propylene, CH3-HC:CH2, it is
remarkably inert, being only very slowly attacked by bromine,
which readily combines with propylene. But on the other hand,
it is readily converted by hydrobromic acid into normal propyl
bromide, CH3-CH2-CH2Br. The separation of carbon atoms
united by single affinities in this manner at the time the observa-
tion was made was altogether without precedent. A similar
behaviour has since been noticed in other trimethylene deri-
vatives, but the fact that bromine, which usually acts so much
more readily than hydrobromic acid on unsaturated compounds,
should be so inert when hydrobromic acid acts readily is one still
needing a satisfactory explanation. A great impetus was given to
the study of polymethylene derivatives by the important and
unexpected observation made by W. H. Perkin, junr., in 1883,
that ethylene and trimethylene bromides are capable of acting
in such a way on sodium acetoacetic ester as to form tri- and tetra •
methylene rings. Perkin has himself contributed largely to our
knowledge of such compounds; penta- and hexa-methylene
derivatives have also received considerable attention (see
POLYMETHYLENES) .

A. von Baeyer has sought to explain the variations in stability
manifest in the various polymethylene rings by a purely
mechanical hypothesis, the " strain " or Spannungs theory
(Ber., 1885, p. 2277). Assuming the four valencies of the
carbon atom to be directed from the centre of a regular tetra-
hedron towards its four corners, the angle at which they meet
is 109° 28'. Baeyer supposes that in the formation of carbon

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

" rings " the valencies become deflected from their positions, and
that the tension thus introduced may be deduced from a com-
parison of this angle with the angles at which the strained
valencies would meet. He regards the amount of deflection as
a measure of the stability of the " ring." The readiness with
which ethylene is acted on in comparison with other types of
hydrocarbon, for example, is in harmony, he considers, with
the circumstance that the greatest distortion must be involved
in its formation, as if deflected into parallelism each valency will
be drawn out of its position through ^.109° 28'. The values in
other cases are calculable from the formula $(109° 28'— a), where
a is the internal angle of the regular polygon contained by sides
equal in number to the number of the carbon atoms composing
the ring. These values are: —

Trimethylene. Tetramethylene.

i(i09°28'-6o°)=24044'. $(109° 28' -90*) =9° 44'.

Pentamethylene. Hexamethylene.

|(I09° 28'-io8°)=o° 44'. i(i09° 28' -120°) = -5° 16'.

The general behaviour of the several types of hydrocarbons is
certainly in accordance with this conception, and it is a remark-
able fact that when benzene is reduced with hydriodic acid, it is
converted into a mixture of hexamethylene and methylpenta-
methylene (cf. W. Markownikov, Ann., 1898, 302, p. i); and
many other cases of the conversion of six-carbon rings into five-
carbon rings have been recorded (see below, Decompositions of
the Benzene Ring). Similar considerations will apply to rings
containing other elements besides carbon. As an illustration it
may be pointed out that in the case of the two known types of
lactones — the 7-lactones, which contain four carbon atoms and
one oxygen atom in the ring, are more readily formed and more
stable (less readily hydrolysed) than the 5-lactones, which
contain one oxygen and five carbon atoms in the ring. That the
number of atoms which can be associated in a ring by single
affinities is limited there can be no doubt, but there is not yet
sufficient evidence to show where the limit must be placed. Baeyer
has suggested that his hypothesis may also be applied to explain
the instability of acetylene and its derivatives, and the still
greater instability of the polyacetylene compounds.

Benzene.

The ringed structure of benzene, C6H6, was first suggested in
1865 by August Kekule, who represented the molecule by six
CH groups placed at the six angles of a regular hexagon, the sides
of which denoted the valencies saturated by adjacent carbon
atoms, the fourth valencies of each carbon atom being represented
as saturated along alternate sides. This formula, notwithstand-
ing many attempts at both disproving and modifying it, has well
stood the test of time; the subject has been the basis of constant
discussion, many variations have been proposed, but the original
conception of Kekule remains quite as convenient as any of the
newer forms, especially when considering the syntheses and
decompositions of the benzene complex. It will be seen, however,
that the absolute disposition of the fourth valency may be
ignored in a great many cases, and consequently the complex may
be adequately represented as a hexagon. This symbol is in
general use; it is assumed that at each corner there is a CH
group which, however, is not always written in; if a hydrogen
atom be substituted by another group, then this group is
attached to the corner previously occupied by the displaced
hydrogen. The following diagrams illustrate these statements : — •

CH C-OH OH

HCPr n Hcfr n

HCI^CH L^ HCH^CH (^1

CH CH

Benzene, Ac*r«vuted.Oxytcn«ne. Abbreviated.

From the benzene nucleus we can derive other aromatic nuclei,
graphically represented by fusing two or more hexagons along
common sides. By fusing two nuclei we obtain the formula of
naphthalene, CioH8 ; by fusing three, the hydrocarbons anthracene
and phenanthrene, Ci4Hio; by fusing four, chrysene, CisHij, and
possibly pyrene, Ci«Hw; by fusing five, picene, C«Hu. But it
must be here understood that each member of these condensed nuclei
need not necessarily be identical in structure; thus the central
nuclei in anthracene and phenanthrene differ very considerably
from the terminal nuclei (see below, Condensed Nuclei). Other

com-
pound*.

hydrocarbon nuclei generally classed as aromatic in character result
from the union of two or more benzene nuclei joined by one or two
valencies with polymethylene or oxidized polymethylene rings;
instances of such nuclei are indene, hydrindene, nuorene, and fluor-
anthene. From these nuclei an immense number of derivatives may
be obtained, for the hydrogen atoms may be substituted by any
of the radicals discussed in the preceding section on the classification
of organic compounds.

We now proceed to consider the properties, syntheses, decom-
positions and constitution of the benzene complex. It has
already been stated that benzene derivatives may be Distlat-
regarded as formed by the replacement of hydrogen tioas
atoms by other elements or radicals in exactly the Jjf/^'fc
same manner as in the aliphatic series. Important aaj
differences, however, are immediately met with aromatic
when we consider the methods by which derivatives
are obtained. For example: nitric acid and sulphuric
acid readily react with benzene and its homologues with the
production of nitro derivatives and sulphonic acids, while in the
aliphatic series these acids exert no substituting action (in the
case of the olefines, the latter acid forms an addition product) ;
another distinction is that the benzene complex is more stable
towards oxidizing agents. This and other facts connected with
the stability of benzenoid compounds are clearly shown when
we consider mixed aliphatic-aromatic hydrocarbons, i.e. com-
pounds derived by substituting aliphatic radicals in the benzene
nucleus; such a compound is methylbenzene or toluene,
This compound is readily oxidized to benzoic acid,
the aromatic residue being unattacked; nitric
and sulphuric acids produce nitro-toluenes, CsHrCHj-NOz,
and toluene sulphonic acids, CeHcCHs-SOaH; chlorination
may result in the formation of derivatives substituted either
in the aromatic nucleus or in the side chain; the former substitu-
tion occurs most readily, chlor-toluenes, C6H4-CH3-C1, being
formed, while the latter, which needs an elevation in temperature
or other auxiliary, yields benzyl chloride, CeHs-CHjCl, and
benzal chloride, C6H6-CHC12. In general, the aliphatic residues
in such mixed compounds retain the characters of their class,
while the aromatic residues retain the properties of benzene.

Further differences become apparent when various typical
compounds are compared. The introduction of hydroxyl
groups into the benzene nucleus gives rise to compounds generic-
ally named phenols, which, although resembling the aliphatic
alcohols in their origin, differ from these substances in their
increased chemical activity and acid nature. The phenols
more closely resemble the tertiary alcohols, since the hydroxyl
group is linked to a carbon atom which is united to other carbon
atoms by its remaining three valencies; hence on oxidation they
cannot yield the corresponding aldehydes, ketones or acids
(see below, Decompositions of the Benzene Ring). The amines
also exhibit striking differences: in the aliphatic series these
compounds may be directly formed from the alkyl haloids and
ammonia, but in the benzene series this reaction is quite im-
possible unless the haloid atom be weakened by the presence of
other substituents, e.g. nitro groups. Moreover, while methyl-
amine, dimethylamine, and trimethylamine increase in basicity
corresponding to the introduction of successive methyl groups,
phenylamine or aniline, diphenylamine, and triphenylamine
are in decreasing order of basicity, the salts of diphenylamine
being decomposed by water. Mixed aromatic-aliphatic amines,
both secondary and tertiary, are also more strongly basic than
the pure aromatic amines, and less basic than the true aliphatic
compounds; e.g. aniline, CeHeNHj, monomethyl aniline,
C6H5-NH-CH3, and dimethyl aniline, C6H6-N(CH3)2, are in
increasing order of basicity. These observations may be sum-
marized by saying that the benzene nucleus is more negative
in character than the aliphatic residues.

Isomerism- of Benzene Derivatives. — Although Kekule founded
his famous benzene formula in 1865 on the assumptions that
the six hydrogen atoms in benzene are equivalent and that the
molecule is symmetrical, i.e. that two pairs of hydrogen atoms
are symmetrically situated with reference to any specified
hydrogen atom, the absolute demonstration of the validity of

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

53

these assumptions was first given by A. Ladenburg in 1874
(see Ber., 1874, 7, p. 1684; 1875, 8, p. 1666; Theorie der
aromatischen V erbindungen, 1876). These results may be
graphically represented as follows: numbering the hydrogen
atoms in cyclical order from i to 6, then the first thesis demands
that whichever atom is substituted the same compound results,
while the second thesis points out that the pairs 2 and 6, and 3
and 5 are symmetrical with respect to i, or in other words, the
di-substitution derivatives 1.2 and 1.6, and also 1.3 and 1.5 are
identical. Therefore three di-derivatives are possible, viz.
1.2 or 1.6, named art ho- (o), 1.3 or 1.5, named meta- (m), and
1.4, named para- compounds (/>). In the same way it may be
shown that three tri-substitution, three tetra-substitution, one
penta-substitution, and one hexa-substitution derivative are
possible. Of the tri-substitution derivatives, i.2.3.-compounds
are known as " adjacent " or " vicinal " (?), the 1.2.4 as " asym-
metrical " (as), the 1.3.5 as " symmetrical " (s); of the tetra-
substitution derivatives, i.2.3.4-compounds are known as
" adjacent," 1.2.3.5 as " asymmetrical," and 1.2.4.5 as " sym-
metrical."

Dtslerivatlves

Tri- derivatives

Tetra- derivatives

0

X XXX

o m p v as f v as s

Here we have assumed the substituent groups to be alike;
when they are unlike, a greater number of isomers is possible.
Thus in the tri-substitution derivatives six isomers, and no
more, are possible when two of the substituents are alike; for
instance, six diaminobenzoic acids, CaHsCNHz^COOH, are
known; when all are unlike ten isomers are possible; thus,
ten oxytoluic acids, C6H3-CH3-OH-COOH, are known. In the
case of tetra-substituted compounds, thirty isomers are possible
when all the groups are different.

The preceding considerations render it comparatively easy to
follow the reasoning on which the experimental verification of the

above statements is based. The proof is divided into two

ya'. parts: (i) that four hydrogen atoms are equal, and (2)

enceo that two pairs of hydrogen atoms are symmetrical with

~* reference toa specified hydrogen atom. In the first thesis,

phenol or oxybenzene,C«Hs-OH, in which we will assumethe
hydroxyl group to occupy position i, is converted into brombenzene,
which is then converted into benzoic acid, C6Hi-COOH. From this
substance, an oxybenzoic acid (meta-), CsHi-OH-COOH, may be
prepared; and the two other known oxybenzoic acids (ortho- and
para-) may be converted into benzoic acid. These three acids yield
on heating phenol, identical with the substance started with, and
since in the three oxybenzoic acids the hydroxyl groups must occupy
positions other than i, it follows that four hydrogen atoms are equal
in value.

R. Httbner and A. Petermann (Ann., 1869, 149, p. 129) provided

the proof of the equivalence of the atoms 2 and 6 with respect

„ _ to i. From meta-brombenzoicacid two nitrpbrombenzoic

f"aln ot ac'ds are obtained on direct nitration ; elimination of the

"hydrogen Drom'ne atom and the reduction of the nitro to an amino

group in these two acids resultsin the formation of the same

ortho-aminobenzoicacid. Hence the positionsoccupied by
the nitro groups in the two different nitrobrombenzoic acids must be
symmetrical with respect to the carboxyl group. In 1879, Hubner
(Ann., 195, p. 4) proved the equivalence of the second pair, viz.
3 and 5> by starting out with ortho-aminobenzoic acid, previously
obtained by two different methods. This substance readily yields
ortho-pxybenzoic acid or salicylic acid, which on nitration yields two
mononitro-pxybenzoic acids. By eliminating the hydroxy groups
in these acids the same nitrobenzoic acid is obtained, which yields
on reduction an aminobenzoic acid different from the starting-out
acid. Therefore there must be another pair of hydrogen atoms,
other than 2 and 6, which are symmetrical with respect to i. The
symmetry of the second pair was also established in 1878 by E.
Wroblewsky (Ann., 192, p. 196).

Orientation of Substituent Groups. — The determination of the
relative positions of the substituents in a benzene derivative
constitutes an important factor in the general investigation
of such compounds. Confining OUT attention, for the present, to
di-substitution products we see that there are three distinct
series of compounds to be considered. Generally if any group
be replaced by another group, then the second group enters the
nucleus in the position occupied by the displaced group; this

means that if we can definitely orientate three di-derivatives
of benzene, then any other compound, which can be obtained
from or converted into one of our typical derivatives, may be
definitely orientated. Intermolecular transformations — migra-
tions of substituent groups from one carbon atom to another —
are of fairly common occurrence among oxy compounds at
elevated temperatures. Thus potassium ortho-oxybenzoate is
converted into the salt of para-oxybenzoic acid at 220°; the
three bromphenols, and also the brombenzenesulphonic acids,
yield m-dioxybenzene or resorcin when fused with potash. It is
necessary, therefore, to avoid reactions involving such inter-
molecular migrations when determining the orientation of
aromatic compounds.

Such a series of typical compounds are the benzene dicarboxylic
acids (phthalic acids), C«H4(COOH),. C. Graebe (Ann., 1869, 149,
p. 22) orientated the ortho-compound or phthalic acid from its
formation from naphthalene on oxidation; the meta-compound or
isophthalic acid is orientated by its production from mesitylene,
shown by A. Ladenburg (Ann., 1875, 179, p. 163) to be symmetrical
trimethyl benzene; terephthalic acid, the remaining isomer, must
therefore be the para-compound.

P. Griess (Ber., 1872, 5, p. 192; 1874, 7, p. 1223) orientated the
three diaminobenzenes or phenylene diamines by considering their
preparation by the elimination of the carboxyl group in the six
diaminobenzoic acids. The diaminobenzene resulting from two of
these acids is the ortho-compound; from three, the meta-; and
from one the para- ; this is explained by the following scheme : —

NH3

NH,

NHS

Nil,

NHi

CT-

W. Korner (Gazz. Chem. Ital., 4, p. 305) in 1874 orientated the
three dibrpmbenzenes in a somewhat similar manner. Starting with
the three isomeric compounds, he found that one gave two tribrom-
benzenes, another gave three, while the third gave only one. A
scheme such as the preceding one shows that the first dibrombenzene
must be the ortho-compound, the second the meta-, and the third
the para-derivative. Further research in this direction was made by
D. E. Noetling (Ber., 1885, 18, p. 2657), who investigated the nitro-,
amino-, and oxy-xylenes in their relations to the three xylenes or
dimethyl benzenes.

The orientation of higher substitution derivatives is determined
by considering the di- and tri-substitution compounds into which
they can be transformed.

Substitution of the Benzene Ring. — As a general rule, homologues
and mono-derivatives of benzene react more readily with sub-
stituting agents than the parent hydrocarbon; for example,
phenol is converted into tribromphenol by the action of bromine
water, and into the nitrophenols by dilute nitric acid; similar
activity characterizes aniline. Not only does the substituent
group modify the readiness with which the derivative is attacked,
but also the nature of the product. Starting with a mono-
derivative, we have seen that a substituent group may enter
in either of three positions to form an ortho-, meta-, or para-
compound. Experience has shown that such mono-derivatives
as nitro compounds, sulphonic acids, carboxylic acids, aldehydes,
and ketones yield as a general rule chiefly the meta-compounds,
and this is independent of the nature of the second group in-
troduced; on the other hand, benzene haloids, amino-,
homologous-, and hydroxy-benzenes yield principally a mixture
of the ortho- and para-compounds. These facts are embodied
in the " Rule of Crum Brown and J. Gibson " (Jour. Chem. Soc.
61, p. 367): If the hydrogen compound of the substituent
already in the benzene nucleus can be directly oxidized to the
corresponding hydroxyl compound, then meta-derivatives
predominate on further substitution, if not, then ortho- and para-
derivatives. By further substitution of ortho- and para-di-
derivatives, in general the same tri-derivative [1.2.4] is formed
(Ann., 1878, 192, p. 219); meta-compounds yield [1.3.4] and
[1.2.3] tri-derivatives, except in such cases as when both sub-
stituent groups are strongly acid, e.g. m-dinitrobenzene, then
[i-3-Sl-derivatives are obtained.

Syntheses of the Benzene Ring.^- The characteristic distinctions

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

which exist between aliphatic and benzenoid compounds make
the transformations of one class into the other especially
interesting.

In the first place we may notice a tendency of several aliphatic
compounds, e.g. methane, tetrachlormethane, &c., to yield aromatic
compounds when subjected to a high temperature, tha so-called
pyrogenetic reactions (from Greek tnp, fire, and ytvviua, I produce) ;
the predominance of benzenoid, and related compounds — naphtha-
lene, anthracene, phenanthrene, &c. — in coal-tar is probably to be
associated with similar pyrocondensations. Long-continued treat-
ment with halogens may, in some cases, result in the formation of
aromatic compounds; thus perchlorbenzene, C«C16, frequently
appears as a product of exhaustive chlorination, while hexyl iodide,
CeHiiI, yields perchlor- and perbrom-benzene quite readily.

The trimolecular polymerization of numerous acetylene com-
pounds— substances containing two trebly linked carbon atoms,
— C:C — , to form derivatives of benzene is of considerable interest.
M. P. E. Berthelot first accomplished the synthesis of benzene in
1870 by leading acetylene, HC • CH, through tubes heated to dull
redness; at higher temperatures the action becomes reversible,
the benzene yielding diphenyl, diphenylbenzene, and acetylene.
The condensation of acetylene to benzene is also possible at ordinary
temperatures by leading the gas over pyrophoric iron, nickel,
cobalt, or spongy platinum (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens).
The homologues of acetylene condense more readily ; thus allylene,
CH ; C-CH3, and crotonylene, CH,-C : C-CH3, yield trimethyl- and
hexamethyl-benzene under the influence of sulphuric acid. Toluene
or mono-methylbenzene results from the pyrocondensation of a
mixture of acetylene and allylene. Substituted acetylenes also
exhibit this form of condensation; for instance, bromacetylene,
BrC : CH, is readily converted into tribrombenzene, while propiolic
acid, HC : C-COOH, under the influence of sunlight, gives benzene
tricarboxylic acid.

A larger and more important series of condensations may be
grouped together as resulting from the elimination of the elements
of water between carbonyl (CO) and methylene (CH2) groups.
A historic example is that of the condensation of three molecules of
acetone, CHj-CO-CHs, in the presence of sulphuric acid, to s-tri-
methylbenzene or mesitylene, C6H3(CH3)3, first observed in 1837 by
R. Kane; methylethyl ketone and methyl-n-propyl ketone suffer
similar condensations to j-triethylbenzene and i-tn-n-propylbenzene
respectively. Somewhat similar condensations are : of geranial or
citral. (CH3)2CH-CH2-CH:CH-C(CH3):CH-CHO, to £-isopropyl-
methylbenzene or cymene; of the condensation product of methyl-
ethylacrolein and acetone, CH3-CH2-CH:C(CH3)-CH:CH-CO-CH3,
to [I. 3. 4]-trimethylbenzene or pseudocumene; and of the con-
densation product of two molecules of isovaleryl aldehyde with one
of acetone, C3H7-CH2-CH:C(C3H7)-CH:CH-CO-CH3> to (i)-methyl-
2-4-di-isopropyl benzene. An analogous synthesis is that of di-
hydro-m-xylenefrommethylheptenone,(CH3)2C:CH-(CH2)2-CO-CH8.
Certain o-diketones condense to form benzenoid quinones, two
molecules of the diketone taking part in the reaction; thus diacetyl,
CHs-CO-CO-CHj, yields />-xyloquinone, C6H2(CH3)2O2 (Ber., 1888,

21, p. 1411), and acetylpropionyl, CHs-CO-CO-CzHs, yields duro-
quinone, or tetramethylquinone, C6(CH3)4O2, Oxymethylene com-
pounds, characterized by the grouping >C:CH(OH), also give
benzene derivatives by hydrolytic condensation between three
molecules; thus oxy methylene acetone, or formyl acetone,
CHs-CO-CH :CH (OH) , formed by acting on formic ester with acetone
in the presence of sodium ethylate, readily yields [i.3.5]-triacetyl-
benzene, C«H3(CO-CH3)3; oxymethylene acetic ester or formyl
acetic ester or 0-oxyacrylic ester, (HO)CH:CH-CO2C?H6, formed by
condensing acetic ester with formic ester, and also its dimolecular
condensation product, coumalic acid, readily yields esters of [1.3.5]-
benzene tricarboxylic acid or trimesic acid (see Ber., 1887, 20,
p. 2930).

In 1890, 0. Doebner (Ber. 23, p. 2377) investigated the condensation
of pyroracemic acid, CH3'CO-COOH, with various aliphatic alde-
hydes, and obtained from two molecules of the acid and one of the
aldehyde in the presence of baryta water alkylic isophthalic acids :
with acetaldehyde [i.3.5]-methylisophthalic acid or uvitic acid,
CdH3-CH8-(COOH)2, was obtained, with propionic aldehyde [1.3.5]-
ethylispphthalic acid, and with butyric aldehyde the corresponding
propylisophthalic acid. We may here mention the synthesis of
oxyuvitic ester (5-methyl-4-oxy-i-3-benzene dicarboxylic ester) by
the condensation of two molecules of sodium acetoacetic ester
with one of chloroform (Ann., 1883, 222, p. 249). Of other
syntheses of true benzene derivatives, mention may be made of
the formation of orcinol or [3'5]-dioxytoluene from dehydracetic
acid; and the formation of esters of oxytoluic acid (5-methyl-
3-oxy-benzoic acid), C«H3-CH3-OH-COOH,when acetoneoxalic ester,
CHs-CO-CHj-CO-CO-COijCjHj, is boiled with baryta (Ber., 1889,

22, p. 3271). Of interest also are H. B. Hill and J. Torray's observa-
tions on nitromalonic aldehyde, NO2-CH(CHO)2,formed by acting on
mucobromic acid, probably CHO-CBr:CBr:COOH, with alkaline
nitrites; this substance condenses with acetone to give ^-nitrophenol,
and forms [i.3.s]-trinitrobenzene when its sodium salt is decomposed
with an acid.

By passing carbon monoxide over heated potassium J. von Liebig

discovered, in 1834, an interesting aromatic compound, potassium
carbon monoxide or potassium hexaoxybenzene, the nature of
which was satisfactorily cleared up by R. Nietzki and T. Benckiser
(Ber. 1 8, p. 499) in 1885, who showed that it yielded hexaoxy-
benzene, C»(pH)«, when acted upon with dilute hydrochloric acid;
further investigation of this compound brought to light a consider-
able number of highly interesting derivatives (see QUINONES).
Another hexa-substituted benzene compound capable of direct
synthesis is mellitic acid or benzene carboxylic acid, Ce(COOH)6.
This substance, first obtained from the mineral honeystone, alu-
minium mellitate, by M. H. Klaproth in 1799, is obtained when pure
carbon (graphite or charcoal) is oxidized by alkaline permanganate,
or when carbon forms the positive pole in an electrolytic cell (Ber.,
1883, 16, p. 1209). The composition of this substance was deter-
mined by A. von Baeyer in 1870, who obtained benzene on distilling
the calcium salt with lime.

Hitherto we have generally restricted ourselves to syntheses
which result in the production of a true benzene ring; but there
are many reactions by which reduced benzene rings are synthesized,
and from the compounds so obtained true benzenoid compounds
may be prepared. Of such syntheses we may notice: the con-
densation of sodium malonic ester to phloroglucin tricarboxyKc
ester, a substance which gives phloroglucin or trioxybenzene when
fused with alkalis, and behaves both as a triketohexamethylene
tricarboxylic ester and as a trioxybenzene tricarboxylic ester; the
condensation of succinic ester, (CH2-CO*C2Hj)2, under the influence
of sodium to succinosuccinic ester, a diketohexamethylene di-
carboxylic ester, which readily yields dioxyterephthalic acid and
hydroquinone (F. Herrmann, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 306; also see below,
Configuration of the Benzene Complex) ; the condensation of acetone
dicarboxylic ester with malonic ester to form triketohexamethylene
dicarboxylic ester (E. Rimini, Gazz. Chem., 1896, 26, (2), p. 374);
the condensation of acetone-di-propionic acid under the influence
of boiling water to a diketohexamethylene propionic acid (von
Pechmann and Sidgwick, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 3816). Many diketo
compounds suffer condensation between two molecules to form
hydrobenzene derivatives; thus a,-y-di-acetoglutaric ester,
C2H6O2C(CH,-CO)CH-CH2-CH(CO-CH3)CO2C2H6, yields a methyl-
ketohexamethylene,while7-acetobutyricester,CHsCO(CH2)2CO2C2Hj,
is converted into dihydroresorcinol or w-diketohexamethylene by
sodium ethylate; this last reaction is reversed by baryta (see De-
compositions of Benzene Ring). For other syntheses of hexamethylene
derivatives, see POLYMETHYLENES.

Decompositions of the Benzene Ring. — We have previously
alluded to the relative stability of the benzene complex; con-
sequently reactions which lead to its disruption are all the more
interesting, and have engaged the attention of many chemists.
If we accept Kekule's formula for the benzene nucleus, then we
may expect the double linkages to be opened up partially, either
by oxidation or reduction, with the formation of di-, tetra-, or
hexa-hydro derivatives, or entirely, with the production of open
chain compounds. Generally rupture occurs at more than one
point; and rarely are the six carbon 'atoms of the complex
regained as an open chain. Certain compounds withstand ring
decomposition much more strongly than others; for instance,
benzene and its homologues, carboxylic acids, and nitro com-
pounds are much more stable towards oxidizing agents than
amino- and oxy-benzenes, aminophenols, quinones, and oxy-
carboxylic acids.

Strong oxidation breaks the benzene complex into stfch compounds
as carbon dioxide, oxalic acid, formic acid, &c. ; such decompositions
are of little interest. More important are Kekule's Simpie
observations that nitrous acid oxidizes pyrocatechol or oxiaatloa.
[i.2]-dioxybenzene, and protocatechuic acid or [3.4]-
dioxybenzoic acid to dioxytartaric acid, (C(OH)2-COOH)2 (Ann.,
1883, 221, p. 230); and O. Doebner's preparation of mesotartaric
acid, the internally compensated tartaric acid, (CH(OH)-COOH)i,
by oxidizing phenol with dilute potassium permanganate (Ber., 1891,

24, p. 1753)-

For many years it had been known that a mixture of potassium
chlorate and hydrochloric or sulphuric acids possessed strong
oxidizing powers. L. Carius showed that potassium _ . .
chlorate and sulphuric acid oxidized benzene to trichlor- Jj£"
phenomalic acid, a substance afterwards investigated by .«-<;„„
Kekule and O. Strecker (Ann., 1884, 223, p. 170), and
shown to be 0-trichloracetoacrylic acid, CCl.-CO-CH :CH-COOH.
which with baryta gave chloroform and maleic acid. Potassium
chlorate and hydrochloric acid oxidize phenol, salicylic acid (o-oxy-
benzoic acid), and gallic acid ([2.3.4] trioxybenzoic acid) to tri-
chlorpyroracemic acid (isotrichlorglyceric acid), CC13-C(OH)2-CO2H,
a substance also obtained from trichloracetonitrile, CCls-CO-CN, by
hydrolysis. We may also notice the conversion of picric acid.
[2.4.6]-trinitrophenol) into chloropicrin, CChNOj, by bleaching lime
(calcium hypochlorite), and into bromopicrin, CBr3NO2, by bromine
water.

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

55

The action of chlorine upon di- and tri-pxybenzenes has been
carefully investigated by Th. Zincke; and his researches have led
to the discovery of many chlorinated oxidation products which admit
of decomposition into cyclic compounds containing fewer carbon
atoms than characterize the benzene ring, and in turn yielding open-
chain or aliphatic compounds. In general, the rupture occurs
between a keto group (CO) and a keto-chloride group (CC12), into
which two adjacent carbon atoms of the ring are converted by the
oxidizing and substituting action of chlorine. Decompositions of
this nature were first discovered in the naphthalene series, where it
was found that derivatives of indene (and of hydrindene and indone)
and also of benzene resulted; Zincke then extended his methods to
the disintegration of the oxybenzenes and obtained analogous
results, R-pentene and aliphatic derivatives being formed (R-
symbolizing a ringed nucleus).

When treated with chlorine, pyrocatechol (1.2 or ortho-dioxy-
benzene) (l) yields a tetrachlpr ortho-quinone, which suffers further
chlorination to hexachlor-o-diketo-R-hexene (2). This substance is
transformed into hexachlor-R-pentene oxycarboxylic acid (3) when
digested with water; and chromic acid oxidizes this substance to
hexachlor-R-pentene (4). The ring of this compound is ruptured by
caustic soda with the formation of perchlprvinyl acrylic acid (5),
which gives on reduction ethidine propionic acid (6), a compound
containing five of the carbon atoms originally in the benzene ring
(see Zincke, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 3364) (the carbon atoms are omitted in
some of the formulae).

OOH __
OH.

OH. C,o
CI-

ci

Ci

CI,

CCI
C COH

jH CH COjH
~

"cci.

CH3

(')

CI

(3) (4) <S> («)

Resorcin (1.3 or meta dioxybenzene) (i) is decomposed in a
somewhat similar manner. Chlorination in glacial acetic acid
solution yields pentachlor-m-diketo-R-hexene (2) and, at a later
stage, heptachlor-m-diketo-R-hexene (3). These compounds are
both decomposed by water, the former giving dichloraceto-trichlor-
crotonic acid (4), which on boiling with water gives dichlormethyl-
vinyl-a-diketone (5). The heptacnlor compound when treated with
chlorine water gives trichloraceto-pentachlorbutyric acid (6), which
is hydrolysed by alkalis to chloroform and pentachlorglutaric acid
(7^, and is converted by boiling water into tetrachlor-diketo-R-
pentene (8). This latter compound may be chlorinated to
perchloracetoacrylic chloride (9), from which the corresponding acid
(10) is obtained by treatment with water; alkalis hydrolyse the acid
to chloroform and dichlormaleic acid (n).

OH

0--

^C13,

I

(3)

r HO,C.CCI-CHCI-CCI,-CO-CCI,

HO2OCCl:CH-CCl2-CO-CHCIj . * (6) I

I (4)

CO2+C1HC:CH-CO-CO-CHCI2
(5)

HOjC-CClj-CHCl-CCl^COjH+CHCI.,
(7)

CO-CC1..

C1OC-CC1: CCI-CO-CCU— I ^CO (8)

. (9) CC1-CCK

HO2C-CCI:CC1-CO-CCI3 — - HO2C-CCI:CCI-CO2H+CHCl3
do) (n)

Hydroquinone (1.4 or para-dioxybenzene) (i) gives with chlorine,
first, a tetrachlorquinone (2), and then hexachlor-p-diketo-R-hexene
(3), which alcoholic potash converts into perchloracroylacrylic acid
(4). This substance, and also the preceding compound, is converted
by aqueous caustic soda into dichlormaleic acid, trichlorethylene,
and hydrochloric acid (5) (Th. Zincke and O. Fuchs, Ann., 1892,
267, p. i).

&.

-^ C'||1CI — C'|T|Cl2

at/ci ciLJa,

COOH

cic.

CO

CO.,H

CHCI

(«) <») (3) (4) (5)

Phlproglucin (i.3.5-trioxybenzene) (i) behaves similarly to
resorcin, hexachlor [1.3.5] triketo-R-hexylene (2) being first formed.
This compound is converted by chlorine water into octachloracetyl-
acetone (3) ; by methyl alcohol into the ester of dichlormalonic acid
and tetrachloracetone (4) ; whilst ammonia gives dichloracetamide
(5) (Th. Zincke and O. Kegel, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1706).

0
OH

-c'f>v:

ok^o
ci,

(4) Cl3HC-CO-CHCI,,+CH.i02C-CCl!iC0.1-CH.I
C12HC-CONH,

<0

When phenol is oxidized in acid solution by chlorine, tetrachlor-
quinone is obtained, a compound also obtainable from hydroquinone.
By conducting the chlorination in alkaline solution, n»dlJcWo
A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1889, 22, p. 1238) succeeded in ob- t ikallnt
taining derivatives of o-diketo-R-hexene, which yield TO/U</01|;
R-pentene and aliphatic compounds on decomposition.
When thus chlorinated phenol (i) yields trichlor-o-diketo-R-hexene
(2), which may be hydrolysed to an acid (3), which, in turn,
suffers rearrangement to trichlor-R-pentene-oxycarboxylic acid (4).
Bromine water oxidizes this substance to oxalic acid and tetrabrom-
dichloracetone (5).

OH o HOOC _. _ lC-OH

Ocij^No HCI2Ci NCO 'pCOOH ClaBrC-CO-CBr3t

H^Hr Hcl^JcH,"* "CVf CHj " HOaC-CO,H

CI
(»)

CCI
(3)

(i) (») (3) (4) (S)

The reduction of o-pxybenzoic acids by sodium in amyl alcohol
solution has been studied by A. Einhorn and J. S. Lumsden (Ann.,
1895, 286, p. 257). It is probable that tetrahydro acids are first
formed, which suffer rearrangement to orthoketpne carboxylic acids.
These substances absorb water and become pimelic acids. Thus
salicylic acid yields n-pimelic acid, HOOC-(CH,)»-COOH, while o-,
m-, and p-cresotinic acids, CeHj(CH8)(OH)(COOH), yield isomeric
methylpimelic acids.

Resorcin on reduction gives dihydroresorcin, which G. Merling
(Ann., 1894, 278, p. 20) showed to be converted into n-glutaric acid,
HOOC'(CH2)3-COOH, when oxidized with potassium permanganate;
according to D. Vorlander (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2348) it is converted
into -x-acetobutyric acid, CHjCO-(CH2)3-COOH, when heated with
baryta to 150-160°.

Configuration of the Benzene Complex. — The development of
the " structure theory " in about 1860 brought in its train an
appreciation of the chemical structure of the derivatives of
benzene. The pioneer in this field was August Kekule, who,
in 1865 (Ann., 137, p. 129; see also his Lehrbuch der organischen
Chemie), submitted his well-known formula for benzene, so
founding the " benzene theory " and opening up a problem
which, notwithstanding the immense amount of labour since
bestowed upon it, still remains imperfectly solved. Arguing
from the existence of only one mono-substitution derivative,
and of three di-derivatives (statements of which the rigorous
proof was then wanting), he was led to arrange the six carbon
atoms in a ring, attaching a hydrogen atom to each carbon
atom; being left with the fourth carbon valencies, he mutually
saturated these in pairs, thus obtaining the symbol I (see below).
The value of this ringed structure was readily perceived, but
objections were raised with respect to Kekule's disposal of the
fourth valencies. In 1866 Sir James Dewar proposed an un-
symmetrical form (II); while in 1867, A. Claus (Theorelische
Betrachtungen und deren A nwendung zur Systematik der organischen
Chemie) proposed his diagonal formula (III), and two years
later, A. Ladenburg (Ber., 2, p. 140) devised his prism formula
(IV), the six carbon atoms being placed at the six corners of a
right equilateral triangular prism, with its plane projections
(V, VI).

CH CH

t HCfTlCH

CH

I KekuU

Ladenburg

One of the earliest and strongest objections urged against Kekuld's
formula was that it demanded two isomeric prtho-di-substitution
derivatives; for if we number the carbon atoms in cyclical
order from I to 6, then the derivatives 1 .2 and 1 .6 should Objection*
be different.1 Ladenburg submitted that if the 1-2 and toKetult's
i .6 compounds were identical, then we should expect the formula.
two well-known crotonic acids, CHj-CH : CH-COOH and
CH2: CH-CH2-COOH, to be identical. This view was opposed by
Victor Meyer and Kekule1. The former pointed out that the supposed
isomerism was not due to an arrangement of atoms, but to the dis-
position of a valency, and therefore it was doubtful whether such a
subtle condition could exert any influence on the properties of the
substance. Kekuld answered Ladenburg by formulating a dynamic
interpretation of valency. He assumed that if we have one atom

1 It is now established that ortho compounds do exist in isomeric
forms, instances being provided by chlor-, brom-, and amino-toluene,
chlorphenol, and chloraniline; but arguments, e.g. E. Knoevenagel's
theory of " motoisomerism," have been brought forward to cause
these facts to support Kekule.

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

connected by single bonds to (say) four other atoms, then in a certain
unit of time it will collide with each of these atoms in turn. Now
suppose two of the attached atoms are replaced by one atom, then
this atom must have two valencies directed to the central atom;
and consequently, in the same unit of time, the central atom will
collide once with each of the two monovalent atoms and twice with
the divalent. Applying this notion to benzene, let us consider the
impacts made by the carbon atom (i) which we will assume to be
doubly linked to the carbon atom (2) and singly linked to (6), h
standing for the hydrogen atom. In the first unit of time, the
impacts are 2, 6, h, 2 ; and in the second 6, 2, h, 6. If we represent
graphically the impacts in the second unit of time, we perceive that
they point to a configuration in which the double linkage is between
the carbon atoms I and 6, and the single linkage between I and 2.
Therefore, according to KekuI6, the double linkages are in a state of
continual oscillation, and if his dynamical notion of valency, or a
similar hypothesis, be correct, then the difference between the 1.2
and 1.6 di-derivatives rests on the insufficiency of his formula,
which represents the configuration during one set of oscillations only.
The difference is only apparent, not real. An analogous oscillation
prevails in the pyrazol nucleus, for L. Knorr (Ann., 1894, 279, p. 188)
has shown that 3- and 5-methylpyrazols are identical.

The explanation thus attempted by Kekul6 was adversely criti-
cized, more especially by A. Ladenburg, who devoted much attention
to the study of the substitution products of benzene, and

Laden- tQ t^e suppOrt of h;s own formula. His views are presented
I in his pamphlet : Theorie der aromatischen Verbindungen,

burg's

1876. The prism formula also received support from the
following data : protocatechuic acid when oxidized by nitrous acid
gives carboxytartronic acid, which, on account of its ready de-
composition into carbon dioxide and tartronic acid, was considered
to be HO-C(COOH)3. This implied that in the benzene complex
there was at least one carbon atom linked to three others, thus
rendering Kekul6's formula impossible and Ladenburg's and Claus'
possible. Kekule1 (Ann., 1883, 221, p. 230), however, reinvestigated
this acid; he showed that it was dibasic and not tribasic; that it
gave tartaric acid on reduction; and, finally, that it was dioxy-
tartaric acid, HOOC-C(OH)2-C(OH)2-COOH. The formation of
this substance readily follows from Kekul6's formula, while con-
siderable difficulties are met with when one attempts an explanation
based on Ladenburg's representation. Kekute also urged that the
formation of trichlorphenomalic acid, shown by him and O. Strecker
to be trichloracetoacrylic acid, was more favourably explained by
his formula than by Ladenburg's.

Other objections to Ladenburg's formula resulted from A. von
Baeyer's researches (commenced in 1886) on the reduced phthalic
acids. Baeyer pointed out that although benzene deri-
Baeyer's vatives were obtainable from hexamethylene compounds,
researches. yet jt ^y no means follows that only hexamethylene
compounds need result when benzene compounds are reduced. He
admitted the possibility of the formulae of Kekule', Claus, Dewar
and Ladenburg, although as to the last di-trimethylene derivatives
should be possible reduction products, being formed by severing
two of the prism edges ; and he attempted to solve the problem by a
systematic investigation of the reduced phthalic acids.

Ladenburg's prism admits of one mono-substitution derivative
and three di-derivatives. Furthermore, it is in accordance with
certain simple syntheses of benzene derivatives (e.g. from acetylene
and acetone); but according to Baeyer (Ber., 1886, 19, p. 1797)
it fails to explain the formation of dioxyterephthalic ester from
succinosuccinic ester, unless we make the assumption that the
transformation of these substances is attended by a migration of the
substituent groups. For succinosuccinic ester, formed by the action
of sodium on two molecules of succinic ester, haseitherof theformulae
(I) or (II) ; oxidation of the free acid gives dioxyterephthalic acid in
which the para-positions must remain substituted as in (I) and (II).
By projecting Ladenburg's prism on a plane and numbering the
atoms so as to correspond with Kekule' 's form, viz. that 1.2 and 1.6
should be ortho-positions, 1.3 and 1.5 meta-, and 1.4 para-, and
following out the transformation on the Ladenburg formula, then
an ortho-dioxyterephthalic acid (IV) should result, a fact denied
by experience, and inexplicable unless we assume a wandering of
atoms. Kekute's formula (III), on the other hand, is in full agree-
ment (Baeyer). This explanation has been challenged by Ladenburg

CO

C-OH

HcX\CH-CO,Et

C-OH

CO

C-OH

Et HcXNc-COjEt
~KtO,C-cLJcH

(i)OH

cH

C-OH

(4)H

(Ber., 1886, 19, p. 971 ; Ber., 1887, 20, p. 62) and by A. K. Miller
(J.C.S. Trans., 1887, p. 208). The transformation is not one of the
oxidation of a hexamethylene compound to a benzenoid compound,
for only two hydrogen atoms are removed. Succinosuccinic ester
behaves both as a ketone and as a phenol, thereby exhibiting
desmotropy; assuming the ketone formula as indicating the con-
stitution, then in Baeyer's equation we have a migration of a
hydrogen atom, whereas to bring Ladenburg's formula into line,
an oxygen atom must migrate.

The relative merits of the formulae of Kekuld, Claus and Dewar
were next investigated by means of the reduction products of benzene,
it being Baeyer's intention to detect whether double linkages were
or were not present in the benzene complex.

To follow Baeyer's results we must explain his nomenclature of
the reduced benzene derivatives. We numbers the carbon atoms
placed at the corners of a hexagon from I to 6, and each side in the
same order, so that the carbon atoms I and 2 are connected by the
side i, atoms 2 and 3 by the side 2, and so on. A doubly linked pair
of atoms is denoted by the sign A with the index corresponding to
the side; if there are two pairs of double links, then indices corre-
sponding to both sides are employed. Thus A* denotes a tetrahydro
derivative in which the double link occupies the side I ; A1-3, a
dihydro derivative, the double links being along the sides i and 3.
Another form of isomerism is occasioned by spatial arrangements,
many of the reduced terephthalic acids existing in two stereo-isomeric
forms. Baeyer explains this by analogy with fumaric and maleic
acids: he assumes the reduced benzene ring to lie in a, plane; when
both carboxyl groups are on the same side of this plane, the acids,
in general, resemble maleic acids, these forms he denotes by Tcis-cis,
or shortly cis-; when the carboxyl groups are on opposite sides,
the acids correspond to fumaric acid, these forms are denoted by
Tcis-trans, or shortly trans-.

By reducing terephthalic acid with sodium amalgam, care being
taken to neutralize the caustic soda simultaneously formed by
passing in carbon dioxide, A2-6 dihydroterephthalic acid is obtained ;
this results from the splitting of a para-linkage. By boiling with
water the A2 5 acid is converted into the A1-' dihydroterephthalic
acid. This acid is converted into the A1-4 acid by soda, and into the
A2 tetrahydro acid by reduction. From this acid the A1-' dihydro
and the A1 tetrahydro acids may be obtained, from both of which
the hexahydro acid may be prepared. From these results Baeyer
concluded that Claus' formula with three para-linkings cannot
possibly be correct, for the A2-6 dihydroterephthalic acid undoubtedly
has two ethylene linkages, since it readily takes up two or four
atoms of bromine, and is oxidized in warm aqueous solution by
alkaline potassium permanganate. But the formation of the A2-*
acid as the first reduction product is not fully consistent with
Kekul6's symbol, for we should then expect the A1-3 or the A1-6 acid
to be first formed (see also POLYMETHYLENES).

The stronger argument against the ethylenoid linkages
demanded by Kekule's formula is provided by the remark-
able stability towards oxidizing and reducing agents which
characterizes all benzenoid compounds. From the fact that
reduction products containing either one or two double linkages
behave exactly as unsaturated aliphatic compounds, being
readily reduced or oxidized, and combining with the halogen
elements and haloid acids, it seems probable that in benzenoid
compounds the fourth vilencies are symmetrically distributed
in such a manner as to induce a peculiar stability in the molecule.
Such a configuration was proposed in 1887 by H. E. Armstrong
(J.C.S. Trans., 1887, p. 258), and shortly afterwards by Baeyer
(Ann., 1888, 245, p. 103). In this formula, the so-called "_ centric
formula," the assumption made is that the fourth valencies are
simply directed towards the centre of the ring; nothing further
is said about the fourth valencies except that they exert a
pressure towards the centre. Claus maintained that Baeyer's
view was identical with his own, for as in Baeyer's formula, the
fourth valencies have a different function from the peripheral
valencies, being united at the centre in a form of potential
union.

It is difficult to determine which configuration most accurately
explains the observed facts; Kekule's formula undoubtedly
explains the synthetical production of benzenoid compounds
most satisfactorily, and W. Marckwald (Ann., 1893, 274, p. 331;
1894, 279, p. 14) has supported this formula from considerations
based on the syntheses of the quinoline ring. Further researches
by Baeyer, and upon various nitrogenous ring systems by E.
Bamberger (a strong supporter of the centric formula), have
shown that the nature of the substituent groups influences the
distribution of the fourth valencies; therefore it may be con-
cluded that in compounds the benzene nucleus appears to be
capable of existence in two tautomeric forms, in the sense that
each particular derivative possesses a definite constitution.
The benzene nucleus presents a remarkable case, which must be
considered in the formulation of any complete theory of valency.
From a study of the reduction of compounds containing two
ethylenic bonds united by a single bond, termed a " conjugated
system," E. Thick suggested a doctrine of " partial valencies,"

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

57

which assumes that in addition to the ordinary valencies, each
doubly linked atom has a partial valency, by which the atom first
interacts. When applied to benzene, a twofold conjugated
system is suggested in which the partial valencies of adjacent
atoms neutralize, with the formation of a potential double link.
The stability of benzene is ascribed to this conjugation.1

Physico-chemical properties have also been drawn upon to
decide whether double unions are present in the benzene com-
plex; but here the predilections of the observers
d?emtai/ apparently influence the nature of the conclusions to
'methods, be drawn from such data. It is well known that
singly, doubly and trebly linked carbon atoms affect
the physical properties of substances, such as the refractive
index, specific volume, and the heat of combustion; and by
determining these constants for many substances, fairly definite
values can be assigned to these groupings. The general question
of the relation of the refractive index to constitution has been
especially studied by J. W. Briihl, who concluded that benzene
contained 3 double linkages; whereas, in 1901, Pellini (Gazetta,
31, i. p. i) calculated that 9 single linkages were present. A
similar contradiction apparently exists with regard to the
specific volume, for while benzene has a specific volume corre-
spinding to Glaus' formula, toluene, or methylbenzene, rather
points to Kekule's. The heat of combustion, as first determined
by Julius Thomsen, agreed rather better with the presence of
nine single unions. His work was repeated on a finer scale by
M. P. E. Berthelot of Paris, and F. C. A. Stohmann of Leipzig;
and the new data and the conclusions to be drawn from them
formed the subject of much discussion, Briihl endeavouring
to show how they supported Kekule's formula, while Thomsen
maintained that they demanded the benzene union to have a
different heat of combustion from the acetylene union. Thomsen
then investigated heats of combustion of various benzenoid
hydrocarbons — benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene,
&c. — in the crystallized state. It was found that the results
were capable of expression by the empirical relation C<,H2»=
I04-3&+49-09W+I05-47W, where CaH2» denotes the formula
of the hydrocarbon, m the number of single carbon linkings and
n the number of double linkings, m and n being calculated on
the Kekule formulae. But, at the same time, the constants in
the above relation are not identical with those in the corre-
sponding relation empirically deduced from observations on fatty
hydrocarbons; and we are therefore led to conclude that a
benzene union is considerably more stable than an ethylene
union.

Mention may be made of the absorption spectrum of benzene.
According to W. N. Hartley (J.C.S., 1905, 87, p. 1822), there
are six bands in the ultra-violet, while E. C. C. Baly and J. N.
Collie (J.C.S., 1905, 87, p. 1332; 1906, 89, p. 524) record seven.
These bands are due to molecular oscillations; Hartley suggests
the carbon atoms to be rotating and forming alternately single
and double linkages, the formation of three double links giving
three bands, and of three single links another three; Baly and
Collie, on the other hand, suggest the making and breaking of
links between adjacent atoms, pointing out that there are seven
combinations of one, two and three pairs of carbon atoms in the
benzene molecule.

Stereo-chemical Configurations. — Simultaneously with the dis-
cussions of Kekule, Ladenburg, Claus, Baeyer and others as to the
merits of various plane formulae of the benzene complex, there
were published many suggestions with regard to the arrange-
ment of the atoms in space, all of which attempted to explain
the number of isomers and the equivalence of the hydrogen
atoms. The development of stereo-isomerism at the hands of

1 Victor Meyer and G. Heyl (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2776) attempted a
solution from the following data. It is well known that di-ortho-
substituted benzoic acids are esterified with difficulty. Two acids
corresponding to the formula of Kekul<5 and Claus are triphenyl
acrylic acid, (C,H5)2C: C(COOH)-C6H6, and triphenyl acetic acid,
(C,Hj)»C-COOH. Experiments showed that the second acid was
much more difficult to esterify than the first, pointing to the con-
clusion that Claus' formula for benzene was more probable than
Kekul6's.

J. Wislicenus, Le Bel and van 't Hoff has resulted in the intro-
duction of another condition which formulae for the benzene
complex must satisfy, viz. that the hydrogen atoms must all
lie in one plane. The proof of this statement rests on the fact
that if the hydrogen atoms were not co-planar, then substitution
derivatives (the substituting groups not containing asymmetric
carbon atoms) should exist in enantiomorphic forms, differing in
crystal form and in their action on polarized light; such optical
antipodes have, however, not yet been separated. Ladenburg's
prism formula would give two enantiomorphic ortho-di-substi-
tution derivatives; while forms in which the hydrogen atoms
are placed at the corners of a regular octahedron would yield
enantiomorphic tri-substitution derivatives.

The octahedral formula discussed by Julius Thomsen (Ber., 1886,
19, p. 2944) consists of the six carbon atoms placed at the corners
of a regular octahedron, and connected together by the full lines as
shown in (I) ;_ a plane projection gives a hexagon with diagonals
(II). Reduction to hexamethylene compounds necessitates the
disruption of three of the edges of the octahedron, the diagonal
linkings remaining intact, or, in the plane projection, three peripheral
linkages, the hexamethylene ring assuming the form (III):

III

In 1888 J. E. Marsh published a paper (Phil. Mag. [V.], 26, p. 426)
in which he discussed various stereo-chemical representations of
the benzene nucleus. (The stereo-chemistry of carbon compounds
has led to the spatial representation of a carbon atom as being
situated at the centre of a tetrahedron, the four valencies being
directed towards the apices; see above, and ISOMERISM.) A form
based on Kekul6's formula consists in taking three pairs of tetra-
hedra, each pair having a side in common, and joining them up
along the sides of a regular hexagon by means of their apices. This
form, afterwards supported by Carl Graebe (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 526; see
also Marsh's reply, Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans., 1902, p. 961) shows
the proximity of the ortho-positions, but fails to explain the identity
of 1.2 and 1.6 compounds. Arrangements connected with _Claus'
formula are obtained by placing six tetrahedra on the six triangles
formed by the diagonals of a plane hexagon. The form in which the
tetrahedra are all on one side, afterwards discussed by J. Loschmidt
(Monats., 1890, n, p. 28), would not give stereo-isomers; and the
arrangement of placing the tetrahedra on alternate sides, a form
afterwards developed by W. Vaubel (Journ. Pr. Chem., 1894 [2],
49, p. 308), has the advantage of bringing the meta-positions on one
side, and the ortho- and para- on opposite sides, thus exhibiting
the similarity actually observed between these series of compounds.
Marsh also devised a form closely resembling that of Thomsen,
inasmuch as the carbon atoms occupied the angles of a regular
octahedron, and the diagonal linkages differed in nature from
the peripheral, but different from Thomson's since rupture of the
diagonal and not peripheral bonds accompanied the reduction to
hexamethylene.

We may also notice the model devised by H. Sachse (Ber., 1888,
21, 2530; Zeit. fur phys. Chem., II, p. 214; 23, p. 2062). Two
parallel triangular faces are removed from a cardboard model of a
regular octahedron, and on the remaining six faces tetrahedra are
then placed; the hydrogen atoms are at the free angles. This
configuration is, according to Sachse, more stable than any other
form; no oscillation is possible, the molecule being only able to
move as a whole. In 1897, J. N. Collie (Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans.,
p. 1013) considered in detail an octahedral form, and showed how by
means of certain simple rotations of his system the formulae
of Kekule' and Claus could be obtained as projections. An entirely
new device, suggested by B. Konig (Chem. Zeit., 1905, 29, p. 30),
assumed the six carbon atoms to occupy six of the corners of a cube,
each carbon atom being linked to a hydrogen atom and by single
bonds to two neighbouring carbon atoms, the remaining valencies
being directed to the unoccupied corners of the cube, three to each,
where they are supposed to satisfy each other.

Condensed Nuclei.

Restricting ourselves to compounds resulting from the fusion
of benzene rings, we have first to consider naphthalene, CioH8,
which consists of two benzene rings having a pair of carbon atoms
in common. The next members are the isomers anthracene and
phenanthrene, C^Hio, formed from three benzene nuclei. Here
we shall only discuss the structure of these compounds in the
light of the modern benzene theories; reference should be made

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

to the articles NAPHTHALENE, ANTHRACENE and PHENAN-
THRENE for syntheses, decompositions, &c.

Naphthalene. — Of the earlier suggestions for the constitution
of naphthalene we notice the formulae of Wreden (i) and (2),
Berthelot and Balls (3), R. A. C. E. Erlenmeyer (4) and Adolf
Claus (S).

(3)

(4)

The first suggestion is quite out of the question. C. Graebe in
1866 (Ann. 149, p. 20) established the symmetry of the naph-
thalene nucleus, and snowed that whichever half of the molecule
be oxidized the same phthalic acid results. Therefore formula ( 2 ) ,
being unsymmetrical, is impossible. The third formula is based
on Dewar's benzene formula, which we have seen to be incorrect.
Formula (4) is symmetrical and based on Kekule's formula: it
is in full accord with the syntheses and decompositions of the
naphthalene nucleus and the number of isomers found. In
1882 Claus suggested a combination of his own and Dewar's
benzene formulae. This is obviously unsymmetrical, consisting
of an aliphatic and an aromatic nucleus; Claus explained the
formation of the same phthalic acid from the oxidation of either
nucleus by supposing that if the aromatic group be oxidized, the
aliphatic residue assumes the character of a benzene nucleus.
Bamberger opposed Claus' formula on the following grounds: —
The molecule of naphthalene is symmetrical, since 2.7 dioxy-
naphthalene is readily esterified by methyl iodide and sulphuric
acid to a dimethyl ether; and no more than two mono-substi-
tution derivatives are known. The molecule is aromatic but not
benzenoid; however, by the reduction of one half of the mole-
cule, the other assumes a benzenoid character.

If j8-naphthylamine and /3-naphthol be reduced, tetrahydro
products are obtained in which the amino- or oxy-bearing half of
the molecule becomes aliphatic in character. The compounds so
obtained, alicyclic-/3-tetrahydronaphthylamine and alicyclic-/3-
tetrahydronaphthol, closely resemble /3-aminodiethylbenzene,
C6H4(C2H6)-C2H4NH2,and,S-oxydiethylbenzene,C6H<(C2H5)-C2H4C)H.
If a-naphthylamine and a-naphthol be reduced, the hydrogen atoms
attach themselves to the non-substituted half of the molecule,
and the compounds so obtained resemble aminodiethylbenzene,
C6H3-NH2(C2H6)2, and oxydiethylbenzene, C,H3-OH(C2H6)2. Bam-
berger's observations on reduced quinoline derivatives point to the
same conclusion, that condensed nuclei are not benzenoid, but
possess an individual character, which breaks down, however, when
the molecule is reduced.

It remains, therefore, to consider Erlenmeyer's formula and
those derived from the centric hypothesis. The former, based
on Kekule's symbol for benzene, explains the decompositions
and syntheses of the ring, but the character of naphthalene
is not in keeping with the presence of five double linkages,
although it is more readily acted upon than benzene is. On the
centric hypothesis two formulae are possible: (i) due to H.E.
Armstrong, and (2) due to E. Bamberger.

• 00

In the first symbol it is assumed that one of the affinities of each
of the two central carbon atoms common to the two rings acts
into both rings, an assumption involving a somewhat wide
departure from all ordinary views as to the manner in which
affinity acts. This symbol harmonizes with the fact that the two
rings are in complete sympathy, the one responding to every
change made in the other. Then, on account of the relatively
slight — because divided — influence which would be exercised
upon the two rings by the two affinities common to both, the
remaining four centric affinities of each ring would presumably
be less attracted into the ring than in the case of benzene;
consequently they would be more active outwards, and com-
bination would set in more readily. When, as in the formation
of naphthalene tetrachloride, for example, the one ring becomes
saturated, the other might be expected to assume the normal

centric form and become relatively inactive. This is absolutely
the case. On the other hand, if substitution be effected in the
one ring, and the affinities in that ring become attracted inwards,
as apparently happens in the case of benzene, the adjoining ring
should become relatively more active because the common
affinities would act less into it. Hence, unless the radical
introduced be one which exercises a special attractive influence,
substitution should take place in preference in the previously
unsubstituted ring. In practice this usually occurs; for example,
on further bromination, a-bromonaphthalene yields a mixture
of the (1.4) and (1.5) dibromonaphthalenes; and when nitro-
naphthalene is either brominated, or nitrated or sulphonated,
the action is practically confined to the second ring. .The
centric formula proposed by Bamberger represents naphthalene as
formed by the fusion of two benzene rings, this indicates that it
is a monocyclic composed of ten atoms of carbon. The formula
has the advantage that it may be constructed from tetrahedral
models of the carbon atom; but it involves the assumption that
the molecule has within it a mechanism, equivalent in a measure
to a system of railway points, which can readily close up and
pass into that characteristic of benzene.

Anthracene and Phenanthrene. — These isomeric hydrocarbons,
of the formula Ci4H10, are to be regarded as forme^ by the
fusion of three benzenoid rings as represented by the symbols: —

ODD

Anthracene

Phenanthrene

In both cases the medial ring is most readily attacked; and
various formulae have been devised which are claimed by their
authors to represent this and other facts. According to Arm-
strong, anthracene behaves unsymmetrically towards sub-
stituents, and hence one lateral ring differs from the other; he
represents the molecule as consisting of one centric ring, the
remaining medial and lateral ring being ethenoid. Bamberger,
on the other hand, extends his views on benzene and naphthalene
and assumes the molecule to be (i). For general purposes,
however, the symbol (2), in which the lateral rings are benzenoid
and the medial ring fatty, represents quite adequately the
syntheses, decompositions, and behaviour of anthracene.

(0 (')

Phenanthrene is regarded by Armstrong as represented by (3),
the lateral rings being benzenoid, and the medial ring fatty;
Bamberger, however, regards it as (4), the molecule being

(3)

(4)

entirely aromatic. An interesting observation by Baeyer, viz.
that stilbene, C6H5'CH:CH-C6H5, is very readily oxidized,
while phenanthrene is not, supports, in some measure, the views
of Bamberger.

Heterocyclic Compounds.

During recent years an immense number of ringed or cyclic
compounds have been discovered, which exhibit individual
characters more closely resembling benzene, naphthalene, &c.
than purely aliphatic substances, inasmuch as in general they
contain double linkages, yet withstand oxidation, and behave as
nuclei, forming derivatives in much the same way as benzene.
By reduction, the double linkages become saturated, and
compounds result which stand in much about the same relation
to the original nucleus as hexamethylene does to benzene. In
general, therefore, it may be considered that the double linkages
are not of exactly the same nature as the double linkage present
in ethylene and ethylenoid compounds, but that they are
analogous to the potential valencies of benzene. The centric
hypothesis has been applied to these rings by Bamberger and
others; but as in the previous rings considered, the ordinary

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

59

representation with double and single linkages generally repre-
sents the syntheses, decompositions, &c.; exceptions, however,
are known where it is necessary to assume an oscillation of the
double linkage. Five- and six-membered rings are the most
stable and important, the last-named group resulting from the
polymerization of many substances; three- and four-membered
rings are formed with difficulty, and are easily ruptured; rings
containing seven or more members are generally unstable, and
are relatively little known. The elements which go to form
heterocyclic rings, in addition to carbon, are oxygen, sulphur,
selenium and nitrogen. It is remarkable that sulphur can
replace two methine or CH groups with the production of com-
pounds greatly resembling the original one. Thus benzene,
(CH)6, gives thiophene, (CH)4S, from which it is difficultly dis-
tinguished; pyridine, (CH)6N, gives thiazole, (CH)3-N-S, which
is a very similar substance; naphthalene gives thionaphthen,
CsH6S, with which it shows great analogies, especially in the
derivatives. Similarly a CH group may be replaced by a nitrogen
atom with the production of compounds of similar stability;
thus benzene gives pyridine, naphthalene gives quinoline and
isoquinoline; anthracene gives acridine and a and /3 anthra-
pyridines. Similarly, two or more methine groups may be
replaced by the same number of nitrogen atoms with the forma-
tion of rings of considerable stability.

Most of the simple ring systems which contain two adjacent
carbon atoms may suffer fusion with any other ring (also containing
two adjacent carbon atoms) with the production of nuclei of greater
complexity. Such condensed nuclei are, in many cases, more readily
obtained than the parent nucleus. The more important types are
derived from aromatic nuclei, benzene, naphthalene, &c. ; the
ortho-di-derivatives of the first named, lending themselves particu-
larly to the formation of condensed nuclei. Thus ortho-phenylene
diamine yields the following products : —

Aiimidobcnzenc Btntpiirthiolc

Benrimidazolone

Quinoxilifit

In some cases oxidation of condensed benzenoid-heterocyclic nuclei
results in the rupture of the heterocyclic ring with the formation of
a benzene dicarboxylic acid ; but if the aromatic nucleus be weakened
by the introduction of an amino group, then it is the benzenoid
nucleus which is destroyed and a dicarboxylic acid of the heterocyclic
ring system obtained.

Heterocyclic rings may be systematically surveyed from two
aspects: (i) by arranging the rings with similar hetero-atoms
according to the increasing number of carbon atoms, the so-called
" homologous series "; or (2) by first dividing the ring systems
according to the number of members constituting the ring, and
then classifying these groups according to the nature of the
hetero-atoms, the so-called " isologous series." The second
method possesses greater- advantages, for rings of approximate
stability come in one group, and, consequently, their derivatives
may be expected to exhibit considerable analogies.

As a useful preliminary it is convenient to divide heterocyclic
ring systems into two leading groups: (i) systems resulting
from simple internal dehydration (or similar condensations) of
saturated aliphatic compounds — -such compounds are: the
internal anhydrides or cyclic ethers of the glycols and thioglycols
(ethylene oxide, &c.) ; the cyclic alkyleneimides resulting from
the splitting off of ammonia between the amino groups of diamino-
paraffins (pyrrolidine, piperazine, &c.); the cyclic esters of
oxycarboxylic acids (lactones, lactides) ; the internal anhydrides
of aminocarboxylic acids (lactams, betaines); cyclic derivatives
of dicarboxylic acids (anhydrides, imides, alkylen-esters, alkylen-
amides, &c.). These compounds retain their aliphatic nature,
and are best classified with open-chain compounds, into which,
in general, they are readily converted. (2) Systems which
are generally unsaturated compounds, often of considerable
stability, and behave as nuclei; these compounds constitute a
well-individualized class exhibiting closer affinities to benzenoid
substances than to the open-chain series.

The transition between the two classes as differentiated above
may be illustrated by the following cyclic compounds, each of which

contains a ring composed of four carbon atoms and one oxygen
atom:

.^(_» ..

v

Tetramethylene Butyrolactone.
oxide.

Fujfurane.

Succinic M?leic

anhydride. anhydride.

The first four substances are readily formed from, and converted
into, the corresponding dihydroxy open-chain compound; these
substances are truly aliphatic in character. The fifth compound,
on the other hand, does not behave as an unsaturated aliphatic
compound, but its deportment is that of a nucleus, many substitution
derivatives being capable of synthesis. Reduction, however, con-
verts it into an aliphatic compound. This is comparable with the
reduction of the benzene nucleus into hexamethylene, a substance of
an aliphatic character.

True ring systems, which possess the characters of organic
nuclei, do not come into existence in three- and four-membered
rings, their first appearance being in penta-atomic rings. The
three primary members are furfurane, thiophene and pyrrol,
each of which contains four methine or CH groups, and an
oxygen, sulphur and imido (NH) member respectively; a
series of compounds containing selenium is also known. The
formulae of these substances are:

= CH

= CH

V

Se

CH = CH.

| >S

CH=CH CH=CHX CH = CH/ C

Furfurane. Thiophene. Selenophene. Pyrrol.

|
H=CH

>NH
'

By substituting one or more CH groups in these compounds
by nitrogen atoms, ring-systems, collectively known as azoles,
result. Obviously, isomeric ring-systems are possible, since the
carbon atoms in the original rings are not all of equal value.
Thus furfurane yields the following rings by the introduction
of one and two nitrogen atoms :

CH = N , N = CH v N = N

I >0 I

CH=CH/
Oxazole.

>0

CH=CH'

Isoxazole.

>
CH=CH/

Diazo-oxides.

Hi N>o *[ HN>O V '">o

HC = NX CH = N/ N = CH'/

Furazane.

Azoximes.

Oxybiazole.

Thiophene yields a similar series: isothiazole (only known as
the condensed ring, isobenzothiazole), thiazole, diazosulphides,
piazthioles, azosulphimes and thiobiazole (the formulae are
easily derived from the preceding series by replacing oxygen by
sulphur). Thiophene also gives rise to triazsulphole, three
nitrogen atoms being introduced. Selenophene gives the series:
selenazole, diazoselenide and piaselenole, corresponding to
oxazole, diazo-oxides and furazane. Pyrrol yields an analogous
series: pyrazole, imidazole or glyoxaline, azimide or osotriazole,
triazole and tetrazole:

CH = N x

I >NH

CH=CH/
Pyrazole.

N=CH

N = CH
I

V

^NH
CH/

Imidazole.

N = N

:H i

N = N

\

^CH/

Azimide.

NH

\

NH

Triazole.

Tetrazole.

Six-membered ring systems can be referred back, in a manner
similar to the above, to pyrone, penthiophene and pyridine, the
substances containing a ring of five carbon atoms, and an
oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen atom respectively. As before,
only true ring nuclei, and not internal anhydrides of aliphatic
compounds, will be mentioned. From the pyrone ring the
following series of compounds are derived (for brevity, the
hydrogen atoms are not printed) :

Cf^N

O

Mcu-oxiilAe
»r Pentoiucoltne

O

PtraxAlttH

Penthiophene gives, by a similar introduction of nitrogen atoms,
penthiazoline, corresponding to meta-oxazine, and para-thiazine,

6o

CHEMISTRY

[ANALYTICAL

corresponding to paroxazine (para-oxazine). Pyridine gives
origin to: pyridazine or ortho-diazine, pyrimidine or meta-
diazine, pyrazine or para-diazine, osotriazine, unsymmetrical
triazine, symmetrical triazine, osotetrazone and tetrazine. The
skeletons of these types are (the carbon atoms are omitted for
brevity) :

o o. 0- j

ulirM Fyr.di/m* pynmidiix fynnne

r a xa

We have previously referred to the condensation of hetero-
cyclic ring systems containing two vicinal carbon atoms with
benzene, naphthalene and other nuclei. The more important
nuclei of this type have received special and non-systematic
names; when this is not the case, such terms as phen-, benzo-,
naphtho- are prefixed to the name of the heterocyclic ring. One
or two benzene nuclei may suffer condensation with the furfurane,
thiophene and pyrrol rings, the common carbon atoms being
vicinal to the hetero-atom. The mono-benzo-derivatives are
coumarone, benzothiophene and indole; the dibenzo-derivatives
are diphenylene oxide, dibenzothiophene or diphenylene sulphide,
and carbazole. Typical formulae are (R denoting 0, S or NH) :

Cu.CcQ

Isomers are possible, for the condensation may be effected on
the two carbon atoms symmetrically placed to the hetero-atom;
these isomers, however, are more of the nature of internal
anhydrides. Benz-oxazoles and -thiazoles have been prepared,
benz-isoxazoles are known as indoxazenes; benzo-pyrazoles
occur in two structural forms, named indazoles and isindazoles.
Derivatives of osotriazol also exist in two forms — azimides and
pseudo-azimides.

Proceeding to the six-membered hetero-atomic rings, the
benzo-, dibenzo- and naphtho-derivatives are frequently of
great commercial and scientific importance, a-pyrone condenses
with the benzene ring to form coumarin and isocoumarin;
benzo-7-pyrone constitutes the nucleus of several vegetable
colouring matters (chrysin, fisetin, quercetin, &c., which are
derivatives of flavone or phenyl benzo-7-pyrone); dibenzo-7-
pyrone is known as xanthone; related to this substance are
fluorane (and fluorescein), fluorone, fluorime, pyronine, &c.
The pyridine ring condenses with the benzene ring to form
quinoline and isoquinoline; acridine and phenanthridine are
dibenzo-pyri dines; naphthalene gives rise to o-and /3-naphtho-
quinolines and the anthrapyridines; anthracene gives anthra-
quinoline; while two pyridine nuclei connected by an inter-
mediate benzene nucleus give the phenanthrolines. Naph-
thyridines and naphthinolines result from the condensation of
two pryridine and two quinoline nuclei respectively; and
quino-quinolines are unsymmetrical naphthyridine nuclei
condensed with a benzene nucleus. Benzo-orthoxazines,
-metoxazines and -paroxazines are known: dibenzoparoxazine
or phenoxazine is the parent of a valuable series of dyestuffs;
dibenzoparathiazine or thiodiphenylamine is important from
the same aspect. Benzo-ortho-diazines exist in two structural
forms, cinnolin and phthalazine; benzo-meta-diazines are
known as quinazolines; benzo-para-diazines are termed quinoxa-
lines; the dibenzo-compounds are named phenazines, this last
group including many valuable dyestuffs — indulines, safranines,
&c. In addition to the types of compounds enumerated above
we may also notice purin, tropine and the terpenes.

V. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

This branch of chemistry has for its province the determination
of the constituents of a chemical compound or of a mixture of
compounds. Such a determination is qualitative, the constituent
being only detected or proved to be present, or quantitative, in
which the amount present is ascertained. The methods of
chemical analysis may be classified according to the type of

reaction: (i) dry or blowpipe analysis, which consists in an
examination of the substance in the dry condition; this includes
such tests as ignition in a tube, ignition on charcoal in the
blowpipe flame, fusion with borax, microcosmic salt or fluxes,
and flame colorations (in quantitative work the dry methods are
sometimes termed " dry assaying "); (2) wet analysis, in which
a solution of the substance is treated with reagents which
produce specific reactions when certain elements or groups of
elements are present. In quantitative analysis the methods
can be subdivided into: (a) gravimetric, in which the constituent
is precipitated either as a definite insoluble compound by the
addition of certain reagents, or electrolytically, by the passage
of an electric current; (b) volumetric, in which the volume of a
reagent of a known strength which produces a certain definite
reaction is measured; (c) colorimetric, in which the solution has
a particular tint, which can be compared with solutions of
known strengths.

Historical. — The germs of analytical chemistry are to be
found in the writings of the pharmacists and chemists of the
iatrochemical period. The importance of ascertaining the
proximate composition of bodies was clearly realized by Otto
Tachenius; but the first systematic investigator was Robert
Boyle, to whom we owe the introduction of the term analysis.
Boyle recognized many reagents which gave precipitates with
certain solutions: he detected sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids by the white precipitates formed with calcium chloride
and silver nitrate respectively; ammonia by the white cloud
formed with the vapours of nitric or hydrochloric acids; and
copper by the deep blue solution formed by a solution of ammonia.
Of great importance is his introduction of vegetable juices (the
so-called indicators, q.v.) to detect acids and bases. During the
phlogistic period, the detection of the constituents of compounds
was considerably developed. Of the principal workers in this
field we may notice Friedrich Hoffmann, Andreas Sigismund
Marggraf (who detected iron by its reaction with potassium
ferrocyanide, and potassium and sodium by their flame colora-
tions), and especially Carl Scheele and Torberu Olof Bergman.
Scheele enriched the knowledge of chemistry by an immense
number of facts, but he did not possess the spirit of working
systematically as Bergman did. Bergman laid the foundations
of systematic qualitative analysis, and devised methods by which
the metals may be separated into groups according to their
behaviour with certain reagents. This subdivision, which is of
paramount importance in the analysis of minerals, was subse-
quently developed by Wilhelm August Lampadius in his Hand-
buck zur chemischen Analyse der Miner alien (1801) and by John
Friedrich A. Gottling in his Praktische Anleitung zur prufenden
und zurlegenden Chemie (1802).

The introduction of the blowpipe into dry qualitative analysis
by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt marks an important innovation.
The rapidity of the method, and the accurate results which it
gave in the hands of a practised experimenter, led to its system-
atization by Jons Jakob Berzelius and Johann Friedrich Ludwig
Hausmann, and in more recent times by K. F. Plattner, whose
treatise Die Probirkunst mil dem Lolhrohr is a standard work on
the subject. Another type of dry reaction, namely, the flame
coloration, had been the subject of isolated notices, as, for example,
the violet flame of potassium and the orange flame of sodium
observed by Marggraf and Scheele, but a systematic account was
wanting until Cartmell took the subject up. His results (Phil.
Mag. 16, p. 382) were afterwards perfected by Robert Wilhelm
Bunsen and Gustav Merz. Closely related to the flame-colora-
tions, we have to notice the great services rendered by the
spectroscope to the detection of elements. Rubidium, caesium,
thallium, indium and gallium were first discovered by means of
this instrument; the studyfof the rare earths is greatly facilitated,
and the composition of the heavenly bodies alone determinable
by it.

Quantitative chemistry had been all but neglected before
the time of Lavoisier, for although a few chemists such as
Tachenius, Bergman and others had realized the advantages
which would accrue from a knowledge of the composition of

ANALYTICAL]

CHEMISTRY

61

bodies by weight, and had laid down the lines upon which such
determinations should proceed, the experimental difficulties in
making accurate observations were enormous, and little progress
could be made until the procedure was more accurately
determined. Martin Heinrich Klaproth showed the necessity for
igniting precipitates before weighing them, if they were not
decomposed by this process; and he worked largely with Louis
Nicolas Vauquelin in perfecting the analysis of minerals. K. F.
Wenzel and J. B. Rkhter contributed to the knowledge of the
quantitative composition of salts. Anton Laurent Lavoisier,
however, must be considered as the first great exponent of this
branch of chemistry. He realized that the composition by
weight of chemical compounds was of the greatest moment if
chemistry were to advance. His fame rests upon his exposition
of the principles necessary to chemistry as a secience, but of his
contributions to analytical inorganic chemistry little can be said.
He applied himself more particularly to the oxygen compounds,
and determined with a fair degree of accuracy the ratio of carbon
to oxygen in carbon dioxide,but his values for the ratio of hydrogen
to oxygen in water, and of phosphorus to oxygen in phosphoric
acid, are only approximate; he introduced no new methods
either for the estimation or separation of the metals. The next
advance was made by Joseph Louis Proust, whose investigations
led to a clear grasp of the law of constant proportions. The
formulation of the atomic theory by John Dalton gave a fresh
impetus to the development of quantitative analysis; and the
determination of combining or equivalent weights by Berzelius
led to the perfecting of the methods of gravimetric analysis.
Experimental conditions were thoroughly worked out; the
necessity of working with hot or cold solutions was clearly
emphasized; and the employment of small quantities of
substances instead of the large amounts recommended by
Klaproth was shown by him to give more consistent results.

Since the time of Berzelius many experimenters have entered
the lists, and introduced developments which we have not space
to mention. We may, however, notice Heinrich Rose1 and
Friedrich Wohler,2 who, having worked up the results of their
teacher Berzelius, and combined them with their own valuable
observations, exerted great influence on the progress of analytical
chemistry by publishing works which contained admirable
accounts of the then known methods of analysis. To K. R.
Fresenius, the founder of the Zeitschrift fiir anaiylische Chemie
(1862), we are particularly indebted for perfecting and systematiz-
ing the various methods of analytical chemistry. By strengthen-
ing the older methods, and devising new ones, he exerted an
influence which can never be overestimated. His text-books on
the subject, of which the Qualitative appeared in 1841, and the
Quantitative in 1846, have a world- wide reputation, and have
passed through several editions.

The quantitative precipitation of metals by the electric current,
although known to Michael Faraday, was not applied to analytical
chemistry until O. Wolcott Gibbs worked out the electrolytic
separation of copper in 1865. Since then the subject has been
extensively studied, more particularly by Alexander Classen, who
has summarized the methods and results in his Quantitative
Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis (1903). The ever-increasing
importance of the electric current in metallurgy and chemical
manufactures is making this method of great importance, and in
some cases it has partially, if not wholly, superseded the older
methods.

Volumetric analysis, possessing as it does many advantages
over the gravimetric methods, has of late years been extensively
developed. Gay Lussac may be regarded as the founder of the
method, although rough applications had been previously made
by F. A. H. Descroizilles and L. N. Vauquelin. Chlorimetry
(1824), alkalimetry (1828), and the volumetric determination of
silver and chlorine (1832) were worked out by Gay Lussac; but
although the advantages of the method were patent, it received
recognition very slowly. The application of potassium per-
manganate to the estimation of iron by E. Margueritte in 1846,

1 H. Rose, Ausfiihrliches Handbuch der analytischen Chemie (1851).
' F. Wohler, Die Mineralanalyse in Beispielen (1861).

and of iodine and sulphurous acid to the estimation of copper and
many other substances by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, marks an
epoch in the early history of volumetric analysis. Since then it
has been rapidly developed, particularly by Karl Friedrich Mohr
and J. Volhard, and these methods rank side by side in value
with the older and more tedious gravimetric methods.

The detection of carbon and hydrogen in organic compounds
by the formation of carbon dioxide and water when they are
burned was first correctly understood by Lavoisier, and as he
had determined the carbon and hydrogen content of these two
substances he was able to devise methods by which carbon and
hydrogen in organic compounds could be estimated. In his
earlier experiments he burned the substance in a known volume
of oxygen, and by measuring the residual gas determined the
carbon and hydrogen. For substances of a difficultly combustible
nature he adopted the method in common Use to-day, viz. to mix
the substance with an oxidizing agent — mercuric oxide, lead
dioxide, and afterwards copper oxide — and absorb the carbon
dioxide in potash solution. This method has been improved,
especially by Justus v. Liebig; and certain others based on a
different procedure have been suggested. The estimation of
nitrogen was first worked out in 1830 by Jean Baptiste Dumas,
and different processes have been proposed by Will and F.
Varrentrapp, J. Kjeldahl and others. Methods for lie estimation
of. the halogens and sulphur were worked out by L. Carius (see
below, § Organic Analysis).

Only a reference can be made in this summary to the many
fields in which analytical chemistry has been developed. Pro-
gress in forensic chemistry was only possible after' the reactions
of poisons had been systematized; a subject which has been
worked out by many investigators, of whom we notice K. R.
Fresenius, J. and R. Otto, and J. S. Stas. Industrial chemistry
makes many claims upon the chemist, for it is necessary to deter-
mine the purity of a product before it can be valued. This has
led to the estimation of sugar by means of the polarimeter, and
of the calorific power of fuels, and the valuation of ores and
metals, of coal-tar dyes, and almost all trade products.

The passing of the Food and Drug Acts (1875-1899) in England,
and the existence of similar adulteration acts in other countries,
have occasioned great progress in the analysis of foods, drugs, &c.
For further information on this branch of analytical chemistry,
see ADULTERATION.

There exists no branch of technical chemistry, hygiene or
pharmacy from which the analytical chemist can be spared,
since it is only by a continual development of his art that we can
hope to be certain of the purity of any preparation. In England
this branch of chemistry is especially cared for by the Institute
of Chemistry, which, since its foundation in 1877, has done much
for the training of analytical chemists.

In the preceding sketch we have given a necessarily brief
account of the historical development of analytical chemistry in
its main branches. We shall now treat the different methods in
more detail. It must be mentioned here that the reactions of
any particular substance are given under its own heading, and in
this article we shall only collate the various operations and outline
the general procedure. The limits of space prevent any sys-
tematic account of the separation of the rare metals, the alkaloids,
and other classes of organic compounds, but sources where these
matters may be found are given in the list of references.

Qualitative Inorganic Analysis.

The dry examination of a substance comprises several opera-
tions, which may yield definite results if no disturbing
element is present; but it is imperative that any in-
ference should be confirmed by other methods.

i. Heat the substance in a hard glass tube. Note whether
any moisture condenses on the cooler parts of the tube, a gas is
evolved, a sublimate formed, or the substance changes colour.

Moisture is evolved from substances containing water of crystal-
lization or decomposed hydrates. If it possesses an alkaline or
acid reaction, it must be tested in the first case for ammonia, and
in the second case for a volatile acid, such as sulphuric, nitric,
hydrochloric, &c.

62

CHEMISTRY

[ANALYTICAL

Any evolved gas must be examined. Oxygen, recognized by its
power of igniting a glowing splinter, results from the decomposition
of oxides of the noble metals, peroxides, chlorates, nitrates and other
highly oxygenized salts. Sulphur dioxide, recognized by its smell
and acid reaction, results from the ignition of certain sulphites,
sulphates, or a mixture of a sulphate with a sulphide. Nitrogen
oxides, recognized by their odour and brown-red colour, result from
the decomposition of nitrates. Carbon dioxide, recognized by
turning lime-water milky, indicates decomposable carbonates or
oxalates. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine, each recognizable by its
colour and odour, result from decomposable haloids; iodine forms
also a black sublimate. Cyanogen and hydrocyanic acid, recogniz-
able by their odour, indicate decomposable cyanides. Sulphuretted
hydrogen, recognized by its odour, results from sulphides containing
water, and hydrosulphides. Ammonia, recognizable by its odour
and alkaline reaction, indicates ammoniacal salts or cyanides
containing water.

A sublimate may be formed of: sulphur — reddish-brown drops,
cooling to a yellow to brown solid, from sulphides or mixtures;
iodine — violet vapour, black sublimate, from iodides, iodic acid, or
mixtures; mercury and its compounds — metallic mercury forms
minute globules, mercuric sulphide is black and becomes red on
rubbing, mercuric chloride fuses before subliming, mercurous
chloride does not fuse, mercuric iodide gives a yellow sublimate;
arsenic and its compounds — metallic arsenic gives a grey mirror,
arsenious oxide forms white shining crystals, arsenic sulphides give
reddish-yellow sublimates which turn yellow on cooling; antimony
oxide fuses and gives a yellow acicular sublimate; lead chloride
forms a white sublimate after long and intense heating.

If the substance does not melt but changes colour, we may have
present: zinc oxide — from white to yellow, becoming white on
cooling; stannic oxide — white to yellowish brown, dirty white on
cooling; lead oxide — from white or yellowish-red to brownish-red,
yellow on cooling; bismuth oxide — from white or pale yellow to
orange-yellow or reddish-brown, pale yellow on cooling; manganese
oxide — from white or yellowish white to dark brown, remaining
dark brown on cooling (if it changes on cooling to a bright reddish-
brown, it indicates cadmium oxide) ; copper oxide — from bright
blue or green to black; ferrous oxide — from greyish-white to black;
ferric oxide — from brownish-red to black, brownish-red on cooling;
potassium chromate — yellow to dark orange, fusing at a red heat.

2. Hejt the substance on a piece of charcoal in the reducing
flame of the blowpipe.

(a) The substance may fuse and be absorbed by the charcoal;
this indicates more particularly the alkaline metals.

(0) An infusible white residue may be obtained,which may denote
barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium or zinc. The
first three give characteristic flame colorations (see below) ; the last
three, when moistened with cobalt nitrate and re-ignited, give
coloured masses; aluminium (or silica) gives a brilliant blue ; zinc
gives a green; whilst magnesium phosphates or arsenate (and to a
less degree the phosphates of the alkaline earths) give a violet mass.

A metallic globule with or without an incrustation may be obtained.
Gold and copper salts give a metallic bead without an incrustation.
If the incrustation be white and readily volatile, arsenic is present,
if more difficultly volatile and beads are present, antimony; zinc
gives an incrustation yellow whilst hot, white on cooling, and
volatilized with difficulty ; tin gives a pale yellow incrustation,
which becomes white on cooling, and does not volatilize in either the
reducing or oxidizing flames; lead gives a lemon-yellow incrustation
turning sulphur-yellow on cooling, together with metallic malleable
beads; bjsmuth gives metallic globules and a dark orange-yellow
incrustation, which becomes lemon-yellow on cooling; cadmium
gives a reddish-brown incrustation, which is removed without
leaving a gleam by heating in the reducing flame; silver gives white
metallic globules and a dark-red incrustation.

3. Heat the substance with a bead of microcosmic salt or
borax on a platinum wire in the oxidizing flame.

(a) The substance dissolves readily and in quantity, forming a
bead which is clear when hot. If the bead is coloured we may have
present : cobalt, blue to violet ; copper, green, blue on cooling ;
in the reducing flame, red when cold; chromium, green, unaltered
in the reducing flame; iron, brownish-red, light-yellow or colourless
on cooling; in the reducing flame, red while hot, yellow on cooling,
greenish when cold ; nickel, reddish to brownish-red, yellow to
reddish-yellow or colourless on cooling, unaltered in the reducing
flame; bismuth, yellowish-brown, light-yellow or colourless on
cooling; in the reducing flame, almost colourless, blackish-grey when
cold ; silver, light yellowish to opal, somewhat opaque when cold ;
whitish-grey in the reducing flame; manganese, amethyst red,
colourless in the reducing flame. If the hot bead is colourless and
remains clear on cooling, we may suspect the presence of antimony,
aluminium, zinc, cadmium, lead, calcium and magnesium. When
present in sufficient quantity the five last-named give enamel-white
beads; lead oxide in excess gives a yellowish bead. If the hot
colourless bead becomes enamel-white on cooling even when minute
quantities of the substances are employed, we may infer the presence
of barium or strontium.

(/3) The substance dissolves slowly and in small quantity, and forms
a colourless bead which remains so on cooling. Either silica or tin
may be present. If silica be present, it gives the iron bead when
heated with a little ferric oxide ; if tin is present there is no change.
Certain substances, such as the precious metals, are quite insoluble in
the bead, but float about in it.

4. Hold a small portion of the substance moistened with
hydrochloric acid on a clean platinum wire in the fusion zone
of the Bunsen burner, and note any colour imparted to the flame.

Potassium gives a blue-violet flame which may be masked by the
colorations due to sodium, calcium and other elements. By
viewing the flame through an indigo prism it appears sky-blue,
violet and ultimately crimson, as the thickness of the prism is
increased. Other elements do not interfere with this method.
Sodium gives an intense and persistent yellow flame; lithium gives
a carmine coloration, and may be identified in the presence of sodium
by viewing through a cobalt glass or indigo prism; from potassium
it may be distinguished by its redder colour ; barium gives a yellowish-
green flame, which appears bluish-green When viewed through green
glass ; strontium gives a crimson flame which appears purple or rose
when viewed through blue glass; calcium gives an orange-red
colour which appears finch-green through green glass; indium
gives a characteristic bluish-violet flame; copper gives an intense
emerald-green coloration.

5. Film Reactions. — These reactions are practised in the
following manner: — A thread of asbestos is moistened and then
dipped in the substance to be tested; it is then placed in the
luminous point of the Bunsen flame, and a small porcelain basin
containing cold water placed immediately over the asbestos.
The formation of a film is noted. The operation is repeated with
the thread in the oxidizing flame.

Any film formed in the first case is metallic, in the second it is the
oxide. The metallic film is tested with 20% nitric acid and with
bleaching-powder solution. Arsenic is insoluble in the acid, but
immediately dissolves in the bleaching-powder. The black films of
antimony and bismuth and the grey mottled film of mercury are
slowly soluble in the acid, and untouched by bleaching-powder.
The black films of tin, lead and cadmium dissolve at once in the acid,
the lead film being also soluble in bleaching-powder. The oxide
films of antimony, arsenic, tin and bismuth are white, that of bismuth
slightly yellowish; lead yields a very pale yellow film, and cadmium
a brown one; mercury yields no oxide film. The oxide films (the
metallic one in the case of mercury) are tested with hydriodic acid,
and with ammonium sulphide, and from the changes produced the
film can be determined (see F. M. Perkin, Qualitative Chemical
Analysis, 1905).

Having completed the dry analysis we may now pass on to
the wet and more accurate investigation. It is first necessary
to get the substance into solution. Small portions
should be successively tested with water,' dilute hydro- mlthods.
chloric acid, dilute nitric acid, strong hydrochloric
acid, and a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids, first in the
cold and then with warming. Certain substances are insoluble
in all the.se reagents, and other methods, such as the fusion with
sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate, and subsequent treat-
ment with an acid, must be employed. Some of these insoluble
compounds can be detected by their colour and particular re-
actions. For further information on this subject, we refer the
readers to Fresenius's Qualitative Analysis.

The procedure for the detection of metals in solution consists of
first separating them into groups and then examining each group
separately. For this purpose the cold solution is treated with
hydrochloric acid, which precipitates lead, silver and mercurous '
salts as chlorides. The solution is filtered and treated with an excess
of sulphuretted hydrogen, either in solution or by passing in the gas;
this precipitates mercury (mercuric), any lead left over from the
first group, copper, bismuth, cadmium, arsenic, antimony and tin
as sulphides. The solution is filtered off, boiled till free of sulphur-
etted hydrogen, and ammonium chloride and ammonia added. If
phosphoric acid is absent, aluminium, chromium and ferric hydrates
are precipitated. If, however, phosphoric acid is present in the
original substance.we may here obtain a precipitate of the phosphates
of the remaining metals, together with aluminium, chromium and
ferric hydrates. In this case, the precipitate is dissolved in as little
as possible hydrochloric acid and boiled with ammonium acetate,
acetic acid and ferric chloride. The phosphates of aluminium,
chromium and iron are precipitated, and the solution contains the
same metals as if phosphoric acid had been absent. To the filtrate
from the aluminium, iron and chromium precipitate, ammonia and
ammonium sulphide are added; the precipitate may contain nickel,
cobalt, zinc and manganese sulphides. Ammonium carbonate is
added to the filtrate; this precipitates calcium, strontium and

ANALYTICAL]

CHEMISTRY

barium. The solution contains magnesium, sodium and potassium,
which are separately distinguished by the methods given under their
own headings.

We now proceed with the examination of the various group
precipitates. The white precipitate formed by cold hydrochloric
acid is boiled with water, and the solution filtered while hot. Any
lead chloride dissolves, and may be identified by the yellow precipitate
formed with potassium chromate. To the residue add ammonia,
shake, then filter. Silver chloride goes into solution, and may be
precipitated by dilute nitric acid. The residue, which is black in
colour, consists of mercuroso-ammonium chloride, in which mercury
can be confirmed by its ordinary tests.

The precipitate formed by sulphuretted hydrogen may contain
the black mercuric, lead, and copper sulphides, dark-brown bismuth
sulphide, yellow cadmium and arsenious sulphides, orange-red
antimony sulphide, brown stannous sulphide, dull-yellow stannic
sulphide, and whitish sulphur, the last resulting from the oxidation
of sulphuretted hydrogen by ferric salts, chromates, &c. Warming
with ammonium sulphide dissolves out the arsenic, antimony and
tin salts, which are reprecipitated by the addition of hydrochloric
acid to the ammonium sulphide solution. The precipitate is shaken
with ammonium carbonate, which dissolves the arsenic. Filter and
confirm arsenic in the solution by its particular tests. Dissolve the
residue in hydrochloric acid and test separately for antimony and
tin. The residue from the ammonium sulphide solution is warmed
with dilute nitric acid. Any residue consists of black mercuric
sulphide (and possibly white lead sulphate), in which mercury is
confirmed by its usual tests. The solution is evaporated with a
little sulphuric acid and well cooled. The white precipitate consists
of lead sulphate. To the filtrate add ammonia in excess: a white
precipitate indicates bismuth; if the solution be blue, copper is
present. Filter from the bismuth hydrate, and if copper is present,
add potassium cyanide till the colour is destroyed, then pass sulphur-
etted hydrogen, and cadmium is precipitated as the yellow sulphide.
If copper is absent, then sulphuretted hydrogen can be passed
directly into the solution.

The next group precipitate may contain the white gelatinous
aluminium hydroxide, the greenish chromium hydroxide, reddish
ferric hydroxide, and possibly zinc and manganese hydroxides.
Treatment with casutic soda dissolves out aluminium hydroxide,
which is reprecipitated by the addition of ammonium chloride.
The remaining metals are tested for separately.

The next group may contain black nickel and cobalt sulphides,
flesh-coloured manganese sulphide, and white zinc sulphide. The
last two are dissolved out by cold, very dilute hydrochloric acid,
and the residue is tested for nickel and cobalt. The solution is
boiled till free from sulphuretted hydrogen and treated with excess
of sodium hydrate. A white precipitate rapidly turning brown
indicates manganese. The solution with ammonium sulphide gives
a white precipitate of zinc sulphide.

The next group may contain the white calcium, barium and
strontium carbonates. The flame coloration (see above) may give
information as to which elements are present. The carbonates are
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and calcium sulphate solution is
added to a portion of the solution. An immediate precipitate
indicates barium; a precipitate on standing indicates strontium.
If barium is present, the solution of the carbonates in hydrochloric
acid is evaporated and digested with strong alcohol for some time ;
barium chloride, which is nearly insoluble in alcohol.is thus separated,
the remainder being precipitated by a few drops of hydrofluosilicic
acid, and may be confirmed by the ordinary tests. The solution free
from barium is treated with ammonia and ammonium sulphate,
which precipitates strontium, and the calcium in the solution may be
identified by the white precipitate with ammonium oxalate.

Having determined the bases, it remains to determine the acid
radicals. There is no general procedure for these operations,
and it is customary to test for the acids separately by special
tests; these are given in the articles on the various acids. A
knowledge of the solubility of salts considerably reduces the
number of acids likely to be present, and affords evidence of great
value to the analyst (see A. M. Comey, Dictionary of Chemical
Solubilities). In the above account we have indicated the pro-
cedure adopted in the analysis of a complex mixture of salts.
It is unnecessary here to dwell on the precautions which can only
be conveniently acquired by experience; a sound appreciation
of analytical methods is only possible after the reactions and
characters of individual substances have been studied, and we
therefore refer the reader to the articles on the particular ele-
ments and compounds for more information on this subject.

Quantitative Inorganic Analysis.

Quantitative methods are divided into four groups, which we
now pass on to consider in the following sequence: (a) gravimetric,
(J3) volumetric, (7) electrolytic, (5) colorimetric.

(a) Gravimetric. — This method is made up of four operations:
(i) a weighed quantity of the substance is dissolved in a suitable
solvent; (2) a particular reagent is added which precipitates
the substance it is desired to estimate; (3) the precipitate is
filtered, washed and dried; (4) the filter paper containing the
precipitate is weighed either as a tared filter, or incinerated and
ignited either in air or in any other gas, and then weighed.

(l) Accurate weighing is all-important; for details of the various
appliances and methods see WEIGHING MACHINES. (2) No general
directions can be given as to the method of precipitation. Sometimes
it is necessary to allow the solution to stand for a considerable time
either in the warm or cold or in the light or dark ; to work with cold
solutions and then boil ; or to use boiling solutions of both the
substance and reagent. Details will be found in the articles on
particular metals. (3) The operation of filtration and washing is
very important. If the substance to be weighed changes in com-
position on strong heating, it is necessary to employ a tared filter,
i.e. a filter paper which has been previously heated to the temperature
at which the substance is to be dried until its weight is constant.
If the precipitate settles readily, the supernatant liquor may be
decanted through the filter paper, more water added to the pre-
cipitate and again decanted. By this means most of the washing,
i.e. freeing from the other substances in the solution, can be accom-
plished in the precipitating vessel. If, however, the precipitate
refuses to settle, it is directly transferred to the filter paper, the last
traces being removed by washing and rubbing the sides of the vessel
with a piece of rubber, and the liquid is allowed to drain through.
It is washed by ejecting a jet of water, ammonia or other prescribed
liquid on to the side of the filter paper until the paper is nearly full.
It can be shown that a more efficient washing results from alternately
filling and emptying the funnel than by endeavouring to keep the
funnel full. The washing is continued until the filtrate is free from
salts or acids. (4) After washing, the funnel containing t,he filter paper
is transferred to a drying oven. In the case of a tared filter it is
weighed repeatedly until the weight suffers no change; then knowing
the weight of the filter paper, the weight of the precipitate is obtained
by subtraction. If the precipitate may be ignited, it is transferred
to a clean, weighed and recently ignited crucible, and the filter paper
is burned separately on the lid, the ash transferred to the crucible,
and the whole ignited. After ignition, it is allowed to cool in a
desiccator and then weighed. Knowing the weight of the crucible
and of the ash of the filter paper, the weight of the precipitate is
determined. The calculation of the percentage of the particular con-
stituent is simple. We know the amount present in the precipitate,
and since the same amount is present in the quantity of substance
experimented with, we have only to work out a sum in proportion.

(j3) Volumetric. — This method is made up of three operations:
— (i) preparation of a standard solution; (2) preparation of a
solution of the substance; (3) titration, or the determination of
what volume of the standard solution will occasion a known
and definite reaction with a known volume of the test solution.

(i) In general analytical work the standard solution contains the
equivalent weight of the substance in grammes dissolved in a litre
of water. Such a solution is known as normal. Thus a normal
solution of sodium carbonate contains 53 grammes per litre, of
sodium hydrate 40 grammes, of hydrochloric acid 36-5 grammes,
and so on. By taking j^th or Ttath of these quantities, decinormal
or centinormal solutions are obtained. We see therefore that i
cubic centimetre of a normal sodium carbonate solution will exactly
neutralize 0-049 gramme of sulphuric acid, 0-0365 gramme of
hydrochloric acid (i.e. the equivalent quantities), and similarly for
decinormal and centinormal solutions. Unfortunately, the term
normal is sometimes given to solutions which are strictly decinormal ;
for example, iodine, sodium thiosulphate, &c. In technical analysis,
where a solution is used for one process only, it may be prepared so
that i cc. is equal to -oi gramme of the substance to be estimated.
This saves a certain amount of arithmetic, but when the solution
is applied in another determination additional calculations are
necessary. Standard solutions are prepared by weighing out the
exact amount of the pure substance and dissolving it in water, or
by forming a solution of approximate normality, determining its
exact strength by gravimetric or other means, and then correcting
it for any divergence. This may be exemplified in the case of
alkalimetry. Pure sodium carbonate is prepared by igniting the
bicarbonate, and exactly 53 grammes are dissolved in water, forming
a strictly normal solution. An approximate normal sulphuric acid is
prepared from 30 ccs. of the pure acid (1-84 specific gravity) diluted
to i litre. The solutions are titrated (see below) and the acid solution
diluted until equal volumes are exactly equivalent. A standard
sodium hydrate solution can be prepared by dissolving 42 grammes
of sodium hydrate, making up to a litre, and diluting until one
cubic centimetre is exactly equivalent to one cubic centimetre of the
sulphuric acid. Similarly, normal solutions of hydrochloric and nitric
acids can be prepared. Where a solution is likely to change in
composition on keeping, such as potassium permanganate, iodine,

CHEMISTRY

[ANALYTICAL

sodium hydrate, &c., it is necessary to check or re-standardize it
periodically.

(2) The preparation of the solution of the substance consists in
dissolving an accurately determined weight, and making up the
volume in a graduated cylinder or flask to a known volume.

(3) The titration is conducted by running the standard solution
from a burette into a known volume of the test solution, which is
usually transferred from the stock-bottle to a beaker or basin by
means of a pipette. Various artifices are employed to denote the
end of the reaction. These may be divided into two groups: (i)
those in which a change in appearance of the reacting mixture occurs ;
(2) those in which it is necessary to use an indicator which, by its
change in appearance, shows that an excess of one reagent is present.
In the first group, we have to notice the titration of a cyanide with
silver nitrate, when a milkiness shows how far the reaction has gone ;
the titration of iron with permanganate, when the faint pink colour
shows that all the iron is oxidizea. In the second group, we may
notice the application of litmus, methyl orange or phenolphthalein
in alkalimetry, when the acid or alkaline character of the solution
commands the colour which it exhibits; starch paste, which forms
a bjue compound with free iodine in iodometry ; potassium chromate,
which forms red silver chromate after ail the hydrochloric acid is
precipitated in solutions of chlorides; and in die estimation of
ferric compounds by potassium bichromate, the indicator, potassium
ferricyanide, is placed in drops on a porcelain plate, and the end of
the reaction is shown by the absence of a blue coloration when
a drop of the test solution is brought into contact with it.

(y) Electrolytic. — This method consists in decomposing a
solution of a salt of the metal by the electric current and weigh-
ing the metal deposited at the cathode.

It is only by paying great attention to the current density that
good results are obtained, since metals other than that sought for may
be deposited. In acid copper solutions, mercury is deposited before
the copper with which it subsequently amalgamates; silver is
thrown down simultaneously; bismuth appears towards the end;
and after all the copper has been precipitated, arsenic and antimony
may be deposited. Lead and manganese are partially separated
as peroxides, but the remaining metals are not deposited from acid
solutions. It is therefore necessary that the solution should be free
from metals which may vitiate the results, or special precautions
taken by which the impurities are rendered harmless. In such cases
the simplicity of manipulation and the high degree of accuracy of
the method have made it especially valuable. The electrolysis is
generally conducted with platinum electrodes, of which the cathode
takes the form of a piece of foil bent into a cylindrical form, the
necessary current being generated by one or more Daniell cells.

, (5) Colorimetric. — This method is adopted when it is necessary
to determine minute traces (as in the liquid obtained in the
electrolytic separation of copper) of substances which afford
well-defined colour reactions.

The general procedure is to make a series of standard solutions
containing definite quantities of the substance which it is desired to
estimate; such a series will exhibit tints which deepen as the
quantity of the substance is increased. A known weight of the test
substance is dissolved and a portion of the solution is placed in a
tube similar to those containing the standard solutions. The colour-
producing reagent is added and the tints compared. In the case of
copper, the colour reactions with potassium ferrocyanide or ammonia
are usually employed; traces of ammonia are estimated with
Nessler's reagent; sulphur in iron and steel is determined by the
tint assumed by a silver-copper plate suspended in the gases liberated
when the metal is dissolved in sulphuric acid (Eggertz's test) (see
W. Crookes, Select Methods in Analytical Chemistry).

Organic Analysis.

The elements which play important parts in organic com-
pounds are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine,
sulphur, phosphorus and oxygen. We shall here consider the
qualitative and quantitative determination of these elements.

Qualitative. — Carbon is detected by the formation of carbon
dioxide, which turns lime-water milky, and hydrogen by the forma-
tion of water, which condenses on the tube, when the substance is
heated with copper oxide. Nitrogen may be detected by the
evolution of ammonia when the substance is heated with soda-lime.
A more delicate method is that due to J. L. Lassaigne and improved
by O. Jacobsen arid C. Graebe. The substance is heated with
metallic sodium or potassium (in excess if sulphur be present) to
redness, the residue treated with water, filtered, and ferrous sulphate,
ferric chloride and hydrochloric acid added. A blue coloration
indicates nitrogen, and is due to the formation of potassium (or
sodium) cyanide during the fusion, and subsequent interaction
with the iron salts. The halogens may be sometimes detected by
fusing with lime, and testing the solution for a bromide, chloride
and iodide in the usual way. F. Beilstein determines then- presence
by heating the substance with pure copper oxide on a platinum
wire in the Bunsen flame; a green coloration is observed if halogens
be present. Sulphur is detected by heating the substance with

sodium, dissolving the product in water, and adding sodium nitro-
prusside; a bluish-violet coloration indicates sulphur (H. Vphl).
Or we may use J. Horbaczewski's method, which consists in boiling
the substance with strong potash, saturating the cold solution with
chlorine, adding hydrochloric acid, and boiling till no more chlorine is
liberated, and then testing for sulphuric acid with barium chloride.
Phosphorus is obtained as a soluble phosphate (which can be ex-
amined in the usual way) by lixiviating the product obtained when
the substance is ignited with potassium nitrate and carbonate.

Quantitative. — Carbon and hydrogen are generally estimated by
the combustion process, which consists in oxidizing the substance
and absorbing^ the products of combustion in suitable carbon and
apparatus. The oxidizing agent in commonest use is hydrogen.
copper oxide, which must be freshly ignited before use on
account of its hygroscopic nature. Lead chromate is sometimes
used, and many other substances, such as platinum, manganese
dioxide, &c., have been suggested. The procedure for a combustion
is as follows : —

FIG. i.

A hard glass tube slightly longer than the furnace and 12 to 15 mm.
in diameter is thoroughly cleansed and packed as shown in fig. i.
The space o must allow for the inclusion of a copper spiral if the
substance contains nitrogen, and a silver spiral if halogens be
present, for otherwise nitrogen oxides and the halogens may be
condensed in the absorption apparatus; b contains copper oxide;
c is a space for the insertion of a porcelain or platinum boat containing
a weighed quantity of the substance ; d is a copper spiral. The end
d is connected to an air or oxygen supply with an intermediate
drying apparatus. _The other endis connected with the absorption
vessels, which consist of a tube (e) containing calcium chloride, and
a set of bulbs (/) containing potash solution. Various forms of potash
bulbs _are employed; fie. 2 is Liebig's, fig. 3 Mohr's or Geissler's,
fig. 4 is a more recent form, of which special variations have been

FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4-

made by Anderson, Gomberg, Delisle and others. After having
previously roasted the tube and copper oxide, and reduced the
copper spiral a, the weighed calcium chloride tube and potash bulbs
are put in position, the boat containing the substance is inserted
(in the case of a difficultly combustible substance it is desirable to
mix it with cupric oxide or lead chromate), the copper spiral (d)
replaced, and the air and oxygen supply connected up. The
apparatus is then tested for leaks. If all the connexions are sound,
the copper oxide is gradually heated from the end o, the gas-jets
under the spiral d are lighted, and a slow current of oxygen is passed
through the tube. The success of the operation depends upon the
slow burning of the substance. Towards the end the heat and the
oxygen supply are increased. When there is no more absorption
in the potash bulbs, the oxygen supply is cut off and air passed
through. Having replaced the oxygen in the absorption vessels by
air, they are disconnected and weighed, after having cooled down
to the temperature of the room. The increase in weight of the calcium
chloride tube gives the weight of water formed, and of the potash
bulbs the carbon dioxide.

Liquids are amenable to the same treatment, but especial care
must be taken so that they volatilize slowly. Difficultly volatile
liquids may be weighed directly into the boat ; volatile liquids are
weighed in thin hermetically sealed bulbs, the necks of which are
broken just before they are placed in the combustion tube.

The length of time and other disadvantages attending the com-
bustion method have caused investigators to devise other processes.
In 1855 C. Brunner described a method for oxidizing the carbon
to carbon dioxide, which could be estimated by the usual methods,
by heating the substance with potassium bichromate and sulphuric
acid. This process has been considerably developed by J. Messinger,
and we may hope that with subsequent improvements it may be
adapted to all classes of organic compounds. The oxidation, which
is effected by chromic acid and sulphuric acid, is conducted in a flask
provided with a funnel and escape tube, and the carbon dioxide
formed is swept by a current of dry air, previously freed from carbon
dioxide, through a drying tube to a set of potash bulbs and a tube
containing soda-lime; if halogens are present, a small wash bottle
containing potassium iodide, and a (J tube containing glass wool
moistened with silver nitrate on one side and strong sulphuric acid
on the other, must be inserted between the flask and the drying tube.
The increase in weight of the potash bulbs and soda-lime tube gives

PHYSICAL]

CHEMISTRY

the weight of carbon dioxide evolved. C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan
collected the carbon dioxide obtained in this way over mercury.
They also showed that carbon monoxide was given off towards the
end of the reaction, and oxygen was not evolved unless the tempera-
ture exceeded 100°.

Methods depending upon oxidation in the presence of a contact
substance have come into favour during recent years. In that of
M. Dennstedt, which was first proposed in 1902, the substance is
vaporized in a tube containing at one end platinum foil, platinized
quartz, or platinized asbestos. The platinum is maintained at a
bright red heat, either by a gas flame or by an electric furnace, and
the vapour is passed over it by leading in a current of oxygen. If
nitrogen be present, a boat containing dry lead peroxide and heated
to 320° is inserted, the oxide decomposing any nitrogen peroxide
which may be formed. The same absorbent quantitatively takes
up any halogen and sulphur which may be present. The process is
thereforeadapted to the simultaneous estimation of carbon.hydrogen,
the halogens and sulphur.

Nitrogen is estimated by (l) Dumas' method, which consists in
heating the substance with copper oxide and measuring the volume
NUrosea °* n'trogen liberated; (2) by Will and Varrentrapp's
method, in which the substance is heated with soda-lime,
and the ammonia evolved is absorbed in hydrochloric acid, and thence
precipitated as ammonium chlorplatinate or estimated volumetric-
ally ; of (3) by Kjeldahl's method, in which the substance is dissolved
in concentrated sulphuric acid, potassium permanganate added, the
liquid diluted and boiled with caustic soda, and the evolved ammonia
absorbed in hydrochloric acid and estimated as in Will and
Varrentrapp's method.

Dumas' Method. — In this method the operation is carried out in a
hard glass tube sealed at one end and packed as shown in fie. 5.
The magnesite (a) serves for the generation of carbon dioxide which
clears the tube of air before the compound (mixed with fine copper
oxide (6)) is burned, and afterwards sweeps the liberated nitrogen
into the receiving vessel (e), which contains a strong potash solution ;
c is coarse copper oxide; and d a reduced copper
gauze spiral, heated in order to decompose any
nitrogen oxides. Ulrich Kreusler generates the
carbon dioxide in a separate apparatus, and
in this case the tube is drawn out to a capillary
at the end (a). This artifice is specially valuable
when the substance decomposes or volatilizes
in a warm current of carbon dioxide. Various
forms of the absorbing apparatus (e) have been
discussed by M. Ilinski (Ber. 17, p. 1347), who
has also suggested the use of manganese car-
bonate instead of magnesite, since the change
of colour enables one to follow the decomposi-

FIG. 5.

tion. Substances which burn with difficulty may be mixed with
mercuric oxide in addition to copper oxide.

Will and Varrentrapp's Method. — This method, as originally pro-
posed, is not in common use, but has been superseded by Kjeldahl's
method, since the nitrogen generally comes out too low. It is
susceptible of wider application by mixing reducing agents with the
soda -lime; thus Goldberg (Ber. 16, p. 2546) uses a mixture of
soda-lime, stannous chloride and sulphur for nitro- and azo-com-
pounds, and C. Arnold (Ber. 18, p. 806) a mixture containing
sodium hyposulphite and sodium formate for nitrates.

Kjeldahl s Method. — This method rapidly came into favour on
account of its simplicity, both of operation and apparatus. Various
substances other than potassium permanganate have been suggested
for facilitating the operation; J. W. Gunning (Z. anal. Chem., 1889,
p. 189) uses potassium sulphate; Lassar-Cohn uses mercuric oxide.
The applicability of the process has been examined by F. W. Dafert
(Z. anal. Chem., 1888, p. 224), who has divided nitrogenous bodies
into two classes with respect to it. The first class includes those
substances which require no preliminary treatment, and comprises
the amides and ammonium compounds, pyridines, quinolines,
alkaloids, albumens and related bodies; the second class requires
preliminary treatment and comprises, with few exceptions, the nitro-,
nitroso-, azo-, diazo- and amidoazo-compounds, hydrazines, deriva-
tives of nitric and nitrous acids, and probably cyanogen compounds.
Other improvements have been suggested by Dyer (J.C.S. Trans.
67, p. 811). For an experimental comparison of the accuracy of
the Dumas, Will-Varrentrapp and Kjeldahl processes see L. L'H&te,
C.R. 1889, p. 817. Debordeaux (C.R. 1904, p. 905) has obtained
good results by distilling the substance with a mixture of potassium
thiosulphate and sulphide.

The halogens may be estimated by ignition with quicklime, or by
heating with nitric acid and silver nitrate in a sealed tube. In the

VI. 3

first method the substance, mixed with quicklime free from chlorine,
is heated in a tube closed at one end in a combustion furnace.
The product is dissolved in water, and the calcium Halotta*
haloid estimated in the usual way. The same decomposi- su/p/,ur> '
tion may be effected by igniting with iron, ferric oxide and pt,on-
sodium carbonate (E. Kopp, Ber.io, p. 290); the operation p*onu.
is easier if the lime be mixed with sodium carbonate, or a
mixture of sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate be used. With
iodine compounds, iodic acid is likely to be formed, and hence the
solution must be reduced with sulphurous acid before precipitation
with silver nitrate. C. Zulkowsky (Ber. 18, R. 648) burns the
substance in oxygen, conducts the gases over platinized sand, and
collects the products in suitable receivers. The oxidation with
nitric acid in sealed tubes at a temperature of 150° to 200° for aliphatic
compounds, and 250° to 260° for aromatic compounds, is in commoa
use, for both the sulphur and phosphorus can be estimated, the
former being oxidized to sulphuric acid and the latter to phosphoric
acid. This method was due to L. Carius (Ann. 136, p. 129). R.
Klason (Ber. 19, p. 1910) determines sulphur and the halogens by
oxidizing the substance in a current of oxygen and nitrous fumes,
conducting the vapours over platinum foil, and absorbing the vapours
in suitable receivers. Sulphur and phosphorus can sometimes be
estimated by Messinger's method, in which the oxidation is effected
by potassium permanganate and caustic alkali, or by potassium
bichromate and hydrochloric acid. A comparison of the various
methods for estimating sulphur has been given by O. Hammarsten
(Zeit. physiolog. Chem. o, p. 273), and by Holand (Chemiker Zeitung,
!893, p. 99i). H. H. Pnngsheim (Ber. 38, p. 1434) has devised a
method in which the oxidation is effected by sodium peroxide; the
halogens.phosphorusand sulphur can be determined by one operation.

VI. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

We have seen how chemistry may be regarded as having for
its province the investigation of the composition of matter,
and the changes in composition which matter or energy may
effect on matter, while physics is concerned with the general
properties of matter. A physicist, however, does more than
merely quantitatively determine specific properties of matter;
he endeavours to establish mathematical laws which co-ordinate
his observations, and in many cases the equations expressing such
laws contain functions or terms which pertain solely to the
chemical composition of matter. One example will suffice here.
The limiting law expressing the behaviour of gases under varying
temperature and pressure assumes the form pv=R.T; so stated,
this law is independent of chemical composition and may be
regarded as a true physical law, just as much as the law of uni-
versal gravitation is a true law of physics. But this relation is
not rigorously true; in fact, it does not accurately express the
behaviour of any gas. A more accurate expression (see CON-
DENSATION OF GASES and MOLECULE) is (p+a/v2) (v—b) = RT, in
which a and b are quantities which depend on the composition
of the gas, and vary from one gas to another.

It may be surmised that the quantitative measures of most
physical properties will be found to be connected with the
chemical nature of substances. In the investigation of these
relations the physicist and chemist meet on common ground;
this union has been attended by fruitful and far-reaching results,
and the correlation of physical properties and chemical composi-
tion is one of the most important ramifications of physical
chemistry. This branch receives treatment below. Of consider-
able importance, also, are the properties of solids, liquids and
gases in solution. This subject has occupied a dominant position
in physico-chemical research since the investigations of van't
Hoff and Arrhenius. This subject is treated in the article
SOLUTION; for the properties of liquid mixtures reference should
also be made to the article DISTILLATION.

Another branch of physical chemistry has for its purpose the
quantitative study of chemical action, a subject which has
brought out in clear detail the analogies of chemical and physical
equilibrium (see CHEMICAL ACTION). Another branch, related
to energetics (<?.».), is concerned with the transformation of
chemical energy into other forms of energy — heat, light, electri-
city. Combustion is a familiar example of the transformation
of chemical energy into heat and light; the quantitative measures
of heat evolution or absorption (heat of combustion or combina-
tion), and the deductions therefrom, are treated in the article
THERMOCHEMISTRY. Photography (q.v.) is based on chemical
action induced by luminous rays; apart from this practical

66

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

application there are many other cases in which actinic rays
occasion chemical actions; these are treated in the article
PHOTOCHEMISTRY. Transformations of electrical into chemical
energy are witnessed in the processes of electrolysis (q.v.; see
also ELECTROCHEMISTRY and ELECTROMETALLURGY). The con-
verse is presented in the common electric cell.

Physical Properties and Composition.

For the complete determination of the chemical structure of
any compound, three sets of data are necessary: (i) the empirical
chemical composition of the molecule; (2) the constitution, i.e.
the manner in which the atoms are linked together; and (3) the
configuration of the molecule, i.e. the arrangement of the atoms
in space. Identity in composition, but difference in constitution,
is generally known as " isomerism " (q.v.), and compounds
satisfying this relation differ in many of their physical properties.
If, however, two compounds only differ with regard to the spatial
arrangement of the atoms, the physical properties may be (i)
for the most part identical, differences, however, being apparent
with regard to the action of the molecules on polarized light, as
is the case when the configuration is due to the presence of an
asymmetric atom (optical isomerism); or (2) both chemical
and physical properties may be different when the configuration
is determined by the disposition of the atoms or groups attached
to a pair of doubly-linked atoms, or to two members of a ring
system (geometrical isomerism or allo-isomerism). Three sets
of physical properties may therefore be looked for: (i) depending
on composition, (2) depending on constitution, and (3) depending
on configuration. The first set provides evidence as to the
molecular weight of a substance: these are termed " colligative
properties." The second and third sets elucidate the actual
structure of the molecule: these are known as " constitutional
properties."

In any attempts to gain an insight into the relations between
the physical properties and chemical composition of substances,
the fact must never be ignored that a comparison can only be
made when the particular property under consideration is deter-
mined under strictly comparable conditions, in other words,
when the molecular states of the substances experimented upon
are identical. This is readily illustrated by considering the pro-
perties of gases — the simplest state of aggregation. According
to the law of Avogadro, equal volumes of different gases under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal
numbers of molecules; therefore, since the density depends upon
the number of molecules present in unit volume, it follows that
for a comparison of the densities of gases, the determinations
must be made under coincident conditions, or the observations
reduced or re-computed for coincident conditions. When this
is done, such densities are measures of the molecular weights
of the substances in question.

Volume Relations.1 — When dealing with colligative properties
of liquids it is equally necessary to ensure comparability of con-
ditions. In the article CONDENSATION OF GASES (see also
MOLECULE) it is shown that the characteristic equation of gases
and liquids is conveniently expressed in the form (p+a/v2) (v— b)
= RT. This equation, which is mathematically deducible from
the kinetic theory of gases, expresses the behaviour of gases,
the phenomena of the critical state, and the behaviour of liquids;
solids are not accounted for. If we denote the critical volume,
pressure and temperature by Vjt, Pi and Tk, then it may be
shown, either by considering the characteristic equation as a
perfect cube in » or by using the relations that dp/dv — o,
d*p/dv2=o at the critical point, that Vk = $b, Pfc=0/27&2,
T* = 80/276. Eliminating a and b between these relations, we
derive PjfcVfc/Tk=iR, a relation which should hold between the
critical constants of any substance. Experiment, however,
showed that while the quotient on the left hand of this equation
was fairly constant for a great number of substances, yet its
value was not fR but -^rR; this means that the critical density
is, as a general rule, 3-7 times the theoretical density. Deviation
from this rule indicates molecular dissociation or association.

1 For the connexion between valency and volume, see VALENCY.

Name.

Formula.

Crit. Vol.

Vol. per CH,.|

Methyl formate

H-CO8CH,

171

Ethyl formate

H-CO,C2H6

228 1

56-5

Methyl acetate

CH.-COjCH,

227 f 227 5

Propyl formate

H-COsC.H,

284!

55-8

Ethyl acetate

CH,-COSC,H4

285 r 283-3

Methyl propionate

C2H6-CO2CH,

28lJ

Propyl acetate .

CH,-CO2C,H7

343]

57-4

Ethyl propionate
Methyl n-butyrate
Methyl isobutyrate

C,H4-C02C2H6
LC8H7-C02CH3

3« 340-7
337J

By actual observations it has been shown that ether, alcohol,
many esters of the normal alcohols and fatty acids, benzene,
and its halogen substitution products, have critical constants
agreeing with this originally empirical law, due to Sydney Young
and Thomas; acetic acid behaves abnormally, pointing to
associated molecules at the critical point.

The critical volume provides data which may be tested for additive
relations. Theoretically the critical volume is three times the
volume at absolute zero, i.e. the actual volume of the
molecules; this is obvious by considering the result of
making T zero in the characteristic equation. Experi- ° °
mentally (by extrapolation from the" law of the rectilinear ^absolute
diameter ") the critical volume is four times the volume tero.
at absolute zero (see CONDENSATION OF GASES). The
most direct manner in which to test any property for additive
relations is to determine the property for a number of elements, and
then investigate whether these values hold for the elements in com-
bination. Want of data for the elements, however, restricts this
method to narrow limits, and hence an indirect method is necessary.
It is found that isomers have nearly the same critical volume, and
that equal differences in molecular content occasion equal differ-
ences in critical volume. For example, the difference due to an
increment of CH2 is about 56-6, as is shown in the following table: —

Since the critical volume of normal pentane CjHu is 307-2, we
have H2 = C6H12-5CH2 = 307-2-5X56-6 = 24-2,and C = CH,-H,=

32-4. The critical volume of oxygen can be deduced from the data
of the above table, and is found to be 29, whereas the experimental
value is 25.

The researches of H. Kopp, begun in 1842, on the molecular
volumes, i.e. the volume occupied by one gramme molecular weight
of a substance, of liquids measured at their boiling-point
under atmospheric pressure, brought to light a series of
additive relations which, in the case of carbon compounds,
render it possible to predict, in some measure, the com- po
position of the substance. In practice it is generally more convenient
to determine the density, the molecular volume being then obtained
by dividing the molecular weight of the substance by the density.
By the indirect method Kopp derived the following atomic volumes:
C. O. H. Cl. Br. I. S.

II 12-2 5'5 22-8 27-8 37-5 22-6.

These values hold fairly well when compared with the experimental
values determined from other compounds, and also with the mole-
cular volumes of the elements themselves. Thus the actually
observed densities of liquid chlorine and bromine at the boiling-
points are 1-56 and 2-96, leading to atomic volumes 22-7 and 26-9,
which closely correspond to Kopp's values deduced from organic
compounds.

These values, however, require modification in certain cases, for
discrepancies occur which can be reconciled in some cases by assuming
that the atomic value of a polyvalent element varies according to the
distribution of its valencies. Thus a double bond of oxygen, as in the
carbonyl group CO, requires a larger volume than a single bond, as
in the hydroxyl group- OH, being about 12-2 in the first case and
7-8 in the second. Similarly, an increase of volume is associated
with doubly and trebly linked carbon atoms.

Recent researches have shown that the law originally proposed by
Kopp — " That the specific volume of a liquid compound (molecular
volume) at its boiling-point is equal to the sum of the specific volumes
of its constituents (atomic volumes), and that every element has a
definite atomic value in its compounds " — is by no means exact,
for isomers have different specific volumes, and the volume for an
increment of CH2 in different homologous series is by no means
constant ; for example, the difference among the esters of the fatty
acids is about 57, whereas for the aliphatic aldehydes it is 49. We
may therefore conclude that the molecular volume depends more
upon the internal structure of the molecule than its empirical content.
W. Ostwald (Lehr. der ollg. Chem.), after an exhaustive review of the
material at hand, concluded that simple additive relations did
exist but with considerable deviations, which he ascribed to differ-
ences in structure. In this connexion we may notice W. Stadel's
determinations :

CH,CC1,
CH2C1-CHC1,

108
102-8

CHClBr-CH,
CHjBr-CHsCl

96-5

88

PHYSICAL]

These differences do not disappear at the critical point, and hence
the critical volumes are not strictly additive. •

Theoretical considerations as to how far Kopp was justified in
choosing the boiling-points under atmospheric pressure as being
comparable states for different substances now claim our attention.
Van der Waal's equation (p+a/v2)(» — 6) = RT contains two constants
a and b determined by each particular substance. If we express
the pressure, volume and temperature as fractions of the critical
constants, then, calling these fractions the " reduced " pressure,
volume and temperature, and denoting them by ir, 0 and 9 re-
spectively, the characteristic equation becomes (IT +3/<£2) (3* — I ) = 89 ;
which ha's the same form for all substances. Obviously, therefore,
liquids are comparable when the pressures, volumes and tem-
peratures are equal fractions of the critical constants. In view
of the extremely slight compressibility of liquids, atmospheric
pressure may be regarded as a coincident condition; also C. M.
Guldberg pointed out that for the most diverse substances the
absolute boiling-point is about two-thirds of the critical temperature.
Hence within narrow limits Kopp's determinations were carried out
under coincident conditions, and therefore any regularities presented
by the critical volumes should be revealed in the specific volumes
at the boiling-point. . .

The connexion between the density and chemical composition of
solids has not been investigated with the same completeness as in the
case of gases and, liquids. The relation between the atomic
Volume volumes and the atomic weights of the solid elements
relation* exhibits the periodicity which generally characterizes the
of solids, elements. The molecular volume is additive in certain
cases, in particular pf analogous compounds of simple constitution.
For instance, constant differences are found between the chlorides,
bromides and iodides of sodium and potassium : —

CHEMISTRY

67

I.

Diff.

II.

Diff.

Diff. I. & II.

KC1=37'4
KBr = 44-3
KI =54-0

6-9
9-7

NaCl = 27-i
NaBr = 33-8
Nal =43-5

6-7
97

io-3
10-5
io-5

geses.

According to H. Schroeder the silver salts of the fatty acids
exhibit additive relations; an increase in the molecule of CH2
causes an increase in the molecular volume of about 15-3.

Thermal Relations.

Specific Heat and Composition. — The nature and experi-
mental determination of specific heats are discussed in the
article CALORIMETRY; here will be discussed the relations exist-
ing between the heat capacities of elements and compounds.

In the article THERMODYNAMICS it is shown that the amount
of heat required to raise a given weight of a gas through a certain
range of temperature is different according as the gas
*s maintained at constant pressure, the volume in-
creasing, or at constant volume, thepressure increasing.
A gas, therefore, has two specific heats, generally
denoted by Cp and Cr, when the quantity of gas taken as a unit
is one gramme molecular weight, the range of temperature being
i° C. It may be shown that CP-C,= R, where R is the gas-
constant, i.e. R in the equation PV = RT. From the ratio Cp/Cr
conclusions may be drawn as to the molecular condition of the
gas. By considerations based on the kinetic theory of gases
(see MOLECULE) it may be shown that when no energy is utilized
in separating the atoms of a molecule, this ratio is 5/3 = 1-67.
If, however, an amount of energy a is taken up in separating
atoms, the ratio is expressible as Cp/C,,= (5+a)/(3+a), which
is obviously smaller than 5/3, and decreases with increasing
values of a. These relations may be readily tested, for the ratio
Cp/C, is capable of easy experimental determination. It is found
that mercury vapour, helium, argon and its associates (neon,
krypton, &c.) have the value 1-67; hence we conclude that these
gases exist as monatomic molecules. Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen
and carbon monoxide have the value 1-4; these gases have
diatomic molecules, a fact capable of demonstration by other
means. Hence it may be inferred that this value is typical for
diatomic molecules. Similarly, greater atomic complexity is
reflected in a further decrease in the ratio CP/C,. The following
table gives a comparative view of the specific heats and the
ratio for molecules of variable atomic content.

The abnormal specific heats of the halogen elements may be due
to a loosening of the atoms, a preliminary to the dissociation into
monatomic molecules which occurs at high temperatures. In the
more complex gases the specific heat varies considerably with
temperature; only in the case of monatomic gases does it remain

Molecular Content.

Examples.

C,.

C..

C,/C*.

Monatomic .
Diatomic
Triatomic

He, Zn, Cd, He, Ar, &c. .
( H2, 0,, N, (o°-20oj) .
JCk Br,, 1 2 (o°-200e).
( HC1, HBr, HI, NO, CO
H«O, H,S, N,O, COi .
( As4, P4

6-83
8-6

9-2
13-4

I:!3

7-2
11-4

•66
•41
•30

•41

•28
•175

Tetratomic .

I NH,, C,H, ....
CHCIi

u-6
14

9-6

12

•21
•17

Hexatomic .

C8H4, C,H,Br . . .

16-4

14-4

•14

constant. Le Chatelier (Zeit. f. phys. Chem. i. 456) has given the
formula Cp = 6-5+oT, where a is a constant depending on the
complexity of the molecule, as an expression for the molecular heat
at constant pressure at any temperature T (reckoned on the absolute
scale). For a further discussion of the ratio of the specific heats see
MOLECULE.

Specific Heals of Solids. — The development of the atomic
theory and the subsequent determination of atomic weights
in the opening decades of the ipth century inspired A. T. Petit
and P. L. Dulong to investigate relations (if any) existing
between specific heats and the atomic weight. Their obser-
vations on the solid elements led to a remarkable generalization,
now known as Dulong and Petit's law. This states that " the
atomic heat (the product of the atomic weight and specific
heat) of all elements is a constant quantity." The value
of this constant when H=i is about 6-4; Dulong and Petit,
using O=i, gave the value -38, the specific heat of water being
unity in both cases. This law — purely empirical in origin — was
strengthened by Berzelius, who redetermined many specific
heats, and applied the law to determine the true atomic weight
from the equivalent weight. At the same time he perceived
that specific heats varied with temperature and also with allo-
tropes, e.g. graphite and diamond. The results of Berzelius were1
greatly extended by Hermann Kopp, who recognized that carbon,
boron and silicon were exceptions to the law. He regarded these
anomalies as solely due to the chemical nature of the elements,
and ignored or regarded as insignificant such factors as the state
of aggregation and change of specific heat with temperature.

The specific heats of carbon, boron and silicon subsequently
formed the subject of elaborate investigations by H. F. Weber, who
showed that with rise of temperature the specific (and atomic) heat
increases, finally attaining a fairly constant value; diamond,
graphite and the various amorphous forms of carbon having the value
about 5-6 at 1000°, and silicon 5-68 at 232°; while he concluded
that boron attained a constant value of 5 • 5. Nilson and Pettersson's
observations on beryllium and germanium have shown that the
atomic heats of these metals increase with rise of temperature,
finally becoming constant with a value 5-6. W. A. Tilden (Phil.
Trans., 1900, p. 233) investigated nickel and cobalt over a wide
range of temperature (from —182-5° to 100°); his results are: —

Cobalt.

Nickel.

From

-182-5° to
- 78-4° to
15° to

-78-4° . .
J5 o ' '

100° . .

4-1687
5-4978
6-0324

4-1874
5-6784
6-3I43

It is evident that the atomic heats of these intimately associated
elements approach nearer and nearer as we descend in temperature,
approximating to the value 4. Other metals were tested in order
to determine if their atomic heats approximated to this value at low
temperatures, but with negative results.

It is apparent that the law of Dulong and Petit is not rigorously
true, and that deviations are observed which invalidate the law as
originally framed. Since the atomic heat of the same element
varies with its state of aggregation, it must be concluded that some
factor taking this into account must be introduced; moreover, the
variation of specific heat with temperature introduces another factor.

We now proceed to discuss molecular heats of compounds,
that is, the product of the molecular weight into the specific
heat. The earliest generalization in this direction is associated
with F. E. Neumann, who, in 1831, deduced from observations
on many carbonates (calcium, magnesium, ferrous, zinc, barium
and lead) that stoichiometric quantities (equimolecular weights)
of compounds possess the same heat capacity. This is spoken of
as " Neumann's law." Regnault confirmed Neumann's obser-
vations, and showed that the molecular heat depended on the
number of atoms present, equiatomic compounds having the
same molecular heat. Kopp systematized the earlier observations,

68

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

and, having made many others, he was able to show that
the molecular heat was an additive property, i.e. each element
retains the same heat capacity when in combination as in the
free state. This has received confirmation by the researches
of W. A. Tilden (Phil. Trans., 1904, 203 A, p. 139) for those
elements whose atomic heats vary considerably with temperature.

The specific heat of a compound may, in general, be calculated
from the specific heats of its constituent elements. Conversely, if
the specific heats of a compound and its constituent elements,
except one, be known, then the unknown atomic heat is readily
deducible. Similarjy , by taking the difference of the molecular heats
of compounds differing by one constituent, the molecular (or atomic)
heat of this constituent is directly obtained. By this method it is
shown that water, when present as " water of crystallization,"
behaves as if it were ice.

Deductions from Dulong and Petit's Law. — Denoting the
atomic weight by W and the specific heat by s, Dulong and
Petit's law states that 6-4 = Vfs. Thus if s be known, an approxi-
mate value of W is determinate. In the determination of the
atomic weight of an element two factors must be considered:
(i) its equivalent weight, i.e. the amount which is equivalent to
one part of hydrogen; and (2) a factor which denotes the number
of atoms of hydrogen which combines with or is equivalent to
one atom of the particular element. This factor is termed the
valency. The equivalent weight is capable of fairly ready
determination, but the settlement of the second factor is some-
what more complex, and in this direction the law of atomic heats
is of service. To take an example: 38 parts of indium combine
with 35-4 parts of chlorine; hence, if the formula of the chloride
be InCl, InCl2 or InCU, indium has the atomic weights 38, 76
or 114. The specific heat of indium is 0-057; an<l the -atomic
heats corresponding to the atomic weights 38, 76 and 114 are
3-2, 4-3, 6-5. Dulong and Petit's law thus points to the value
114, which is also supported by the position occupied by this
element in the periodic classification. C. Winkler decided the
atomic weight of germanium by similar reasoning.

Boiling-Point and Composition. — From the relation between

the critical constants P* Vt/Tfc=T^R or T*/P*=3-7V*/R, and

O /

since V* is proportional to the volume at absolute zero, the ratio
T*/P* should exhibit additive relations. This ratio, termed by
Guye the critical coefficient, has the following approximate
values: —

r H ri n -o NT M— p Double Triple
C. H. U. -0-. -O. JN. W=. V. iinkage. linkage.

i -35 0-57 2-66 0-87 1-27 1-6 1-86 3-01 0-88 1-03
Since at the boiling-point under atmospheric pressure liquids
are in corresponding states, the additive nature of the critical
coefficient should also be presented by boiling-points. It may
be shown theoretically that the absolute boiling-point is pro-
portional to the molecular volume, and, since this property is
additive, the boiling-point should also be additive.

These relations have been more thoroughly tested in the case of
organic compounds, and the results obtained agree in some measure
with the deductions from molecular volumes. In general, isomers
boil at about the same temperature, as is shown by the isomeric
esters C»H«O2: —

Methyl octoate . . 192-9° Amyl butyrate . . 184-8°
Ethyl heptoate . . 187-1° Heptyl acetate . . 191-3°
Propyl hexoate . . 185-5° Octyl formate . . 198-1°
Butyl pentoate . . 185-8°

Equal increments in the molecule are associated with an equal
rise in the boiling-point, but this increment varies in different
homologous series. Thus in the normal fatty alcohols, acids, esters,
nitriles and ketones, the increment per CH2 is 19° — 21°; in the alde-
hydes it is 26°— 27°. In the aromatic compounds there is no regu-
larity between the increments due to the introduction of methyl
groups into the benzene nucleus or side chains; the normal value
of 20° — 21° is exhibited, however, by pyridine and its derivatives.
The substitution of a hydrogen atom by the hydroxyl group generally
occasions a rise in boiling-point at about 100°. The same increase
accompanies the introduction of the amino group into aromatic nuclei.
While certain additive relations hold between some homologous
series, yet differences occur which must be referred to the constitution
Constltu- °f t^e molecule. As a general rule, compounds formed
tlve with a great evolution of heat have high boiling-points,

Influences. anc^ v'ce versa. The introduction of negative groups into
a molecule alters the boiling-point according to the number
of negative groups already present. This is shown in the case of the
chloracetic acids:

CH,COiH
ClCH,-CO2H
Cl,CH-CO,H

Diff.

67°
ioe

According to van 't Hoff the substitution of chlorine atoms into a
methyl group occasions the following increments: —
Cl in CH, 66°

Cl „ CH.C1 39°
Cl ,,CHC12 13°.

The introduction of chlorine, however, may involve a fall in the
boiling-point, as is recorded by Henry in the case of the chlorinated
acetonitriles : —

NC-CH,. NC-CH.C1. NC-CHC12. NC-CC1,.
81° 123° 112° 83°

42° -ll° -29°

The replacement of one negative group by another is accompanied by
a change in the boiling-point, which is independent of the compound
in which the substitution is effected, and solely conditioned by the
nature of the replaced and replacing groups. Thus bromine and iodine
replace chlorine with increments of about 22° and 50° respectively.
A factor of considerable importance irwdetermining boiling-points
of isomers is the symmetry of the molecule. Referring to the esters
C9Hi8O2 previously mentioned, it is seen that the highest boiling-
points belong to methyl octoate and octyl formate, the least sym-
metrical, while the minimum belongs to amyl butyrate, the most
symmetrical. The isomeric pentanes also exhibit a similar rcla-
° °°

.

similar reason secondary alcohols boil at a lower temperature than
the corresponding primary, the difference being about 19°. A. E.
Earp (Phil. Mag., 1893 [5], 35, p. 458) has shown that, while an
increase in molecular weight is generally associated with a rise in
the boiling-point, yet the symmetry of the resulting molecule may
exert such a lowering effect that the final result is a diminution in the
boiling-point. The series H2S = -61°, CHaSH=2i°, (CH8)2S = 4i°
is an example; in the first case, the molecular weight is in-
creased and the symmetry diminished, the increase of boiling-point
being 82°; in the second case the molecular weight is again increased
but the molecule assumes a more symmetrical configuration, hence
the comparatively slight increase of 20°. A similar depression is
presented by methyl alcohol (67°) and methyl ether (—23°).

Among the aromatic di-substitution derivatives the ortho com-
pounds have the highest boiling-point, and the mcta boil at a higher,
or about the same temperature as the para compounds. Of the
tri-derivatives the symmetrical compounds boil at the lowest
temperature, the asymmetric next, and the vicinal at the highest.

An ethylenic or double carbon union in the aliphatic hydrocarbons
has, apparently, the same effect on the boiling-point as two hydrogen
atoms, since the compounds CBH2n+2 and CnH2n boil at about the
same temperature. An acetylenic or triple linkage is associated
with a rise in the boiling-point ; for example, propargyl compounds
boil about 19-5° higher than the corresponding propyl compound.

Certain regularities attend the corresponding property of the
melting-point. A rule applicable to organic compounds, due to
Adolf v. Baeyer and supported by F. S. Kipping (Jour. Chem. Soc.,
1893, 63, p. 465) states, that the melting-point of any odd member
of a homologous series is lower than the melting-point of the even
member containing one carbon atom .less. This is true of the fatty
acid series, and the corresponding ketones and alcohols, and also of
the succinic acid series. Other regularities exist, but generally with
many exceptions. It is to be noted that although the correlation of
melting-point with constitution has not been developed to such
an extent as the chemical significance of other physical properties,
the melting-point is the most valuable test of the purity of a sub-
stance, a circumstance due in considerable measure to the fact that
impurities always tend to lower the melting-point.

Heat of Combustion and Constitution. — In the article THERMO-
CHEMISTRY a general account of heats of formation of chemical
compounds is given, and it is there shown that this constant
measures the stability of the compound. In organic chemistry
it is more customary to deal with the " heat of combustion,"
i.e. the heat evolved when an organic compound is completely
burned in oxygen; the heat of formation is deduced from the
fact that it is equal to the heats of formation of the products
of combustion less the observed heat of combustion. The
researches of Julius Thomsen and others have shown that in many
cases definite conclusions regarding constitution can be drawn
from quantitative measurements of the heats of combustion;
and in this article a summary of the chief results will be given.

The identity of the four valencies of the carbon atom follows
from the fact that the heats of combustion of methane, ethane,
propane, trimethyl methane, and tetramethyl methane, have a
constant differencein the order given, viz. is8-6calories; this means

PHYSICAL]

CHEMISTRY

69

that the replacement ot a hydrogen atom by a methyl group is
attended by a constant increase in the heat of combustion. The
same difference attends the introduction of the methyl group into
many classes of compounds, for example, the paraffins, defines,
acetylenes, aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones
and esters, while a slightly lower value (157-1) is found in the case
of the halogen compounds, nitriles, amines, acids, ethers, sulphides
and nitro compounds. It therefore appears that the difference be-
tween the heats of combustion of two adjacent members of a series
of homologous compounds is practically a constant, and that this
constant has two average values, viz. 158-6 and 157-1.

An important connexion between heats of combustion and
constitution is found in the investigation of the effect of single,
double and triple carbon linkages on the thermochemical constants.
If twelve grammes of amorphous carbon be burnt to carbon dioxide
under constant volume, the heat evolved (96-96 cal.) does not measure
the entire thermal effect, but the difference between this and the
heat required to break down the carbon molecule into atoms.
If the number of atoms in the carbon molecule be denoted by n,
and the heat required to split off each atom from the molecule by d,
then the total heat required to break down a carbon molecule
completely into atoms is nd. It follows that the true heat of com-
bustion of carbon, i.e. the heat of combustion of one gramme-atom,
is 96-96 -\-d. The value of d can be evaluated by considering the
combustion of amorphous carbon to carbon monoxidfe and carbon
dioxide. In the first case the thermal effect of 58-58 calories actually
observed must be increased by 2d to allow for the heat absorbed in
splitting off two gramme-atoms of carbon; in the second case the
thermal effect of 96-96 must be increased by d as above. Now in
both cases one gramme-molecule of oxygen is decomposed, and the
two oxygen atoms thus formed are combined with two carbon
valencies. It follows that the thermal effects stated above must be
equal, i.e. 58-58 +2d =96-96+^, and therefore*/ = 38-38. Theabsolute
heat of combustion of a carbon atom is therefore 135-34 calories,
and this is independent of the form of the carbon burned.

Consider now the combustion of a hydrocarbon of the general
formula CnHjm. We assume that each carbon atom and each
hydrogen atom contributes equally to the thermal effect. If o be
the heat evolved by each carbon atom, and ft that by each hydrogen
atom, the thermal effect may be expressed as H=na-f-2mj8-A,
where A is the heat required to break the moleculeintoitsconstituent
atoms. If the hydrocarbon be saturated, i.e. only contain single
carbon linkages, then the number of such linkages is 2n—m, and if
the thermal effect of such a linkage be X, then the term Aisobviously
equal to (2n-»n)X. The value of H then becomes H=na+2fn/J—
(2»-f»)X or nf+m?;, where £ and rj are constants. Let double
bonds be present, in number p, and let the energy due to such a
bond be Y. Then the number of single bonds is 2n—m—2p, and the
heat of combustion becomes HI =nJ+mij+/>(2X-Y). If triple bonds,
q in number, occur also, and the energy of such a bond be Z, the
equation for H becomes

H = Mt+fmr +#(2X-Y) +S&X-Z).

This is the general equation for calculating the heat of combustion
of a hydrocarbon. It contains four independent constants; two
of these may be calculated from the heats of combustion of
saturated hydrocarbons, and the other two from the combustion of
hydrocarbons containing double and triple linkages. By experiment
it is found that the thermal effect of a double bond is much less than
the effect of two single bonds, while a triple bond has a much smaller
effect than three single bonds. J. Thomsen deduces the actual
values of X, Y, Z to be 14-71, 13-27 and zero; the last value he
considers to be in agreement with the labile equilibrium of acetylenic
compounds. One of the most important applications of these values
is found in the case of the constitution of benzene, where Thomsen
decides in favour of the Claus formula, involving nine single carbon
linkages, and rejects the Kekul6 formula, which has three single
and three double bonds (see section IV.).

The thermal effects of the common organic substituents have
also been investigated. The thermal effect of the " alcohol " group
C-OH may be determined by finding the heat of formation of the
alcohol and subtracting the thermal effects of the remaining linkages
in the molecule. The average value for primary alcohols is 44-67 cal.,
but many large differences from this value obtain in certain cases.
The thermal effects increase as one passes from primary to tertiary
alcohols, the values deduced from propyl and isopropyl alcohols and
trimethyl carbinol being: — primary = 45-08, secondary = 50-39, ter-
tiary =60-98. The thermal effect of the aldehyde group has the
average value 64-88 calories, i.e. considerably greater thanthealcohol
group. The ketone group corresponds to a thermal effect of 53-52
calories. It is remarkable that the difference in the heats of forma-
tion of ketones and the paraffin containing one carbon atom less is
67-94 calories, which is the heat of formation of carbon monoxide
at constant volume. It follows therefore that two hydrocarbon
radicals are bound to the carbon monoxide residue with the same
strength as they combine to form a paraffin. The average value for
the carboxyl group is 119-75 calories, i.e. it is equal to the sum of
the thermal effects of the aldehyde and carbonyl groups.

The thermal effects of the halogens are: chlorine = 15- 13 calories,
bromine = 7-68; iodine = -4-25 calories. It is remarkable that the

position of the halogen in the molecule has no effect on the heat of
formation ; for example, chlorpropylene and allylchloride, and also
ethylene dichloride and ethylidene dichloride, have equal heats of
formation. The thermal effect of the ether group has an average
value of 34-31 calories. This value does not hold in the case of

methylene oxide if we assign to it the formula HjC-O-CHj, but
if the formula HjC-O-CHj (which assumes the presence of two free
valencies) be accepted, the calculated and observed heats of formation
are in agreement.

The combination of nitrogen with carbon may result in the
formation of nitriles, cyanides, or primary, secondary or tertiary
amines. Thomsen deduced that a single bond between a carbon and
a nitrogen gramme-atom corresponds to a thermal effect of 2-77
calories, a double bond to 5-44, and a treble bond to 8-31. From
this he infers that cyanogen is C:N-N:C and not N;C-C:N,that
hydrocyanic acid is HC-N, and acetonitrile CH>-C \ N.' In the case
of the amines he decides in favour of the formulae

H2C:NH,

iprmary, secondary, tertiary.

These involve pentavalent nitrogen. These formulae, however, only
apply to aliphatic amines; the results obtained in the aromatic series
are in accordance with the usual formulae.

Optical Relations.

Refraction and Composition. — Reference should be made to
the article REFRACTION for the general discussion of the pheno-
menon known as the refraction of light. It is there shown that
every substance, transparent to light, has a definite refractive
index, which is the ratio of the velocity of light in vacua to its
velocity in the medium to which the refractive index refers.
The refractive index of any substance varies with (i)- the wave-
length of the light; (2) with temperature; and (3) with the state
of aggregation. The first cause of variation may be at present
ignored; its significance will become apparent when we consider
dispersion (vide infra). The second and third causes, however,
are of greater importance, since they are associated with the
molecular condition of the substance; hence, it is obvious that
it is only from some function of the refractive index which is
independent of temperature variations and changes of state
(i.e. it must remain constant for the same substance at any
temperature and in any form) that quantitative relations between
refractivity and chemical composition can be derived.

The pioneer work in this field, now frequently denominated
" spectro-chemistry," was done by Sir Isaac Newton, who, from
theoretical considerations based on his corpuscular theory of light,
determined the function («2— i), where n is the refractive index,
to be the expression for the refractive power; dividing this
expression by the density (d), he obtained (w2— i)/rf, which he
named the " absolute refractive power." To P. S. Laplace is
due the theoretical proof that this function is independent of
temperature and pressure, and apparent experimental confirma-
tion was provided by Biot and Arago's, and by Dulong's observa-
tions on gases and vapours. The theoretical basis upon which
this formula was devised (the corpuscular theory) was shattered
early in the ipth century, and in its place there arose the modern
wave theory which theoretically invalidates Newton's formula.
The question of the dependence of refractive index on tempera-
ture was investigated in 1858 by J. H. Gladstone and the Rev.
T. P. Dale; the more simple formula (n-i)/d, which remained
constant for gases and vapours, but exhibited slight discrepancies
when liquids were examined over a wide range of temperature,
being adopted. The subject was next taken up by Hans Landolt,
who, from an immense number of observations, supported in
a general way the formula of Gladstone and Dale. He introduced
the idea of comparing the refractivity of equimolecular quantities
of different substances by multiplying the function (n— i)/<f
by the molecular weight (M) of the substance, and investigated
the relations of chemical grouping to refractivity. Although
establishing certain general relations between atomic and
molecular refractions, the results were somewhat vitiated by the
inadequacy of the empirical function which he employed, since it
was by no means a constant which depended only on the actual
composition of the substance and was independent of its physical
condition. A more accurate expression (n*—i)/(nI+2)d was

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

suggested in 1880 independently and almost simultaneously by
L. V. Lorenz of Copenhagen and H. A. Lorentz of Leiden, from
considerations based on the Clausius-Mossotti theory of dielectrics.

Assuming that the molecules are spherical, R. J. E. Clausius and
O. F. Mossotti found a relation between the dielectric constant and
the space actually occupied by the molecules, viz. K = (i +2o)/(l —a),
or a-(K — i)/(K+2), where K is the dielectric constant and a the
fraction of the total volume actually occupied by matter. According
to the electromagnetic theory of light K = N2, where N is the
refractive index for rays of infinite wave-length. Making this
substitution, and dividing by d, the density of the substance, we
obtain a/d = (N2 — l)/(N2+2)<Z. Since a/d is the real specific volume
of the molecule, it is therefore a constant; hence (NJ — i)/(N2+2)d
is also a constant and is independent of all changes of temperature,
pressure, and of the state of aggregation. To determine N
recourse must be made to Cauchy s formula of dispersion (5.11.),
n = A + B/X2+C/X4+. . . from which, by extrapolation, X becoming
infinite, we obtain N=A. In the case of substances possessing
anomalous dispersion, the direct measurement of the refractive
index for Hertzian waves of very long wave-length may be
employed.

It is found experimentally that the Lorenz and Lorentz
function holds fairly well, and better than the Gladstone and Dale
formula. This is shown by the following observations of Riihl-
mann on water, the light used being the D line of the spectrum: —

/.

(n -!)/</.

(n2-l)/(n2+2)d.

0
10

20
90

100

0-3338
0-3338
0-3336
0-3321
0-3323

0-2061
0-2061
0-2061
0-2059
0-2061

Eykmann's observations also support the approximate
constancy of the Lorenz-Lorentz formula over wide temperature
differences, but in some cases the deviation exceeds the errors
of observation. The values are for the Ha line: —

Substance.

Temp.

(rc2-l)/(n2+2)d.

Isosafrol, CioHioO2

\ I7'6o
1 141-1°

0-2925

0-2962

Diphenyl ethylene, CnHi2

J 22°
? 143-4°

0-3339
0-3382

Quinoline, C«H7N

1 16-2°

141"

0-3187
0-3225

The empirical formula (n2-i)/(»2+o-4)d apparently gives more
constant values with change of temperature than the Lorenz-
Lorentz form. The superiority of the Lorenz-Lorentz formula
over the Gladstone and Dale formula for changes of state is
shown by the following observations of Briihl (Zeit.f. phys. Chem.,
1891, 71, p. 4). The values are for the D line: —

either directly, by investigating the various elements, or indirectly,
by considering differences in the molecular refractions of related
compounds. The first method needs no explanation. The second
method proceeds on the same lines as adopted for atomic volumes.
By subtracting the value for CH2, which may be derived from two
substances belonging to the same homologous series, from the mole-
cular refraction of methane, CH«, the value of hydrogen is obtained ;
subtracting this from CH2, the value of carbon is determined.
Hydroxylic oxygen is obtained by subtracting the molecular refrac-
tions of acetic acid and acetaldehyde. Similarly, by this method of
differences, the atomic refraction of any element may be determined.
It is found, however, that the same element has not always the same
atomic refraction, the difference being due to the nature of the
elements which saturate its valencies. Thus oxygen varies according
as whether it is linked to hydrogen (hydroxync oxygen), to two
atoms of carbon (ether oxygen), or to one carbon atom (carbonyl
oxygen) ; similarly, carbon varies according as whether it is singly,
doubly, or trebly bound to carbon atoms.

A table of the atomic refractions and dispersions of the principal
elements is here given : —

Element.

H..

D.

H7.

Dispersion
H-r- Ha.

Hydrogen

1-103

1-051

I-I39

0-036

Oxygen, hydroxyl .

1-506

1-521

1-525

0-019

,, ether

1-655

1-683

1-667

O-OI2

„ carbonyl .

2-328

2-287

2-414

0-086

Chlorine ....

6-014

5-998

6-190

0-I76

Bromine ....

8-863

8-927

9-211

0-348

Iodine ....

13-808

14-12

14-582

0-774

Carbon (singly bound)

2-365

2-501

2-404

0-039

Double linkage of carbon

1-836

1-707

1-859

0-23

Triple

2-22

2-41

0-19

Nitrogen, singly bound

and only to carbon .

2-76

2-95

0-19

Substance.

Temp.

Gladstone and Dale.

Lorenz and Lorentz.

Vapour.

Liquid.

Vapour.

Liquid.

Water
Carbon disulphide .
Chloroform ....

10°
10°
10°

0-3101

0-4347
0-2694

0-3338
0-4977
0-3000

0-2068
0-2898
0-1796

0-2061
0-2805
0-1790

Landolt and Gladstone, and at a later date J. W. Briihl, have
investigated the relations existing between the refractive power
and composition. To Landolt is due the proof that,
in general, isomers, i.e. compounds having the same
composition, have equal molecular refractions, and that
equal differences in composition are associated with equal differences
in refractive power. This is shown in the following table (the values
are for H,) : —

Additive
relations.

Dispersion and Composition. — In the preceding section we have
seen that substances possess a definite molecular (or atomic) refrac-
tion for light of particular wave-length; the difference between the
refractions for any two rays is known as the molecular (or atomic)
dispersion. Since molecular refractions are independent of tempera-
ture and of the state of aggregation, it follows that molecular dis-
persions must be also independent of these conditions; and hence
quantitative measurements should give an indication as to the
chemical composition of substances. This subject has been princi-
pally investigated by Briihl; he found that molecular dispersions
of liquids and gases were independent of temperature, and fairly
independent of the state of aggregation, but that no simple connexion
exists between atomic refractions and dispersions (see preceding
table). He also showed how changes in constitution effected dis-
persions to a far greater extent than they did refractions; thus,
while the atomic dispersion of carbon is 0-039, the dispersions due
to a double and treble linkage is 0-23 and 0-19 respectively.

Colour and Constitution. — In this article a summary of the
theories which have been promoted in order to connect the colour
of organic compounds with their constitution
will be given, and the reader is referred to the
article COLOUR for the physical explanation of
this property, and to VISION for the physiological
and psychological bearings. A clear distinction
must be drawn between colour and the property
of dyeing; all coloured substances are not dyes,

Substance.

Mol.
Refract.

Substance.

Mol.
Refract.

Diff. for
CH2.

Ethylene chloride i r « Cl

J 20-96

Acetic acid

12-93

\ 4-49

Ethylidene chloride 5 * '

I 21-08

Propionic acid

17-42

J

Fumaric acid i /-^ u n
Maleicacid S U4"«u« • •

( 70-89
? 70-29

Butyric acid .

22-OI

] 4'59

o-Cresol )

Acetaldehyde .

11-50

I 4-4-1

m-Cresol [ C7H,O . . .
p-Cresol )

( 32-57

Propionaldehyde .
Butylaldehyde

15-93
20-52

Additive relations undoubtedly exist, but many discrepancies occur
which may be assigned, as in the case of molecular volumes, to
differences in constitution. Atomic refractions may be obtained

and it is shown in the article DYEING that the property of
entering into chemical or physical combination with fibres involves
properties other than those essential to colour. At the same
time, however, all dyestuffs are coloured substances.

A survey of coloured substances led O. N. Witt in 1876 toformulate
his " chromophore-auxochrome " theory. On this theory colour is
regarded as due to the presence of a chromophore," and dyeing
power to an " auxochrome " ; the latter by itself
cannot produce colour or dyeing power, but it is
only active in the presence of a chromophore, when
it intensifies the colour and confers the property
of dyeing. The principal chromophores are the azo,

— N=N — , azoxy, = N2O, nitro, — NO2, nitroso,

— NO, and carbonyl, = CO, groups. The azo-group
is particularly active, both the aliphatic and
aromatic compounds being coloured. The simplest
aliphatic compounds, such as diazo-methane, diazo-
ethane, and azo-formic acid, are yellow; the
diamide of the latter acid is orange-red. Of the

aromatic compounds azo-benzene is bright orange-red, and a-azo-
naphthalene forms red needles or small steel-blue prisms. 'The azo-
group, however, has little or no colouring effect when present in a

PHYSICAL]

ring system, such as in cinnolene, phthalazine and tolazone. The
nitro group has a very important action mainly on account of the
readiness with which it can be introduced into the molecule, but its
effect is much less than that of the azo group. The colour produced
is generally yellow, which, in accordance with a general rule, is
intensified with an increase in the number of groups; compare, for
example, mono-, di- and tri-nitrobenzene. The nitroso group is
less important. The colour produced is generally of a greenish
shade; for example, njtrosobenzene is green when fused orin solution
(when crystalline, it is colourless), and dinitrosoresorcin has been
employed as a dyestuff under the names " solid green " and
" chlorine." The carbonyl group by itself does not produce colour,
but when two adjacent groups occur in the molecule, as for example
in the o-diketones (such as di-acetyl and benzil), a yellow colour is
produced. It also acts as a chromogenic centre when double bonds
or ethylenic linkages are present, as in fluorene ketone or fluorenone.
A more complex chromophoric group is the triple ethylenic

CHEMISTRY

groupng p = , the introduction of which was rendered neces-

sary by the discovery of certain coloured hydrocarbons. As a general
rule, hydrocarbons are colourless; the exceptions include the golden
yellow acenaphthylene, the red bidiphenylene-ethylene, and the

CH * CH

derivatives of fulvene ..,„ \ £„ ^>CH2, which have been discussed by

J. Thiele (Ber., 1900, 33, p. 666). This grouping is not always
colour-producing, since diphenyl is colourless.

The most important auxochromes are the hydroxyl (-OH) and
amino (-NH2) groups. According to the modern theory of auxo-
chromic action, the introduction of a group into the molecule is
accompanied by some strain, and the alteration in colour produced
is connected with the magnitude of the strain. The amino group is
more powerful than the hydroxyl, and the substituted amino group
more powerful still; the repeated substitution of hydroxyl groups
sometimes causes an intensification and sometimes a diminution of
colour.

We may here notice an empirical rule formulated by Nietzski in
1879: — the simplest colouring substances are in the greenish-yellow
and yellow, and with increasing molecular weight the colour passes
into orange, red, violet, blue and green. This rule, however, is by
no means perfect. Examination of the absorption spectra of coloured
compounds shows that certain groupings displace the absorption
bands in one direction, and other groupings in the other. If the
bands be displaced towards the violet, involving a regression through
the colours mentioned above, the group is said to be " hypso-
chromic "; if the reverse occurs the group is " bathochromic. ' It
may be generally inferred that an increase in molecular weight is
accompanied by a change in colour in the direction of the violet.

Auxochromic groups generally aid one another, i.e. the tjnt
deepens as the number of auxochromes increases. Also the relative
position of the auxochrome to the chromophore influences colour,
the ortho-position being generally the most powerful. Kauffmann
(Ber., 1906, 39, p. 1959) attempted an evaluation of the effects of
auxochromic groups by means of the magnetic optical constants.
The method is based on the supposition that the magnetic rotation
measures the strain produced in the molecule by an auxochrome,
and he arranges the groups in the following order : —
•0-COCH, -OCH3 -NHCOCH3 -NH2 -N(CH,)2 -N(C2H6)2
-0-260 1-459 I-949 3'821 8-587 8-816

The phenomena attending the salt formation of coloured and
colouring substances are important. The chromophoric groups are
rarely strongly acid or basic ; on the other hand, the auxochromes
are strongly acid or basic and form salts very readily. Notable
differences attend the neutralization of the chromophoric and auxo-
chromic groups. With basic substances, the chromophoric combina-
tion with a colourless acid is generally attended by a deepening in
colour; auxochromic combination, on the other hand, with a lessen-
ing. Examples of the first case are found among the colourless
acridines and qujnoxalines which give coloured salts; of the second
case we may notice the colourless hydrochloride and sulphate of the
deep yellow o-aminobenzophenone. With acid substances, the com-
bination with " colourless " metals, i.e. metals producing colour-
less salts with acids, is attended by cojour changes contrary to those
given above, auxochromic combination being accompanied by a
deepening, and chromophoric by a lessening of the tint.

Mention may be made of the phenomenon of halochromism, the
name given to the power of colourless or faintly-coloured substances
of combining with acids to form highly-coloured substances without
the necessary production of a chromophoric group. The researches
of Adolf von Baeyer and Villiger, Kehrmann, Kauffmann and others,
show that this property is possessed by very many and varied
substances. In many cases it may be connected with basic oxygen,
and the salt formation is assumed to involve the passage of divalent
into tetravalent oxygen. It seems that intermolecular change also
occurs, but further research is necessary before a sound theory can
be stated.

Quinone Theory of Colour. — A theory of colour in opposition to
the Witt theory was proposed by Henry Armstrong in 1888 and 1892.
This assumed that all coloured substances were derivatives of ortho-
or para-quinone (see QUINONES), and although at the time of its

promotion little practical proof was given, yet the theory found
wide acceptance on account of the researches of many other chemists.
It follows on this theory that all coloured substances contain either
of the groupings

Q-

the former being a para-quinonoid, the latter an ortho-quinonoid.
While very many coloured substances must obviously contain this
grouping, yet in many cases it is necessary to assume a simple
intermolecular change, while in others a more complex rearrangement
of bonds is necessary. Quinone, which is light yellow in colour, is
the simplest coloured substance on this theory. Hydrocarbons
of similar structure have been prepared by Thiele, for example, the
orange-yellow tetraphenyl-6ora-xylylene, which is obtained by
boiling the bromide C«H4|CBr(C«Hj)2]2 with benzene and molecular
silver. The quinonoid structure of many coloured compounds has
been proved experimentally, as, for example, by Hewitt for the
benzene-azo-phenols, and Hantzsch for triaminotriphenyl methane
and acridine derivatives; but, at the same time, many substances
cannot be so explained. A notable example is provided by the
phthaleins, which result by the condensation of phthalic anhydride
with phenols. In the free state these substances are colourless,
and were assumed to have the formula shown in I. Solution in
dilute alkali was supposed to be accompanied by the rupture of the
lactone ring with the formation of the quinonoid salt shown in 2.

Baeyer (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 569) and Silberrad (Journ. Ghent. Soc^
1906, 89, p. 1787) have disputed the correctness of this explanation,
and the latter has prepared melliteins and pyromelliteins, which are
highly-coloured compounds produced from mellitic and pyromellitic
acids, and which cannot be formulated as quinones. Baeyer has
suggested that the nine carbon atom system of xanthone may act as a
chromophore. An alternative view, due to Green, is that the oxygen
atom of the xanthone ring is tetravalent, a supposition which permits
the formulation of these substances as ortho-quinonoids.

The theories of colour have also been investigated by Hantzsch,
who first considered the nitro-phenols. On the chromophore-
auxochrome theory (the nitro group being the chromophore, and the
hydroxyl the auxochrome) it is necessary in order to explain the high
colour of the metallic salts and the colourless alkyl and aryl derivatives
to assume that the auxochromic action of the hydroxyl group is only
brought strongly into evidence by salt formation. Armstrong, on
the other hand, assumed an intermolecular change, thus: —

H A

o

0

The proof of this was left for Hantzsch, who traced a connexion
with the nitrolic acids of V. Meyer, which are formed when nitrous
acid acts on primary aliphatic nitro compounds. Meyer formulated
these compounds as nitroximes or nitro-isnitroso derivatives, viz.
R-C(NO2)(NOH). Hantzsch explains the transformation of the
colourless acid into red salts, which on standing yield more stable,
colourless salts, by the following scheme: —

NOH

RC

'Na

Colourless, stable. Coloured, labile. Colourless, stable.
He has also shown that the nitrophenols yield, in addition to the
colourless true nitrophenol ethers, an isomeric series of coloured un-
stable quinonoid oci-ethers, which have practically the same colour
and yield the same absorption spectra as the coloured metallic
salts. He suggests that the term quinone " theory be abandoned,
and replaced by the Umlagerungs theory, since this term implies
some intermolecular rearrangement, and does not connote simply
benzenoid compounds as does " quinonoid." _ H. von Liebig (Ann.,
1908, 360, p. 128), from a very complete discussion of tnphenyl-

methane derivatives, concluded that the grouping £.£_£ was t'le
only true organic chromophore, colour production, however, re-
quiring another condition, usually the closing of a ring.

The views as to the question of colour and constitution may be
summarized as follows: — (i) The quinone theory (Armstrong,
Gomberg, R. Meyer) regards all coloured substances as having
a quinonoid structure. (2) The chromophore-auxochrome
theory (Kauffmann) regards colour as due to the entry of an
" auxochrome " into a " chromophoric " molecule. (3) If a
colourless compound gives a coloured one on solution or by

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

salt-formation, the production of colour may be explained as a
particular form of ionization (Baeyer), or by a molecular re-
arrangement (Hantzsch). A dynamical theory due to E. C. C.
Baly regards colour as due to " isorropesis " or an oscillation
between the residual affinities of adjacent atoms composing the
molecule.

Fluorescence and Constitution. — The physical investigation
of the phenomenon named fluorescence — the property of
transforming incident light into light of different refrangibility —
is treated in the article FLUORESCENCE. Researches in syntheti-
cal organic chemistry have shown that this property of
fluorescence is common to an immense number of substances,
and theories have been proposed whose purpose is to connect
the property with constitution.

In 1897 Richard Meyer (Zeit. physik. Chemie, 24, p. 468) submitted
the view that fluorescence was due to the presence of certain " fluoro-
phore" groups; such groupings are the pyrone ring and its con-
geners, the central rings in anthracene and acridine derivatives,
and the paradiazine ring in safranines. A novel theory, proposed
by J. T. Hewitt in 1900 (Zeit.f. physik. Chemie, 34, p. i ; B.A. Report,
'903. P- 628, and later papers in the Journ. Chem. Soc.), regards the
property as occasioned by internal vibrations within the molecule
conditioned by a symmetrical double tautomerism, light of one
wave-length being absorbed by one form, and emitted with a different
wave-length by the other. This oscillation may be represented in
the case of acridine and fluorescein as

CH

C8H;COOH

This theory brings the property of fluorescence into relation with
that of colour; the forms which cause fluorescence being the coloured
modifications: ortho-quinonoid in the case of acridine, para-
quinonoid in the case of fluorescein. H. Kauffmann«(5er., 1900, 33,
p. 1731 ; 1904, 35, p. 294; 1905, 38, p. 789; Ann., 1906, 344, p. 30)
suggested that the property is due to the presence of at least two
groups. The first group, named the "luminophore," is such. that
when excited by suitable aetherial vibrations emits radiant energy ;
the other, named the " fluorogen," acts with the luminophore in
some way or other to cause the fluorescence. This theory explains
the fluorescence of anthranilic acid (0-aminobenzoic acid), by regard-
ing the aniline residue as the luminophore, and the carboxyl group
as the fluorogen, since, apparently, the introduction of the Tatter
into the non-fluorescent aniline molecule involves the production of
a fluorescent substance. Although the theories of Meyer and
Hewitt do not explain (in their present form) the behaviour of
anthranilic acid, yet Hewitt has shown that his theory goes far to
explain the fluorescence of substances in which a double symmetrical
tautomerism is possible. This tautomerism may be of a twofold
nature:— (i) it may involve the mere oscillation of linkages, as in
acridine; or (2) it may involve the oscillation of atoms, as in fluor-
escein. A theory of a physical nature, based primarily upon Sir
J. J. Thomson's theory of corpuscles, has been proposed by J. de
Kowalski (Compt. rend. 1907, 144, p. 266). We may notice that
ethyl oxalosuccmonitrile is the first case of a fluorescent aliphatic
compound (see W. Wislicenus and P. Berg, Ber., 1908, 41, p. 3757).

Capillarity and Surface Tension, — Reference should be made
to the article CAPILLARY ACTION for the general discussion of this
phenomenon of liquids. It is there shown that the surface
tension of a liquid may be calculated from its rise in a capillary
tube by the formula y = %rhs, where y is the surface tension per
square centimetre, r the radius of the tube, h the height of the
liquid column, and 5 the difference between the densities of
the liquid and its vapour. At the critical point liquid and vapour
become identical, and, consequently, as was pointed out by
Frankenheim in 1841, the surface tension is zero at the critical
temperature.

Mendele'eff endeavoured to obtain a connexion between surface
energy and constitution; more successful were the investigations
Relation °^ Scliiff, who found that the " molecular surface tension,"

no/ecu- which ne defined as the surface tension divided by the
lar weight, molecular weight, is constant for isomers, and that two
atoms of hydrogen were equal to one of carbon, three to
one of oxygen, and seven to one of chlorine; but these ratios were
by no means constant, and afforded practically no criteria as to the
molecular weight of any substance.

In 1886 R. Eotvos (Wied. Ann. 27, p. 452), assuming that two
liquids may be compared when the ratios of the volumes of the
liquids to the volumes of the saturated vapours are the same,
deduced that VV'(where y is the surface tension, and V the molecular
volume of the liquid) causes all liquids to have the same temperature

coefficients. This theorem was investigated by Sir W. Ramsay and
J. Shields (Journ. Ghent. Soc. 63, p. 1089; 65, p. 167), whose results
have thrown considerable light on the subject of the molecular
complexity of liquids. Ramsay and Shields suggested that there
exists an equation for the surface energy of liquids, analogous to the
volume-energy equation of gases, PV = RT. The relation they
suspected to be of the form 78 = KT, where K is a constant analogous
to R, and S the surface containing one gramme-molecule, y and T
being the surface tension and temperature respectively. Obviously
equimolecular surfaces are given by (Mr)*, where M is the molecular
weight of the substance, for equimolecular volumes are Mr, and
corresponding surfaces the two-thirds power of this. Hence S may
be replaced by (Mt>)3. Ramsay and Shields found from investiga-
tions of the temperature coefficient of the surface energy thatTin the
equation -y(M»)' = KT must be counted downwards from the critical
temperature T less about 6°. Their surface energy equation therefore
assumes the form •y(M»)' = K(r-6c). Now the value of K, y being
measured in dynes and M being the molecular weight of the substance
as a gas, is in general 2-121; this value is never exceeded, but in
many cases it is less. This diminution implies an association of
molecules, the surface containing fewer molecules than it is supposed
to. Suppose the coefficient of association be n, i.e. n is the mean
number of molecules which associate to form one molecule, then by
the normal equation we have y(Mnv)* = 2-i2l(r — 6°); if the calcu-
lated constant be Ki, then we have also y(M.v)* = K.i(r — 6°). By
division we obtain ns=2-i2i/Ki, or w = (2-i2i/Ki)', the coefficient
of association being thus determined.

The apparatus devised by Ramsay and Shields consisted of a
capillary tube, on one end of which was blown a bulb provided with
a minute hole. Attached to the bulb was a glass rod and then a tube
containing iron wire. This tube was placed in an outer tube contain-
ing the liquid to be experimented with; the liquid is raised to its
boiling-point, and then hermetically sealed. The whole is enclosed
in a jacket connected with a boiler containing a liquid, the vapour
of which serves to keep the inner tube at any desired temperature.
The capillary tube can be raised or lowered at will by running a
magnet outside the tube.and the heights of the columns are measured
by a cathetometer or micrometer microscope.

Normal values of K were given by nitrogen peroxide, NjC>4, sulphur
chloride, S2C12, silicon tetrachloride, SiCl«, phosphorus chloride,
PCls, phosphoryl chloride, POC18, nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)4, carbon
disulphide, benzene, pyridine, ether, methyl propyl ketone ; associa-
tion characterized many hydroxylic compounds: for ethyl alcohol
the factor of association was 2 • 74-2-43 , for n-propyl alcohol 2 • 86-2-72 ,
acetic acid 3-62-2-77, acetone 1-26, water 3-81-2-32; phenol,
nitric acid, sulphuric acid, nitroethane, and propionitril, also exhibit
association.

Crystalline Form and Composition.

The development of the theory of crystal structure, and the
fundamental principles on which is based the classification of
crystal forms, are treated in the article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY; in
the same place will be found an account of the doctrine of iso-
morphism, polymorphism and morphotropy. Here we shall
treat the latter subjects in more detail, viewed from the stand-
point of the chemist. Isomorphism may be defined as the
existence of two or more different substances in the same crystal
form and structure, polymorphism as the existence of the same
substance in two or more crystal modifications, and morphotropy
(after P. von Groth) as the change in crystal form due to altera-
tions in the molecule of closely (chemically) related substances.
In order to permit a comparison of crystal forms, from which
we hope to gain an insight into the prevailing molecular con-
ditions, it is necessary that some unit of crystal dimensions must
be chosen. A crystal may be regarded as built up of primitive
parallelepipeda, the edges of which are in the ratio of the
crystallographic axes, and the angles the axial angles of the
crystals. To reduce these figures to a common standard, so
that the volumes shall contain equal numbers of molecules,
the notion of molecular volumes is introduced, the arbitrary
values of the crystallographic axes (a, b, c) being replaced by the
topic parameters1 (x, ^, w), which are such that, combined with
the axial angles, they enclose volumes which contain equal
numbers of molecules. The actual values of the topic para-
meters can then readily be expressed in terms of the elements of
the crystals (the axial ratios and angles), the density, and the
molecular weight (see Groth, Physikalische Krystallographie, or
Chemical Crystallography).

1 This was done simultaneously in 1894 by W. Muthmann and
A. E. H. Tutton, the latter receiving the idea from F. Becke (see
Journ. Chem. Soc., 1896, 69, p. 507; 1905, 87, p. 1183).

PHYSICAL]

CHEMISTRY

73

Polymorphism. — On the theory that crystal form and structure
are the result of the equilibrium between the atoms and molecules
composing the crystals, it is probable, a priori, that the same
substance may possess different equilibrium configurations of
sufficient stability, under favourable conditions, to form different
crystal structures. Broadly this phenomenon is termed poly-
morphism; however, it is necessary to examine closely the diverse
crystal modifications in order to determine whether they are
really of different symmetry, or whether twinning has occasioned
the apparent difference. In the article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY the
nature and behaviour of twinned crystals receives full treat-
ment; here it is sufficient to say that when the planes and axes
of twinning are planes and axes of symmetry, a twin would
exhibit higher symmetry (but remain in the same crystal system)
than the primary crystal; and, also, if a crystal approximates
in its axial constants to a higher system, mimetic twinning
would increase the approximation, and the crystal would be
pseudo-symmetric.

In general, polysymmetric and polymorphous modifications
suffer transformation when submitted to variations in either
temperature or pressure, or both. The criterion whether
a pseudo-symmetric form is a true polymorph or not consists
in the determination of the scalar properties (e.g. density,
specific heat, &c.) of the original and the resulting modifica-
tion, a change being in general recorded only when polymorphism
exists. Change of temperature usually suffices to determine
this, though in certain cases a variation in pressure is
necessary; for instance, sodium magnesium uranyl acetate,
NaMg(UO2)s(C2H3O2)9-9H2O shows no change in density unless
the observations are conducted under a considerable pressure.
Although many pseudo-symmetric twins are transformable into
the simpler form, yet, in some cases, a true polymorph results,
the change being indicated, as before, by alterations in scalar
(as well as vector) properties.

For example, boracite forms pseudo-cubic crystals which become
truly cubic at 265°, with a distinct change in density; leucite
behaves similarly at about 560°. Again, the pyroxenes, RSiOa
(R = Fe, Mg, Mn, &c.), assume the forms (i) monoclinic, sometimes
twinned so as to become pseudo-rhombic; (2) rhombic, resulting
from the pseudo-rhombic structure of (l) becoming ultramicroscopic;
and (3) triclinic, distinctly different from (i) and (2); (i) and (2)
are polysymmetric modifications, while (3) and the pair (i) and (2)
are polymorphs.

While polysymmetry is solely conditioned by the manner
in which the mimetic twin is built up from the single crystals,
there being no change in the scalar properties, and the vector
properties being calculable from the nature of the twinning,
in the case of polymorphism entirely different structures present
themselves, both scalar and vector properties being altered;
and, in the present state of our knowledge, it is impossible to
foretell the characters of a polymorphous modification. We may
conclude that in polymorphs the substance occurs in different
phases (or molecular aggregations), and the equilibrium bet ween
these phases follows definite laws, being dependent upon tempera-
ture and pressure, and amenable to thermodynamic treatment
(cf. CHEMICAL ACTION and ENERGETICS). The transformation
of polymorphs presents certain analogies to the solidification
of a liquid. Liquids may be cooled below their freezing-point
without solidification, the melaslable (after W. Ostwald) form
so obtained being immediately solidified on the introduction
of a particle of the solid modification; and supersaturated
solutions behave in a similar manner. At the same time there
may be conditions of temperature and pressure at which poly-
morphs may exist side by side.

The above may be illustrated by considering the equilibrium
between rhombic and monoclinic sulphur. The former, which is
deposited from solutions, is transformed into monoclinic sulphur
at about 96°, but with great care it is possible to overheat it and
even to fuse it (at 113-5°) without effecting the transformation.
Monoclinic sulphur, obtained by crystallizing fused sulphur, melts
at i 19-5°! and admits of undercooling even to ordinary temperatures,
but contact with a fragment of the rhombic modification spontane-
ously brings about the transformation. From Reicher's determina-
tions, the exact transition point is 95-6°; it rise_s with increasing
pressure about 0-05° for one atmosphere ; the density of the rhombic

form is greater than that of the monoclinic. The equilibria of these
modifications may be readily represented on a pressure-temperature
diagram. If OT, OP (fig. 6), be the axes of temperature and pressure,
and A corresponds to the transition point (95-6°) of rhombic sulphur,
we may follow out the line AB which shows the elevation of the
transition point with increasing pressure. The overheating curve of
rhombic sulphur extends along the curve
AC, where C is the melting-point of
monoclinic sulphur. The line BC, repre-
senting the equilibrium between mono-
clinic and liquid sulphur, is thermo-
dynamically calculable; the point B is
found to correspond to 131* and 400
atmospheres. From B the curve of
equilibrium (BD) between rhombic and
liquid sulphur proceeds; and from C
(along CE) the curve of equilibrium
between liquid sulphur and sulphur
vapour. Of especial interest is the
curve BD; along this line liquid and FIG. 6.

rhombic sulphur are in equilibrium, which

means that at above 131° and 400 atmospheres the rhombic (and
not the monoclinic) variety would separate from liquid sulphur.

Mercuric iodide also exhibits dimorphism. When precipitated
from solutions it forms red tetragonal crystals, which, on careful
heating, give a yellow rhombic form, also obtained by crystallization
from the fused substance, or by sublimation. The transition point
is 126-3° (W. Schwarz, Zeit.f. Kryst. 25, p. 613), but both modifica-
tions may exist in metastable forms at higher and lower temperatures
respectively; the rhombic form may be cooled down to ordinary
temperature without changing, the transformation, however, being
readily induced by a trace of the red modification, or by friction.
The density and specific heat of the tetragonal form are greater
than those of the yellow.

Hexachlorethane is trimorphous, forming rhombic, triclinic and
cubic crystals; the successive changes occur at about 44° and 71°,
and are attended by a decrease in density.

Tetramorphism is exhibited by ammonium nitrate. According to
O. Lehmann it melts at 168° (or at a slightly lower temperature in
its water of crystallization) and on cooling forms optically isotropic
crystals; at 125-6° the mass becomes doubly refracting, and from
a solution rhombohedral (optically uniaxial) crystals are deposited ;
by further cooling acicular rhombic crystals are produced at 82-8°,
and at 32-4° other rhombic forms are obtained, identical with the
product obtained by crystallizing at ordinary temperatures. The
reverse series of transformations occurs when this final modification
is heated. M. Bellati and R. Romanese (Zeit. f. Kryst. 14, p. 78)
determined the densities and specific heats of these modifications.
The first and third transformations (reckoned in order with in-
creasing temperature of the transition point) are attended by an
increase in volume, the second with a contraction; the solubility
follows the same direction, increasing up to 82-8°, then diminishing
up to 125-6°, and then increasing from this temperature upwards.

The physical conditions under which polymorphous modifica-
tions are prepared control the form which the substance assumes.
We have already seen that temperature and pressure exercise
considerable influence in this direction. In the case of separation
from solutions, either by crystallization or by precipitation by
double decomposition, the temperature, the concentration of
the solution, and the presence of other ions may modify the
form obtained. In the case of sodium dihydrogen phosphate,
NaH2PO4-H2O, a stable rhombic form is obtained from warm
solutions, while a different, unstable, rhombic form is obtained
from cold solutions. Calcium carbonate separates as hexagonal
calcite from cold solutions (below 30°), and as rhombic aragonite
from solutions at higher temperatures; lead and strontium
carbonates, however, induce the separation of aragonite at lower
temperatures. From supersaturated solutions the form unstable
at the temperature of the experiment is, as a rule, separated,
especially on the introduction of a crystal of the unstable form;
and, in some cases, similar inoculation of the fused substance
is attended by the same result. Different modifications may
separate and exist side by side at one and the same time from
a solution; e.g. telluric acid forms cubic and monoclinic crystals
from a hot nitric acid solution, and ammonium fluosilicate gives
cubic and hexagonal forms from aqueous solutions between
6° and 13°.

A comparison of the transformation of polymorphs leads to
a twofold classification: (i) polymorphs directly convertible
in a reversible manner — termed " enantiotropic " by O. Lehmann
and (2) polymorphs in which the transformation proceeds in
one direction only — termed " monotropic." In the first class

74

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

are included sulphur and ammonium nitrate; monotropy is
exhibited by aragonite and calcite.

It is doubtful indeed whether any general conclusions can yet
be drawn as to the relations between crystal structure and scalar
properties and the relative stability of polymorphs. As a
general rule the modification stable at higher temperatures
possesses a lower density; but this is by no means always the
case, since the converse is true for antimonious and arsenious
oxides, silver iodide and some other substances. Attempts to
connect a change of symmetry with stability show equally a lack
of generality. It is remarkable that a great many polymorphous
substances assume more symmetrical forms at higher tempera-
tures, and a possible explanation of the increase in density of
such compounds as silver iodide, &c., may be sought for in the
theory that the formation of a more symmetrical configuration
would involve a drawing together of the molecules, and conse-
quently an increase in density. The insufficiency of this argu-
ment, however, is shown by the data for arsenious and anti-
monious oxides, and also for the polymorphs of calcium carbonate,
the more symmetrical polymorphs having a lower density.

Morphotropy. — Many instances have been recorded where sub-
stitution has effected a deformation in one particular direction,
the crystals of homologous compounds often exhibiting the same
angles between faces situated in certain zones. The observations
of Slavik (Zeit. f. Kryst., 1902, 36, p. 268) on ammonium and
the quaternary ammonium iodides, of J. A. Le Bel and A. Ries
(Zeit.f. Kryst., 1902, 1904, et seq.) on the substituted ammonium
chlorplatinates, and of G. Mez (ibid., 1901, 35, p. 242) on
substituted ureas, illustrate this point.

Ammonium iodide assumes cubic forms with perfect cubic cleavage ;
tetramethyl ammonium iodide is tetragonal with perfect cleavages
parallel to (100) and jooi( — a difference due to the lengthening of
the a axes; tetraethyl ammonium iodide also assumes tetragonal
forms, but does not exhibit the cleavage of the tetramethyl com-
pound ; while tetrapropyl ammonium ioaide crystallizes in rhombic
form. The equivalent volumes and topic parameters are tabulated :

NHJ.

NMeJ.

NEtJ.

NPrJ.

V

X

*

0)

57-5i
3-86o
3-860
3-860

108-70
S-3'9
5-3I9

3-842

162-91
6-648
6-648
3-686

235-95
6-093

7-85I
4-933

From these figures it is obvious that the first three compounds
form a morphotropic series; the equivalent volumes exhibit a
regular progression; the values of x and 4>, corresponding to the a
axes, are regularly increased, while the value of «, corresponding
to the c axis, remains practically unchanged. This points to the
conclusion that substitution has been effected in one of the cube
faces. We may therefore regard the nitrogen atoms as occupying
the centres of a cubic space lattice composed of iodine atoms, between
which the hydrogen atoms are distributed on the tetrahedron face
normals. Coplanar substitution in four hydrogen atoms would
involve the pushing apart of the iodine atoms in four horizontal
directions. The magnitude of this separation would obviously
depend on the magnitude of the substituent group, which may be
so large (in this case propyl is sufficient) as to cause unequal horizontal
deformation and at the same time a change in the vertical direction.

The measure of the loss of symmetry associated with the intro-
duction of alkyl groups depends upon the relative magnitudes
of the substituent group and the rest of the molecule; and the
larger the molecule, the less would be the morphotropic effect
of any particular substituent. The mere retention of the same
crystal form by homologous substances is not a sufficient reason
for denying a morphotropic effect to the substituent group;
for, in the case of certain substances crystallizing in the cubic
system, although the crystal form remains unaltered, yet the
structures vary. When both the crystal form and structure are
retained, the substances are said to be isomorphous.

Other substituent groups exercise morphotropic effects similar
to those exhibited by the alkyl radicles; investigations have
been made on halogen-, hydroxy-, and nitro-derivatives of
benzene and substituted benzenes. To Jaeger is due the deter-
mination of the topic parameters of certain haloid-derivatives,
and, while showing that the morphotropic effects closely resemble
those occasioned by methyl, he established the important fact

that, in general, the crystal form depended upon the orientation
of the substituents in the benzene complex.

Benzoic acid is pseudo-tetragonal, the principal axis being remark-
ably long; there is no cleavage at right angles to this axis. Direct
nitration gives (principally) wi-nitrobenzoic acid, also pseudo-
tetragonal with a much shorter principal axis. From this two
chlornitrobenzoic acids [COOH-NOj-Cl = 1.3.6 and 1.3.4] may be
obtained. These are also pseudotetragonal; the (1.3.6) acid" has
nearly the same values of x and <!/ as benzoic acid, but u is increased ;
compared with ra-nitrobenzoic acid, x and ^ have been diminished,
whereas a is much increased; the (1.3.^) acid is more closely
related to m-nitrobenzoic acid, x and <!/ being increased, a diminished.
The results obtained for the (I. 2) and (1.4) chlorbenzoic acids also
illustrate the dependence of crystal form and structure on the
orientation of the molecule.

The hydroxyl group also resembles the methyl group in its morpho-
tropic effects, producing, in many cases, no change in symmetry but
a dimensional increase in one direction. This holds for benzene and
phenol, and is supported by the observations of Gossner on [i. 3.5]
trinitrobenzene and picric acid (i.3.s-trinitro, 2 oxy benzene);
these last two substances assume rhombic forms, and picric acid
differs from trinitrobenzene in having a considerably greater,
with x and <!/ slightly less. A similar change, in one direction only,
characterizes benzoic acid and salicylic acid.

The nitro group behaves very similarly to the hydroxyl group.
The effect of varying the position of the nitro group in the molecule
is well marked, and conclusions may be drawn as to the orientation
of the groups from a knowledge of the crystal form; a change in
the symmetry of the chemical molecule being often attended by a
loss in the symmetry of the crystal.

It may be generally concluded that the substitution of alkyl,
nitro, hydroxyl, and haloid groups for hydrogen hi a molecule
occasions a deformation of crystal structure in one definite
direction, hence permitting inferences as to the configuration
of the atoms composing the crystal; while the nature and degree
of the alteration depends (i) upon the crystal structure of the
unsubstituted compound; (2) on the nature of the substituting
radicle; (3) on the complexity of the substituted molecule;
and (4) on the orientation of the substitution derivative.

Isomorphism. — It has been shown that certain elements and
groups exercise morphotropic effects when substituted in a
compound; it may happen that the effects due to two or more
groups are nearly equivalent, and consequently the resulting
crystal forms are nearly identical. This phenomenon was first
noticed in 1822 by E. Mitscherlich, in the case of the acid phos-
phate and acid arsenate of potassium, KH2P(As)C>4, who adopted
the term isomorphism, and regarded phosphorus and arsenic as
isomorphously related elements. Other isomorphously related
elements and groups were soon perceived, and it has been shown
that elements so related are also related chemically.

Tutton's investigations of the morphotropic effects of the metals
potassium, rubidium and caesium, in combination with the acid
radicals of sulphuric and selenic acids, showed that the replacement
of potassium by rubidium, and this metal in turn by caesium.was
accompanied by progressive changes in both physical and crystal-
lographical properties, such that the rubidium salt was always inter-
mediate between the salts of potassium and caesium (see table;
the space unit is taken as a pseudo-hexagonal prism). This fact finds
a parallel in the atomic weights of these metals.

V

X

t

H

KjSO*
Rb,SO4
Cs,SO4

64-92
73-36
83-64

4.464

4-634
4-846

4-491
4-664
4-885

4-997
5-237
5-519

K2SeO4
RbjSeO*
Cs£eO,

71-71

79-95
91-16

4-636

4-785
4-987

4-662
4-826
5-035

5-118
5-346
5-697

By taking appropriate differences the following facts will be
observed: (i) the replacement of potassium by rubidium occasions
an increase in the equivalent volumes by about eigh t units, and of rubi-
dium by caesium by about eleven units; (2) replacement in the same
order is attended by a general increase in the three topic parameters, a
greater increase being met with in the replacement of rubidium by
caesium ; (3) the parameters x and ^ are about equally increased,
while the increase in a is always the greatest. Now consider the
effect of replacing sulphur by selenium. It will be seen that (i) the
increase in equivalent volume is about 6-6; (2) all the topic para-
meters are increased; (3) the greatest increase is effected in the
parameters x and <//, which are equally lengthened.

These observations admit of ready explanation in the following

K_o-s-o-K.

PHYSICAL]

manner. The ordinary structural formula of potassium sulphate is

n

If the crystal structure be regarded as composed of

three interpenetrating point systems, one consisting of sulphur
atoms, the second of four times as many oxygen atoms, and the
third of twice as many potassium atoms, the systems being soarranged
that the sulphur system is always centrally situated with respect
to the other two, and the potassium system so that it would affect
the vertical axis, then it is obvious that the replacement of potassium
by an element of greater atomic weight would specially increase the
length of w (corresponding to the vertical axis), and cause a smaller
increase in the horizontal parameters (x and \M; moreover, the
increments would advance with the atomic weight of the replacing
metal. If, on the other hand, the sulphur system be replaced by a
corresponding selenium system, an element of higher atomic weight,
it would be expected that a slight increase would be observed in the
vertical parameter, and a greater increase recorded equally in the
horizontal parameters.

Muthmann (Zeit.f. Kryst., 1 894), in his researches on the tetragonal
potassium and ammonium dihydrogen phosphates and arsenates,
found that the replacement of potassium by ammonium was attended
by an increase of about six units in the molecular volume, and of
phosphorus by arsenic by about 4-6 units. In the topic parameters
the following changes were recorded: replacement of potassium by
ammonium was attended by a considerable increase in to, x and <l/
being equally, but only slightly, increased; replacement of phos-
phorus by arsenic was attended by a considerable increase, equally
in x and ^, while o> suffered a smaller, but not inconsiderable, increase.
It is thus seen that the ordinary plane representation of the structure
of compounds possesses a higher significance than could have been
suggested prior to crystallographical researches.

Identity, or approximate identity, of crystal form is not in
itself sufficient to establish true isomorphism. If a substance
deposits itself on the faces of a crystal of another substance
of similar crystal form, the substances are probably isomorphous.
Such parallel overgrowths, termed episomorphs, are very common
among the potassium and sodium felspars; and K. von Hauer
has investigated a number of cases in which salts exhibiting
episomorphism have different colours, thereby clearly demonstrat-
ing this property -of isomorphism. For example, episomorphs
of white potash alum and violet chrome alum, of white mag-
nesium sulphate and green nickel sulphate, and of many other
pairs of salts, have been obtained. More useful is the property
of isomorphous substances of forming mixed crystals, which
are strictly isomorphous with their constituents, for all variations

in composition. In such
crystals each component
plays its own part in de-
termining the physical pro-
perties; in other words,
any physical constant of a
mixed crystal can be cal-
culated as additively com-
posed of the constants of
the two components.

Fig. 7 represents the
specific volumes of mixtures
of ammonium and potassium
sulphates; the ordinates re-
presenting specific volumes,
and the abscissae the per-
centage composition of the
mixture. Fig. 8 shows the
variation of refractive index
of mixed crystals of potash
alum and thallium alum with
variation in composition.
In these two instances the component crystals are miscible in all
proportions; but this is by no means always the case. It may
happen that the crystals dp not form double salts, and are only
miscible in certain proportions. Two cases then arise: (i) the
properties may be expressed as linear functions of the composition,
the terminal values being identical with those obtained for the
individual components, and there being a break in the curve corre-
sponding to the absence of mixed crystals ; or (2) similar to (l) except
that different values must be assigned to the terminal values in order
to preserve collinearity. Fig. 9 illustrates the first case : the ordinates
represent specific volumes, and the abscissae denote the composition
of isomorphous mixtures of ammonium and potassium dihydrogen
phosphates, which mutually take one another up to the extent of
20 % to form homogeneous crystals. The second case is illustrated
in fig. 10. Magnesium sulphate (orthorhombic) takes up ferrous

CHEMISTRY

75

10 30 30 40 60 00 TO 80 OO

(NH4)jSQ,=o%

FIG. 7.

K AJum=o%
T) Alum- too

FIG. 8.

sulphate (monoclinic) to the extent of 19%, forming isomorphous
orthorhombic crystals; ferrous sulphate, on the other hand, takes
up magnesium sulphate to the extent of 54 % to form monoclinic
crystals. By plotting the specific volumes of these mixed crystals
as ordinates, it is found that they fall on two lines, the upper corre-
sponding to the orthorhombic crystals, the lower to the monoclinic.
From this we may conclude that these salts are isodimorphous :
the upper line represents isomorphous crystals of stable orthorhombic
magnesium sulphate and unstable orthorhombic ferrous sulphate,
the lower line isomor-
phous crystals of stable
monoclinic ferrous sul-
phate and unstable
monoclinic magnesium
sulphate.

An important distinc-
tion separates true mixed
crystals and crystallized
double salts, for in the
latter the properties are
not linear functions of
the properties of the
components ; generally
there is a contraction in
volume, while the re-
fractive indices and other
physical properties do

K H,P04 = ,

N H4H aP04

FIG. 9.

0-S33
O-837

not, in general, obey the
additive law.

Isomorphism is most peso,<7H,o=«x>*,
clearly discerned be-
tween elements of

FIG. 10.

analogous chemical properties; and from the wide generality
of such observations attempts have been made to form a classifica-
tion of elements based on isomorphous replacements. The
following table shows where isomorphism may be generally
expected. The elements are arranged in eleven series, and the
series are subdivided (as indicated by semicolons) into groups;
these groups exhibit partial isomorphism with the other groups
of the same series (see W. Nernst, Theoretical Chemistry).

Series I. Cl, Br, I, F; Mn (in permanganates).

2. S, Se; Te (in tellurides) ; Cr, Mn, Te (in the acids

H2RO4) ; As, Sb (in the glances MR2).

3. As, Sb, Bi; Te (as an element); P, Vd (in salts); N,

P (in organic bases).

4. K, Na, Cs, Rb, Li; Tl, Ag.

5. Ca, Ba, Sr, Pb; Fe, Zn, Mn, Mg; Ni, Co, Cu; Ce, La,

Di, Er, Y, Ca; Cu, Hg, Pb; Cd, Be, In, Zn; Tl, Pb.

6. Al, Fe, Cr, Mn; Ce, U (in sesquioxides).
7- Cu, Ag (when monovalent) ; Au.

8. Pt, Ir, Pd, Rh. Ru, Os; Au, Fe, Ni; Sn, Te.

9. C, Si.Ti, Zr, Th, Sn; Fe, Ti.

10. Ta, Cb (Mb).

11. Mo, W, Cr.

For a detailed comparison of the isomorphous relations of the
elements the reader is referred to P. von Groth, Chemical Crystal-
lography. Reference may also be made to Ida Freund, The Study
of Chemical Composition; and to the Annual Reports of the Chemical
Society for 1908, p. 258.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — History: F. Hoefer, Histoire de la chimie (2nd
ed., 1866-1869); Hermann Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie (1869),
Entwickelung der Chemie in d. neueren Zeit (1871-1874); E. von
Meyer, Geschichte der Chemie (yd ed., 1905, Eng. trans.); A.
Ladenburg, Entwickelungsgeschichte der Chemie (4th ed., 1907); A.
Stange, Die Zeitalter der Chemie (1908). Reference may also be
made to M. M. Pattison Muir, History of Chemical Theories and Laws
(1907); Ida Freund, Study of Chemical Composition (1904); T. E.
Thorpe, Essays in Historical Chemistry (2nd ed., 1902). See also
the article ALCHEMY.

Principles and Physical. — W. Ostwald, Principles of Inorganic
Chemistry (yA Eng. ed., 1908), Outlines of General Chemistry,
Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie; W. Nernst, Theoretische Chemie
(4th ed., 1907, Eng. trans.); J. H. van't Hoff, Lectures on Theoretical
and Physical Chemistry; J. Walker, Introduction to Physical Chemistry
(4th ed., 1907); H. C. Jones, Outlines of Physical Chemistry (1903);
D. Mendefeeff, Principles of Chemistry (3rd ed., 1905).

Inorganic. — Roscoe and Schorlemmer, Inorganic Chemistry (3rd
ed., Non-metals, 1905; Metals, 1907); R. Abegg, Handbuch der
anorganischen Chemie; Gmelin- Kraut, Handbuch der anorganischen
Chemie; O. Dammer, Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie; H.
Moissan, Chimie minerale.

Organic. — F. Beilstein, Handbuch der organischen Chemie; M. M.
Richter, Lexikon der Kohlenstoffverbindungen (these are primarily
works of reference) ; V. Meyer and P. H. Jacobson, Lehrbuch der
organischen Chemie; Richter-Anschutz, Organische Chemie (l ith ed.,

76

CHEMNITZ, MARTIN— CHEMNITZ

vol. i., 1909, Eng. trans.); G. K. Schmidt, Kurzes Lehrbuch der
organischen Chemie; A. Bernthsen, Orginische Chemie (Eng. trans.).
Practical methods are treated in Lassar-Cohn, Arbeitsmethoden fur
organisch-chemische Laboratorien (4th ed., 1906-1907). Select chap-
ters are treated in A. Lachmann, Spirit of Organic Chemistry; J. B.
Cohen, Organic Chemistry (1908) ; A. W. Stewart, Recent Advances in
Organic Chemistry (1908) ; and in a series of pamphlets issued since
1896 with the title Sammlung chemischer und cnemisch-technischer
Vortraee.

Analytical. — For Blowpipe Analysis: C. F. Plattner, Probirkunst
mil dem Lothrohr. For General Analysis: C. R. Fresenius, Qualita-
tive and Quantitative Analysis, Eng. trans, by C. E. Groves (Qualita-
tive, 1887) and A. I. Cohn (Quantitative, 1903); F. P. Treadwell,
Kurzes Lehrbuch der analytischen Chemie (1905); F. Julian, Textbook
of Quantitative Chemical Analysis (1904); A. Classen, Ausgewahlte
Methoden der analytischen Chemie (1901-1903); W. Crookes, Select
Methods in Chemical Analysis (1894). Volumetric Analysis:
F. Sutton, Systematic Handbook of Volumetric Analysis (1904);
F. Mohr, Lehrbuch der chemisch-analytischen Titrirmethode (1896).
Organic Analysis: Hans Meyer, Analyse und Konstitutionsermittlung
organischer Verbindungen (1909) ; Wilhelm Vaubel, Die physikalischen
und chemischen Methoden der quantitativen Bestimmung organischer
Verbindungen. For the historical development of the proximate
analysis of organic compounds see M. E. H. Dennstedt, DieEntwicke-
lung der organischen Elementaranalyse (1899).

Encyclopaedias. — The early dictionaries of Muspratt and Watts
are out of date; there is a later edition of the latter by H. F. Morley
and M. M. P. Muir. A. Ladenburg, Handworterbuch der Chemie,
A. Wurtz, Dictionnaire de chimie, and F. Selmi, Encyclopedia di
chimica, are more valuable; the latter two are kept up to date by
annual supplements. (C. E.*)

CHEMNITZ (or KEMNITZ), MARTIN (1522-1586), German
Lutheran theologian, third son of Paul Kemnitz, a cloth-worker
of noble extraction, was born at Treuenbrietzen, Brandenburg,
on the gth of November 1522. Left an orphan at the age of
eleven, he worked for a time at his father's trade. A relative at
Magdeburg put him to school there (1539-1542). Havingmadea
little money by teaching, he went (1543) to the university of
Frankfort-on-Oder; thence (1545) to that of Wittenberg. Here
he heard Luther preach, but was more attracted by Melanchthon,
who interested him in mathematics and astrology. Melanchthon
gave him (i 547) an introduction to his son-in-law, Georg Sabinus,
at Konigsberg, where he was tutor to some Polish youths, and
rector (1548) of the Kneiphof school. He practised astrology;
this recommended him to Duke Albert of Prussia, who made him
his librarian (1550). He then turned to Biblical, patristic and
kindred studies. His powers were first brought out in contro-
versy with Osiander on justification by faith. Osiander, main-
taining the infusion of Christ's righteousness into the believer,
impugned the Lutheran doctrine of imputation; Chemnitz
defended it with striking ability. As Duke Albert sided with
Osiander, Chemnitz resigned the h'brarianship. Returning (1553)
to Wittenberg, he lectured on Melanchthon 's Loci Communes, his
lectures forming the basis of his own Loci Theologici (published
posthumously, 1591), which constitute probably the best ex-
position of Lutheran theology as formulated and modified by
Melanchthon. His lectures were thronged, and a university career
of great influence lay before him, when he accepted a call to become
coadjutor at Brunswick to the superintendent, Joachim Morlin,
who had known him at Konigsberg. He removed to Brunswick
on the isth of December 1554, and there spent the remainder of
his life, refusing subsequent offers of important offices from
various Protestant princes of Germany. Zealous in the duties of
his pastoral charge, he took a leading part in theological con-
troversy. His personal influence, at a critical period, did much to
secure strictness of doctrine and compactness of organization
in the Lutheran Church. Against Crypto-Calvinists he upheld
the Lutheran view of the eucharist in his Repetitio sanae doctrinae
de Vera Praesentia (1560; in German, 1561). To check the
reaction towards the old religion he wrote several works of great
power, especially his Theologiae Jesuitarum praecipua capita
(1562), an incisive attack on the principles of the society, and the
Examen concilii Tridentini (four parts, 1565-66-72-73), his
greatest work. His Corpus doctrinae Prutenicum (1567), drawn
up in conjunction with Morlin, at once acquired great authority.
In the year of its publication he became superintendent of
Brunswick, and in effect the director of his church throughout
Lower Saxony. His tact was equal to his learning. In conjunc-

tion with Andrea and Selnecker he induced the Lutherans of
Saxony and Swabia to adopt the Formula Concordiae and so
become one body. Against lax views of Socinian tendency he
directed his able treatise De duabus naturis in Chrislo (1570).
Resigning office in infirm health (1584) he survived till the 8th of
April 1586.

Lives of Chemnitz are numerous, e.g. by J. Gasmerus (1588).
T. Pressel (1862), C. G. H. Lentz (1866). H. Hachfeld (1867), H.

Schmid in J. J. Herzog's Realencyklopddie (1878), J. Kunze in A.

CHEMNITZ, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
the capital of a governmental district, 50 m. W.S.W. of Dresden
and 51 S.E. of Leipzig by rail. Pop. (1885) 110,817; (1895)
161,017; (i9°S) 244,405- It lies 950 ft. above the sea, in a
fertile plain at the foot of the Erzgebirge, watered by the
river Chemnitz, an affluent of the Mulde. It is the chief
manufacturing town in the kingdom, ranks next to Dresden
and Leipzig in point of population, and is one of the principal
commercial and industrial centres of Germany. It is well
provided with railway communication, being directly connected
with Berlin and with the populous and thriving towns of the
Erzgebirge and Voigtland. Chemnitz is in general well built,
the enormous development of its industry and commerce having
of late years led to the laying out of many fine streets and
to the embellishing of the town with handsome buildings. The
centre is occupied by the market square, with the handsome
medieval Rathaus, now superseded for municipal business by a
modern building in the Post-strasse. In this square are monu-
ments to the emperor William I., Bismarck and Moltke. The
old inner town is surrounded by pleasant promenades, occupying
the site of the old fortifications, and it is beyond these that
industrial Chemnitz h'es, girdling the old town on all sides with a
thick belt of streets and factories, and ramifying far into the
country. Chemnitz has eleven Protestant, churches, among
them the ancient Gothic church of St James, with a fine porch,
and the modern churches of St Peter, St Nicholas and St Mark.
There are also a synagogue and chapels of various sects. The
industry of Chemnitz has gained for the town the name of

Saxon Manchester." First in importance are its locomotive
and engineering works, which give employment to some 20,000
hands in 90 factories. Next come its cotton-spinning, hosiery,
textile and glove manufactures, in which a large trade is done
with Great Britain and the United States. It is also the seat
of considerable dyeworks, bleachworks, chemical and woollen
factories, and produces leather and straps, cement, small vehicles,
wire-woven goods, carpets, beer and bricks. The town is well
provided with technical schools for training in the various
industries, including commercial, public, economic and agri-
cultural schools, and has a chamber of commerce. There are
also industrial and historical museums, and collections of paint-
ing and natural history. The local communications are main-
tained by an excellent electric tramway system. To the north-
west of the town is the Gothic church of a former Benedictine
monastery, dating from 1514-1525, with a tower of 1897.
Chemnitz is a favourite tourist centre for excursions into the
Erzgebirge, the chain of mountains separating Saxony from
Bohemia.

Chemnitz (Kaminizi) was originally a settlement of the
Sorbian Wends and became a market town in 1 143. Its municipal
constitution dates from the I4th century, and it soon became the
most important industrial centre in the mark of Meissen. A
monopoly of bleaching was granted to the town, and thus a
considerable trade in woollen and linen yarns was attracted to
Chemnitz; paper was made here, and in the i6th century the
manufacture of cloth was very flourishing. In 1 539 the Reforma-
tion was introduced, and in 1546 the Benedictine monastery,
founded about 1136 by the emperor Lothair II. about 2 m. north
of the town, was dissolved. During the Thirty Years' War
Chemnitz was plundered by all parties and its trade was com-
pletely ruined, but at the beginning of the i8th century it had
begun to recover. Further progress in this direction was made

CHEMOTAXIS— CHENG

77

during the ipth century, especially after 1834 when Saxony
joined the German Zollverein.

See Zollner, Geschichte der Fabrik- und Handelsstadt Chemnitz
(1891) ; and Straumer, Die Fabrik- und Handelsstadt Chemnitz (1892).

CHEHOTAXIS (from the stem of " chemistry" and Gr. rAfis,
arrangement), a biological term for the attraction exercised on
living or growing organisms or their members by chemical
substances; e.g. the attraction of the male cells of ferns or
mosses by an organic acid or sugar-solution.

CHENAB (the Greek Acesines), one of the " Five rivers " of the
Punjab, India. It rises in the snowy Himalayan ranges of
Kashmir, enters British territory in the Sialkot district, and flows
through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary between
the Rechna and the Jech Doabs. Finally it joins the Jhelum
at Trimmu.

The CHENAB COLONY, resulting from the great success of the
Chenab Canal in irrigating the desert of the Bar, was formed out
of the three adjacent districts of Gujranwala, Jhang, and
Montgomery in 1892, and contained in 1901 a population of
791,861. It lies in the Rechna Doab between the Chenab and
Ravi rivers in the north-east of the Jhang district, and is designed
to include an irrigated area of 25 million acres. The Chenab
Canal (opened 1887) is the largest and most profitable per-
ennial canal in India. The principal town is Lyallpur, called after
Sir J. Broadwood Lyall, lieutenant-governor of the Punjab 1887-
1892, which gives its name to a district created in 1904.

CHENEDOLLE, CHARLES JULIEN LIOULT DE (1769-1833),
French poet, was born at Vire (Calvados) on the 4th of November
1769. He early showed a vocation for poetry, but the outbreak
of the Revolution temporarily diverted his energy. Emigrating
in 1791, he fought two campaigns in the army of Conde, and
eventually found his way to Hamburg, where he met Antoine de
Rivarol, of whose brilliant conversation he has left an account.
He also visited Mme de Stael in her retreat at Coppet. On his
return to Paris in 1799 he met Chateaubriand and his sister
Lucile (Mme de Caud), to whom he became deeply attached.
After her death in 1804, Chenedolle returned to Normandy,
where he married and became eventually inspector of the
academy of Caen (1812-1832). With the exception of occasional
visits to Paris, he spent the rest of his life in his native province.
He died at the chateau de Coisel on the 2nd of December 1833.
He published his Genie de I'Homme in 1807, and in 1820 his
Uludes poetiques, which had the misfortune to appear shortly
after the Meditations of Lamartine, so that the author did not
receive the credit of their real originality. Chenedolle had many
sympathies with the romanticists, and was a contributor to their
organ, the Musefranfaise. His other works include the Esprit de
Rivarol (1808) in conjunction with F. J. M. Fayolle.

The works of Chgnedoll6 were edited in 1864 by Sainte-Beuve,
who drew portraits of him in his Chateaubriand el son groupe and in
an article contributed to the Revue des deux mondes (June 1849).
See also E. Helland, Etude bingraphique et litteraire sur Chenedolle
(1857); Cazin, Notice sur Chenedolle (1869).

CHENERY, THOMAS (1826-1884), English scholar and editor
of The Times, was born in 1826 at Barbados. He was educated at
Eton and Caius College, Cambridge. Having been called to the
bar, he went out to Constantinople as The Times correspondent
just before the Crimean War, and it was under the influence there
of Algernon Smythe (afterwards Lord Strangford) that he first
turned to those philological studies in which he became eminent.
After the war he returned to London and wrote regularly for The
Times for many years, eventually succeeding Delane as editor in
1877. He was then an experienced publicist, particularly well
versed in Oriental affairs, an indefatigable worker, with a rapid
and comprehensive judgment, though he lacked Delane's
intuition for public opinion. It was as an Orientalist, however,
that he had meantime earned the highest reputation, his
knowledge of Arabic and Hebrew being almost unrivalled and his
gift for languages exceptional. In 1868 he was appointed Lord
Almoner's professor of Arabic at Oxford, and retained his
position until he became editor of The Times. He was one of the
company of revisers of the Old Testament. He was secretary for

some time to the Royal Asiatic Society, and published learned
editions of the Arabic classic The Assemblies of Al-Harirl and of
the Machberoth Ithiel. He died in London on the nth of
February 1884.

CHENG, TSCHENG or TSCHIANO (Ger. Scheng), an ancient
Chinese wind instrument, a primitive organ, containing the
principle of the free reed which found application in the accordion,
concertina and harmonium. The cheng resembles a tea-pot
filled with bamboo pipes of graduated lengths. It consists of a
gourd or turned wooden receptacle acting as wind reservoir, in
the side of which is inserted an insufflation tube curved like a
swan's neck or the spout of a tea-pot. The cup-shaped reservoir
is closed by means of a plate of horn pierced with seventeen round
holes arranged round the edge in an unfinished circle, into which
fit the bamboo pipes. The pipes are cylindrical as far as they are
visible above the plate, but the lower end inserted in the wind
reservoir is cut to the shape of a beak, somewhat like the mouth-
piece of the clarinet, to receive the reed. The construction of the
free reed is very simple: it consists of a thin plate of metal — gold
according to the Jesuit missionary Joseph Amiot,1 but brass in
the specimens brought to Europe — of the thickness of ordinary
paper. In this plate is cut a rectangular flap or tongue which
remains fixed at one end, while at the other the tongue is filed so
that, instead of closing the aperture, it passes freely through,
vibrating as the air is forced through the pipe (see FREE-REED
VIBRATOR). The metal plate is fastened with wax longitudinally
across the diameter of the beak end of the pipe, a little layer of
wax being applied also to the free end of the vibrating tongue for
the purpose of tuning by adding weight and impetus. About
half an inch above the horn plate a small round hole or stop is
bored through the pipe, which speaks only when this hole is
covered by the finger. A longitudinal aperture about an inch
long cut in the upper end of the bamboo pipe serves to determine
the length of the vibrating column of air proper to respond to the
vibrations of the free reed. The length of the bamboo above this
opening is purely ornamental, as are also four or five of the
seventeen pipes which have no reeds and do not speak, being
merely inserted for the purposes of symmetry in design. The
notes of the cheng, like those of the concertina, speak either by
inspiration or expiration of air, the former being the more usual
method. Mahillon states that performers on the cheng in China
are rare, as the method of playing by inspiration induces in-
flammation of the throat.2 Amiot, who gives a description of the
instrument with illustrations showing the construction, states
that in the great Chinese encyclopaedia Eulh-ya, articles Yu and
Ho, the Yu of ancient China was the large cheng with nineteen
free reeds (twenty-four pipes), and the Ho the small cheng with
thirteen reeds or seventeen pipes described in this article. The
compass of the latter is given by him as the middle octave with
chromatic intervals, the thirteenth note giving the octave of the
first. Mahillon gives the compass of a modern cheng as follows:

?&^-» F-

* 1» = E

V IS 7

5 14 4 or 8 3

E. F. F. Chladni,3 who examined a cheng sent from China to Herr
Muller, organist of the church of St Nicholas, Leipzig, at the
beginning of the igth century, gives an excellent description of
the instrument, reproducing in illustration a plate from Giulio
Ferrario's work on costume.4 Miiller's cheng had the same
compass as Mahillon's. Chladni's article was motived by the
publication of an account of the exhibition of G. J. Greni6's
Orgue expressif, invented about 1810, in the Conservatoire of

1 Memoirs sur la musique des Chinois (Paris, 1779), pp. 78 and 82,
pi. vi., or Memoire sur les Chinois, tome vi. pi. vi.

8 Catalogue descriptif, vol. ii. (Ghent, 1896), p. 91 ; also vol. i.
(1880), pp. 29, 44, 154.

3 " Weitere Nachrichten von dem . . . chinesischen Blasinstru-
mente Tscheng oder Tschiang," in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
(Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. No. 22,pp.369, 374 et seq., and illustration
appendix ii.

4 // Costume anticho e moderno (Milan, 1816), pi. 66, vol. i.

CHEN-HAI— CHENIER, A. DE

Paris.1 Greni6's invention, perfected by Alexandre and Debain
about 1840, produced the harmonium. Kratzenstein (see under
HARMONIUM) of St Petersburg was the first to apply the free
reed to the organ in the second half of the i8th century. In-
ventions of similar instruments, which after a short life were
relegated to oblivion, followed at the beginning of the ipth
century. An interesting reproduction of a Persian cheng dating
from the loth or nth century is to be seen on a Persian vase
described and illustrated together with a shawm in the Gazette
archeologique (tome xi., 1886). (K. S.)

CHEN-HAI [CHiNHAi],a district town of China, in the province
of Cheh-kiang, at the mouth of the Yung-kiang, 12 m. N.E.
of Ningpo, in 29° 58' N., 121° 45' E. It lies at the foot of a hill on
a tongue of land, and is partly protected from the sea on the N.
by a dike about 3 m. long, composed entirely of large blocks of
hewn granite. The walls are 20 ft. high and 3 m. in circumfer-
ence. The defences were formerly of considerable strength, and
included a well-built but now dismantled citadel on a precipitous
cliff, 250 ft. high, at the extremity of the tongue of land on which
the town is built. In the neighbourhood an engagement took
place between the English and Chinese in 1841.

CHENIER, ANDRfiDE (1762-1794), French poet, was born at
Constantinople on the 3oth of October 1762. His father, Louis
Ch6nier, a native of Languedoc, after twenty years of successful
commerce in the Levant as a cloth-merchant, was appointed to a
position equivalent to that of French consul at Constantinople.
His mother, Elisabeth Santi-Lomaca, whose sister was grand-
mother of A. Thiers, was a Greek. When the poet was three
years old his father returned to France, and subsequently from
1768101775 served as consul-general of France in Morocco. The
family, of which Andre was the third son, and Marie- Joseph (see
below) the fourth, remained in France; and after a few years,
during which Andre ran wild with " la tante de Carcasonne," he
distinguished himself as a verse-translator from the classics at
the College de Navarre (the school in former days of Gerson and
Bossuet) in Paris. In 1783 he obtained a cadetship in a French
regiment at Strassburg. But the glamour of the military life
was as soon exhausted by Chenier as it was by Coleridge. He
returned to Paris before the end of the year, was well received by
his family, and mixed in the cultivated circle which frequented
the salon of his mother, among them Lebrun-Pindare, Lavoisier,
Lesueur, Dorat, Parmy, and a little later the painter David. He
was already a poet by predilection, an idyllist and steeped in the
classical archaism of the time, when, in 1784, his taste for the
antique was confirmed by a visit to Rome made in the company
of two schoolfellows, the brothers Trudaine. From Naples, after
visiting Pompeii, he returned to Paris, his mind fermenting with
poetical images and projects, few of which he was destined to
realize. For nearly three years, however, he was enabled to
study and to experiment in verse without any active pressure or
interruption from his family — three precious years in which the
first phase of his art as a writer of idylls and bucolics, imitated to
a large extent from Theocritus, Bion and the Greek anthologists,
was elaborated. Among the poems written or at least sketched
during this period were L'Oaristys, L'Aveugle, La Jeune Malade,
Bacchus, Euphrosine and La Jeune Tarentine, the last a synthesis
of his purest manner, mosaic though it is of reminiscences of at
least a dozen classical poets. As in glyptic so in poetic art, the
Hellenism of the time was decadent and Alexandrine rather than
Attic of the best period. But Ch6nier is always far more than an
imitator. La Jeune Tarentine is a work of personal emotion and
inspiration. The colouring is that of classic mythology, but the
spiritual element is as individual as that of any classical poem by
Milton, Gray, Keats or Tennyson. Apart from his idylls and his
elegies, Chenier also experimented from early youth in didactic
and philosophic verse, and when he commenced his Hermes in
1783 his ambition was to condense the Encyclopedic of Diderot
into a poem somewhat after the manner of Lucretius. This poem
was to treat of man's position in the Universe, first in an isolated
state, and then in society. It remains fragmentary, and though

'See Allg. mus. Zt. (Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. Nos. 9 and 10, pp.
133 and 149 et seq.

some of the fragments are fine, its attempt at scientific exposition
approximates too closely to the manner of Erasmus Darwin to
suit a modern ear. Another fragment called L'Invention sums
Ch6nier's Ars Poetica in the verse " Sur des pensers nouveaux,
faisons des vers antiques." Suzanne represents the torso of a
Biblical poem on a very large scale, in six cantos.

In the meantime, Andre had published nothing, and some of
these last pieces were in fact not yet written, when in November
1787 an opportunity of a fresh career presented itself. The new
ambassador at the court of St James's, M. de la Luzerne, was
connected in some way with the Chenier family, and he offered to
take Andre with him as his secretary. The offer was too good to
be refused, but the poet hated himself on the banks of the fiere
Tamise, and wrote in bitter ridicule of

" Ces Anglais.

Nation toute a vendre & qui peut la payer.
De contree en contree allant au monde entier,
Offrir sa joie ignoble et son faste grossier."

He seems to have been interested in the poetic diction of Milton
and Thomson, and a few of his verses are remotely inspired by
Shakespeare and Gray. To say, however, that he studied
English literature would be an exaggeration. The events of 1 789
and the startling success of his younger brother, Marie- Joseph,
as political playwright and pamphleteer, concentrated all his
thoughts upon France. In April 1790 he could stand London no
longer, and once more joined his parents at Paris in the rue
de Clery.

The France that he plunged into with such impetuosity was
upon the verge of anarchy. A strong constitutionalist, Chenier
took the view that the Revolution was already complete and that
all that remained to be done was the inauguration of the reign of
law. Moderate as were his views and disinterested as were his
motives, his tactics were passionately and dangerously aggressive.
From an idyllist and elegist we find him suddenly transformed
into an unsparing master of poetical satire. His prose Avis au
peuple franqais (August 24, 1790) was followed by the rhetorical
Jeu de paume, a somewhat declamatory moral ode addressed
" a Louis David, peintre." In the meantime he orated at the
Feuillants Club, and contributed frequently to the Journal de
Paris from November 1791 to July 1792, when he wrote his
scorching lambes to Collot d'Herbois, Sur les Suisses revoltes du
regiment de Chdteauvieux. The loth of August uprooted his party,
his paper and his friends, and the management of relatives who
kept him out of the way in Normandy alone saved him from the
massacre of September. In the month following these events his
democratic brother, Marie- Joseph, had entered the Convention.
Andre's sombre rage against the course of events found vent in
the line on the Maenads who mutilated the king's Swiss Guard,
and in the Ode a Charlotte Corday congratulating France that
" Un scelerat de moins rampe dans cette fange." At the express
request of Malesherbes he furnished some arguments to the
materials collected for the defence of the king. After the execu-
tion he sought a secluded retreat on the Plateau de Satory at
Versailles and took exercise after nightfall. There he wrote the
poems inspired by Fanny (Mme Laurent Lecoulteux), including
the exquisite Ode a Versailles, one of his freshest, noblest and
most varied poems.

His solitary life at Versailles lasted nearly a year. On the 7th
of March 1794 he was taken at the house of Mme Piscatory at
Passy. Two obscure agents of the committee of public safety
were in search of a marquise who had flown, but an unknown
stranger was found in the house 'and arrested on suspicion.
This was Andre, who had come on a visit of sympathy. He was
taken to the Luxembourg and afterwards to Saint-Lazare.
During the 140 days of his imprisonment there he wrote the
marvellous lambes (in alternate lines of 12 and 8 syllables), which
hiss and stab like poisoned bullets, and which were transmitted to
his family by a venal gaoler. There he wrote the best known of
all his verses, the pathetic Jeune captive, a poem at once of
enchantment and of despair. Suffocating in an atmosphere of
cruelty and baseness, Chinier's agony found expression almost to
the last in these murderous lambes which he launched against the

CHENIER, M.-J. B. DE

Convention. Ten days before the end, the painter J. B. Suvee
executed the well-known portrait. He might have been over-
looked but for the well-meant, indignant officiousness of his
father. Marie- Joseph had done his best to prevent this, but he
could do nothing more. Robespierre, who was himself on the
brink of the volcano, remembered the venomous sallies in the
Journal de Paris. At sundown on the 25th of July 1794, the very
day of his condemnation on a bogus charge of conspiracy, Andr6
Ch6nier was guillotined. The record of his last moments by La
Touche is rather melodramatic and is certainly not above
suspicion.

Incomplete as was his career — he was not quite thirty-two —
his life was cut short in a crescendo of all its nobler elements.
Exquisite as was already his susceptibility to beauty and his
mastership of the rarest poetic material, we cannot doubt that
Ch6nier was preparing for still higher flights of lyric passion and
poetic intensity. Nothing that he had yet done could be said
to compare in promise of assured greatness with the lambes, the
Odes and the Jeune Captive. At the moment he left practically
nothing to tell the world of his transcendent genius, and his
reputation has had to be retrieved from oblivion page by page,
and almost poem by poem. During his lifetime only his Jeu
de paume (1791) and Hymne sur les Suisses (1792) had been
given to the world. The Jeune Captive appeared in the Decade
philosophique, Jan. 9, 1795; La Jeune Tarentine in the Mercure
of March 2 2 , 1 801 . Chateaubriand quoted three or four passages
in his Genie du christianisme. Fayette and Lefeuvre-Deumier
also gave a few fragments; but it was not until 1819 that a
first imperfect attempt was made by H. de la Touche to collect
the poems in a substantive volume. Since the appearance of the
editio princeps of Chenier's poems in La Touche's volume, many
additional poems and fragments have been discovered, and an
edition of the complete works of the poet, collated with the MSS.
bequeathed to the Bibliotheque Nationale by Mme Elisa de
Chenier in 1892, has been edited by Paul Dimoff and published
by Delagrave. During the same period the critical estimates
of the poet have fluctuated in a truly extraordinary manner.
Sainte-Beuve in his Tableau of 1828 sang the praises of Chenier
as an heroic forerunner of the Romantic movement and a
precursor of Victor Hugo. Chenier, he said, had " inspired and
determined " Romanticism. This suggestion of modernity in
Chenier was echoed by a chorus of critics who worked the idea
to death; in the meantime, the standard edition of Chenier's
works was being prepared by M. Becq de Fouquieres and was
issued in 1862, but rearranged and greatly improved by the
editor in 1872. The same patient investigator gave his New
Documents on Andre Chenier to the world in 1875.

In the second volume of La Vie litteraire Anatole France
contests the theory of Sainte-Beuve. Far from being an initiator,
he maintains that Chenier's poetry is the last expression of an
expiring form of art. His matter and his form belong of right
to the classic spirit of the i8th century. He is a contemporary,
not of Hugo and Leconte de Lisle, but of Suard and Moreliet.
M. Faguet sums up on the side of M. France in his volume on the
i8th century ,(1890). Chenier's real disciples, according to the
latest view, are Leconte de Lisle and M. de Heredia, mosa'istes
who have at heart the cult of antique and pagan beauty, of
" pure art " and of " objective poetry." Heredia himself
reverted to the judgment of Sainte-Beuve to the effect that
Chenier was the first to make modern verses, and he adds,
" I do not know in the French language a more exquisite fragment
than the three hundred verses of the Bucoliques." Chenier's
influence has been specially remarkable in Russia, where Pushkin
imitated him, Kogloff translated La Jeune Captive, La jeune
Tarentine and other famous pieces, while the critic Vesselovsky
pronounces " II a retabli le lyrisme pur dans la poesie franchise."
The general French verdict on his work is in the main well
summed by Morillot, when he says that, judged by the usual
tests of the Romantic movement of the 'twenties (love for strange
literatures of the North, medievalism, novelties and experiments),
Chenier would inevitably have been excluded from the cenacle of
1817. On the other hand, he exhibits a decided tendency to

79

the world-ennui and melancholy which was one of the earlier
symptoms of the movement, and he has experimented in French
verse in a manner which would have led to his excommunication
by the typical performers of the i8th century. What is univer-
sally admitted is that Chdnier was a very great artist, who like
Ronsard opened up sources of poetry in France which had long
seemed dried up. In England it is easier to feel his attraction
than that of some far greater reputations in French poetry, for,
rhetorical though he nearly always is, he yet reveals something
of that quality which to the Northern mind has always been of
the very essence of poetry, that quality which made Sainte-
Beuve say of him that he was the first great poet " personnel
et reveur " in France since La Fontaine. His diction is still very
artificial, the poetic diction of Delille transformed in the direction
of Hugo, but not very much. On the other hand, his descriptive
power in treating of nature shows far more art than the Trianin
school ever attained. His love of the woodland and his political
fervour often remind us of Shelley, and his delicate perception of
Hellenic beauty, and the perfume of Greek legend, give us
almost a foretaste of Keats. For these reasons, among others,
Chenier, whose art is destined to so many vicissitudes of criticism
in his own country, seems assured among English readers of a
place among the Dii Majores of French poetry.

The Chenier literature of late years has become enormous. His
fate has been commemorated in numerous plays, pictures and poems,
notably in the fine epilogue of Sully Prudnomme, the Stella of A. de
Vigny, the delicate statue by Puech in the Luxembourg, and the
well-known portrait in the centre of the " Last Days of the Terror."
The best editions are still those of Becq de Fouquieres (Paris, 1862,
1872 and 1881), though these are now supplemented by those of
L. Moland (2 vols., 1889) and R. Guillard (2 vols., 1899). (T.SE.)

CHENIER, MARIE-JOSEPH BLAISE DE (1764-1811), French
poet, dramatist and politician, younger brother of Andre de
Chenier, was born at Constantinople on the nth of February
1 764.' He was brought up at Carcassonne, and educated in
Paris at the College de Navarre. Entering the army at seventeen,
he left it two years afterwards; and at nineteen he produced
Azemire, a two-act drama (acted in 1786), and Edgar, on le page
suppost, a comedy (acted in 1785), which were failures. His
Charles IX was kept back for nearly two years by the censor.
Chenier attacked the censorship in three pamphlets, and the
commotion aroused by the controversy raised keen interest in
the piece. When it was at last produced on the 4th of November
1789, it achieved an immense success, due in part to its political
suggestion, and in part to Talma's magnificent impersonation of
Charles IX. Camilla Desmoulins said that the piece had done
more for the Revolution than the days of October, and a con-
temporary memoir-writer, the marquis de Ferriere, says that
the audience came away " ivre de vengeance et tourmente d'une
soif de sang." The performance was the occasion of a split among
the actors of the Comedie Francaise, and the new theatre in the
Palais Royal, established by the dissidents, was inaugurated
with Henri VIII (1791), generally recognized as Chenier's
masterpiece; Jean Galas, ou I'icole des juges followed in the
same year. In 1792 he produced his Cains Gracchus, which was
even more revolutionary in tone than its predecessors. It was
nevertheless proscribed in the next year at the instance of the
Montagnard deputy Albitte, for an anti-anarchical hemistich
(Des lois et non du sangl); Finelon (1793) was suspended after
a few representations; and in 1794 his Timollon, set to fitienne
Mehul's music, was also proscribed. This piece was played
after the fall of the Terror, but the fratricide of Timoleon became
the text for insinuations to the effect that by his silence Joseph
de Chenier had connived at the judicial murder of Andr6, whom
Joseph's enemies alluded to as A bel. There is absolutely nothing
to support the calumny, which has often been repeated since.
In fact, after some fruitless attempts to save his brother, variously
related by his biographers, Joseph became aware that Andre's
only chance of safety lay in being forgotten by the authorities,
and that ill-advised intervention would only hasten the end.
Joseph Chenier had been a member of the Convention and of

1 This is the date given by G. de Chenier in his La VMU sur la
famUle de Chenier (1844).

8o

CHENILLE— CHEOPS

the Council of Five Hundred, and had voted for the death of
Louis XVI.; he had a seat in the tribunate; he belonged to
the committees of public instruction, of general security, and of
public safety. He was, nevertheless, suspected of moderate
sentiments, and before the end of the Terror had become a
marked man. His purely political career ended in 1802, when
he was eliminated with others from the tribunate for his opposi-
tion to Napoleon. In 1801 he was one of the educational jury
for the Seine ; from 1803 to 1606 he was inspector-general of
public instruction. He had allowed himself to be reconciled
with Napoleon's government, and Cyrus, represented in 1804,
was written in his honour, but he was temporarily disgraced
in 1806 for his £pitre a Voltaire. In 1806 and 1807 he delivered
a course of lectures at the Athen6e on the language and literature
of France from the earliest years; and in 1808 at the emperor's
request, he prepared his Tableau historique de I'etat el du progris
de la litteraturc fran^aise depuis 1789 jusqu'd 1808, a book con-
taining some good criticism, though marred by the violent
prejudices of its author. He died on the loth of January 1811.
The list of his works includes hymns and national songs — among
others, the famous Chant du depart; odes, Sur la mart de
Mirabeau, Sur I' oligarchic de Robespierre, &c.; tragedies which
never reached the stage, Brutus et Cassius, Philippe deux,
Tibere; translations from Sophocles and Lessing, from Gray
and Horace, from Tacitus and Aristotle; with elegies, dithyr-
ambics and Ossianic rhapsodies. As a satirist he possessed
great merit, though he sins from an excess of severity, and is
sometimes malignant and unjust. He is the chief tragic poet
of the revolutionary period, and as Camille Desmoulins expressed
it, he decorated Melpomene with the tricolour cockade.

See the (Euvres completes de Joseph Chenier (8 vols., Paris, 1823-
1826), containing notices of the poet by Arnault and Daunou;
Charles Labitte, £ludes litteraires (1846) ; Henri Welschinger, Le
Tht&tre revolutionnaire, ifSQ-iJQQ (1881); and A. Lieby, £tude sur
le thULtre de Marie-Joseph Chenier (1902).

CHENILLE (from the Fr. chenille, a hairy caterpillar), a
twisted velvet cord, woven so that the short outer threads
stand out at right angles to the central cord, thus giving a
resemblance to a caterpillar. Chenille is used as a trimming
for dress and furniture.

CHENONCEAUX, a village of central France, in the department
of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Cher, 20 m. E. by S.
of Tours on the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 216. Chenonceaux
owes its interest to its chateau (see ARCHITECTURE: Renaissance
Architecture in France), a building in the Renaissance style
on the river Cher, to the left bank of which it is united by a
two-storeyed gallery built upon five arches, and to the right by
a drawbridge flanked by an isolated tower, part of an earlier
building of the i$th century. Founded in 1515 by Thomas
Bohier (d. 1523), financial minister in Normandy, the chateau
was confiscated by Francis I. in 1535. Henry II. presented
it to his mistress Diane de Poitiers, who on his death was forced
to exchange it for Chaumont-sur-Loire by Catherine de' Medici.
The latter built the gallery which leads to the left bank of the
Cher. Chenonceaux passed successively into the hands of
Louise de Vaudemont, wife of Henry III., the house of Vend6me,
and the family of Bourbon-Conde. In the i8th century it came
into the possession of the farmer-general Claude Dupin (1684-
1769), who entertained the most distinguished people in France
within its walls. In 1864 it was sold to the chemist Theophile
P61ouze, whose wife executed extensive restorations. It sub-
sequently became the property of the Credit Foncier, and again
passed into private occupancy.

CHENOPODIUM, or GOOSE-FOOT, a genus of erect or prostrate
herbs (natural order Chenopodiaceae), usually growing on the
seashore or on waste or cultivated ground. The green angular
stem is often striped with white or red, and, like the leaves,
often more or less covered with mealy hairs. The leaves are
entire, lobed or toothed, often more or less deltoid or triangular
in shape. The minute flowers are bisexual, and borne in dense
axillary or terminal clusters or spikes. The fruit is a membranous
one-seeded utricle often enclosed by the persistent calyx. Ten
species occur in Britain, one of which, C. Bonus-Henricus, Good

King Henry, is cultivated as a pot-herb, in lieu of asparagus^
under the name mercury, and all-good.

CHEOPS, in Herodotus, the name of the king who built the
Great Pyramid in Egypt. Following on a period of good rule
and prosperity under Rhampsinitus, Cheops closed the temples,
abolished the sacrifices and made all the Egyptians labour for
his monument, working in relays of 100,000 men every three
months (see PYRAMID). Proceeding from bad to worse, he
sacrificed the honour of his daughter in order to obtain the money
to complete his pyramid; and the princess built herself besides
a small pyramid of the stones given to her by her lovers. Cheops
reigned 50 years and was succeeded by his brother, Chephren,
who reigned 56 years and built the second pyramid. During
these two reigns the Egyptians suffered every kind of misery
and the temples remained closed. Herodotus continues that
in his own day the Egyptians were unwilling to name these
oppressors and preferred to call the pyramids after a shepherd
named Philition, who pastured his flocks in their neighbour-
hood. At length Mycerinus, son of Cheops and successor of
Chephren, reopened the temples and, although he built the Third
Pyramid, allowed the oppressed people to return to their proper
occupations.

Cheops, Chephren and Mycerinus are historical personages
of the fourth Egyptian dynasty, in correct order, and they built
the three pyramids attributed to them here. But they are
wholly misplaced by Herodotus. Rhampsinitus, the predecessor
of Cheops, appears to represent Rameses III. of the twentieth
dynasty, and Mycerinus in Herodotus is but a few generations
before Psammetichus, the founder of the twenty-sixth dynasty.
Manetho correctly places the great Pyramid kings in Dynasty IV.
InEgyptianthe name of Cheops (Chemmisor Chembisin Diodorus
Siculus, Suphis in Manetho) is spelt Hwfw (Khufu), but the
pronunciation, in late times perhaps Khoouf, is uncertain.
The Greeks and Romans generally accepted the view that Hero-
dotus supplies of his character, and moralized on the uselessness
of his stupendous work; but there is nothing else to prove that
the Egyptians themselves execrated his memory. Modern
writers rather dwell on the perfect organization demanded by his
scheme, the training of a nation to combined labour, the level
attained here by art and in the fitting of masonry, and finally
the fact that the Great Pyramid was the oldest of the seven
wonders of the ancient world and now alone of them survives.
It seems that representations of deities, and indeed any represen-
tations at all, were rare upon the polished walls of the great
monuments of the fourth dynasty, and Petrie thinks that he
can trace a violent religious revolution with confiscation of
endowments at this time in the temple remains at Abydos;
but none the less the wants of the deities were then attended to
by priests selected from the royal family and the highest in the
land. Khufu's work in the temple of Bubastis is proved by a
surviving fragment, and he is figured slaying his enemy at Sinai
before the god Thoth. In late times the priests of Denderah
claimed Khufu as a benefactor; he was reputed to have built
temples to the gods near the Great Pyramids and Sphinx (where
also a pyramid of his daughter Hentsen is spoken of), and there
are incidental notices of him in the medical and religious
literature. The funerary cult of Khufu and Khafre was practised
under the twenty-sixth dynasty, when so much that had fallen
into disuse and been forgotten was revived. Khufu is a leading
figure in an ancient Egyptian story (Papyrus Westcar), but it
is unfortunately incomplete. He was the founder of the fourth
dynasty, and was probably born in Middle Egypt near Beni
Hasan, in a town afterwards known as " Khufu's Nurse," but
was connected with the Memphite third dynasty. Two tablets
at the mines of Wadi Maghara in the peninsula of Sinai, a
granite block from Bubastis, and a beautiful ivory statuette
found by Petrie in the temple at Abydos, are almost all that can
be definitely assigned to Khufu outside the pyramid at Giza
and its ruined accompaniments. His date, according to Petrie,
is 3960-3908 B.C., but in the shorter chronology of Meyer,
Breasted and others he reigned (23 years) about a thousand years
later, c. 2900 B.C.

CHEPSTOW— CHER

81

See Herodotus ii. 124; Diodorus Siculus i. 64; Sethe in Pauly-
Wisspwa's Realencydopddie, s.v. ; W. M. F. Petrie, History of Egypt,
vol. i., and Abydos, part ii. p. 48; J. H. Breasted, History.

(F. LL. G.)

CHEPSTOW, a market town and river-port in the southern
parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, on the Wye,
2 m. above its junction with the Severn, and on the Great Western
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3067. It occupies the
slope of a hill on the western (left) bank of the river, and is
environed by beautiful scenery. The church of St Mary, origin-
ally the conventual chapel of a Benedictine priory of Norman
foundation, has remains of that period in the west front and
the nave, but a rebuilding of the chancel and transepts was
effected in the beginning of the igth century. The church
contains many interesting monuments. The castle, still a mag-
nificent pile, was founded in the nth century by William
Fitz-Osbern, earl of Hereford, but was almost wholly rebuilt
in the I3th. There are, however, parts of the original building in
the keep. The castle occupies a splendid site on the summit of
a cliff above the Wye, and covers about 3 acres. The river is
crossed by a fine iron bridge of five arches, erected in 1816, and
by a tubular railway bridge designed by Sir Isambard Brunei.
There is a free passage on the Wye for large vessels as far as the
bridge. From the narrowness and depth of the channel the tide
rises suddenly and to a great height, forming a dangerous bore.
The exports are timber, bark, iron, coal, cider and millstones.
Some shipbuilding is carried on.

As the key to the passage of the Wye, Chepstow (Estrighorel,
Striguil) was the site successively of British, Roman and Saxon
fortifications. Domesday Book records that the Norman castle
was built by William Fitz-Osbern to defend the Roman road
into South Wales. On the confiscation of his son's estates,
the castle was granted to the earls of Pembroke, and after its
reversion to the crown in 1306, Edward II. in 1310 granted it
to his half-brother Thomas de Brotherton. On the latter's
death it passed, through his daughter Margaret, Lady Segrave,
to the dukes of Norfolk, from whom, after again reverting to the
crown, it passed to the earls of Worcester. It was confiscated
by parliament and settled on Oliver Cromwell, but was restored
to the earls in 1660. The borough must have grown up between
1310, when the castle and vill were granted to Thomas de
Brotherton, and 1432, when John duke of Norfolk died seised
of the castle, manor and borough of Struguil. In 1524 Charles,
first earl of Worcester and then lord of the Marches, granted a
new charter of incorporation to the bailiffs and burgesses of the
town, which had fallen into decay. This was sustained until
the reign of Charles II., when, some dispute arising between the
earl of Bridgwater and the burgesses, no bailiff was appointed
and the charter lapsed. Chepstow was afterwards governed by
a board of twelve members. A port since early times, when the
lord took dues of ships going up to the forest of Dean, Chepstow
had no ancient market and no manufactures but that of glass,
which was carried on for a short time within the ruins of the
castle.

CHEQUE, or CHECK, in commercial law, a bill of exchange
drawn on a banker and signed by the drawer, requiring the
banker to pay on demand a certain sum in money to or to the
order of a specified person or to bearer. In this, its most modern
sense, the cheque is the outcome of the growth of the banking
system of the igth century. For details see BANKS AND BANK-
ING: Law, and BILL OF EXCHANGE. The word check,1 of which
" cheque " is a variant now general in English usage, signified
merely the counterfoil or indent of an exchequer bill, or any
draft form of payment, on which was registered the particulars
of the principal part, as a check to alteration or forgery. The

wt!-ThV'gJraI mea?in£, °f " check " 's a move in the game of chess
which directly attacks the king; the word comes through the Old

*uF%Zi ^^ ftT th? M^' Ut- f°fm scaccus of the Persian
shah, king, t.e the king in the game of chess; cf. the origin of

«rf cJr?m the Ar?b'C *hah-mat< th« king is dead. The word was
early used m a transferred sense of a stoppage or rebuff, and so is
applied to anything wh.ch stops or hinders a matter in progresVor
which controls or restrains anything, hence a token, ticket or
counterfoil which serves as a means ofidentification &c

check or counterfoil parts remained in the hands of the banker,
the portion given to the customer being termed a " drawn note "
or " draft." From the beginning of the igth century the word
" cheque " gradually became synonymous with " draft " as
meaning a written order on a banker by a person having money
in the banker's hands, to pay some amount to bearer or to a
person named. Ultimately, it entirely superseded the word
" draft," and has now a statutory definition (Bills of Exchange
Act 1882, s. 73) — " a bill of exchange drawn on a banker payable
on demand." The word " draft " has come to have a wider
meaning, that of a bill drawn by one person on another for a sum
of money, or an order (whether on a banker or other) to pay
money. The employment of cheques as a method of payment
offering greater convenience than coin is almost universal in
Great Britain and the United States. Of the transactions
through the banks of the United Kingdom between 86 and 90%
are conducted by means of cheques, and an even higher propor-
tion in the United States. On the continent of Europe the use
of cheques, formerly rare, is becoming more general, particularly
in France, and to some extent in Germany.

CHER, a department of central France, embracing the eastern
part of the ancient province of Berry, and parts of Bourbonnais,
Nivernais and Orleanais, bounded N. by the department of
Loiret, W. by Loir-et-Cher and Indre, S. by Allier and Creuse,
and E. by Nievre. . Pop. (1906) 343,484. Area 2819 sq. m.
The territory of the department is elevated in the south, where
one point reaches 1654 ft., and in the east. The centre is occupied
by a wide calcareous table-land, to the north of which stretches
the plain of Sologne. The principal rivers, besides the Cher and
its tributaries, are the Grande Sauldre and the Petite Sauldre
on the north, but the Loire and Allier, though not falling within
the department, drain the eastern districts, and are available
for navigation. The Cher itself becomes navigable when it
receives the Arnon and Yevre, and the communications of the
department are greatly facilitated by the Canal du Berry, which
traverses it from east to west, the lateral canal of the Loire,
which follows the left bank of that river, and the canal of the
Sauldre. The climate is temperate, and the rainfall moderate.
Except in the Sologne, the soil is generally fertile, but varies
considerably in different localities. The most productive region
is that on the east, which belongs to the valley of the Loire;
the central districts are tolerably fertile but marshy, being often
flooded by the Cher; while in the south and south-west there
is a considerable extent of dry and fertile land. Wheat and oats
are largely cultivated, while hemp, vegetables and various
fruits are also produced. The vine flourishes chiefly in the east
of the arrondissement of Sancerre. The department contains
a comparatively large extent of pasturage, which has given rise
to a considerable trade in horses, cattle, sheep and wool for the
northern markets. Nearly one-fifth of the whole area consists
of forest. Mines of iron are worked, and various sorts of stone
are quarried. Brick, porcelain and glassworks employ large
numbers of the inhabitants. There are also flour-mills, dis-
tilleries, oil-works, saw-mills and tanneries. Bourges and Vierzon
are metallurgical and engineering centres. Coal and wine are
leading imports, while cereals, timber, wool, fruit and industrial
products are exported. The department is served by the Orleans
railway, and possesses in all more than 300 m. of navigable
waterways. It is divided into three arrondissements (29 cantons,
292 communes) cognominal with the towns of Bourges, Saint-
Amand-Mont-Rond, and Sancerre, of which the first is the
capital, the seat of an archbishop and of a court of appeal and
headquarters of the VIII. army-corps. The department
belongs to the acadSmie (educational division) of Paris. Bourges,
Saint-Amand-Mont-Rond, Vierzon and Sancerre (q.v.) are the
principal towns. Mehun-sur- Yevre (pop. 5227), a town with an
active manufacture of porcelain, has a Romanesque church and
a chateau of the i4th century. Among the other interesting
churches of the department, that at St Satur has a fine choir
of the i4th and isth centuries; those of Dun-sur-Auron,
Plaimpied, Aix d'Angillon and Jeanvrin are Romanesque in
style, while Aubigny-Ville has a church of the I2th, i3th and

82

CHERAT— CHERCHEL

15th centuries and a chateau of later date. Drevant, built on
the site of a Roman town, preserves ruins of a large theatre and
other remains. Among the megalithic monuments of Cher,
the most notable is that at Villeneuve-sur-Cher, known as the
Pierre-de-la-Roche.

CHERAT, a hill cantonment and sanatorium hi the Peshawar
district of the North- West Frontier Province, India, 34 m. S.E.
of Peshawar. It is situated at an elevation of 4500 ft., on the
west of the Khattak range, which divides the Peshawar from the
Kohat district. It was first used in 1861, and since then has
been employed during the hot weather as a health station for
the British troops quartered in the hot and malarious vale of
Peshawar.

CHERBOURG, a naval station, fortified town and seaport
of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Manche, on the English Channel, 232 m. W.N.W.
of Paris on the Ouest-Etat railway. Pop. (1906) town, 35,710;
commune, 43,827. Cherbourg is situated at the mouth of the
Divette, on a small bay at the apex of the indentation formed
by the northern shore of the peninsula of Cotentin. Apart from
a fine hospital and the church of La Trinite dating from the
1 5th century, the town has no buildings of special interest. A
rich collection of paintings is housed hi the h6tel de ville. A
statue of the painter J. F. Millet, born near Cherbourg, stands
in the public garden, and there is an equestrian statue of
Napoleon I. in the square named after him. Cherbourg is a
fortified place of the first class, headquarters of one of the five
naval arrondissements of France, and the seat of a sub-prefect.
It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber
of commerce, a lycee and a naval school. The chief industries
of the town proper are fishing, saw-milling, tanning, leather-
dressing, ship-building, iron and copper-founding, rope-making
and the manufacture of agricultural implements. There are
stone quarries in the environs, and the town has trade in farm
produce.

Cherbourg derives its chief importance from its naval and
commercial harbours, which are distant from each other about
half a mile. The former consists of three main basins cut out
of the rock, and has an area of 55 acres. The minimum depth
of water is 30 ft. Connected with the harbour are dry docks,
the yards where the largest ships in the French navy are con-
structed, magazines, rope walks, and the various workshops
requisite for a naval arsenal of the first class. The works and
town are carefully guarded on every side by redoubts and
fortifications, and are commanded by batteries on the surround-
ing hills. There is a large naval hospital close to the harbour.
The commerical harbour at the mouth of the Divette com-
municates with the sea by a channel 650 yds. long. It consists
of two parts, an outer and tidal harbour 17$ acres in extent, and
an inner basin 15 acres in extent, with a depth on sill at ordinary
spring tide of 25 ft. Outside these harbours is the triangular
bay, which forms the roadstead of Cherbourg. The bay is
admirably sheltered by the land on every side but the north. On
that side it is sheltered by a huge breakwater, over 2 m. in length,
with a width of 650 ft. at its base and 30 ft. at its summit, which
is protected by forts, and leaves passages for vessels to the east
and west. These passages are guarded by forts placed on islands
intervening between the breakwater and the mainland, and
themselves united to the land by breakwaters. The surface
within these barriers amounts to about 3700 acres. Cherbourg
is a port of call for the American, North German Lloyd and other
important lines of transatlantic steamers. The chief exports
are stone for road-making, butter, eggs and vegetables; the
chief imports are coal, timber, superphosphates and wine from
Algeria. Great Britain is the principal customer.

Cherbourg is supposed by some investigators to occupy the
site of the Roman station of Coriallum, but nothing definite is
known about its origin. The name was long regarded as a
corruption of Caesaris Burgus (Caesar's Borough). William
the Conqueror, under whom it appears as Carusbur, provided
it with a hospital and a church; and Henry II. of England on
several occasions chose it as his residence. In 1295 it was

pillaged by an English fleet from Yarmouth-, and in the i4th
century it frequently suffered during the wars against the
English. Captured by the English in 1418 after a four months'
siege, it was recovered by Charles VII. of France in 1450. An
attempt was made under Louis XIV. to construct a military port;
but the fortifications were dismantled in 1688, and further
damage was inflicted by the English in 1758. In 1686 Vauban
planned harbour-works which were begun under Louis XVI.
and continued by Napoleon I. It was left, however, to Louis
Philippe, and particularly to Napoleon III., to complete them,
and their successful realization was celebrated in 1858, in the
presence of the queen of England, against whose dominions they
had at one time been mainly directed. At the close of 1857,
£8,000,000, of which the breakwater cost over £2,500,000, had
been expended on the works; in 1889 a further sum of £680,000
was voted by the Chamber of Deputies for the improvement of
the port.

CHERBULIEZ, CHARLES VICTOR (1820-1899), French
novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born on the igth of July
1829, at Geneva, where his father, Andr6 Cherbuliez (1795-1874),
was a classical professor at the university. He was descended
from a family of Protestant refugees, and many years later
Victor Cherbuliez resumed his French nationality, taking
advantage of an act passed in the early days of the Revolution.
Geneva was the scene of his early education; thence he proceeded
to Paris, and afterwards to the universities of Bonn and Berlin.
He returned to his native town and engaged in the profession of
teaching. After his resumption of French citizenship he was
elected a member of the Academy (1881), and having received
the Legion of Honour in 1870, he was promoted to be officer of
the order in 1892. He died on the ist of July 1899. Cherbuliez
was a voluminous and successful writer of fiction. His first book,
originally published in 1860, reappeared in 1864 under the title
of Un Cheval de Phidias: it is a romantic study of art in the
golden age of Athens. He went on to produce a series of novels,
of which the following are the best known: — Le Comte Kostia
(1863), Le Prince Vitale (1864), Le Roman d'une honnete femme
(1866), L'Aventure de Ladislas Bolski (1869), Miss Hovel (1875),
Samuel Brohl et Cie (1877), L'ldee de Jean Telerol (1878), Noirs
el rouges (1881), La Vocation du Comte Ghislain (1888), Une
Gageure (1890), Le Secret du precepteur (1893), Jacquine Vanesse
(1898), &c. Most of these novels first appeared in the Revue des
deux mondes, to which Cherbuh'ez also contributed a number
of political and learned articles, usually printed with the pseu-
donym G. Valbert. Many of these have been published in
collected form under the titles L'Allemagne politique (1870),
L'Espagne politique (1874), Profils Grangers (1889), L'Arl et la
nature (1892), &c. The volume £ludesde litterdture etd'art (1873)
includes articles for the most part reprinted from Le Temps.
The earlier novels of Cherbuliez have been said with truth to
show marked traces of the influence of George Sand; and in
spite of modification, his method was that of an older school.
He did not possess the sombre power or the intensely analytical
skill of some of his later contemporaries, but his books are
distinguished by a freshness and honesty, fortified by cosmo-
politan knowledge and lightened by unobtrusive humour, which
fully account for their wide popularity in many countries besides
his own. His genius was the reverse of dramatic, and attempts
to present two of his stories on the stage have not succeeded.
His essays have all the merits due to liberal observation and
thoroughness of treatment; their style, like that of the novels,
is admirably lucid and correct. (C.)

CHERCHEL, a seaport of Algeria, in the arrondissement and
department of Algiers, 55 m. W. of the capital. It is the centre
of an agricultural and vine-growing district, but is commercially
of no great importance, the port, which consists of part only of
the inner port of Roman days, being small and the entry difficult.
The town is chiefly noteworthy for the extensive ruins of former
cities on the same site. Of existing buildings the most remarkable
is the great Mosque of the Hundred Columns, now used as a
military hospital. The mosque contains 89 columns of diorite,
surmounted by a variety of capitals brought from other buildings.

CHERCHEN— CHERNIGOV

The population of the town in 1906 was 4733; of the commune
of which Cherchel is the centre 11,088.

Cherchel was a city of the Carthaginians, who named it Jol.
Juba II. (25 B.C.) made it the capital of the Mauretanian king-
dom under the name of Caesarea. Juba's tomb, the so-called
Tombeau de la Chretienne (see ALGERIA), is ;J m. E. of the town.
Destroyed by the Vandals, Caesarea regained some of its im-
portance under the Byzantines. Taken by the Arabs it was
renamed by them Cherchel. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa captured
the city in 1520 and annexed it to his Algerian pashalik. In
the early years of the i8th century it was a commercial city
of some importance, but was laid in ruins by a terrible earthquake
in 1738. In 1840 the town was occupied by the French. The
ruins suffered greatly from vandalism during the early period
of French rule, many portable objects being removed to
museums in Paris or Algiers, and most of the monuments
destroyed for the sake of their stone. Thus the dressed stones
of the ancient theatre served to build barracks; the material
of the hippodrome went to build the church; while the portico
of the hippodrome, supported by granite and marble columns,
and approached by a fine flight of steps, was destroyed by
Cardinal Lavigerie in a search for the tomb of St Marciana. The
fort built by Arouj Barbarossa, elder brother of Khair-ed-Din,
was completely destroyed by the French. There are many
fragments of a white marble temple. The ancient cisterns still
supply the town with water. The museum contains some of
the finest statues discovered in Africa. They include colossal
figures of Aesculapius and Bacchus, and the lower half of a
seated Egyptian divinity in black basalt, bearing the cartouche
of Tethmosis (Thothmes) I. This statue was found at Cherchel,
and is held by some archaeologists to indicate an Egyptian
settlement here about 1500 B.C.

See AFRICA, ROMAN, and the description of the museum by
P. Gauckler in the Musees et collections archeologiques de I'Algerie.

CHERCHEN, a town of East Turkestan, situated at the
northern foot of the Altyn-tagh, a range of the Kuen-lun, in
85° 35' E., and on the Cherchen-darya, at an altitude of 4100 ft.
It straggles mostly along the irrigation channels that go off from
the left side of the river, and in 1900 had a population of about
2000. The Cherchen-darya, which rises in the Arka-tagh, a more
southerly range of the Kuen-lun, in 87° E. and 36° 20' N., flows
north until it strikes the desert below Cherchen, after which it
turns north-east and meanders through a wide bed (300400 ft.),
beset with dense reeds and flanked by older channels. It is
probable that anciently it entered the disused channel of the
Ettek-tarim, but at present it joins the existing Tarim in the
lake of Kara-buran, a sort of lacustrine " ante-room " to the
Kara-koshun (N. M. Przhevalsky's Lop-nor). At its entrance
into the former lake the Cherchen-darya forms a broad delta.
The river is frozen in its lower course for two to three months
in the winter. From the foot of the mountains to the oasis of
Cherchen it has a fall of nearly 4000 ft., whereas in the 300 m.
or so from Cherchen to the Kara-buran the fall is 1400 ft. The
total length is 500-600 m., and the drainage basin measures
6000-7000 sq. m.

See Sven Hedin, Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia,
1899-1902, vols. i. and ii. (1905-1906) ; also TAKLA-MAKAN.

CHEREMISSES, or TCHEREMISSES, a Finnish people living in
isolated groups in the governments of Kazan, Viatka, Novgorod,
Perm, Kostroma and Ufa, eastern Russia. Their name for
themselves is Mori or Mari (people) , possibly identifiable with the
ancient Merians of Suzdalia. Their language belongs to the
Finno-Ugrian family. They number some 240,000. There are
two distinct physical types: one of middle height, black-haired,
brown skin and flat-faced; the other short, fair-haired, white
skinned, with narrow eyes and straight short noses. Those
who live on the right bank of the Volga are sometimes known
as Hill Cheremis, and are taller and stronger than those who
inhabit the swampsrof the left bank. They are farmers and herd
horses and cattle. Their religion is a hotchpotch of Shamanism,
Mahommedanism and Christianity. They are usually mono-
gamous. The chief ceremony of marriage is a forcible abduction

of the bride. The women, naturally ugly, are often disfigured
by sore eyes caused by the smoky atmosphere of the huts. They
wear a head-dress, trimmed with glass jewels, forming a hood
behind stiffened with metal. On their breasts they carry a
breastplate formed of coins, small bells and copper disks.

See Smirinov, Mordres et Tcheremisses (Paris, 1895); J. Aber-
cromby, Pre- arid Proto-historic Finns (London, 1898).

CHERIBON, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
Indies, bounded S. and W. by the Preanger regencies, N.W. by
Krawang, N. by the Java Sea, and E. by the residencies of Tegal
andBanyumas. Pop.(i897) i, 577, 521, including867 Europeans,
2 1 , 108 Chinese, and 2016 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The
natives consist of Middle Javanese in the north and Sundanese
in the south. Cheribon has been for many centuries the centre
of Islamism in western Java, and is also the seat of a fanatical
Mahommedan sect controlled from Mecca. The native population
is on the whole orderly and prosperous. The northern half of the
residency is flat and marshy in places, especially in the north-
western corner, while the southern half is mountainous. In the
middle stands the huge volcano Cherimai, clad with virgin
forest and coffee plantations, and surrounded at its foot by rice
fields. South-south-west of Cherimai on the Preanger border is
the Sawal volcano, at whose foot is the beautiful Penjalu lake.
Sulphur and salt springs occur on the slopes of Cherimai, and
near Palimanan there is a cavernous hole called Guwagalang (or
Payagalang), which exhales carbonic acid gas, and is considered
holy by the natives and guarded by priests. There is a similar
hole Li the Preanger. The principal products of cultivation are
sugar, coffee, rice and also tea and pulse (rachang),.the planta-
tions being for the most part owned by Europeans. The chief
towns are Cheribon, a seaport and capital of the residency, the
seaport of Indramaya, Palimanan, Majalengka, Kuningan and
Chiamis. Cheribon has a good open roadstead. The town is
very old and irregularly built, and the climate is unhealthy;
nevertheless it has a lively export trade hi sugar and coffee and
is a regular port of call. In 1008 the two descendants of the old
sultans of Cheribon still resided there in their respective Kratons
or palaces, and each received an annual income of over £1500 for
the loss of his privileges. A country residence belonging to one
of the sultans is situated close to Cheribon and is much visited
on account of its fantastic architecture. Indramaya was a
considerable trading place in the days of the early Portuguese
and Dutch traders. Kuningan is famous for a breed of small
but strong horses.

CHERKASY (Polish, Czerkasy) , a town of Russia, in the
government of Kiev, 96 m. S.E. of Kiev, on the right bank of the
Dnieper. Pop. (1883) 15,740; (1897) 26,619. The inhabitants
(Little Russians) are mostly employed in agriculture and garden-
ing; but sugar and tobacco are manufactured and spirits distilled.
Cherkasy was an important town of the Ukraine in the isth
century, and remained so, under Polish rule, until the revolt
of the Cossack hetman Chmielnicki (1648). It was annexed by
Russia in 1795.

CHERNIGOV, a government of Little Russia, on the left bank
of the Dnieper, bounded by the governments of Mogilev and
Smolensk on the N., Orel and Kursk on the E., Poltava on the
S., and Kiev and Minsk on the W. Area, 20,233 SQ- m- Its
surface is an undulating plain, 650 to 750 ft. high in the north
and 370 to 600 ft. in the south, deeply grooved by ravines and
the valleys of the rivers. In the north, beyond the Desna river,
about one-third of the area is under forest (rapidly disappearing),
and marshes occur along the courses of the rivers; while to the
south of the Desna the soil is dry and sometimes sandy, and
gradually it assumes the characters of a steppe-land as one
proceeds southward. The government is drained by the Dnieper,
which forms its western boundary for 180 m., and by its tributary
the Desna. The latter, which flows through Chernigov for
nearly 350 m., is navigable, and timber is brought down its
tributaries. The climate is much colder in the wooded tracts
of the north than in the south; the average yearly temperature
at the city of Chernigov is 44-4° F. (January, 23°; July 68-5°).

The population reached 1,996,250 in 1883, 2,316,818 in 1897,

CHERNIGOV— CHERRY

and 2,746,300 (estimate) in 1906. It is chiefly Little Russian
(85-6%); but Great Russians (6-1%), mostly Raskolniks,
i.e. nonconformists, and White Russians (5-6%) inhabit the
northern districts. There are, besides, some Germans, as well
as Greeks, at Nyezhin. Agriculture is the principal occupation;
in the north, however, many of the inhabitants are engaged in
the timber trade, and in the production of tar, pitch, wooden
wares, leather goods and so forth. Cattle-breeding is carried
on in the central districts. Beet is extensively cultivated. The
cultivation of tobacco is increasing. Hemp is widely grown in
the north, and the milder climate of the south encourages
gardening. Bee-keeping is extensively carried on by the Raskol-
niks. Limestone, grindstones, china-clay and building-stone
are quarried. Manufactures have begun to develop rapidly of
late, the most important being sugar-works, distilleries, cloth-
mills and glass-works. The government is divided into fifteen
districts, their chief towns being Chernigov (<?.».), Borzna (pop.
12,458 in 1897), Glukhov (14,856), Gorodnya (4197), Konotop
(23,083), Kozelets (5160), Krolevets (10,375), Mglin (7631),
Novgorod-Syeversk (9185), Novozybkov (15,480), Nyezhin
(32,481), Oster (5384), Sosnitsa (2507), Starodub (12,451) and
Surazh (4004).

CHERNIGOV, a town of Russia, capital of the above govern-
ment, on the right bank of the Desna, nearly half a mile
from the river, 141 m. by rail N.E. of Kiev on a branch line.
Pop. (1897) 27,006. It is an archiepiscopal see and possesses a
cathedral of the nth century. In 907 the city is mentioned
in the treaty of Oleg as next in importance to Kiev, and in the
nth century it became the capital of the principality of Syeversk
and an important commercial city. The Mongol invasion put
an end to its prosperity in 1239. Lithuania annexed it in the
I4th century, but it was soon seized by Poland, which held it until
the 1 7th century. In 1686 it was definitely annexed to Russia.

CHEROKEE (native Tsalagi, " cave people "), a tribe of North
American Indians of Iroquoian stock. Next to the Navaho they
are the largest tribe in the United States and live mostly in
Oklahoma (formerly Indian territory). Before their removal
they possessed a large tract of country now distributed among
the states of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Tennessee and the
west of Florida. Their chief divisions were then settled around
the head-waters of the Savannah and Tennessee rivers, and
were distinguished as the Elati Tsalagi or Lower Cherokees,
i.e. those in the plains, and Atali Tsalagi or Upper Cherokees,
i.e. those on the mountains. They were further divided into
seven exogamous clans. Fernando de Soto travelled through
their country in 1540, and during the next three centuries they
were important factors in the history of the south. They
attached themselves to the English in the disputes and contests
which arose between the European colonizers, formally recog-
nized the English king in 1730, and in 1755 ceded a part of
their territory and permitted the erection of English forts.
Unfortunately this amity was interrupted not long after;
but peace was again restored in 1761. When the revolutionary
war broke out they sided with the royalist party. This led
to their subjugation by the new republic, and they had to
surrender that part of their lands which lay to the south of the
Savannah and east of the Chattahoochee. Peace was made in
1781, and in 1785 they recognized the supremacy of the United
States and were confirmed in their possessions. In 1820 they
adopted a civilized form of government, and in 1827, as a
" Nation," a formal constitution. The gradual advance of white
immigration soon led to disputes with the settlers, who desired
their removal, and exodus after exodus took place; a small part
of the tribe agreed (1835) to remove to another district, but
the main body remained. An appeal was made by them to
the United States government; but President Andrew Jackson
refused to interfere. A force of 2000 men, under the command
of General Winfield Scott, was sent in 1838, and the Cherokees
were compelled to emigrate to their present position. After
the settlement various disagreements between the eastern and
western Cherokees continued for some time, but in 1839 a union
was effected. In the Civil War they all at first sided with the

South; but before long a strong party joined the North, and
this led to a disastrous internecine struggle. On the close of the
contest they were confirmed in the possession of their territory,
but were forced to give a portion of their lands to their eman-
cipated slaves. Their later history is mainly a story of hopeless
struggle to maintain their tribal independence against the white
man. In 1892 they sold their western territory known as the
" Cherokee outlet." Until 1906, when tribal government
virtually ceased, the " nation " had an elected chief, a senate and
house of representatives. Many of them have become Christians,
schools have been established and there is a tribal press. Those
in Oklahoma still number some 26,000, though most are of mixed
blood. A group, known as the Eastern Band, some 1400 strong,
are on a reservation in North Carolina. Their language consists
of two dialects — a third, that of the " Lower " branch, having
been lost. The syllabic alphabet invented in 1821 by George
Guess (Sequoyah) is the character employed.

See also Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907);
T. V. Parker, Cherokee Indians (N. Y., 1909) ; and INDIANS, NORTH
AMERICAN.

CHEROOT, or SHEROOT (from the Tamil word " shuruttu,"
a roll), a cigar made from tobacco grown in southern India and
the Philippine Islands. It was once esteemed very highly for
its delicate flavour. A cheroot differs from other cigars in having
both ends cut square, instead of one being pointed, and one end
considerably larger than the other.

CHERRAPUNJI, a village in the Khasi hills district of Assam.
It is notable as having the heaviest known rainfall in the world.
In 1861 it registered a total of 905 in., and its annual average
is 458 in. This excessive rainfall is caused by the fact that
Cherrapunji stands on the edge of the plateau overlooking the
plains of Bengal, where it catches the full force of the monsoon
as it rises from the sea. There is a good coal-seam in the vicinity.

CHERRY. As a cultivated fruit-tree the cherry is generally
supposed to be of Asiatic origin, whence, according to Pliny, it
was brought to Italy by Lucullus after his defeat of Mithradates,
king of Pontus, 68 B.C. As with most plants which have been
long and extensively cultivated, it is a matter of difficulty, if not
an impossibility, to identify the parent stock of the numerous
cultivated varieties of cherry; but they are generally referred
to two species: Prunus Cerasus, the wild or dwarf cherry, the
origin of the morello, duke and Kentish cherries, and P. Avium,
the gean, the origin of the geans, hearts and bigarreaus. Both
species grow wild through Europe and western Asia to the
Himalayas, but the dwarf cherry has the more restricted range
of the two in Britain, as it does not occur in Scotland and is rare
in Ireland. The cherries form a section Cerasus of the genus
Prunus; and they have sometimes been separated as a distinct
genus from the plums proper; both have a stone-fruit or drupe,
but the drupe of the cherry differs from that of the plum in not
having a waxy bloom ; further, the leaves of the plum are rolled
(convolute) in the bud, while those of the cherry are folded (con-
duplicate).

The cherries are trees of moderate size and shrubs, having
smooth, serrate leaves and white flowers. They are natives
of the temperate regions of both hemispheres; and the cultivated
varieties ripen their fruit in Norway as far as 63° N. The geans
are generally distinguished from the common cherry by the
greater size of the trees, and the deeper colour and comparative
insipidity of the flesh in the ripe fruit, which adheres firmly
to the " nut " or stone; but among the very numerous cultivated
varieties specific distinctions shade away so that the fruit
cannot be ranged under these two heads. The leading varieties
are recognized as bigarreaus, dukes, morellos and geans. Several
varieties are cultivated as ornamental trees and on account
of their flowers.

The cherry is a well-flavoured sub-acid fruit, and is much
esteemed for dessert. Some of the varieties are particularly
selected for pies, tarts, &c., and others for the preparation of
preserves, and for making cherry brandy. The fruit is also very
extensively employed in the preparation of the liqueurs known
as kirschwasser, ratafia and maraschino. Kirschwasser is made

CHERRYVALE— CHERSO

chiefly on the upper Rhine from the wild black gean, and in
the manufacture the entire fruit-flesh and kernels are pulped up
and allowed to ferment. By distillation of the fermented pulp
the liqueur is obtained in a pure, colourless condition. Ratafia
is similarly manufactured, also by preference from a gean.
Maraschino, a highly valued liqueur, the best of which is produced
at Zara in Dalmatia, differs from these in being distilled from
a cherry called marasca, the pulp of which is mixed with honey,
honey or sugar being added to the distillate for sweetening.
It is also said that the flavour is heightened by the use of the
leaves of the perfumed cherry, Primus Mahaleb, a native of
central and southern Europe. .

The wood of the cherry tree is valued by cabinetmakers,
and that of the gean tree is largely used in the manufacture
of tobacco pipes. The American wild cherry, Prunus serotina,
is much sought after, its wood being compact, fine-grained, not
liable to warp, and susceptible of receiving a brilliant polish.
The kernels of the perfumed cherry, P. Mahaleb, are used in
confectionery and for scent. A gum exudes from the stem of
cherry trees similar in its properties to gum arable.

The cherry is increased by budding on the wild gean, obtained
by sowing the stones of the small black or red wild cherries. To
secure very dwarf trees the Prunus Mahaleb has been used for
the May duke, Kentish, morello and analogous sorts, but it is
not adapted for strong-growing varieties like the bigarreaus.
The stocks are budded, or, more rarely, grafted, at the usual
seasons. The cherry prefers a free, loamy soil, with a well-
drained subsoil. Stiff soils and diy gravelly subsoils are both
unsuitable, though the trees require a large amount of moisture,
particularly the large-leaved sorts, such as the bigarreaus. For
standard trees, the bigarreau section should be planted 30 ft.
apart, or more, in rich soil, and the May duke, morello and
similar varieties 20 or 25 ft. apart; while, as trained trees against
walls and espaliers, from 20 to 24 ft. should be allowed for the
former, and from 1 5 to 20 ft. for the latter! In forming the stems
of a standard tree the temporary side-shoots should not be
allowed to attain too great a length, and should not be more
than two years old when they are cut close to the stem. The
first three shoots retained to form the head should be shortened
to about 15 in., and two shoots from each encouraged, one at the
end, and the other 3 or 4 in. lower down. When these have
become established, very little pruning will be required, and
that chiefly to keep the principal branches as nearly equal in
strength as possible for the first few years. Espalier trees
should have the branches about a foot apart, starting from the
stem with an upward curve, and then being trained horizontally.
In summer pruning the shoots on the upper branches must be
shortened at least a week before those on the lower ones. After
a year or two clusters of fruit buds will be developed on spurs
along the branches, and those spurs will continue productive
for an indefinite period. For wall trees any form of training
may be adopted; but as the fruit is always finest on young
spurs, fan-training is probably the most advantageous. A
succession of young shoots should be laid in every year. The
morello, which is of twiggy growth and bears on the young wood,
must be trained in the fan form, and care should be taken to
avoid the very common error of crowding its branches.

Forcing. — The cherry will not endure a high temperature nor
close atmosphere. A heat of 45° at night will be sufficient at
starting, this being gradually increased during the first few
weeks to 55°, but lowered again when the blossom buds are about
to open. After stoning the temperature may be again gradually
raised to 60°, and may go up to 70° by day, or 75° by sun heat,
and 60° at night. The best forcing cherries are the May duke
and the royal duke, the duke cherries being of more compact
growth than the bigarreau tribe and generally setting better;
nevertheless a few of the larger kinds, such as bigarreau Napoleon,
black tartarian and St Margaret's, should be forced for variety.
The trees may be either planted out in tolerably rich soil, or
grown in large pots of good turfy friable calcareous loam mixed
with rotten dung. If the plants are small, they may be put into
12-in. pots in the first instance, and after a year shifted into

iS-in. pots early in autumn, and plunged in some loose or even
very slightly fermenting material. The soil of the pots should
be protected from suow-showers and cold rains. Occasionally
trees have been taken up in autumn with balls, potted and
forced in the following spring; but those which have been
established a year in the pots are to be preferred. Such only as
are well furnished with blossom-buds should be selected. The
trees should be removed to the forcing house in the beginning
of December, if fruit be required very early in the season. During
the first and second weeks it may be kept nearly close; but, as
vegetation advances, air becomes absolutely necessary during
the day, and even at night when the weather will permit. If
forcing is commenced about the middle or third week of December,
the fruit ought to be ripe by about the end of March. After the
fruit is gathered, the trees should be duly supplied with water
at the root, and the foliage kept well syringed till the wood is
mature. (See also FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING.)

CHERRYVALE, a city of Montgomery county, Kansas, U.S.A.,
about 140 m. S.S.E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 2104; (1900)
3472, including 180 negroes; (1905, stats census) 5089; (1910)
4304. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Sania Fe, and the
main line and a branch (of which it is a terminus) of the St Louis
& San Francisco railways. It is in a farming district and in the
Kansas natural-gas and oil-field, and has large zinc smelters, an
oil refinery, and various manufactures, including vitrified brick,
flour, glass, cement and ploughs. Cherryvale was laid out in
1871 by the Kansas City, Lawrence & South Kansas Railway
Company (later absorbed by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6).
The mam part of the town was destroyed by fire ia 1873, but
was soon rebuilt, and in 1880 Cherryvale became a city of the
third and afterwards of the second class. Natural gas, which
is used as a factory fuel and for street and domestic lighting,
was found here in 1889, and oil several years later.

CHERRY VALLEY, a village of Otsego county, New York,
U.S.A., in a township of the same name, 68 m. N.W. of Albany.
Pop. (1890) 685; (1900) 772; (1905) 746; (1910)792; of the
township (1910) 1706. It is served by the Delaware &
Hudson railway. Cherry Valley is in the centre of a rich farming
and dairying region, has a chair factory, and is a summer resort
with sulphur and lithia springs. It was the scene of a terrible
massacre during the War of Independence. The village was
attacked on the nth of November 1778 by Walter Butler
(d. 1781) and Joseph Brant with a force of 800 Indians and Tories,
who killed about 50 men, women and children, sacked and
burned most of the houses, and carried off more than 70 prisoners,
who were subjected to the greatest cruelties and privations,
many of them dying or being tomahawked before the Canadian
settlements were reached. Cherry Valley was incorporated
in 1812.

CHERSIPHRON, a Cretan architect, the traditional builder
(with his son Metagenes) of the great Ionic temple of Artemis
at Ephesus set up by the Greeks in the 6th century. Some
remains of this temple were found by J. T. Wood and brought
to the British Museum. In connexion with the pillars, which
are adorned with archaic reliefs, a fragmentary inscription has
been found, recording that they were presented by King Croesus,
as indeed Herodotus informs us. This temple was burned on
the day on which Alexander the Great was born.

CHERSO, an island in the Adriatic Sea, off the east coast
of Istria, from which it is separated by the channel of Farasina.
Pop. (1900) 8274. It is situated in the Gulf of Quarnero, and is
connected with the island of Lussin, lying on the S.W. by a
turn bridge over the small channel of Ossero, and with the
island of Veglia, lying on the E. by the Canale di Mezzo. These
three are the principal islands of the Quarnero group, and form
together the administrative district of Lussin in the Austrian
crownland of Istria. Cherso is an elongated island about 40 m.
long, i \ to 7 m. wide, and has an area of 150 sq. m. It is traversed
by a range of mountains, which attain in the peak of Syss an
altitude of 2090 ft. and form natural terraces, planted with vines
and olive trees, specially in the middle and southern parts of
the island. The northern part is covered with bushes of laurel

86

CHERSONESE— CHERUBIM

and mastic, but there are scarcely any large trees. There is a
scarcity of springs, and the bouses are generally furnished with
cisterns for rain water. In the centre of the island is an interesting
lake called the Vrana or Crow's Lake, situated at an altitude of
40 ft. above the level of the sea, 3$ m. long, i m. wide and 184
ft. deep. This lake is in all probability fed by subterranean
sources. The chief town of the island is Cherso, situated on
the west coast. It possesses a good harbour and is provided
with a shipwright's wharf.

CHERSONESE, CHERSONESUS, or CHERRONESUS (Gr. xv0'05!
dry, and vrjtros, island), a word equivalent to " peninsula."
In ancient geography the Chersonesus Thracica, Chersonesus
Taurica or Scythica, and Chersonesus Cimbrica correspond to
the peninsulas of the Dardanelles, the Crimea and Jutland; and
the Golden Chersonese is usually identified with the peninsula
of Malacca. The Tauric Chersonese was further distinguished
as the Great, in contrast to the Heracleotic or Little Chersonese
at its S.W. corner, where Sevastopol now stands.

The Tauric Chersonese1 (from and century A.D. called
Cherson) was a Dorian colony of Heraclea in Bithynia, founded
in the 5th century B.C. in the Crimea about 2 m. S. of the
modern Sevastopol. After defending itself against the kingdom
of Bosporus (<?.?'.), and the native Scythians and Tauri, and even
extending its power over the west coast of the peninsula, it
was compelled to call in the aid of Mithradates VI. and hy>
general Diophantus, c. no B.C., and submitted to the Pontic
dynasty. On regaining a nominal independence, it came more
or less under the Roman suzerainty. In the latter part of the
ist century A.D., and again in the succeeding century, it received
a Roman garrison and suffered much interference in its internal
affairs. In the time of Constantine, in return for assistance
against the Bosporans and the native tribes, it regained its
autonomy and received special privileges. It must, however,
have been subject to the Byzantine authorities, as inscriptions
testify to restorations of its walls by Byzantine officials. Under
Theophilus the central government sent out a governor to take
the place of the elected magistrate. Even so it seems to have
preserved a measure of self-government and may be said to
have been the last of the Greek city states. Its ruin was brought
about by the commercial rivalry of the Genoese, who forbade
the Greeks to trade there and diverted its commerce to Caffa
and Sudak. Previous to this it had been the main emporium
of Byzantine commerce upon the N. coast of the Euxine.
Through it went the communications of the empire with the
Petchenegs and other native tribes, and more especially with
the Russians. The commerce of Cherson is guaranteed in the
early treaties between the Greeks and Russians, and it was in
Cherson, according to Ps. Nestor's chronicle, that Vladimir was
baptized in 988 after he had captured the city. The constitution
of the city was at first democratic under Damiorgi, a senate and
a general assembly. Latterly it appears to have become aristo-
cratic, and most of the power was concentrated in the hands of
the first archon or Proteuon, who in time was superseded by
the strategus sent out from Byzantium. Its most interesting
political document is the form of oath sworn to by all the citizens
in the 3rd century B.C.

The remains of the city occupy a space about two-thirds of a
mile long by half a mile broad. They are enclosed by a Byzantine
wall. Foundations and considerable remains of a Greek wall
going back to the 4th century B.C. have been found beneath
this in the eastern or original part of the site. Many Byzantine
churches, both cruciform and basilican, have been excavated.
The latter survived here into the I3th century when they had
long been extinct in other Greek-speaking lands. The churches
were adorned with frescoes, wall and floor mosaics, some well
preserved, and marble carvings similar to work found at Ravenna.
The fact that the site has not been inhabited since the I4th
century makes it important for our knowledge of Byzantine
life. The city was used by the Romans as a place of banishment :
St Clement of Rome was exiled hither and first preached the

1 In Pliny " Heraclea Chersonesus," probably owing to a confusion
with the name of the mother city.

Gospel; another exile was Justinian II., who is said to have
destroyed the city in revenge. We have a considerable series
of coins from the 3rd century B.C. to about A.D. 200, and also
some of Byzantine date.

See B. Koehne, Beitr&ge zur Geschichte von Cherronesus in Taurien
(St Petersburg, 1848) ; art. " Chersonesos " (20) by C. G. Brandis in
Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopiidie, vol. iii. 221; A. A. Bobrinskoj,
Chersonesus Taurica (St Petersburg, 1905) (Russian); V. V. Laty-
shev, Inscrr. Orae Septentr. Ponti Euxini,\o\s. i. and iv. Reports of ex-
cavations appear in the Compte rendu of the Imperial Archaeological
Commission of St Petersburg from 1888 and in its Bulletin. See
E. H. Minns, Scythians and Greeks (Cambridge, 1907). (E. H. M.)

CHERTSEY, a market town in the Chertsey parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 22 m. W.S.W. from London by
the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 12,762. It is pleasantly situated on the right bank of
the Thames, which is crossed by a bridge of seven arches, built
of Purbeck stone in 1785. The parish church, rebuilt in 1808,
contains a tablet to Charles James Fox, who resided at St
Anne's Hill in the vicinity, and another to Lawrence Tomson, a
translator of the New Testament in the I7th century. Hardly
any remains are left of a great Benedictine abbey, whose buildings
at one time included an area of 4 acres. They fell into almost
complete decay in the I7th century, and a "fair house" was
erected out of the ruins by Sir Nicholas Carew of Beddington.
The ground-plan can be traced; the fish-ponds are complete;
and carved stones, coffins and encaustic tiles of a peculiar
manufacture are frequently exhumed. Among the abbots the
most famous was John de Rutherwyk, who was appointed in
1307, and continued, till his death in 1346, to carry on a great
system of alteration and extension, which almost made the abbey
a new building. The house in which the poet Cowley spent the
last years of his life remains, and the chamber in which he
died is preserved unaltered. The town is the centre of a large
residential district. Its principal trade is in produce for the
London markets.

The first religious settlement in Surrey, a Benedictine abbey,
was founded in 666 at Chertsey (Cerotesei, Certesey), the manor
of which belonged to the abbot until 1 539, since when it has been
a possession of the crown. In the reign of Edward the Confessor
Chertsey was a large village and was made the head of Godley
hundred. The increase of copyhold under Abbot John de
Rutherwyk led to discontent, the tenants in 1381 rising and
burning the rolls. Chertsey owed its importance primarily to
the abbey, but partly to its geographical position. Ferries over
the Redewynd were subjects of royal grant in 1340 and 1399;
the abbot built a new bridge over the Bourne in 1333, and
wholly maintained the bridge over the Thames when it replaced
the i4_th century ferry. In 1410 the king gave permission to
build a bridge over the Redewynd. As the centre of an agri-
cultural district the markets of Chertsey were important and are
still held. Three days' fairs were granted to the abbots in 1129
for the feast of St Peter ad Vincula by Henry III. for Holy Rood
day; in 1282 for Ascension day; and a market on Mondays
was obtained in 1282. In 1590 there were many poor, for whose
relief Elizabeth gave a fair for a day in Lent and a market on
Thursdays. These fairs still survive.

See Lucy Wheeler, Chertsey Abbey (London, 1905); Victoria
County History, Surrey.

CHERUBIM, the Hebrew plural of "cherub" (kgrOb),
imaginary winged animal figures of a sacred character, referred
to in the description of Solomon's temple (i Kings vi. 23-35,
vii. 29, viii. 6, 7), and also in that of the ark of the tabernack
(Ex. xxv. 18-22, xxvi. i, 31, xxxvii. 7-9). The cherub-images,
where such occur, represent to the imagination the supernatural
bearers of Yahweh's throne or chariot, or the guardians of His
abode; the cherub-carvings at least symbolize His presence,
and communicate some degree of His sanctity. In Gen. iii. 24
the cherubim are the guards of Paradise; Ezek. xxviii. 14, 16
cannot be mentioned here, the text being corrupt. We also find
(i Sam. iv. 4; 2 Sam. vi. 2) as a divine title " that sitteth upon
the cherubim"; here it is doubted whether the cherubim are
the material ones in the temple, or those which faith assumes and

CHERUBINI

87

the artist tries to represent — the supernatural steeds upon which
Yahweh issues forth to interfere in human affairs. In a poetic
theophany (Ps. xviii. 10) we find " upon a cherub " parallel to
"upon the wings of the wind" (cp. Isa. xix. i; Ps. civ. 3).
One naturally infers from this that the " cherub " was sometimes
viewed as a bird. For the clouds, mythologically, are birds.
" The Algonkins say that birds always make the winds, that they
create the waterspouts, and that the clouds are the spreading
and agitation of their wings." " The Sioux say that the thunder
is the sound of the cloud-bird flapping his wings." If so, Ps. xviii.
10 is a solitary trace of the archaic view of the cherub. The
bird, however, was probably a mythic, extra-natural bird. At
any rate the cherub was suggested by and represents the storm-
cloud, just as the sword in Gen. iii. 24 corresponds to the lightning.
In Ezek. i. the four visionary creatures are expressly connected
with a storm-wind, and a bright cloud (ver. 4). Elsewhere
(xli. 18) the cherub has two faces (a man's and a bird's), but
in i. 10 and x. 14 each cherub has four faces, a view tastefully
simplified in the Johannine Apocalypse (Rev. iv. 7).

It is best, however, to separate Ezekiel from other writers,
since he belongs to what may be called a great mythological
revival. Probably his cherubim are a modification of older
ones, which may well have been of a more sober type. His own
accounts, as we have seen, vary. Probably the cherub has
passed through several phases. There was a mythic bird-cherub,
and then perhaps a winged animal-form, analogous to the winged
figures of bulls and lions with human faces which guarded
Babylonian and Assyrian temples and palaces. Another analogy
is furnished by the winged genii represented as fertilizing the
sacred tree — the date-palm (Tylor); here the body is human,
though the face is sometimes that of an eagle. It is perhaps even
more noteworthy that figures thought to be cherubs have been
found at Zenjirli, within the ancient North Syrian kingdom of
Ya'di (see Jeremias, Das Alte Testament im Lichte des Allen
Orients, pp. 350 f.); we may combine this with the fact that one
of the great gods of this kingdom was called Rakab'el or Rekub'el
(also perhaps Rakab or Rekub). A Sabaean (S. Arabian)
name Karab'el also exists. The kerubim might perhaps be
symbolic representatives of the god Rakab'el or Rekub'el,
probably equivalent to Hadad, whose sacred animal was the bull.
That the figures symbolic of Rakab or Hadad were compounded
or amalgamated by the Israelites with those symbolic of Nergal
(the lion-god) and Ninib (the eagle-god), is not surprising.

See further " Cherubim," in Ency. Bib. and Hast. D.B.; Cheyne,
Genesis; Tylor, Proc. Sac. Bibl. Arch. xii. 383 ff. ; Zimmern, Die
Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, pp. 529 f., 631 f. ; Dibelius,
Die Lade Jahves (1906), pp. 72-86. (T. K. C.)

CHERUBINI, MARIA LUIGI CARLO ZENOBIO SALVATORE

(1760-1842), Italian musical composer, was born at Florence
on the I4th of September 1760, and died on the isth of March
1842 in Paris. His father was accompanist (Maestro al Cembalo)
at the Pergola theatre. Cherubini himself, in the preface of his
autograph catalogue of his own works, states, " I began to learn
music at six and composition at nine, the former from my father,
the latter from Bartolomeo and Alessandro Felici, and, after
their death, from Bizzarri and J Castrucci." By the time he
was sixteen he had composed a great deal of church music, and
in 1777 he went to Bologna, where for four years he studied under
Sarti. This deservedly famous master well earned the gratitude
which afterwards impelled Cherubini to place one of his double
choruses by the side of his own Et Vitam Venturi as the crown
of his Treatise on Counterpoint and Fugue, though the juxta-
position is disastrous for Sarti. But besides grounding Cherubini
in the church music for which he had early shown so special a
bent, Sarti also trained him in dramatic composition; some-
times, like the great masters of painting, entrusting his pupil
with minor parts of his own works. From 1780 onwards for the
next fourteen years dramatic music occupied Cherubini almost
entirely. His first complete opera, Quinto Fabio, was produced
in 1780, and was followed in 1782 by Armida, Adriano in Siria,
and other works. Between 1782 and 1784 the successful pro-
duction of five operas in four different towns must have secured

Cherubini a dignified position amongst his Italian contemporaries;
and in 1784 he was invited to London to produce two works for
the Italian opera there, one of which, La Finta Frincipessa, was
favourably received, while the other, Giulio Sabino, was, accord-
ing to a contemporary witness, " murdered " by the critics.

In 1786 he left London for Paris, which became his home after
a visit to Turin in 1787-1788 on the occasion of the production
there of his Ifigenia in Aulide. With Cherubini, as with some
other composers first trained in a school where the singer reigned
supreme, the influence of the French dramatic sensibility proved
decisive, and his first French opera, Dtmophon (1788), though
not a popular success, already marks a departure from the
Italian style, which Cherubini still cultivated in the pieces he
introduced into the works of Anfossi, Paisiello and Cimarosa,
produced by him as director of the Italian opera in Paris (estab-
lished in 1789). As in Paris Gluck realized his highest ambitions,
and even Rossini awoke to a final effort of something like dra-
matic life in Guittaume Tell, so in Paris Cherubini became a
great composer. If his melodic invention had been as warm as
Gluck's, his immensely superior technique in every branch of
the art would have made him one of the greatest composers that
ever lived. But his personal character shows in quaint exaggera-
tion the same asceticism that in less sour and more negative
form deprives even his finest music of the glow of that lofty
inspiration that fears nothing.

With Lodoiska (1791) the series of Cherubini's masterpieces
begins, and by the production of Medee (1797) his reputation was
firmly established. The success of this sombre classical tragedy,
which shows Cherubini's genius in its full power, is an honour to
the Paris public. If Cherubini had known how to combine his
high ideals with an urbane tolerance of the opinions of persons of
inferior taste, the severity of his music would not have prevented
his attaining the height of prosperity. But Napoleon Bonaparte
irritated him by an enthusiasm for the kind of Italian music
against which his whole career, from the time he became Sarti's
pupil, was a protest. When Cherubini said to Napoleon, " Citoyen
General, I perceive that you love only that music which does not
prevent you thinking of your politics," he may perhaps have been
as firmly convinced of his own conciliatory manner as he was
when many years afterwards he " spared the feelings " of a
musical candidate by " delicately " telling him that he had " a
beautiful voice and great musical intelligence, but was too ugly for
a public singer." Napoleon seems to have disliked opposition in
music as in other matters, and the academic offices held by
Cherubini under him were for many years far below his deserts.
But though Napoleon saw no reason to conceal his dislike of
Cherubini, his appointment of Lesueur in 1804 as his chapel-
master must not be taken as an evidence of his hostility. Lesueur
was not a great genius, but, although recommended for the post
by the retiring chapelmaster, Paesiello (one of Napoleon's
Italian favourites), he was a very meritorious and earnest
Frenchman whom the appointment saved from starvation.
Cherubini's creative genius was never more brilliant than at this
period, as the wonderful two-act ballet, Anacreon, shows; but
his temper and spirits were not improved by a series of dis-
appointments which culminated in the collapse of his prospects of
congenial success at Vienna, where he went in 1805 in compliance
with an invitation to compose an opera for the Imperial theatre.
Here he produced, under the title of Der Wassertrager, the great
work which, on its first production on the 7th of January 1801
(26 Nivdse, An 8) as Les Deux JournSes, had thrilled Paris with the
accents of a humanity restored to health and peace. It was
by this time an established favourite in Austria. On the 2$th
of February Cherubini produced Faniska, but the war between
Austria and France had broken out immediately after his
arrival, and public interest in artistic matters was checked by
the bombardment and capitulation of Vienna. Though the
meeting between Cherubim and the victorious Napoleon was
not very friendly, he was called upon to direct the music at
Napoleon's soirees at Schonbrunn. But this had not been his
object in coming to Vienna, and he soon returned to a retired
and gloomy life in Paris.

CHERUBINI

His stay at Vienna is memorable for his intercourse with
Beethoven, who had a profound admiration for him which he
could neither realize nor reciprocate. It is too much to expect
that the mighty genius of Beethoven, which broke through all
rules in vindication of the principles underlying them, would
be comprehensible to a mind like Cherubini's, in which, while
the creative faculties were finely developed, the critical faculty
was atrophied and its place supplied by a mere disciplinary
code inadequate even as a basis for the analysis of his own
works. On the other hand, it would be impossible to exaggerate
the influence Les Deux Journees had on the lighter parts of
Beethoven's Fidelia^ Cherubini's librettist was also the author
of the libretto from which Fidelia was adapted, and Cherubini's
score was a constant object of Beethoven's study, not only
before the production of the first version of Fidelia as Leonore,
but also throughout Beethoven's life. Cherubini's record of
his impressions of Beethoven as a man is contained in the
single phrase, " II 6tait toujours brusque," which at least shows
a fine freedom from self-consciousness on the part of the man
whose only remark on being told of the death of Brod, the famous
oboist, was, " Ah, he hadn't much tone " (" Ah, petit son ").
Of the overture to Leonore Cherubini only remarked that he
could not tell what key it was in, and of Beethoven's later
style he observed, " It makes me sneeze." Beethoven's brusque-
ness, notorious as it was, did not prevent him from assuring
Cherubini that he considered him the greatest composer of the
age and that he loved him and honoured him. In 1806 Haydn
had just sent out his pathetic " visiting card " announcing that
he was past work; Weber was still sowing wild oats, and Schubert
was only nine years old. We need not, then, be surprised at
Beethoven's judgment. And though we must regret that
Cherubini's disposition prevented him from understanding
Beethoven, it would be by no means true to say that he was
uninfluenced at least by the sheer grandeur of the scale which
Beethoven had by that time established as the permanent
standard for musical art. Grandeur of proportion was, in fact,
eminently characteristic of both composers, and the colossal
structure of such a movement as the duet Perfides ennemis in
MM.ee is almost inconceivable without the example of Beethoven's
C minor trio, op. i, No. 3, published two years before it; while
the cavatina Eterno iddio in Faniska is not only worthy of
Beethoven but surprisingly like him in style.

After Cherubini's disappointing visit to Vienna he divided
his time between teaching at the conservatoire and cutting up
playing-cards into figures and landscapes, which he framed and
placed round the walls of his study. Not until 1809 was he
aroused from this morbid indolence. He was staying in retire-
ment at the country seat of the prince de Chimay, and his
friends begged him to write some music for the consecration of
a church there. After persistent refusals he suddenly surprised
them with a mass in F for three-part chorus and orchestra.
With this work the period of his great church music may be said
to begin; although it was by no means the end of his career
as an opera writer, which, in fact, lasted as late as his seventy-
third year. This third period is also marked by some not un-
important instrumental compositions. An early event in the
annals of the Philharmonic Society was his invitation to London
in 1815 to produce a symphony, an overture and a vocal piece.
The symphony (hi D) was afterwards arranged with a new slow
movement as the string quartet in C (1829), a fact which, taken
in connexion with the large scale of the work, illustrates Cheru-
bini's deficient sense of style in chamber music. Nevertheless all
the six string quartets written between 1814 and 1837 are
interesting works performed with success at the present day,
though the last three, discovered hi 1889, are less satisfactory
than the earlier ones. The requiem hi C minor (1817) caused
Beethoven to declare that if he himself ever wrote a requiem
Cherubini's would be his model.

At the eleventh hour Cherubini received recognition from
Napoleon, who, during the Hundred Days, made him chevalier of
the Legion of Honour. Then, with the restoration of the Bour-
bons, the very fact that Cherubini had not been persona grata

with Napoleon brought him honour and emoluments. He
was appointed, jointly with Lesueur, as composer and conductor
to the Chapel Royal, and in 1822 he obtained the permanent
directorship of the conservatoire. This brought him into con-
tact, for the most part unfriendly, with all the most talented
musicians of the younger generation. It is improbable that
Berlioz would have been an easy subject for the wisest and
kindest of spiritual guides; but no influence, repellent or
attractive, could have been more disastrous for that passionate,
quick-witted and yet eminently puzzle-headed mixture of
Philistine and genius, than the crabbed old martinet whose
regulations forbade the students access to Gluck's scores in the
library, and whose only theory of art (as distinguished from his
practice) is accurately formulated in the following passage from
Berlioz's Grande Traitt de I' instrumentation et d' orchestration:
" It was no use for the modern composer to say, ' But do just
listen! See how smoothly this is introduced, how well motived,
how deftly connected with the context, and how splendid it
sounds 1' He was answered, 'That is not the point. This
modulation is forbidden; therefore it must hot be made.' "
The lack of really educative teaching, and the actual injustice
for which Cherubini's disciplinary methods were answerable,
did much to weaken Berlioz's at best ill-balanced artistic sense,
and it is highly probable that, but for the kindliness and com-
parative wisdom of his composition master, Lesueur, he would
have broken down from sheer lack of any influence which could
command the respect of an excitable youth starving hi the
pursuit of a fine art against the violent opposition of his family.
Only when Mendelssohn, at the age of seventeen, visited Paris
in 1825, did Cberubini startle every one by praising a young
composer to his face.

In 1833 Cherubini produced his last work for the stage, AH
Baba, adapted (with new and noisy features which excited
Mendelssohn's astonished disgust) from a manuscript opera,
Koukourgi, written forty years earlier. It is thus, perhaps, not
a fair illustration of the vigour of his old age; but the requiem
in D minor (for male voices), written in 1836, is one of his greatest
works, and, though not actually his last composition, is a worthy
close to the long career of an artist of high ideals who, while
neither by birth nor temperament a Frenchman, must yet be
counted with a still greater foreigner, Gluck, as the glory of
French classical music. In this he has no parallel except his
friend and contemporary, Mehul, to whom he dedicated Medie,
and who dedicated to him the beautiful Ossianic one-act opera
Uthal. The direct results of his teaching at the conservatoire
were the steady, though not as yet unhealthy, decline of French
opera into a lighter style, under the amiable and modest Boieldieu
and the irresponsible and witty Auber; for, as we have seen,
Cherubini was quite incapable of making his ideals intelligible
by any means more personal than his music; and the crude
grammatical rules which he mistook for the eternal principles
of his own and of all music had not the smallest use as a safeguard
against vulgarity and pretentiousness.

Lest the passage above quoted from Berlioz should be suspected
of bias or irrelevance, we cite a few phrases from Cherubini's
Treatise on Counterpoint and Fugue, of which, though the letter-
press is by his favourite pupil, Halevy, the musical examples
and doctrine are beyond suspicion his own. Concerning the
16th-century idiom, incorrectly but generally known as the
" changing note " (an idiom which to any musical scholar is as
natural as " attraction of the relative " is to a Greek scholar),
Cherubini remarks, " No tradition gives us any reason why the
classics thus faultily deviated from the rule." Again, he dis-
cusses the use of " suspensions " in a series of chords which
without them would contain consecutive fifths, and after making
all the observations necessary for the rational conclusion that
the question whether the fifths are successfully disguised or not
depends upon the beauty and force of the suspensions, he merely
remarks that " The opinion of the classics appears to me
erroneous, notwithstanding that custom has sanctioned it, for,
on the principle that the discord is a mere suspension of the
chord, it fhould not affect the nature of the chord. But since

CHERUEL — CHESHIRE

89

the classics have pronounced judgment we must of course
submit." In the whole treatise not one example is given from
Palestrina or any other master who handled as a living language
what are now the forms of contrapuntal discipline. As a dead
language Cherubini brought counterpoint up to date by abandon-
ing the church modes; but in true severity of principle, as
in educational stimulus, his treatise shows a deplorable falling
off from the standard set a hundred years before in Fux's Gradus
ad Parnassum with its delightful dialogues between master and
pupil and its continual appeal to artistic experience. Whatever
may have been Cherubini's success in imparting facility and
certainty to his light-hearted pupils who established 19th-century
French opera as a refuge from the terrors of serious art, there
can be no doubt that his career as a teacher did more harm than
good. In it the punishment drill of an incompetent schoolmaster
was invested with the authority of a great composer, and by it
the false antithesis between the " classical " and the " romantic "
was erected into a barrier which many critics still find an insuper-
able obstacle to the understanding of the classical spirit. And
yet as a composer Cherubini was no pseudo-classic but a really
great artist, whose purity of style, except at rare moments, just
failed to express the ideals he never lost sight of, because in his
love of those ideals there was too much fear.

His principal works are summarized by Fetis as thirty-two operas,
twenty-nine church compositions, four cantatas and several instru-
mental pieces, besides the treatise on counterpoint and fugue.

Good modern full scores of the two Requiems and of Les Deux
Journees (the latter unfortunately without the dialogue, which,
however, is accessible in its fairly good German translation in the
Reclam Bibliothek), and also of ten opera overtures, are current in
the Peters edition. Vocal scores of some of the other operas are not
difficult to get. The great Credo is in the Peters edition, but is
becoming scarce. The string quartets are in Payne's Miniature
Scores. It is very desirable that the operas, from Demophon onwards,
should be republished in full score.

See also E. Bellasis, Cherubini (1874) ; and an article with personal
reminiscences by the composer Ferdinand Hiller, in Macmillan's
Magazine (1875). A complete catalogue of his compositions (1773-
1841) was edited by Bottee du Toulmon. (D. F. T.)

CH&RUEL, PIERRE ADOLPHE (1800-1891), French historian,
was born at Rouen on the I7th of January 1809. He. was
educated at the Ecole Normale Superieure, and became a fellow
(agrege) in 1830. His early studies were devoted to his native
town. His Histoire de Rouen sous la domination anglaise au
XV' sti.de (1840) and Histoire de Rouen pendant Vepoque com-
munale, 1150-1382 (Rouen, 1843-1844), are meritorious pro-
ductions for a time when the archives were neither inventoried
nor classified, and contain useful documents previously un-
published. His theses for the degree of doctor, De I'adminis-
tration de Louis XIV d'apres les Memoir es inedits d'Olivier
d'Ormesson and De Maria Stuarta et Henrico III. (1849), led
him to the study of general history. The former was expanded
afterwards under the title Histoire de I' administration monarchique
en France depuis Vavenemsnt de Philippe- Auguste jusqu'd. la
mart de Louis XIV (1855), and in 1855 he also published his
Dictionnaire historique des institutions, mceurs et coutumes de
la France, of which many editions have appeared. These works
may still be consulted for the I7th century, the period upon
which Cheruel concentrated all his scientific activity. He edited
successively the Journal d'Olivier Lefevre d'Ormesson (1860-1862) ,
interesting for the history of the parlement of Paris during the
minority of Louis XIV.; Leltres du cardinal Mazarin pendant
son ministere (6 vols., 1870-1891), continued by the vicomte
G. d'Avenel; and Memoires du due de Saint-Simon, published
for the first time according to the original MSS. (2 editions,
1856-1858 and 1878-1881). To Saint-Simon also he devoted
two critical studies, which are acute but not definitive: Saint-
Simon considere comme historien de Louis XIV (1865) and
Notice sur la vie et sur les memoires du due de Saint-Simon (1876).
The latter may be considered as an introduction to the famous
Memoires. Among his later writings may be mentioned the
Histoire de la France pendant la minorite de Louis XIV (4 vols.,
1880) and Histoire de la France sous le ministere de Mazarin
(3 vols., 1882-1883). These two works are valuable for abund-
ance of facts, precision of details, and clear and intelligent

arrangement, but are characterized by a slightly frigid style.
In their compilation Che'ruel used a fair number of unpublished
documents. To the student of the second half of the 1 7th century
in France the works of Ch6ruel are a mine of information. He
died in Paris on the ist of May 1891.

CHERUSCI, an ancient German tribe occupying the basin
of the Weser to the north of the Chatti. Together with the
other tribes of western Germany they submitted to the Romans
in 11-9 B.C., but in A.D. 9 Arminius, one of their princes, rose in
revolt, and defeated and slew the Roman general Quintilius
Varus with his whole army. Germanicus Caesar made several
unsuccessful attempts to bring them into subjection again. By
the end of the ist century the prestige of the Cherusci had
declined through unsuccessful warfare with the Chatti. Their
territory was eventually occupied by the Saxons.

Tacitus, Annals, \. 2, II, 12, 13; Germania, 36; Strabo, p. 291 f.;
E. Devrient, in Neue Jahrb.f. d. klass. Alter. (1900), p. 517.

CHESELDEN, WILLIAM (1688-1752), English surgeon, was
born at Somerby, Leicestershire, on the ipth of October 1688.
He studied anatomy in London under William Cowper (1666-
1709), and in 1713 published his Anatomy of the Human Body,
which achieved great popularity and went through thirteen
editions. In 1718 he was appointed an assistant surgeon at
St Thomas's hospital (London), becoming full surgeon in the
following year, and he was also chosen one of the surgeons to
St George's hospital on its foundation in 1733. He retired from
St Thomas's in 1738, and died at Bath on the loth of April
1752. Cheselden is famous for his " lateral operation for the
stone," which he first performed in 1727. He also effected a
great advance in ophthalmic surgery by his operation of iridec-
tomy, described in 1728, for the treatment of certain forms of
blindness by the production of an " artificial pupil." He at-
tended Sir Isaac Newton in his last illness, and was an intimate
friend of Alexander Pope and of Sir Hans Sloane.

CHESHAM, a market town in the Aylesbury parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, 26 m. W.N.W. of London
by the Metropolitan railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
7245. It is pleasantly situated in the narrow valley of the river
Chess, closely flanked by low wooded hills. The church of St
Mary is cruciform and mainly Perpendicular. Some ancient
frescoes and numerous monuments are preserved. All sorts of
small dairy utensils, chairs, malt-shovels, &c., are made of
beech, the growth of which forms a feature of the surrounding
country. Shoemaking is also carried on. In Waterside hamlet,
adjoining the town, are flour-mills, duck farms, and some of the
extensive watercress beds for which the Chess is noted, as it is
also for its trout-fishing.

CHESHIRE, a north-western county of England, bounded N.
by Lancashire, N.E. by Yorkshire and Derbyshire, S.E. by
Staffordshire, S. by Shropshire, W. by Denbighshire and Flint,
and N.W. by the Irish Sea. Its area is 1027-8 sq. m. The
coast-line is formed by the estuaries of the Dee and the Mersey,
which are separated by the low rectangular peninsula of Wirral.
The estuary of the Dee is dry at low tide on the Cheshire shore,
but that of the Mersey bears upon its banks the ports of Liverpool
(in Lancashire) and Birkenhead (on the Wirral shore). The
Dee forms a great part of the county boundary with Denbigh-
shire and Flint, and the Mersey the boundary along the whole
of the northern side. The principal river within the county is
the Weaver, which crosses it with a north-westerly course, and,
being joined by the Dane at Northwich, discharges into the
estuary of the Mersey south of Runcorn. The surface of Cheshire
is mostly low and gently undulating or flat; but the broken
line of the Peckforton hills, seldom exceeding 600 ft. in height,
runs north and south flanking the valley of the Weaver on the
west. A low narrow gap in these hills is traversed by the small
river Gowy, which rises to the east but has the greater part of
its course to the west of them. Commanding this gap on the
west, the Norman castle of Beeston stands on an isolated
eminence. The northern part of the hills coincides approxi-
mately with the district still called Delamere Forest, formerly
a chase of the earls of Chester, and finally disforested in 1812.

9o

CHESHIRE

In certain sequestered parts the forest has not wholly lost its
ancient character. On the east Cheshire includes the western
face of the broad belt of high land which embraces the Peak
district of Derbyshire; these hills rise sharply to the east of
Congleton, Macclesfield and Hyde, reaching a height of about
1800 ft. within Cheshire. Distributed over the county, but
principally in the eastern half, are many small lakes or meres,
such as Combermere, Tatton, Rostherne, Tabley, Doddington,
Marbury and Mere, and it was a common practice among the
gentry of the county to build their mansions on the banks of
these waters. The meres form one of the most picturesque
features of the county.

Geology. — With the exception of a small area of Carboniferous
rocks on the eastern border, and a small patch of Lower Lias near
Audlem, the whole country is occupied by Triassic strata. The
great central plain is covered by red and mottled Keuper Marls.
From these marls salt is obtained; there are many beds of rock-
salt, mostly thin ; two are much thicker than the others, being from
75 ft. to over 100 ft. thick. Thin beds and veins of gypsum are
common in the marls. The striking features of the Peckforton Hills
are due to the repeated faulting of the Lower Keuper Sandstone,
which lies upon beds of Bunter Sandstone. Besides forming this
well-marked ridge, the Lower Keuper Sandstones or " Waterstones "
form several ridges north-west of Macclesfield and appear along
most of the northern borders of the county and in the neighbourhood
of New Brighton and Birkenhead. The Lower Keuper Sandstone is
quarried near the last-named place, also at Storeton, Delamere and
Manley. This is a good building stone and an important water-
bearing stratum; it is often ripple-marked, and bears the footprints
of the Cheirotherium. At Alderley Edge ores of copper, lead and
cobalt are found. West of the Peckforton ridge, Bunter Sandstones
and pebble beds extend to the border. They also form low foothills
between Cheadle and Macclesfield. They fringe the northern bound-
ary and appear on the south-eastern boundary as a narrow strip
of hilly ground near Woore. The oldest rock exposed in the county
is the small faulted anticline of Carboniferous limestone at Astbury,
followed in regular succession eastward by the shale, and thin
limestones and sandstones of the Pendleside series. These rocks
extend from Congleton Edge to near Macclesfield, where the outcrop
bends sharply eastward and runs up the Goyt valley. Some hard
quartzites in the Pendleside series, known locally as " Crowstones,"
have contributed to the formation of the high Bosley Min and neigh-
bouring hills. East of Bosley Min, on either side or the Goyt valley,
are the Millstone Grits and Shales, forming the elevated moorland
tracts. Cloud Hill, a striking feature near Congleton, is capped by
the " Third Grit," one of the Millstone Grit series. From Maccles-
field northward through Stockport is a narrow tongue of Lower and
Middle Coal-Measures — an extension of the Lancashire coalfield.
Coal is mined at Neston in the Wirral peninsula from beneath the
Trias; it is a connecting link between the Lancashire and Flintshire
coalfields. Glacial drift is thickly spread over all the lower ground ;
laminated red clays, stiff clay with northern erratics and lenticular
sand masses with occasional gravels, are the common types. At
Crewe the drift is over 400 ft. thick. Patches of Drift sand, with
marine shells, occur on the high ground east of Macclesfield at an
elevation of 1250 ft.

Agriculture and Industries. — The climate is temperate and
rather damp; the soil is varied and irregular, but a large pro-
portion is a thin-skinned clay. More than four-fifths of the total
area is under cultivation. The crop of wheat is comparatively
insignificant; but a large quantity of oats is grown, and a great
proportion of the cultivated land is in permanent pasture. The
vicinity of such populous centres as Liverpool and Manchester, as
well as the several large towns within the county, makes cattle
and dairy-farming profitable. Cheese of excellent quality is
produced, the name of the county being given to a particular
brand (see DAIRY). Potatoes are by far the most important
green crop. Fruit-growing is carried on in some parts, especially
the cultivation of stone fruit and, among these, damsons; while
the strawberry beds near Farndon and Holt are celebrated. In
the first half of the ipth century the condition of agriculture
in Cheshire was notoriously backward; and in 1865-1866 the
county suffered with especial severity from a visitation of cattle
plague. The total loss of stock amounted to more than 66,000
head, and it was necessary to obtain from the Treasury a loan of
£270,000 on the security of the county rate, for purposes of
relief and compensation. The cheese-making industry naturally
received a severe blow, yet to agriculture at large an ultimate
good resulted as the possibility and even the necessity of new
methods were borne in upon the farmers.

The industries of the county are various and important. The
manufacture of cotton goods extends from its seat in Lancashire
into Cheshire, at the town of Stockport and elsewhere in the
north-east. Macclesfield and Congleton are centres of silk
manufacture. At Crewe are situated the great workshops of the
London & North-Western railway company, the institution of
which actually brought the town into being. Another instance of
the modern creation of a town by an individual industrial
corporation is seen in Port Sunlight on the Mersey, where the
soap-works of Messrs Lever are situated. On the Mersey there
are shipbuilding yards, and machinery and iron works. Other
important manufactures are those of tools, chemicals, clothing
and hats, and there are printing, bleaching and dye works, and
metal foundries. Much sandstone is quarried, but the mineral
wealth of the county lies in coal and salt. The second is a
specially important product. Some rock-salt is obtained at
Northwich and Winsford, but most of the salt is extracted from
brine both here and at Lawton, Wheelock and Middlewich. At
Northwich and other places in the locality curious accidents
frequently occur owing to the sinking of the soil after the brine is
pumped out; walls crack and collapse, and houses are seen
leaning far out of the perpendicular. A little copper and lead
are found.

Communications. — The county is well served with railways.
The main line of the London & North-Western railway, passing
north from Crewe to Warrington in Lancashire, serves no large
town, but from Crewe branches diverge fanwise to Manchester,
Chester, North Wales and Shrewsbury. The Great Western
railway, with a line coming northward from Wrexham, obtains
access through Cheshire to Liverpool and Manchester. These two
companies jointly work the Birkenhead railway from Chester
to Birkenhead. The heart of the county is traversed by the
Cheshire Lines, serving the salt district, and reaching Chester
from Manchester by way of Delamere Forest. In the east the
Midland and Great Central systems enter the county, and the
North Staffordshire line serves Macclesfield. The Manchester,
South Junction & Altrincham and the Wirral railways are small
systems serving the localities indicated by their names. The
river Weaver is locked as far up as Winsford, and the transport of
salt is thus expedited. The profits of the navigation, which was
originally undertaken in 1720 by a few Cheshire squires, belong
to the county, and are paid annually to the relief of the county
rates. In the salt district through which the Weaver passes
subsidence of the land has resulted in the formation of lakes of
considerable extent, which act as reservoirs to supply the
navigation. There are further means of inland navigation by the
Grand Trunk, Shropshire Union and other canals, and many
small steamers are in use. The Manchester Ship Canal passes
through a section of north Cheshire, being entered from the
estuary of the Mersey by locks near Eastham, and following its
southern shore up to Runcorn, after which it takes a more direct
course than the river.

Population and Administration. — The ancient county, which is
a county palatine, has an area of 657,783 acres, with a population
in 1891 of 730,058 and in 1901 of 815,099. Cheshire has been
described as a suburb of Liverpool, Manchester and the Potteries
of Staffordshire, and many of those whose business lies in these
centres have colonized such districts as Bowdon, Alderley, Sale
and Marple near Manchester, the Wirral, and Alsager on the
Staffordshire border, until these localities have come to resemble
the richer suburban districts of London. On the short seacoast of
the Wirral are found the popular resorts of New Brighton and
Hoylake. This movement and importance of its industries have
given the county a vast increase of population in modern times.
In 1871 the population was 561,201; from 1801 until that year it
had increased 191 %. The area of the administrative county is
654,825 acres. The county contains 7 hundreds. The municipal
boroughs are Birkenhead (pop. 110,915), Chester (38,309),
Congleton (10,707), Crewe (42,074), Dukinfield (18,929), Hyde
(32,766), Macclesfield (34,624), Stalybridge (27,673), Stockport
(92,832). Chester,thecountytown,isacity,countyofacity, and
county borough, and Birkenhead and Stockport are county

CHESHIRE

boroughs. The other urban districts with their populations are
as follows: —

Alderley Edge (a)
Alsager
Altrincham (a) ...
Ashton-upon-Mersey (o) .
Bollington (a) .
Bpwdon (a) ....
Bredbury and Romiley (o)
Bromborough (ft) ...
Buglawton (Congleton)
Cheadle and Gatley (a) .
Compstall (o) . . .
Ellesmere Port and Whitby (ft)
Hale (a)

2,856

2,597
16,831

5.563
5.245
2,788
7,087
1,891
1,452
7,916

875
4,082

4,562

Hoylake and West Kirby (ft) .
Knutsford (a) ....
Lower Bebington (ft)
Lymm (a)
Marple (a)
Middlewich ....
Mottram-in-Longdendale (o) .
Nantwich
Neston and Parkgate (6)
Northwich
Runcorn
Sale (o)
Sandbach

10,911
5.172
8,398
4.707
5,595
4,669
3,128
7,722

4,154
17,611
16,491
12,088
5,558

Handforth (a) .
Hazel Grove and Bramhall (a)
Higher Bebington (ft)
Hollingworth (o)
Hoole (Chester)

911

7.934
1,540
2,447
5,341

Tarporley
Wallasey (6) ....
Wilmslow (o)
Winsford
Yeardsley-cum-Whaley (o)

2,644
53,579
7.36i
10,382
1,487

Of the townships in this table, those marked (o) are within a radius
of about 15 m. from Manchester (Knutsford being taken as the
limit), while those marked (ft) are in the Wirral. The localities of
densest population are thus clearly illustrated.

The county is in the North Wales and Chester circuit, and
assizes are held at Chester. It has one court of quarter sessions,
and is divided into fourteen petty sessional divisions. The
boroughs already named, excepting Dukinfield, have separate
commissions of the peace, and Birkenhead and Chester have
separate courts of quarter sessions. There are 464 civil parishes.
Cheshire is almost wholly in the diocese of Chester, but small
parts are in those of Manchester, St Asaph or Lichfield. There
are 268 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part
within the county. There are eight parliamentary divisions,
namely, Macclesfield, Crewe, Eddisbury, Wirral, Knutsford,
Altrincham, Hyde and Northwich, each returning one member;
the county also includes the parliamentary borough of Birkenhead
returning one member, and parts of the borough of Stockport,
which returns two members, and of Ashton-under-Lyne, Chester,
Stalybridge, and Warrington, which return one member
each.

History. — The earliest recorded historical fact relating to the
district which is now Cheshire is the capture of Chester and
destruction of the native Britons by the Northumbrian king
^Ethelfrith about 614. After a period of incessant strife between
the Britons and their Saxon invaders the district was subjugated
by Ecgbert in 830 and incorporated in the kingdom of Mercia.
During the gth century ^Ethelwulf held his parliament at Chester,
and received the homage of his tributary kings from Berwick to
Kent, and in the loth century ^Ethelflffid rebuilt the city, and
erected fortresses at Eddisbury and Runcorn. Edward the
Elder garrisoned Thelwall and strengthened the passages of the
Mersey and the Irwell. On the splitting up of Mercia in the
loth century the dependent districts along the Dee were made a
shire for the fortress of Chester. The shire is first mentioned in
the Abingdon Chronicle, which relates that in 980 Cheshire was
plundered by a fleet of Northmen. At the time of the Domesday
Survey the county was divided into twelve hundreds, exclusive
of the six hundreds between the Ribble and the Mersey, now
included in Lancashire, but then a part of Cheshire. These
divisions have suffered great modification, both in extent and
in name, and of the seven modern hundreds Bucklow alone
retains its Domesday appellation. The hundreds of Atiscross
and Exestan have been transferred to the counties of Flint and
Denbigh, with the exception of a few townships now in the
hundred of Broxton. The prolonged resistance of Cheshire to
the Conqueror was punished by ruthless harrying and sweeping
confiscations of property, and no Englishman retained estates
of importance after the Conquest. In order that the shire
might be relieved of all obligations beyond the ever-pressing
necessity of defending its borders against the inroads of hostile
neighbours, it was constituted a county palatine which the earl
of Chester " held as freely by his sword as the king held England
by his crown." The county had its independent parliament

consisting of the barons and clergy, and courts, and all lands
except those of the bishop were held of the earl. The court of
exchequer was presided over by a chamberlain, a
vice-chamberlain, and a baron of the exchequer.
It was principally a court of revenue, but prob-
ably a court of justice also, before that of the
justiciary was established, and had besides the
functions of a chancery court, with an exclusive
jurisdiction in equity. Other officers of the
palatinate were the constable, high-steward and
the Serjeants of the peace and of the forests.
The abbots of St Werburgh and Combermere
and all the eight barons held courts, in any of
which cases of capital felony might be tried.

During the I2th and i3th centuries the county
was impoverished by the constant inroads of the
Welsh. In 1264 the castle and city of Chester
were granted to Simon de Montfort, and in 1267
the treaty of Shrewsbury procured a short interval of peace.
Richard II., in return for the loyal support furnished him by
the county, made it a principality, but the act was revoked in
the next reign. In 1403 Cheshire was the headquarters of
Hotspur, who roused the people by telling them that Richard
II. was still living. At the beginning of the Wars of the Roses
Margaret collected a body of supporters from among the Cheshire
gentry, and Lancastrian risings occurred as late as 1464. At
the time of the Civil War feeling was so equally divided that
an attempt was made to form an association for preserving
internal peace. In 1643, however, Chester was made the head-
quarters of the royalist forces, while Nantwich was garrisoned
for the parliament, and the county became the scene of con-
stant skirmishes until the surrender of Chester in 1646 put an
end to the struggle.

From the number of great families with which it has been
associated Chester has been named " the mother and nurse of
English gentility." Of the eight baronies of the earldom none
survives, but the title of that of Kinderton was bestowed in 1762
on George Venables-Vernon, son of Anne, sister of Peter Venables,
last baron of Kinderton, from whom the present Lord Vernon
of Kinderton is descended. Other great Domesday proprietors
were William FitzNigel, baron of Halton, ancestor of the Lacys;
Hugh de Mara, baron of Montalt, ancestor of the Ardens;
Ranulph, ancestor of the Mainwarings; and Hamo de Massey.
The Davenports, Leighs and Warburtons trace their descent
back to the I2th century, and the Grosvenors are descended
from a nephew of Hugh Lupus.

In the reign of Henry VIII. the distinctive privileges of
Cheshire as a county palatine were considerably abridged. The
right of sanctuary attached to the city of Chester was abolished;
justices of the peace were appointed as in other parts of the
kingdom, and in 1 542 it was enacted that in future two knights
for the shire and two burgesses for the city of Chester should be
returned to parliament. After the Reform Act of 1832 the
county returned four members from two divisions, and Maccles-
field and Stockport returned two members each. Birkenhead
secured representation in 1859. From 1868 until the Redistribu-
tion Act of 1885 the county returned six members from three
divisions.

From earliest times the staple products of Cheshire have been
salt and cheese. The salt-pits of Nantwich, Middlewich and
Northwich were in active operation at the time of Edward the
Confessor, and at that date the mills and fisheries on the Dee
also furnished a valuable source of revenue. Twelfth century
writers refer to the excellence of Cheshire cheese, and at the
time of the Civil War three hundred tons at £33 per ton were
ordered in one year for the troops in Scotland. The trades of
tanners, skinners and glove-makers existed at the time of
the Conquest, and the export trade in wool in the I3th and
i4th centuries was considerable. The first bed of rock-salt
was discovered in 1670. Weaving and wool-combing were
introduced in 1674.

Antiquities. — The main interest in the architecture of the

CHESHUNT— CHESNEY, C. C.

county lies in the direction of domestic buildings rather than
ecclesiastical. Old half-timbered houses are common in almost
every part of the county; many of these add to the picturesque-
ness of the streets in the older towns, as in the case of the famous
Rows in Chester, while in the country many ancient manor-
houses remain as farm-houses. Among the finest examples
are Bramhall Hall, between Stockport and Macclesfield, and
Moreton Old Hall, near Congleton (see HOUSE, Plate IV., fig. 13).
The first, occupying three sides of a quadrangle (formerly
completed by a fourth side), dates from the I3th and i4th
centuries, and contains a splendid panelled hall and other rooms.
Of Moreton Hall, which is moated, only three sides similarly
remain; its date is of the i6th century. Other buildings of the
Elizabethan period are not infrequent, such as Brereton and
Dorfold Halls, while more modern mansions, set in fine estates,
are numerous. Crewe Hall is a modern building on an ancient
site, and Vale Royal near Winsford incorporates fragments of a
Cistercian monastery founded in 1277. A noteworthy instance
of the half-timbered style applied to an ecclesiastical building
is found in the church of Lower Peover near Knutsford, of which
only the tower is of stone. The church dates from the I3th
century, and was carefully restored in 1852. Cheshire has no
monastic remains of importance, save those attached to the
cathedral of Chester, nor are its village churches as a rule of
special interest. There is, however, a fine late Perpendicular
church (with earlier portions) at Astbury near Congleton, and
of this style and the Decorated the churches of Bunbury and
Malpas may be noticed as good illustrations. In Chester, besides
the cathedral, there is the massive Norman church of St John;
and St Michael's church and the Rivers chapel at Macclesfield
are noteworthy. No more remarkable religious monuments
remain in the county than the two sculptured Saxon crosses in
the market-place at Sandbach. Ruins of two Norman castles
exist in Beeston and Halton.

AUTHORITIES. — Sir John Dpddridge, History of the Ancient and
Modern State of the Principality of Wales, Duchy of Cornwall, and
Earldom of Chester (London, 1630; 2nd ed., 1714); D. King, The
Vale-Royall of England, or the County Palatine of Cheshire Illustrated,
4 parts (London, 1656) ; D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. ii.
pt. ii. (London, 1810) ; J. H. Hanshall, History of the County Palatine
of Chester (Chester, 1817-1823); J. O. Halliwell, Palatine Anthology
(London, 1850) ; G. Ormerod, History of the County Palatine and
City of Chester (London, 1819; new ed., London, 1875-1882);
J. P. Earwaker, East Cheshire (2 vols., London, 1877) ; R. Wilbraham,
Glossary (London, 1820; 2nd ed., London, 1826); and Glossary
founded on Wilbraham by E. Leigh (London, 1877); J. Croston,
Historic Sites of Cheshire (Manchester, 1883) ; and County Families of
Cheshire (Manchester, 1887) ; W. E. A. Axon, Cheshire Gleanings
(Manchester, 1884) ; Holland, Glossary of Words used in the County
of Cheshire (London, 1884-1886) ; N. G. Philips, Views of Old Halls
in Cheshire (London, 1893) ; Victoria County History, Cheshire.
See also various volumes of the Chetham Society and of the Record
Society of Manchester, as well as the Proceedings of the Cheshire
Antiquarian Society, and Cheshire Notes and Queries.

CHESHUNT, an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, on the Lea, 14 m. N. of
London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 9620;
(1901) 12,292. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular and
has been enlarged in modern times. A college was founded,
for the education of young men to the ministry of the Connexion,
by Selina countess of Huntingdon in 1768 at Trevecca-isaf near
Talgarth, Brecknockshire. In 1792 it was moved to Cheshunt,
and became known as Cheshunt College. In 1904, as it was
felt that the college was unable properly to carry on its work
under existing conditions, it was proposed to amalgamate it
with Hackney College, but the Board of Education refused to
sanction any arrangement which would set aside the require-
ments of the deed of foundation, namely that the officers and
students of Cheshunt College should subscribe the fifteen articles
appended to the deed, and should take certain other obligations.
In 1905 it was decided by the board to reorganize the college
and remove it to Cambridge.

Nursery and market gardening, largely under glass, brick-
making and saw-mills are the chief industries of Cheshunt.
Roman coins and other remains have been found at this place,
and an urn appears built into the wall of an inn. A Romano-

British village or small town is indicated. There was a Bene-
dictine nunnery here in the i3th century. Of several interesting
mansions in the vicinity one, the Great House, belonged to
Cardinal Wolsey, and a former Pengelly House was the residence
of Richard Cromwell the Protector after his resignation. Theo-
balds Park was built in the i8th century, but the original
mansion was acquired by William Cecil, Lord Burghley, in
1561; being taken in 1607 by James I. from Robert Cecil, first
earl of Salisbury, in exchange for Hatfield House. James died
here in 1625, and Charles I. set out from here for Nottingham in
1642 at the outset of the Civil War. One of the entrances to
Theobalds Park is the old Temple Bar, removed from Fleet
Street, London, in 1878.

CHESIL BANK (A.S. ceosol, pebble bank), a remarkable
beach of shingle on the coast of Dorsetshire, England. It is
separated from the mainland for 8 m. by an inlet called the Fleet,
famous for its swannery, and continues in all for 1 8 m. south-
eastward from Abbotsbury, terminating at the so-called Isle
of Portland. The height of the bank at the Portland end is
35 ft. above spring-tide level, and its breadth 200 yds. The
greater height at this end accords with the general movement
of shingle along this coast from west to east; and for the same
reason the pebbles of the bank decrease in size from i to 3 in.
in diameter at Portland to the size of peas at the western end,
where the breadth is only 170 yds.

CHESNELONG, PIERRE CHARLES (1820-1894), French
politician, was born at Orthez in the department of the Basses-
Pyrenees, on the I4th of April 1820. In 1848 he proclaimed
himself a Republican; but after the establishment of the Second
Empire he changed his views, and in 1865 was returned to the
chamber as the official candidate for his native place. He at
once became conspicuous, both for his eloquence and for his
uncompromising clericalism, especially in urging the necessity
for maintaining the temporal power of the papacy. In 1869 he
was again returned, and, devoting himself with exceptional
ability to financial questions, was in 1870 appointed to report
the budget. During and after the war, for which he voted, he
retired for a while into private life; but in 1872 he was again
elected deputy, this time as a Legitimist, and took his seat
among the extreme Right. He was the soul of the reactionary
opposition that led to the fall of Thiers; and in 1873 it was he
who, with Lucien Brun, carried to the comte de Chambord the
proposals of the chambers. Through some misunderstanding,
he reported on his return that the count had accepted all the
terms offered, including the retention of the tricolour flag; and
the count published a formal denial. Chesnelong now devoted
himself to the establishment of Catholic universities and to the
formation of Catholic working-men's clubs. In 1876 he was
again returned for Orthez, but was unseated, and then beaten
by the republican candidate. On the 24th of November, how-
ever, he was elected to a seat in the senate, where he continued
his vigorous polemic against the progressive attempts of the
republican government to secularize the educational system of
France until his death in 1894.

CHESNEY, CHARLES CORNWALLIS (1826-1876), British
soldier and military writer, the third son of Charles Cornwallis
Chesney, captain on the retired list of the Bengal Artillery, and
nephew of General F. R. Chesney, was born in Co. Down, Ireland,
on the 29th of September 1826. Educated at Blundell's school,
Tiverton, and afterwards at the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, he obtained his first commission as second lieutenant
of engineers in 1845, passing out of the academy at the head of
his term. His early service was spent in the ordinary course
of regimental duty at home and abroad, and he was stationed
in New Zealand during the Crimean War. Among the various
reforms in the British military system which followed from that
war was the impetus given to military education; and in 1858
Captain Chesney was appointed professor of military history
at Sandhurst. In 1864 he succeeded Colonel (afterwards Sir
Edward) Hamley in the corresponding chair at the Staff College.
The writings of these two brilliant officers had a great influence
not only at home, but on the continent and in America. Chesney's

CHESNEY, F. R.— CHESS

93

first published work (1863) was an account of the Civil War in
Virginia, which went through several editions. But the work
which attained the greatest reputation was his Waterloo Lectures
(1868), prepared from the notes of lectures orally delivered at
the Staff College. Up to that time the English literature on the
Waterloo campaign, although voluminous, was made up of
personal reminiscences or of formal records, useful materials
for history rather than history itself; and the French accounts
had mainly taken the form of fiction. In Chesney's lucid and
vigorous account of the momentous struggle, while it illustrates
both the strategy and tactics which culminated in the final
catastrophe, the mistakes committed by Napoleon are laid bare,
and for the first time an English writer is found to point out that
the dispositions of Wellington were far from faultless. And in
the Waterloo Lectures the Prussians are for the first time credited
by an English pen with their proper share in the victory. The
work attracted much attention abroad as well as at home, and
French and German translations were published.

Chesney was for many years a constant contributor to the
newspaper press and to periodic literature, devoting himself
for the most part to the critical treatment of military operations,
and professional subjects generally. Some of his essays on
military biography, contributed mainly to the Edinburgh Review,
were afterwards published separately (1874). In 1868 he was
appointed a member of the royal commission on military educa-
tion, under the presidency first of Earl De Grey and afterwards
of Lord Dufferin, to whose recommendations were due the
improved organization of the military colleges, and the develop-
ment of military education in the principal military stations
of the British army. In 1871, on the conclusion of the Franco-
German War, he was sent on a special mission to France and
Germany, and furnished to the government a series of valuable
reports on the different siege operations which had been carried
out during the war, especially the two sieges of Paris. These
reports were published in a large volume, which was issued
confidentially. Never seeking regimental or staff preferment,
Colonel Chesney never obtained any, but he held at the time of
his death a unique position in the army, altogether apart from
and above his actual place in it. He was consulted by officers
of all grades on professional matters, and few have done more
to raise the intellectual standard of the British officer. Con-
stantly engaged in literary pursuits, he was nevertheless laborious
and exemplary in the discharge of his public duties, while
managing also to devote a large part of his time to charitable
and religious offices. He was abstemious to a fault; and,
overwork of mind and body telling at last on a frail constitution,
he died after a short illness on the igth of March 1876. He had
become lieutenant-colonel in 1873, and at tne time °f his death
he was commanding Royal Engineer of the London district.
He was buried at Sandhurst.

CHESNEY, FRANCIS RAWDON (1789-1872), British general
arid explorer, was the son of Captain Alexander Chesney, an
Irishman of Scottish descent who, having emigrated to South
Carolina in 1772, did brilliant service under Lord Rawdon
(afterwards marquess of Hastings) in the War of Independence,
and subsequently received an appointment as coast officer at
Annalong, Co. Down, Ireland. There F. R. Chesney was born
on the i6th of March 1789. Lord Rawdon gave the boy a cadet-
ship at Woolwich, and he was gazetted to the Royal Artillery
in 1805. But though he rose to be lieutenant-general and
colonel-commandant of the i4th brigade Royal Artillery (1864),
and general in 1868, Chesney's memory lives not for his military
record, but for his connexion with the Suez Canal, and with the
exploration of the Euphrates valley, which started with his being
sent out to Constantinople in the course of his military duties
in 1829, and his making a tour of inspection in Egypt and Syria.
His report in 1830 on the feasibility of making the Suez Canal
was the original basis of Lesseps' great undertaking (in 1869
Lesseps greeted him in Paris as the "father" of the canal);
and in 1831 he introduced to the home government the idea of
opening a new overland route to India, by a daring and ad-
venturous journey (for the Arabs \v ^re hostile and he was ignorant

of the language) along the Euphrates valley from Anah to the
Persian Gulf. Returning home, Colonel Chesney (as he then
was) busied himself to get support for the latter project, to
which the East India Company's board was favourable; and
in 1835 he was sent out in command of a small expedition, for
which parliament voted £20,000, in order to test the navigability
of the Euphrates. After encountering immense difficulties, from
the opposition of the Egyptian pasha, and from the need of
transporting two steamers (one of which was lost) in sections
from the Mediterranean over the hilly country to the river,
they successfully arrived by water at Bushire in the summer of
1836, and proved Chesney's view to be a practicable one. In
the middle of 1837 he returned to England, and was given the
Royal Geographical Society's gold medal, having meanwhile
been to India to consult the authorities there; but the preparation
of his two volumes on the expedition (published in 1850) was
interrupted by his being ordered out in 1843 to command the
artillery at Hong Kong. In 1847 his period of service was
completed, and he went home to Ireland, to a life of retirement;
but both in 1856 and again in 1862 he went out to the East to
take a part in further surveys and negotiations for the Euphrates
valley railway scheme, which, however, the government would
not take up, in spite of a favourable report from the House of
Commons committee in 1871. In 1868 he published a further
volume of narrative on his Euphrates expedition. He died on
the 3Oth of January 1872.

His Life, edited by Stanley Lane Poole, appeared in 1885.

CHESNEY, SIR GEORGE TOMKYNS (1830-1895), English
general, brother of Colonel C. C. Chesney, was born at Tiverton,
Devonshire, on the 3oth of April 1830. Educated at Blundell's
school, Tiverton, and at Addiscombe, he entered the Bengal
Engineers as second lieutenant in 1848. He was employed for
some years in the public works department and, on the outbreak
of the Indian Mutiny in 1857, joined the Ambala column, was
field engineer at the battle of Badli-ke-serai, brigade-major of
engineers throughout the siege of Delhi, and was severely
wounded in the assault (medal and clasp and a brevet majority).
In 1860 he was appointed head of a new department in connexion
with the public works accounts. His work on Indian Polity
(i868),dealingwith the administration of tbeseveraldepartments
of the Indian government, attracted wide attention and remains
a permanent text-book. The originator of the Royal Indian
Civil Engineering College at Cooper's Hill, Staines, he was also
its first president (1871-1880). In 1871 he contributed to
Blackwood's Magazine, " The Battle of Dorking," a vivid
account of a supposed invasion of England by the Germans
after their victory over France. This was republished in many
editions and translations, and produced a profound impression.
He was promoted lieutenant-colonel, 1869; colonel, 1877;
major-general, 1886; lieutenant-general, 1887; colonel-com-
mandant of Royal Engineers, 1890; and general, 1892. From
1881 to 1886 he was secretary to the military department of
the government of India, and was made a C.S.I, and a C.I.E.
From 1886 to 1892, as military member of the governor-general's
council, he carried out many much-needed military reforms.
He was made a C.B. at the jubilee of 1887, and a K.C.B. on
leaving India in 1892. In that year he was returned to parlia-
ment, in the Conservative interest, as member for Oxford, and
was chairman of the committee of service members of the House
of Commons until his death on the 3ist of March 1895. He wrote
some novels, The Dilemma, The Private Secretary, The Lesters,
&c., and was a frequent contributor to periodical literature.

CHESS, once known as " checker," a game played with certain
" pieces " on a special " board " described below. It takes its
name from the Persian word shah, a king, the name of one of the
pieces or men used in the game. Chess is the most cosmopolitan
of all games, invented in the East (see History, below), intro-
duced into the West and now domiciled in every part of the
world. As a mere pastime chess is easily learnt, and a very
moderate amount of study enables a man to become a fair player,
iut the higher ranges of chess-skill are only attained by persistent
.abour. The real proficient or " master " not merely must know

94

CHESS

BLACK.

the subtle variations in which the game abounds, but must be able
to apply his knowledge in the face of the enemy and to call to his
aid, as occasion demands, all that he has of foresight, brilliancy
and resource, both in attack and in defence. Two chess players
fighting over the board may fitly be compared to two famous
generals encountering each other on the battlefield, the strategy
and the tactics being not dissimilar in spirit.

The Board, Pieces and Moves. — The chessboard is divided
(see accompanying diagrams) into sixty-four chequered squares.
In diagram i, the pieces, or chess-men, are arranged for the
beginning of a game, while diagram 2 shows the denomination of
the squares according to the English and German systems of
notation. Under diagram i are the names of the various "pieces "
— each side, White or Black, having a King, a Queen, two Rooks
(or Castles), two Knights, and two Bishops. The eight men in
front are called Pawns. At the beginning of the game the queen
always stands upon a square of her own colour. The board is so
set that each player has a white square at the right hand end of
the row nearest to him. The rook, knight and bishop on the right
of the king are known as King's rook, King's knight, and King's
bishop; the other three as Queen's rook, Queen's knight, and
Queen's bishop.

Briefly described, the powers of the various pieces and of the
pawns are as follows.

The king may move in any direction, only one square at a time,
except in castling. Two kings can never be on adjacent squares.

The queen moves in any direc-
tion square or diagonal, whether
forward or backward. There is
no limit to her range over vacant
squares; an opponent she may
take; a piece of her own colour
stops her. She is the most power-
ful piece on the board, for her
action is a union of those of the
rook and bishop. The rooks (from
the Indian rukh and Persian rokh,
meaning a soldier or warrior)
move in straight lines — forward
or backward — but they cannot

wmit. ^ move diagonally. Their range is

DIAGRAM i. — Showing the ... , 6 * . . , 6 ...
arrangement of the pieces at llke the queen's, unlimited, With
the commencement of a game, the same exceptions.

The bishops move diagonally

in any direction whether backward or forward. They have
an unlimited range, with the same exceptions.

The knights' moves are of an absolutely different kind. They
move from one corner of any rectangle of three squares by two to
the opposite corner; thus, in diagram 3, the white knight can
move to the square occupied by the black one, and vice versa, or a
knight could move from C to D, or D to C. The move may be
made in any direction. It is no obstacle to the knight's move if
squares A and B are occupied. It will be perceived that the
knight always moves to a square of a different colour.

The king, queen, rooks and bishops may capture any foeman
which stands anywhere within their respective ranges; and the
knights can capture the adverse men which stand upon the
squares to which they can leap. The piece which takes occupies
the square of the piece which is taken, the latter being removed
from the board. The king cannot capture any man which is
protected by another man.

The moves and capturing powers of the pawns are as follows: —
Each pawn for his first move may advance either one or two
squares straight forward, but afterwards one square only, and
this whether upon starting he exercised his privilege of moving
two squares or not. A pawn can never move backwards. He can
capture only diagonally — one square to his right or left front. A
pawn moves like a rook, captures like a bishop, but only one
square at a time. When a pawn arrives at an eighth square,
viz. at the extreme limit of the board, he may, at the option of
his owner, be exchanged for any other piece, so that a player
may, e.g., have two or more queens on the board at once.

Bp. Q. K. Dp. Kt.
WHITE.

"Check and Checkmate." The king can never be captured, but
when any piece or pawn attacks him, he is said to be " in check,"
and the fact of his being so attacked should be announced by the

BLACK.
abcdefgh

d e f g h

WHITE.

DIAGRAM 2. — Showing English and German Methods of Notation.

adverse player saying " check," whereupon the king must move
from the square he occupies, or be screened from check by the
interposition of one of his own men, or the attacking piece must
be captured. If, however, when the king is in check, none of
these things can be done, it is " checkmate " (Persian, shah mat,
the king is dead), known generally as " mate," whereupon the
game terminates, the player whose king has been thus check-
mated being the loser. When the adversary has only his king
left, it is very easy to checkmate him with only a queen and
king, or only a rook and king. The problem is less easy with
king and two bishops, and still less easy with king, knight and
bishop, in which case the opposing king has to be driven into a
corner square whose colour corresponds with the bishop's, mate
being given with the bishop. A king and two knights cannot
mate. To mate with king and rook the opposing king must be
driven on to one of the four side files and kept there with the
rook on the next file, till it is held by the other king, when the
rook mates.

The pawn gives check in the same way as he captures, viz.
diagonally. One king cannot give check to another, nor may a
king be moved into check.

" Check by discovery " is given when a player, by moving one
of his pieces, checks with another of them. "Double check"
means attacking the king at once with two
pieces — one of the pieces in this case giving
check by discovery.

" Perpetual check " occurs when one player,
seeing that he cannot win the game, finds the
men so placed that he can give check ad
infinitum, while his adversary cannot possibly
avoid it. The game is then drawn. A game is
also drawn " if, before touching a man, the K . , ,
player whose turn it is to play, claims that the KmSht s move,
game be treated as drawn, and proves that the existing position
existed, in the game and at the commencement of his turn of play,
twice at least before the present turn."

" Stalemate." When a king is not in check, but his owner has
no move left save such as would place the king in check, it is
" stalemate," and the game is drawn.

" Castling." This is a special move permitted to the king once
only in the game. It is performed in combination with either
rook, the king being moved two squares laterally, while the rook
towards which he is moved 'which must not have previously

CHESS

95

moved from its square) is placed next him on the other side; the
king must be touched first. The king cannot castle after having
been once moved, nor when any piece stands between him and
the rook, nor if he is in check, nor when he has to cross a square
commanded by an adverse piece or pawn, nor into check. It will
be perceived that after castling with the king's rook the latter
will occupy the KB square, while the king stands on the KKt
square, and if with the queen's rook, the latter will occupy the
queen's square while the king stands on the QB square.

" Taking en passant." This is a privilege possessed by any
of the pawns under the following circumstances: — If a pawn,
say of the white colour, stands upon a fifth square, say upon K.5
counting from the white side, and a black pawn moves from Qa
or KB 2 to Q4 or KB4 counting from the black side, the white
pawn can take the black pawn en passant. For the purposes of
such capture the latter is dealt with as though he had only moved
to Q3 or KB3, and the white pawn taking him diagonally then
occupies the square the captured pawn would have reached had
he moved but one square. The capture can be made only
on the move immediately succeeding that of the pawn to be
captured.

" Drawn Game." This arises from a stalemate (noticed
above), or from either player not having sufficient force where-
with to effect checkmate, as when there are only two kings
left on the board, or king and bishop against king, or king with
one knight, or two knights against king, or from perpetual
check. One of the players can call upon the other to give check-
mate in fifty moves, the result of failure being that the game is
drawn. But, if a pawn is moved, or a piece is captured, the
counting mus* begin again.

A " minor piece " means either a knight or a bishop. " Winning
the exchange " signifies capturing a rook in exchange for a
minor piece. A " passed pawn " is one that has no adverse
pawn either in front or on either of the adjoining files. A
" file "• is simply a line of squares extending vertically from
one end of the board to the other. An " open file " is one on
which no piece or pawn of either colour is standing. A pawn
or piece is en prise when one of the enemy's men can capture it.
" Gambit " is a word derived from the Ital. gambetlo, a tripping
up of the heels; it is a term used to signify an opening in which
a pawn or piece is sacrificed at the opening of a game to obtain
an attack. An " opening," or debut, is a certain set method
of commencing the game. When a player can only make one
legal move, that move is called a " forced move."

Value of the Pieces. — The relative worth of the chess-men
cannot be definitely stated on account of the increase or decrease
of their powers according to the position of the game and the
pieces, but taking the pawn as the unit the following will be
an estimate near enough for practical purposes: — pawn i,
bishop3-2S, knight 3-25, rook s.queeng-so. Three minor pieces
may mere often than not be advantageously exchanged for the
queen. The knight is generally stronger than the bishop in the
end game, but two bishops are usually stronger than two knights,
more especially in open positions.

Laws. — The laws of chess differ, although not very materially,
in different countries. Various steps have been taken, but as
yet without success, to secure the adoption of a universal code.
In competitions among English players the particular laws to
be observed are specially agreed upon, — the regulations most
generally adopted being those laid down at length in Staunton's
Chess Praxis, or the modification of the Praxis laws issued in
the name of the British Chess Association in_i862.

First Move and Odds. — To decide who moves first, one player
conceals a white pawn in one hand and a black pawn in the
other, his adversary not seeing in which hand the different pawns
are put. The other holds out his hands with the pawns concealed,
and his adversary touches one. If that contains the white pawn,
he takes the white men and moves first. If he draws the black
pawn his adversary has the first move, since white, by convention,
always plays first. Subsequently the first move is taken alter-
nately. If one player, by way of odds, " gives " his adversary
a pawn or piece, that piece is removed before play begins. If

the odds are " pawn and move," or " pawn and two," a black
pawn, namely, the king's bishop's pawn, is removed and white
plays one move, or any two moves in succession. " Pawn and
two " is generally considered to be slightly less in point of odds
than to give a knight or a bishop; to give a knight and a bishop
is to give rather more than a rook; a rook and bishop less than
a queen; two rooks rather more than a queen. The odds of
" the marked pawn" can only be given to a much weaker player.
A pawn, generally KB's pawn, is marked with a cap of paper.
If the pawn is captured its owner loses the game; he can also
lose by being checkmated in the usual way, but he cannot give
mate to his adversary with any man except the marked pawn,
which may not be moved to an eighth square and exchanged
for a piece.

Rules. — If a player touch one of his men he must move it,
unless he saysfadoube (I adjust), or words of a similar meaning,
to the effect that he was only setting it straight on its square.
If he cannot legally move a touched piece, he must move his
king, if he can, but may not castle; if not, there is no penalty.
He must say j'adoube before touching his piece. If a player
touch an opponent's piece, he must take it, if he can: if not,
move his king. If he can do neither, no penalty. A move is
completed and cannot be taken back, as soon as a player, having
moved a piece, has taken his hand off it. If a player is called
upon to mate under the fifty-move rule, " fifty moves " means
fifty moves and the forty-nine replies to them. A pawn that
reaches an eighth square must be exchanged for some other piece,
the move not being complete until this is done; a second king
cannot be selected.

Modes of Notation. — The English and German methods of
describing the moves made in a game are different. According to
the English method each player counts from his own side of
the board, and the moves are denoted by the names of the files
and the numbers of the squares. Thus when a player for his
first move advances the king's pawn two squares, it is described
as follows: — " i. P- K4." The following moves, with the aid
of diagram 2, will enable the reader to understand the principles
of the British notation. The symbol X is used to express
" takes "; a dash - to express " to."

White. Black.

1. P-K4 i.

2. KKt-KBs 2.

(i.e. King's Knight to the
third square of the King's
Bishop's file)

3. KB-QB4 3.

(King's Bishop to the fourth
square of the Queen's
Bishop's file)

4. P-QB3 4. KKt-KB3

5. P-Q4 5. P takes P (or PXP)

(King's pawn takes White's

eueen's pawn)
-QKtS (ch., i.e. check)
(Queen's Bishop's pawn
takes pawn : no other pawn
has a pawn en prise)

It is now usual to express the notation as concisely as possible;
thus, the third moves of White and Black would be given as
3. B - 64, because it is clear that only the fourth square of the
queen's bishop's file is intended.

The French names for the pieces are, King, Roi; Queen, Dame;
Rook, Tour; Knight, Cavalier; Pawn, Pion; for Bishop the
French substitute Fou, a jester. Chess is Les £checs.

The German notation employs the alphabetical characters
a, b, c, d, e, f, g and h, proceeding from left to right, and the
numerals i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, running upwards, these being
always calculated from the white side of the board (see diagram
2). Thus the White Queen's Rook's square is 01, the White
Queen's square is di; the Black Queen's square, d8; the
White King's square, ei; the Black King's square, e8, and so
with the other pieces and squares. The German names of the
pieces are as follows: — King, Konig; Queen, Dame; Rook,
Turm; Bishop, Lttufer; Knight, Springer; Pawn, Bauer;
Chess, Schach.

P-K4

QKt-QB3

(i.e. Queen's Knight to the
third square of the Queen's
Bishop's file)

KB-QB4

96

CHESS

The initials only of the pieces are given, the pawns (.Bauern)
being understood. The Germans use the following signs in their
notation, viz.:— for " check " (f); " checkmate " (J); " takes "
(:); " castles on king's side " (o-o); "castles on queen's side "
(o-o-o); for " best move " a note of admiration (I); for " weak
move " a note of interrogation ( ?). The opening moves just given
in the English will now be given in the German notation: —

White.

1. 62-64

2. S gi-f3

3.

4.

5.
6.

gi-t
Lfi-c

C2— C3

Black.

1. e;-es

2. Sb8-c6
3- Lf8-cs
4. Sg8

5-
6.

-cs
-f6!

In both notations the moves are often given in a tabular form,
thus:—

I. p_KT i. - _ 1 > the moves above the line being White's
and below the line Black s. •

Illustrative Games. — The text-books should be consulted by
students who wish to improve their game. The following are
some of the leading openings: —

9.
10.

II.

I.

2.

3-
4-
5-
6.

I:

9-
10.
ii.

White.

P-K4

KKt-B3

B-B4

P-B3

B-Q2

QKtXB

PXP

Q-Kt3

Castles (K's side)

Giuoco PIANO.

i.

2.

3-
4-
5-
6.

8.

9-
10.
ii.

White.

P-K4

KKt-B3

B-Kts

B-R4

E=8J

Castles

R-Ksq

BXKt

KtXP

Kt-QB3

Even game.
RUY LOPEZ.

Even game.

i.
2.
3-

4-

t

8.

9-
10.
ii.

Black.
P-K4
QKt-B3
B-B4
Kt-KB3
PXP

B-Kts (ch)
BXB (ch)

P-Q4
KKtXP
QKt-K2
Castles

Black.
P-K4
QKt -83

Kt-B3

PXP

Kt-Ks

B-K2

Kt-B4

QPXB

Castles

P-KB3

GAMBIT.

Black.

1. P-K4

2. QKt -B3
3- PXP

B-B4

SCOTCH
White.

1. P-K4

2. KKt-Bs

4! B-Q?H

5- P-B3 5- Kt-B3
6. PXP

The position here arrived at is the same as in the Giuoco Piano
opening above.

EVANS GAMBIT.

White. Black.

1. P-K4 i. P-K4

2. KKt-B3 2. QKt -83
3- B-B4 3. B-B4

4. P-QKt4 4. BXKtP

5- P-B3 5- B-B4

6. P-Q4 6. PXP

7. Castles 7.

8. PXP 8.

White has for its ninth move three approved continuations, viz.
B-Kt2, P-Qs, and Kt-B3. To take one of them:—

P-Q5 9- Kt-R4

B-Kt2 10. Kt-K2

B-Q3 ii. Castles

Kt-B3 12. Kt-Kt3

Kt-K2 13. " —

14.

_sq 15.

9-

10.
ii.

12.
13-
14-

16. QR-B sq 16. R-Kt sq

This game may be considered about even.

B-B2

I.
2.
3.

4.

5-
6.

7-
8.
9-

10.

ii.

5-
6.

8.

9.
10.
ii.
12.

KING'S KNIGHT'S GAMBIT (PROPER).

White. Black.

P-KA i. P-K4

P-KB4 2. PXP

KKt-B3 3. P-KKt4

B-B4 4. B-Kt2

Castles 5. P-Q3

P-Q4 6. P-RT13

P-B3 7. Kt-K2
Black has the advantage.

ALLGAIER-KIESERITZKI GAMBIT.

White. Black.

P-K4 i. P-K4

P-KB4 2. PXP

Kt-KB3 3. P-KKt4

P-KR4 4. P-Kt5

Kt-K5 5. KKt-%3

6-64 6. P-Q4

PXP 7. B-Kt2

P-Q4 8. Castles

BXP 9. KtXP

BXKt 10. QXB

Castles ii. P — QB4
Black has the better game.

White.

KING'S BISHOP'S GAMBIT.

P-KB4

15.

K-Bsq
KKt-B3

P-KR4
Kt-B3
K — Kt sq
Kt-Ks
PXB

1$ "> •

Q-Kt2

4
5.
6.
7.

9

White.

1. P-K4

2. P-KB4

3. KKt-B3

4. 8-84
5- Kt-Ks

6. K-B sq

7. P— Q4

8. Kt— QB3

9. Kt-Q3
10. KXP

n. Kt-KB4

12. B-K3

13. QKt-Qs '
H- P-B3

Black.

1. P-K4

2. PXP

3- P-Q4
Q-R5 (ch)
P-KKt4

-R4
-Kt2

8. P-KR3

9. Kt-K2

10. P-Kts

11. BXKt

12. QXKP

13. P-B6

14. Q-Kt6 (ch)

Drawn game.

SALVIO GAMBIT.

Black.

1. P-K4

2. PXP

3. P-KKt4

4- P-Kts

5- Q-Rs(ch)

6. Kt-KR3

7. P-B6
8- P-Q3

9. PXP (ch)

10. B-Kt2

11. Kt-B3

12. Castles

13- QrQsq

White has a slight advantage.
Muzio GAMBIT.

P-K4 P-l
l- P-K4 2- PXi

£84 KKt-B3 6-84

P 3- P-KKt4 * P-Kt5

White.

Black.

5. Castles

5- PXKt

6. QXP

7. P-KS

6. Q-B3
7- QXP

8. P-Q3
9. B-Q2

8. B-R3
9. Kt-K2

10. Kt-B3
n. QR-K sq

10. QKt -63
ii. Q-KB4

12. R-K4

12. Castles

13- QBXP

13. B-Kt2

14. Q-K2
15. BXBP

14. P-Q4
15 Q-Kt4

16. P-KR4

16. Q-Kt3

17. KtXP

17. KtXKt

18. BXKt

18. 8-64

19. QR-KB4

19- B-K3

20. BXB

20. PXB

21. R-K4

21. RXR (ch)

22. KXR

22. R-B sq (ch)

23. K-Kt sq

23. Kt-Qs

And Black

has the better game.

CHESS

97

QUEEN'S GAMBIT.

QUEEN'S GAMBIT DECLINED.

White. Black.

White. Black. White. Black.

i. P— Q4 i. P— Q4

W. Steinitz. Dr E. Lasker. W. Steinitz. Dr E. Lasker.

2. P-QB4 2. PXP
3- P-K3 3- P-K4
4. BXP 4- PXP

I. P-Q4 P-Q4
2. P-QBA P-Rj
3. Kt-QB3 Kt-KB3

21. Kt-B3 Kt-Qs
22. QXP KtXB (ch)
23. PxKt R-Ktsq

6. Kt-KB3 6! Kt-KB3

4. B-B4 B-K2
5. P-K3 Castles

24. QXP R-Kt3
25. Q-BA RXP

7. Ca-tles 7. Castles

6. R-B sq P-B4

26. P-KR4 B-R2

8. P-KR3 8. P-KR3

7. QPXP BXP

27. B — K4 Q — Q3

9. Kt-QB3 9. P-QB3

8. PXP PXP

28. P-B4 Q-Q2

The game is about equal, though White has a somewhat freer

9. Kt-B3 Kt-B3

29. B — Kt2 Q — Kts

position.
The following is a selection of noteworthy games played by

io- B-Q3 P-Qs
n. PXP KtXP
12. Castles B-KKts

30. Q-Q3 Kt-B4
31. Kt-K4 B-K6
32. R-B3 RXB

great masters: —

13. Kt-QKts BXKt

33. KXR KtXP(ch)

KING'S BISHOP'S GAMBIT.

14. P-B Kt-K3
15. B-K5 Kt-R4

34. K-R2 KtXR (ch)
35. K-Kt2 Kt-Rs (ch)

White. Black.

16. K-Rsq Q-Kt4

36. K-R2 Kt-B4

Anderssen. Kieseritzki.

17. B-Kt3 QR-Q sq

37- R-QKtsq P-R4

I. P-KA I..P-K4
2. P-K&4 2. PXP

18. Q-B2 Q-RS
19. QR-Qsq 1 -Bsq

38. R-KtS R-Rsq
39. P-R3 RXP

3- 6-64 3. Q-RS (ch)
4. K-B sq 4. P-QKt4
5. BXKtP 5. Kt-KB3
6. Kt-KB3 6. Q-R3
7- P-Q3 7- Kt-R4

20. Q-Kt3 P-R3 Resigns.

This game was played in the St Petersburg tournament, 1895, a
fine specimen of Lasker's style. The final attack, beginning with
21. with Kt-Qs, furnishes a gem of an ending.

8. Kt-R4 8. Q-Kt4
9- Kt-B5 9. P-QB3
10. P-KKt4 io. Kt-B3

RICE C
White. Black.

AMBIT.

White. Black.

ii. R-Kt sq n. PXB

Professor Major

Professor Major

12. P-KR4 12. Q-Kt3

Rice. Hanham.

Rice. Hanham.

13- P-R5 13- Q-Kt4

I. P-KA P-K4

IS- Q-R3 Kt-B7

14. Q-B3 14. Kt-Ktsq

2. P-KRi PXP

16. RXB (ch) B-K3

IS- BXP 15- Q-B3
16. Kt-B3 16. 8-84

3. Kt-KB3 P-KKt4
4. P-KR4 P-Kts

17- K-B sq Q-R8(ch)
18. Kt-Ktsq Kt-R6

17. Kt-Qs 17- QXKtP

5. Kt-K5 Kt-KB3

19. PXKt P-B6

18. B-Q6 18. QXR (ch)

6. 8-64 P-Q4

20. B- Kt5 Q-Kt7(ch)

19. K-K2 19. BXR

7. PXP B-Q3

21. K-Ksq P-B7(ch)

20. P-Ks 20. Kt-QR3

8. Castles BXKt

22. K-Q2 P-B8 = Kt

White mates in three moves.

9. R-K sq Q-K2

(ch)

io. P-B3 P-Kt6

23- K-Q3 K-Q2

PHILIDOR'S DEFENCE.

ii. P-Q4 Kt-Kts

24. PXB (ch) K-B2

White. Black.

12. Kt-Q2 QXP

25- Q-K7 (ch) K-Kt3

Barnes. Morphy.

15. Kt-B3 Q-R3
14. Q-R4(ch)P-B3

26. Q-Q8 (ch) RXQ
27. BXQ and mates

i. P — K4 i. P — K4

2 Kt — KB* 2 P— Oi

The Rice Gambit (so called after its inventor, Prof. Isaac L. Rice

*• 1 vL iVUJ ^. 1 )<O

3- P-Q4 3- P-KB4

4. PXKP 4. BPXP

5. Kt-Kts 5. P-QA
6 P — K6 6 B — 064

of New York), whether right or not, is only possible if Black plays
7. B-Q3. Paulsen's 7. B-Kt2 is better, and avoids unnecessary
complications. 8. P-Q4 is the usual move. Leaving the knight
en prise, followed by 9. R-Ksq, constitutes the Rice Gambit.

7- Kt-B7 7. Q-63
8. B-K3 8. P-Qs
9. B — KKtS 9' Q — 64

The interesting points in the game are that White subjects himself
to a most violent attack with impunity, for in the end Black could
not save the game by 22. P-B8 claiming a second queen with a

io. KtXR "" io. QXB

discovered check, nor by claiming a knight with double check, as

ii. 8-84 ii. Kt-QB3

it is equally harmless to White.

12. Kt-B7 12. QXP
13. R-B sq 13. Kt-Bt

Giuoco PIANO.

114. P-KB3 14. Kt-QKtS

White. Black.

White. Black.

15. Kt-QR3 15. BXP

Steinitz. Bardeleben.

Steinitz. Bardeleben.

16. BXB 16. Kt-Q6 (ch)

i. P-K4 P-K4

14. R-Ksq. P-KB3

17- QxKt 17. PXQ

18. Castles 18. BXKt

2. Kt-KB3 Kt-QB3
3. 6-84 B-BA

IS- Q-K2 Q-Q2
16. QR-B sq P-83

19. B-Kt3 19. P-Q7 (ch)

4. P-B3 Kt-B3

17- P-Qs PXP

20. K — Kt sq 20. 8 — 84

5. P-Q4 PXP

18. Kt-Q4 K-B2

21. Kt-Ks 21. K-Bsq
22. Kt-Q3 22. R-K sq
23. KtXB 23. QXR

6. PXP B-KtS (ch)
7. Kt-B3 P-Q4
8. PXP KKtXP

19. Kt-K6 KR-QBsq
20. Q-Kt4 P-KK13
21. Kt-Kts(ch) K-Ksq

And White resigns.

9. Castles B-K3
io. B-KKts B-K2

22. RXKt (ch) K-Bsq
23. R-B7 (ch) K-Kt sq

BISHOP'S GAMBIT.
White. Black. White. Black.

II. BXKt QBXB
12. KtXB QXKt
13. BXB KtXB

24. R-Kt7 (ch) K-Rsq
25. RXP (ch) Resigns.

Charousek. Tchigorin. Charousek. Tchigorin.
i. P-K4 P-K4 13. QXP (ch) K-K2
2. P-KB4 PXP 14. KtXP KtXKt
3. 8-84 Kt-QB3 15. BXKt P-R3
4. P-Q4 Kt-B3 16. Kt-B3 6-85
5. P-Ks P-Q4 17. P-K6 R-B sq

As a matter of fact, Bardeleben left the board here, and lost the
game by letting his clock run out the time-limit; but Steinitz,
who remained at the board, demonstrated afterwards the following
variation leading to a forced win : —

White. Black. . White. Black.

6. B-Kt3 B-KtS 18. 8-87 PXP

Steinitz. Bardeleben.

Steinitz. Bardeleben.

7- Q-Q3 Kt-KR4 19. BXQ(ch) RXB
8. Kt-KR3 Kt-Kts 20. Q-Kt7 (ch) R-Q2
9- Q-QB3 Kt-R3 21. R-B7 (ch) KXR
io. Castles B-K7 22. QXR (ch) B-K2
II. B-R4(ch)P-B3 23. R-Ksq R-Ksq

25 K-Kt sq

31. Q-Kt8 (ch) K-K2
32. Q-B7 (ch) K-Qsq
33- Q-B8 (ch) Q-K sq
34- Kt-B7 (ch) K-Q2
35- Q — Q6 mate.

26. R-Kt7 (ch) K-Rsq
27