ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA KIJCVENTH BDIT1ON. VOL. XXVUI ; TO ZYM THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE ' All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY • OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVIII VETCH to ZYMOTIC DISEASES Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 EL Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. Go. ALFRED BRADLEY GOUGH, M.A., PH.D. Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. English Lector in the 1 Westphalia, Treaty of. University of Kiel, 1896-1905. A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. / WotKter Jnhn See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. A. D. Mo. ANSON DANIEL MORSE, M.A., LL.D. Emeritus Professor of History at Amherst College, Mass. Professor at Amherst -j Whig Party. College, 1877-1908. A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D. Sc., F.R.S. f Wasp (in Hart)- Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. -\ „,*,,. , / \ Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. ( weevil (tn part). A. F. B. ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.Sc. f Wool, Worsted and Woollen Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College. \ Manufactures. A. F. B.* ARCHIBALD FRANK BECKE. Captain, Royal Field Artillery. Author of Introduction to the History of Tactics, -j Waterloo Campaign. 1740-1905; &c. A. F. H. A. F. HUTCHISON, M.A. f Wailace Sir u/iiiiam Sometime Rector of the High School, Stirling. \ W 'ce> • A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. [ Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. I Waynflete, William; Formerly Assistant-Secretary to the Board of Education. Fellow of AH Souls ] vVilliara of Wykeham College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. I" «.,_,-,.„_,,,. , 5i, ,._... Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University wal [g"*m, • Francis, of London. Assistant-Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901.-^ Wishart, George; Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas Cranmer; Henry Wolsey, Cardinal. VIII. ;&c. I A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. See the biographical article: CLERKE, AGNES M. \ Vulture; Wagtail; Warbler; Waxwing; Weaver-bird; A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Wheatear; Whitethroat; Wigeon; Woodcock; Woodpecker; Wren; • Wryneck; Zosterops. A. P. C. ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S. Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto. Geologist, Bureau of Mines, J Yukon Territory. Toronto, 1893-1910. Author of Reports of the Bureau of Mines of Ontario. A. Sy. ARTHUR SYMONS. f Vllliers de 1'Isle-Adam, See the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR. \ Comte de. A. S. C. ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. [ Formerly Assistant-Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington. Author of J llr ,41 i -j A i Ornament in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian 1 Weaving. Archaeology and Art. Textiles in the Victoria and Albert Museum; &c. A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. ( Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford I Weber's Law; Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. | Wolff, Christian (i« part). Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. L A. v. 0. ALOYS VON ORELLI. Formerly Professor of Law in the University of Zttrich. Author of Das Staatsrecht < Veto. der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschafl. I 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. v i 1997 VI A. W. H.* A. W. Hu. A. W. R. B. E. S. B. H.-S. C. El. C. F. A. C. P. K. C. H. Ha. C. H. T.* C. K. W. C. L. K. C. R. B. C. W. R. D. B. M. D. F. T. D. G. H. D. H. D. H. S. D. R.-M. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. . f Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ Widukind; Witan. REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON. r Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London. Formerly Librarian of the National „,. „ _j. Liberal Club. Author of Life of Cardinal Manning. Editor of Newman's Lives of the} Wiseman, Cardinal. English Saints ; &c. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. of England. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ Waste. Whitney, William Dwight. BENJAMIN ELI SMITH, A.M. Editor of the Century Dictionary. Formerly Instructor in Mathematics at Amherst . College, Mass., and in Psychology at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Editor of the Century Cyclopaedia of Names; Century Atlas; &c. <- B. HECKSTALL-SMITH. (" Associate of the Institute of Naval Architects. Secretary of the International J Yachting Yacht Racing Union ; Secretary of the Yacht Racing Association. Yachting 1 Editor of The Field. I SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa -j Yue-chi. Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1900-1904. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal -{ Wilderness: Grant's Campaign. Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. CHARLES FRANCIS KEARY, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Norway and the Norwegians ; &c. The Vikings in Western Christendom ; -j Viking. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member of the American Historical Association. CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D. See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. CHARLES KINGSLEY WEBSTER, M.A. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Victor HI. and IV. (Popes); Visconti (Family). Whewell Scholar, 1907. f Wisdom, Book of; i Wisdom Literature. | Vienna, Congress of. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.Hisx.Soc., F.S.A. Assistant-Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor . of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. Warwick, Richard Beau- champ, Earl of; Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of; Whittington, Richard; Worcester, John Tiptoft, Earl of; York, Richard, Duke of. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, -j Zemarchus. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, '1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of I Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. CHARLES WALKER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L. f Major-General (retired). Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, J Vitoria. 1890-1892. Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, 1895-] 1898. Author of Strategy of the Peninsular War; &c. DAVID BINNING MONRO, M.A., Lirr.D. See the biographical article: MONRO, DAVID BINNING. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. | Wolf, Friedrich August. Victoria, Tommasso L. da; Wagner: Biography (in part) and Critical Appreciation; Weber: Critical Appreciation. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal Navy ; Life of Emilia Caslelar ; &c. DUKINFIELD HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, London, 1885-1892. Formerly President of the Royal Microscopical Society and of the Linnean Society. Author of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &c. L DAVID RANDALL-MACIVER, M.A., D.Sc. f Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester -! Zimbabwe. Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia ; &c. I. Xanthus; Zeitun. Villeneuve; Zumalaearregui. Williamson, William Crawford. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vn E. Ar.* B.C.* E. Cu. E. C. B. E. C. S. REV. ELKANAH ARMITAGE, M.A. f Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor in Yorkshire United Independent College, ^ Zwineli Bradford. ERNEST CLARKE, M.D., F.R.C.S. Surgeon to the Central London Ophthalmic Hospital, and Consulting Ophthalmic J Vision: Errors of Refraction, Surgeon to the Miller General Hospital. Vice- President of the Ophthalmological ] &c. Society. Author of Refraction of the Eye ; &c. L | William I. and II. of Sicily. EDMUND CURTIS, M.A. Keble College, Oxford. Lecturer on History in the University of Sheffield. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " \ Wadding, Luke, in Cambridge Texts and Studies. L EDMUND CLARENCE STEDMAN. See the biographical article: STEDMAN, EDMUND CLARENCE. E.G. Ed. M. E. M. W. E.G.* E. O'H. E. Pr. E. P. W. E. R. L. \ Whittier, John Greenleaf . Villanelle; Virelay; Vosmaer, Carel; Waller, Edmund; Walloons: Literature; Watson, Thomas; Wells, Charles Jeremiah; Wennerberg, Gunnar; Winther, Christian; Wordsworth, Dorothy. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lirr., LL.D. f Vologaeses- Vonones I -II • Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des i Y«r •• Va', Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. I Aer' es> Iazae8era- EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. J Xenophon (in part). EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. r Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Wart; Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of 1 Whitlow. A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. (MRS H. O. O'NEILL). Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of the University of Manchester. Vicar. Webster, Daniel (in part). E.T. F. A. C. P. C. C. F. G. M. B. F. J. H. F. Ke. EDGAR PRESTAGE. r Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- J |D^' **"» mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal 1 Vieira, Antonio. Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society ; &c. L EVERETT PEPPERRELL WHEELER, A.M. f Formerly Chairman of the Commission on International Law, American Bar Association, and other similar Commissions. Author of Daniel Webster; Modern' Law of Carriers ; Wages and the Tariff. SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L. . Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. -| Zoology. Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. Vice- President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c. ELIHU THOMSON, A.M., D.Sc., PH.D. Inventor of Electric Welding. Electrician to the Thomson-Houston and General Electric Companies. Professor of Chemistry and Mechanics, Central High School, J Welding* Electric Philadelphia, 1870-1880. President of the International Electro-technical Com- mission, 1908. I FRANKLYN ARDEN CRALLAN. Formerly Director of Wood-carving, Gloucester County Council. Author of Gothic \ Wood-Carving. Woodcarving. [ FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. f Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and' Morals; &c. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. r Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brase- nose College. Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church. J Waiting Street. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Mono- I graphs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. FRANK KEIPER, A.M., B.L., M.E. Manager of the United States Voting Machine Company. Examiner, United States Patent Office. L Wessex. [ Voting Machines. Formerly Assistant -\ viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. f See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. \ Zaria. F. H. H. COLONEL FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. f Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the-\ Worth. World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. I r Victoria Falls; F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. J victoria Nyanza (in tart)- Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union'. [ Zambezi' ZuliUand F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS, K.C.B. f _ . * , Formerly Accountant-General of the Army. Editor of the "Great Writers" Series. \ ^OIa' K F. We. FREDERICK WEDMORE. f whistler. See the biographical article: WEDMORE, FREDERICK. L F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER I.S 10, F.G.S. J Volcano; Wolframite; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. 1 7jrpnn President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. L m F. Y. P. FREDERICK YORK POWELL, D.C.L., LL.D. J !«„«,•.„ r,-,jv,« See the biographical article : POWELL, FREDERICK YORK. \ Vigfusson, Gudbrandr. G. LORD GRIMTHORPE. tf See the biographical article: GRIMTHORPE, IST BARON. \ Watch (in part). G. A. C.* REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, M.A., D.D. f Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture in the University of Oxford, I 7 . . and Fellow of Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's | *'en°Dla- Cathedral, Edinburgh. Author of Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions; &c. L G. C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G. r Member of the Board of Advice to the Agent-General for Victoria. Formerly Editor and Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal J Commission to the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, 1887."] Victoria (Australia): History. Secretary, Royal Commission, Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to Com- missioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia I and Melbourne. William II., King of the G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. . Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society; and Foreign Member, Netherlands Association of Literature. Netherlands; William III., King of the Netherlands; William the Silent; William II., Prince of Orange. G. PI. GEORGE FLEMING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.C.V.S. Formerly Principal Veterinary Surgeon, War Office, London. Author of Animal 4 Veterinary Science (in part). Plagues: their History, Nature and Prevention. [_ G. F. D. GEORGE FREDERICK DEACON, LL.D., M.INST.M.E., F.R.M.S. (1843-1909). r Formerly Engineer-in-Chief for the Liverpool Water Supply (Vyrnwy Scheme), and Member of the Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Borough and Water 4 Water Supply. Engineer of Liverpool, 1871-1879. Consulting Civil Engineer, 1879-1909. Author [ of addresses and papers on Engineering, &c. G. F. R. H. GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT HENDERSON. f w See the biographical article: HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT. "\ w G. G. P.* GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L. f wraMt r«« Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple. \ * G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER. f ™ , . Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: J wasp (t their Structure and Life. [ Weevil (in part). G. J. GEORGE JAMIESON, C.M.G., M.A. r Formerly Consul-General at Shanghai, and Consul and Judge of the Supreme Court, -j Yangtsze-Kiang. Shanghai. G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. Barrister-at-law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J Wapentake. Society. G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L, LL.D. { ™gV' A"r ° and Fellow of King's College. Author of On Holy Scripture and Criticism; &c. &c. L HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S. Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. SIR HENRY HARDINGE CUNYNGHAME, K.C.B., M.A. Assistant Under-Secretary, Home Office, London. Vice-President, Institute of J Watch (in Part). Electrical Engineers. Author of various works on Enamelling, Electric Lighting, &c. REV. HENRY HERBERT WILLIAMS, M.A. Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Philosophy, Hertford College, Oxford. Examining -| Will: Philosophy. Chaplain to the Bishop of Llandaff. HENRY JACKSON, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D., O.M. f Xenocrates; Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Trinity J Xenophanes of Colophon; College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Texts to illustrate the History of -. ' f _. Greek Philosophy from Tholes to Aristotle. HENRY JAMES CHANEY, I.S.O. (1842-1906). Formerly Superintendent of the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, I Weights and Measures: and Secretary to the Royal Commission on Standards. Represented Great Britain 1 Scientific and Commercial at the International Conference on the Metric System, 1901. Author of Treatise on Weights and Measures. f . •< L Viper. Formerly Fellow and J the Royal ^ * >»6. Woden. HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Mathematics in the University of Manchester. Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics ; &c. HENRY LEWIS JONES, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. Medical officer in charge of the Electrical Department and Clinical Lecturer on J X-Ray Treatment Medical Electricity at St Bartholomew's Hospital, London. Author of Medical Electricity; &c. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in i ' Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. HERBERT MURRAY VAUGHAN, M.A., F.S.A. J Wales: Geography and Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici i Statistics and History Popes; The Last Stuart Queen. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. HENRY STURT, M.A. Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; Personal Idealism. HENRY SWEET, M.A., Pn.D., LL.D. University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford University. Corresponding Member of the J Academies of Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author cf A History } i of English Sounds since the Earliest Period; A Primer of Phonetics; &c. Wood, Anthony a. -[ Vischer, Friedrich Theodor. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, - 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, I Oxford, 1901. Author of " Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropo- | logy " in Mansfield College Essays; &c. I ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. [ Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Shorts History of Jewish Literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c. \_ ISAAC JOSLIN Cox, PH.D. f Assistant Professor of History in the University of Cincinnati. President of the J Ohio Valley Historical Association. Author of The Journeys of La Satte and *«] Companions; &c. L Volapuk. Wace, Robert; Walter of Coventry; William I., King of England; William II., King of England; William of Malmesbury; William of Newburgh. Zechariah (in part). Wise, Isaac Mayer; Zunz, Leopold. Wilkinson, James. X J. A. E. J. A. P. J. A. H. J. Bt. J. Bu. J. E. O. J. F.-K. J. F. M'L. J. Ga. J. G. H. J. G. M. J. G. R. J. G. Sc. J. H. F. J. H. H. J. J. L.* J. L. W. J. Mac. J. Mu.* J. M. G. J. M. J. J. M. M. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Watt, James. Wall-coverings. | Whitman, Walt. JAMES ALFRED EWING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.lNST.C.E. Director of (British) Naval Education. Hon. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge, 1890-1903. Author of The Strength of Materials; &c. i JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Fender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of Voltmeter- Wattmeter- TT • /-* 11 T^ i ?• 11 f cj. T 1. » r* 11 /-• i_ • i J vuiiuicier, wuiimeier, University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John s College, Cambridge, 1 «ri,oafe*nn > n -j and University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets o.nd Electric s BnQge. Currents. [ JOHN ALLEN HOWE. f Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of ~\ Wealden; Wenlock Group. The Geology of Building Stones. I JAMES BARTLETT. f Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's. College, London. Member of the Society of Architects. Member of the Institute of Junior Engineers. JOHN BURROUGHS. See the biographical article: BURROUGHS, JOHN. JULIUS EMIL OLSON, B.L. f Professor of Scandinavian Languages and Literature at the University of Wisconsin. -< Vinland. Author of Norwegian Grammar and Reader. [ JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.HisT.S. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Vlllamediana, Count de; Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. T Villena, Enrique de; Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Zorrilla V Moral Jose Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. (_ JOHN FERGUSSON M'LENNAN. See the biographical article: M'LENNAN, JOHN FERGUSSON. JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. Author of Plating and Boiler Making ; Practical Metal Turning ; &c. JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Physiology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life of Helmholtz; &c. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. | Werwolf (in part). 4 York, House of. j Welding (in part). j Vision; Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the J ™. , , _. . Author of History of German Literature; Schiller after] Wieland, Chnstopn Martin. Modern Language Journal, a Century; &c. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. The Upper Burma Gazetteer. JOHN HENRY FREESE. M.A. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. L Author of Burma ; 1 Wa. •j Xenophon (in part}. Wolfram von Eschenbach. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director VltrUVlUSJ of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South -j Wren, Sir Christopher; Kensington Museum, 1892—1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Zuccaro I.-II. Times ; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediceval Times. [_ REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. r Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and Lady J w j wii-am r OnrMAS WILLIAM tox. | Weaving- Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics of \ ,, Weaving. \ Yarn- Villani, Giovanni. COUNT UGO BALZANI, LITT.D. Member of the Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Sometime President of the Reale Societa Romana di Storia Patria. Corresponding Member Of the British Academy ; Author of The Popes and the Hohenstaufen ; &c. i WILFRID AIRY, M.lNST.C.E. Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Technical Adviser to the Standards"! Weighing Machines. Department of the Board of Trade. Author of Levelling and Geodesy ; &c. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BEEVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-^1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. WALTER ARMITAGE JUSTICE FORD. Sometime Scholar of King's College, Cambridge. College of Music, London. Vevey; Vienne: Town; Vorarlberg; Walensee; Winkelried, Arnold von; Winterthur; Zug: Canton; Zug: Town; Zug, Lake of; Zurich: Canton; Zurich: Town; Zurich, Lake of. Teacher of Singing at the Royal -I. Wolf, Hugo. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. Walther von der Vogelweide; Wyeliffe (in part). WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S. Chairman of the Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain, "j Wedgwood, Josiah. Author of English Stoneware and Earthenware ; &c. Windmill. WILLIAM CAWTHORNE UNWIN, F.R.S., LL.D., M.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.M.E. Emeritus Professor, Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs; Treatise on Hydraulics; &c. SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. f British Government Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General oH Victoria Nyanza (in part). Irrigation, Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. I WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). WILLIAM HENRY. Founder and Chief Secretary of the Royal Life Saving Society. Associate of the - Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint Author of Swimming (Badminton Library) ; &c. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly . Beit Lecturer on Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council (Canadian Series). WILLIAM MINTO, M.A. See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM. I Wager; Warrant; [ Witness. Water Polo. Walrus (in part); Whale (in part); Wolf (in part) ; Zebra (in part). Wilson, Sir Daniel. -I Wordsworth, William (in part). WILLIAM MACDONALD, LL.D., PH.D. Professor of American History in Brown University, Providence, R.I. Formerly Professor of History and Political Science, Bowdoin. Member of the American -< Washington, George. Historical Association, &c. Author of History and Government of Maine; &c. Editor of Select Charters and other documents illustrative of American History. WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S., D.C.L., LITT.D. See the biographical article: PETRIE, W. M. FLINDERS. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. WILLIAM OSCAR SCROGGS, Pn.t). Assistant Professor of History and Economics at Louisiana State University. Formerly Goodwin and Austin Fellow, Harvard University. WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY. See the biographical article: COURTNEY, L. H. BARON. f Weights and Measures: \ Ancient Historical. f Vivarini; \ Zurbaran, Francisco. Walker, William. f Walpole, Horatio; \ Wilkes, John. WILLIAM PRICE JAMES. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Romantic Professions ; &c. High Bailiff, Cardiff County Court. Author of \ Watson, William (poet) INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xv W. P. R. W. Ri. HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. Director of the London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Com- missioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour and Justice, •{ Voeel Sir Julius New Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a History of New Zealand; &c. WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., LiTT.D. f Disney Professor of Archaeology, and Brereton Reader in Classics, in the University I of Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College. Fellow of the British T Villanova. Academy. President of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The Early Age of Greece ; &c. WILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO. Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the Present Period; &c. Wagner: Biography (in part); Weber. WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S. f Water-flea; Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Ji Wood-louse Author of " Crustacea," in a Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester. I WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D. Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congrega- 1 Winthrop, John (1588-1649). tional Churches in the United States ; The Reformation ; John Calvin ; &c. I. WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, J Vulcan. Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; 1- The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c. WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, Pn.D. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG. | Westminster, Synods of. | Virgil (in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Vicksburg. Vienna. Vine. Vinegar. Vingt-et-Un. 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ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVIII VETCH, in botany, the English name for Vicia saliva, also known as tare, a leguminous annual herb with trailing or climb- ing stems, compound leaves with five or six pairs of leaflets, reddish-purple flowers borne singly or in pairs in the leaf-axis, and a silky pod containing four to ten smooth seeds. The wild form, sometimes regarded as a distinct species, V. angusti- folia, is common in dry soils. There are two races of the cultivated vetch, winter and spring vetches: the former, a hardy form, capable of enduring frost, has smoother, more cylindrical pods with smaller seeds than the summer variety, and gives less bulk of stem and leaves. The spring vetch is a more delicate plant and grows more rapidly and luxuriantly than the winter variety. The name vetch is applied to other species of the genus Vicia. Vicia orobus, bitter vetch, and V. sylvatica, wood vetch, are British plants. Another British plant, Hippocrepis, is known as horseshoe vetch from the fact of its pod breaking into several horseshoe-shaped joints. Anthyttis vulneraria is kidney-vetch, a herb with heads of usually yellow flowers, found on dry banks. Astragalus is another genus of Legumi- nosae, and is known as milk-vetch. Vetches are a very valuable forage crop. Being indigenous to Britain, and not fastidious in regard to soil, they can be cultivated successfully under a great diversity of circumstances, and are well adapted for poor soils. By combining the winter and spring varieties, and making several sowings of each in its season at intervals of two or three weeks, it is practicable to have them fit for use from May till October, and thus to carry out a system of soiling by means of vetches alone. But it is usually more expedient to use them in combination with grass and clover, beginning with the first cutting of the latter in May, taking the winter vetches in June, recurring to the Italian ryegrass or clover as the second cutting is ready, and afterwards bringing the spring vetches into use. Each crop can thus be used when in its best state for cattle food, and so as gratefully to vary their dietary. Winter Vetches. — There is no botanical difference between winter and spring vetches, and the seeds being identical in appearance, caution is required in purchasing seed to get it of xxvm. i the right sort. Seed grown in England is found the most suitable for sowing in Scotland, as it vegetates more quickly, and produces a more vigorous plant than that which is home- grown. As the great inducement to cultivate this crop is the obtaining of a supply of nutritious green food which shall be ready for use about the ist of May, so as to fill up the gap which is apt to occur betwixt the root crops of the previous autumn and the ordinary summer food, whether for grazing or soiling, it is of the utmost importance to treat it in such a way that it may be ready for use by the time mentioned. To secure this, winter tares should be sown in August if possible, but always as soon as the land can be cleared of the preceding crop. They may yield a good crop though sown in October, but in this case will probably be very little in advance of early-sown spring vetches, and possess little, if any, advantage over them in any respect. The land on which they are sown should be dry and well sheltered, clean and in good heart, and be further enriched by farmyard manure. Not less than 3$ bushels of seed per acre should be sown, to which some think it beneficial to add half a bushel of wheat. Rye is frequently used for this purpose, but it gets reedy in the stems, and is rejected by the stock. Winter beans are better than either. The land having been ploughed rather deeply, and well harrowed, it is found advantageous to deposit the seed in rows, either by a drilling-machine or by ribbing. The latter is the best practice, and the ribs should be at least a foot apart and rather deep, that the roots may be well developed before top-growth takes place. As soon in spring as the state of the land and weather admits of it, the crop should be hoed betwixt the drills, a top-dressing at the rate of 40 bushels of soot or 2 cwt. of guano per acre applied by sowing broadcast, and the roller then used for the double purpose of smoothing the surface so as to admit of the free use of the scythe and of pressing down the plants which may have been loosened by frost. It is thus by early sowing, thick seeding and liberal manuring that this crop is to be forced to an early and abundant maturity. May and June are the months in which winter vetches are used to advantage. A second growth will be produced from the roots if the crop is allowed to stand; but it is much better practice to plough up the land as the crop is 5 VETERAN— VETERINARY SCIENCE cleared, and to sow turnips upon it. After a full crop of vetches, land is usually in a good state for a succeeding crop. When the whole process has been well managed, the gross amount of cattle food yielded by a crop of winter vetches, and the turnip crop by which it is followed in the same summer, will be found considerably to exceed what could be obtained from the fullest crop of turnips alone, grown on similar soil, and with the same quantity of manure. It is useless to sow this crop where game abounds. Spring vetches, if sown about the ist of March, will be ready for use by the ist of July, when the winter vetches are just cleared off. To obtain the full benefit of this crop, the land on which it is sown must be clean, and to keep it so a much fuller allowance of seed is required than is usually given in Scotland. When the crop is as thick set as it should be, the tendrils intertwine, and the ground is covered by a solid mass of herbage, under which no weed can live. To secure this, not less than 4 bushels of seed per acre should be used if sown broadcast, or 3 bushels if in drills. The latter plan, if followed by hoeing, is certainly the best; for if the weeds are kept in check until the crop is fairly established, they have no chance of getting up afterwards. With a thin crop of vetches, on the other hand, the land is so certain to get foul, that they should at once be ploughed down, and something else put in their place. As vetches are in the best state for use when the seeds begin to form in the pods, repeated sowings are made at intervals of three weeks, beginning by the end of February, or as early in March as the season admits, and continuing till May. The usual practice in Scotland has been to sow vetches on part of the oat break, once ploughed from lea. Sometimes this does very well, but a far better plan is to omit sowing clover and grass seeds on part of the land occupied by wheat or barley after a crop of turnips, and having ploughed that portion in the autumn to occupy it with vetches, putting them instead of " seeds " for one revolution of the course. When vetches are grown on poor soils, the most profitable way of using them is by folding sheep upon them, a practice very suitable also for clays, upon which a root crop cannot safely be consumed in this way. A different course must, however, be adopted from that followed when turnips are so disposed of. When sheep are turned in upon a piece of tares, a large portion of the food is trodden down and wasted. Cutting the vetches and putting- them into racks does not much mend the matter, as much is still pulled out and wasted, and the manure unequally distributed over the land. To avoid those evils, hurdles with vertical spars, betwixt which the sheep can reach with head and neck, are now used. These are set close up to the growing crop along a considerable stretch, and shifted forward as the sheep eat up what is within their reach. This requires the constant attention of the shepherd, but the labour is repaid by the saving of the food, which being always fresh and clean, does the sheep more good. A modification of this plan is to use the same kind of hurdles, but instead of shifting them as. just described, to mow a swathe parallel to them, and fork this forward within reach of the sheep as required, repeating this as often during the day as is found necessary, and at night moving the sheep close up to the growing crop, so that they may lie for the next twenty-four hours on the space which has yielded food for the past day. During the night they have such pickings as have been left on the recently mown space and so much of the growing crop as they can get at through the spars. There is less labour by this last mode than the other, and having piactised it for many years, we know that it answers well. This folding upon vetches is suitable either for finishing off for market sheep that are in forward condition, or for recently weaned lambs, which, after five or six weeks' folding on this clean, nutritious herbage, are found to take on more readily to eat turnips, and to thrive better upon them, than if they had been kept upon the pastures all the autumn. Sheep folded upon vetches must have water always at command, otherwise they will not prosper. As spring-sown vetches are in perfection at the season when pastures usually get dry and scanty, a common practice is to cart them on to grass land and spread them out in wisps, to be eaten by the sheep or cattle. It is, however, much better either to have them eaten by sheep where they grow, or to cart them to the homestead. VETERAN, old, tried, experienced, particularly used of a soldier who has seen much -service. The Latin veteranus (vetus, old), as applied to a soldier, had, beside its general application in opposition to tiro, recruit, a specific technical meaning in the Roman army. Under the republic the full term of service with the legion was twenty years; those who served this period and gained their discharge (missid) were termed emeriti, If they chose to remain in service with the legion, they were then called I'eierani. Sometimes a special invitation was issued to the emeriti to rejoin; they were then styled evocati. The base of Lat. vetus meant a year, as seen in the Gr. ih-os (for F(TOS) and Sanskrit vatsa ; from the same base comes vitulus, a calf, properly a yearling, vitellus, a young calf, whence O. Fr. veel, modern, vetiu, English " veal," the flesh of the calf. The Teutonic cognate of vitulus is probably seen in Goth, withrus, lamb, English " wether," a castrated ram. VETERINARY SCIENCE (Lat. veterinarius, an adjective meaning " connected with beasts of burden and draught," from veterinus, " pertaining to yearlings," and vitulus, " a calf "),' the science, generally, that deals with the conformation and structure of the domesticated animals, especially the horse; their physiology and special racial characteristics; their breed- ing, feeding and general hygienic management; their pathology, and the preventive and curative, medical and surgical, treat- ment of the diseases and injuries to which they are exposed; their amelioration and improvement; their relations to the human family with regard to communicable maladies; and the supply of food and other products derived from them for the use of mankind. In this article it is only necessary to deal mainly with veterinary science in its relation with medicine, as other aspects are treated under the headings for the par- ticular animals, &c. In the present edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica the various anatomical articles (see ANATOMY for a list of these) are based on the comparative method, and the anatomy of the lower animals is dealt with there and in the separate articles on the animals. History. There is evidence that the Egyptians practised veterinary medicine and surgery in very remote times; but it is not until we turn to the Greeks that we obtain any very definite informa- tion with regard to the state of veterinary as well as human medicine in antiquity. The writings of Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.) afford evidence of excellent investigations in comparative pathology. Diocles of Carystus, who was nearly a contem- porary, was one of the first to occupy himself with anatomy, which he studied in animals. Aristotle, too, wrote on physiology and comparative anatomy, and on the maladies of animals, while many other Greek writers on veterinary medicine are cited or copied from by Varro, Columella and Galen. And we must not overlook Mago of Carthage (200 B.C.), whose work in twenty-eight books was translated into Greek and was largely used by Varro and Columella. 1 Regarding the origin of the word " veterinary," the following occurs in D'Arboval's Dictionnaire de m&decine et de chirurgie veterinaires, edited by Zundel (1877), iii. 814: "Les mots veterinaria et veterinarius 4taient employe's par les Remains pour designer: le premier, la me'decine des b£tes de somme; le second, pour indiquer celui qui la pratiquait; le mot veterinae indiquait les b6tes de somme, et etait la contraction de veheterinae, du verbe vehere, porter, tirer, trainer. L'e'tymologie reelle du rr.ot vet&rinaire, ou plut6t du mot veterinarius des Remains, serait d'apres Lenglet encore plus ancienne; elle viendrait du celtique, d'oti le mot serait passd chez les Remains; cet auteur fait venir le mot de vee, betail (d'ou 1'allemand Vieh), teeren, 6tre malade (d'oft 1'allemand Zehren, consomption), aerts ou arts, artiste, mddecin (d'oti 1'allemand Arzt)." VETERINARY SCIENCE Until after the conquest of Greece the Romans do not appear to have known much of veterinary medicine. Varro (116-28 B.C.) may be considered the first Roman writer who deals with Amongst an;mai medicine in a scientific spirit in his De Re Rustica, in three books, which is largely derived from Greek writers. Celsus is supposed to have written on animal medicine, and Columella (ist century) is credited with having utilized those relating to veterinary science in the sixth and seventh parts of his Di- Re Rustica, one of the best works of its class of ancient times; it treats not only of medicine and surgery, but also of sanitary ures for the suppression of contagious diseases. From the }nl century onwards veterinary science had a literature of its own and regular practitioners, especially in the service of the Roman armies (mulomedici, veterinarii) . Perhaps the most renowned veterinarian of the Roman empire was Apsyrtus of Bithynia, who in 322 accompanied the expedition of Constantine against the Sar- matians in his professional capacity, and seems to have enjoyed a high and well-deserved reputation in his time. He was a keen observer; he distinguished and described a number of diseases which were badly defined by his predecessors, recognized the contagious nature of glanders, farcy and anthrax, and prescribed isolation for their suppression ; he also made interesting observations on accidents and diseases of horses' limbs, and waged war against certain absurd empirical practices then prevailing in the treatment of disease, indicating rational methods, some of which are still successfully employed in veterinary therapeutics, such as splints for fractures, sutures for wounds, cold water for the reduction of prolapsed vagina, hot baths for tetanus, &c. Not less eminent was Hierocles, the successor of Apsyrtus, whose writings he larjgely copied, but with improvements and valuable additions, especially in the hygiene and training of horses. Pelagonius, again, was a writer of empirical tendency, and his treatment of disease in general was most irrational. Publius Vegetius (not to be confounded with Flavius Vegetius Renatus, who wrote on the military art) was a popular author of the end of the 5th century, though less distin- guished than Apsyrtus, to whom and to Pelagonius he was to a great extent indebted in the preparation of his Mulomedicina si'je Ars Veterinaria. He appears to have been more of a horse-dealer than a veterinary practitioner, and knew next to nothing of anatomy, which seems to have been but little cultivated at that period. He was very superstitious and a believer in the influence of demons and sorcerers; nevertheless, he gives some interesting observations de- rived from his travels. He had also a good idea of aerial infection, recognized the utility of disinfectants, and describes some operations not referred to by previous writers, such as removal of calculi from the bladder through the rectum, couching for cataract, the extirpa- tion of certain glands, and several serious operations on the horse's foot. Though inferior to several works written by his predecessors, the Mulomedicina of Vegetius maintained its popularity through many centuries. Of most of the ancient veterinary writers we know little beyond what can be gathered from the citations and extracts in the two great collections of Hippiatrica and Geoponica compiled by order of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the loth century. It is unnecessary to dwell here on the progress of the veterinary art during the middle ages. Towards the close of the medieval period the subject was much cultivated in the cavalry schools of Italy; and Spain also had an organized system of good practitioners in the 15th century, who have left many books still extant. Ger- many was far behind, and literature on the subject did not exist until the end of the I5th century, when in 1492 there was published anonymously at Augsburg a Pferdearzneibuchlein. In the following century the influence of the Italian writers was becoming manifest, and the works of Fugger and Fayser mark the commencement of a new era. Fayser's treatises, Von der Gestuterei and Von der Zucht der Kriegs- und Burger-Pferde- (1529-97), are remarkable for originality and good sense. In Great Britain animal medicine was perhaps in a more advanced condition than in Germany, if we accept the evidence of the Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales (London, 1841); yet it was largely made up of the grossest super- stitions. * Among the Celts the healer of horse diseases and the shoer were held in high esteem, as among the more civilized nations of Europe, and the court farrier enjoyed special privileges. * The earliest known works in English appeared anonymously towards the commencement of the i6th century, viz. Propertees and Medcynesfor a Horse and Mascal of Oxen, Horses, Sheepes, Hogges, Dogges. The word " mascal " shows that the latter work was in its origin Italian. There is no doubt that in the I5th century the increasing taste for horses and horsemanship brought Italian nding- masters and farriers into England; and it is recorded that Henry VIII. brought over two of these men who had been trained by Grisone in the famous Neapolitan school. The knowledge so intro- duced became popularized, and assumed a concrete form in Blunde- ville's Foure Chiefest Offices belonging to Horsemanship (1566), which contains many references to horse diseases, and, though mainly a compilation, is yet enriched with original observations. In the 1 See Leechdoms, Wortcunningand Starcraft of Early England (3 vols. 8vo, London, 1864). 1 See Fleming, Horse-shoes and Horse-Shoeing (London, 1869). France and Con- tinental Europe. isth century the anatomy of the domesticated animals, formerly almost entirely neglected, began to receive attention. A work on comparative anatomy by Vplcher Koyter was issued at Nuremberg in i£73 ; about the same time a writer in Germany named Copho or Cophon published a book on the anatomy of the pig, in which were many original remarks on the lymphatic vessels; and Jehan Hervard in France produced in 1594 his rather incomplete Hippo- Osteologie. But by far the most notable work, and one which main- tained its popularity for a century and a half, was that of Carlo Ruini, a senator of Bologna, published in 1598 in that city, and entitled Dell' Anotomia e dell' Infirmita del Cavallo, e suoi Remedii. Passing through many editions, and translated into French and German, this book was for the most part original, and a remarkable one for the time in which it was composed, the anatomical portion being especially praiseworthy. English books of the I7th century exhibit a strong tendency towards the improvement of veterinary medicine and surgery, especially as regards the horse. This is even more notable in the writings of the i8th century, among which may be particularized Gibson's Farrier's New Guide (1719), Method oj Dieting Homes (1721) and (best of all) his New Treatise on the Diseases of Horses, besides Braken's, Burdon's, Bridge's and Bartlet's treatises. Veterinary anatomy was greatly advanced by the A natomy of an Horse (1683) of Snape, farrier to Charles II., illustrated with copperplates, and by the still more complete and original work of Stubbs, the Anatomy of the Horse (1766), which decidedly marked a new era in this line of study. Of foreign works it may suffice to mention that of Solleysel, Veritable parfait mareschal (1664), which passed through many editions, was translated into several languages, and was borrowed from for more than a century by different writers. Sir W. Hope's Compleat Horseman (1696) is a translation from Solleysel by a pupil. Modern Schools and Colleges. — The most important era in the history of modern veterinary science commenced with the institution of veterinary schools. France was the first to take the great initiative step in this direction. 1 in If on had recom- mended the formation of veterinary schools, but his recommendations were not attended to. Claude Bourgelat (1712— 1799), an advocate at Lyons and a talented hippolo- gist, through his influence with Bertin, prime minister under Louis XV., was the first to induce the government to establish a veterinary school and school of equitation at Lyons, in 1761. This school he himself directed for only a few years, during which the great benefits that had resulted from it justified an extension of its teaching to other parts of Fiance. Bourgelat, therefore, founded (1766) at Alfort, near Paris, a second veterinary school, which soon became, and has remained to this day, one of the finest and most advanced veterinary schools in the world. At Lyons he was replaced by the Abbe Rozier, a learned agriculturist, who was killed at the siege of Lyons after a very successful period of school management, during which he had added largely to agricultural and physical knowledge by the publication of his Journal de Physique and Cours d' Agriculture. Twenty years later the Alfort school added to its teaching staff several distinguished professors whose names still adorn the annals of science, such as Dauberton, who taught rural economy; Vic d'Azyr, who lectured on comparative anatomy; Fourcroy, who undertook instruction in chemistry; and Gilbert, one of its most brilliant pupils, who had veterinary medicine and surgery for his department. The last-named was also a distinguished agriculturist and published many important treatises on agricultural as well as veterinary subjects. The position he had acquired, added to his profound and varied knowledge, made him most useful to France during the period of the Revolution. It is chiefly to him that it is indebted for the celebrated Rambouillet flock of Merino sheep, for the conservation of the Tuileries and Versailles parks, and for the creation of the fine experimental agricultural estab- lishment organized in the ancient domain of Sceaux. The Alfort school speedily became the nursery of veterinary science, and the source whence all similar institutions obtained their first teachers and their guidance. A third government school was founded in 1825 at Toulouse; and these three schools have produced thousands of thoroughly educated veterinary surgeons and many professors of high scientific repute, among whom may be named Bouley, Chauveau, Colin, Toussaint, St Cyr, Goubaux, Arloing, Galtier, Nocard, Trasbot, Neumann, Cadiot and Leclainche. The opening of the Alfort school was followed by the establishment of national schools in Italy (Turin, 1769), Denmark (Copenhagen, 1773), Austria (Vienna, 1775), Saxony (Dresden, 1776), Prussia (Hanover, 1778: Berlin, 1790), Bavaria (Munich, 1790), Hungary (Budapest, 1787) and Spain (Madrid, 1793); and soon government veterinary schools were founded in nearly every European country, except Great Britain and Greece, mostly on a munificent scale. Probably all, but especially those of France and Germany, were established as much with a view to training veterinary surgeons for the army as for the requirements of civil life. In 1907 France possessed three national veterinary schools, Germany had six, Russia four (Kharkov, Dorpat, Kazan and Warsaw), Italy six, Spain five, Austria-Hungary three (Vienna, Budapest and Lemberg), Switzerland two (Zurich and Bern), Sweden two (Skara and Stockholm), Denmark, Holland, Belgium and Portugal one each. In 1849 r- government veterinary VETERINARY SCIENCE school was established at Constantinople, and in 1861 the govern- ment of Rumania founded a school at Bucharest. The veterinary schools of Berlin, Hanover and Vienna have been raised to the position of universities. In 1790 St Bel (whose real name was Vial, St Bel being a village near Lyons, where was his paternal estate), after studying at the Lyons school and teaching both at Alfort and Lyons, came to England and published proposals for founding a school g ' in which to instruct pupils in veterinary medicine and surgery. The Agricultural Society of Odiham, which had been meditating sending two young men to the Alfort school, elected him an honorary member, and delegated a committee to consult with him respecting his scheme. Some time afterwards this committee detached themselves from the Odiham Society and formed an institution styled the Veterinary College of London, of which St Bel was appointed professor. The school was to be commenced and maintained by private subscription. In March 1792 arrange- ments were made for building temporary stabling for fifty horses and a forge for shoeing at St Pancras. The college made rapid progress in public estimation, notwithstanding considerable pecuniary embarrassments. As soon as the building was ready for the recep- tion of animal patients, pupils began to be enrolled ; and among the earliest were some who afterwards gained celebrity as veterinarians, as Bloxam, Elaine, R. Lawrence, Field and Bracy Clark. On the death of St Bel in August 1793 there appears to have been some difficulty in procuring a suitable successor; but at length, on the recommendation of John Hunter and Cline, two medical men were appointed, Coleman and Moorcroft, the latter then practising as a veterinary surgeon in London. The first taught anatomy and physiology, and Moorcroft, after visiting the French schools, directed the practical portion of the teaching. Unfortunately, neither of these teachers had much experience among animals, nor were they well acquainted with their diseases; but Coleman (1765-1839) had as a student, in conjunction with a fellow-student (afterwards Sir Astley Cooper), performed many experiments on animals under the direction of Cline. Moorcroft, who remained only a short time at the college, afterwards went to India, and during a journey in 1819 was murdered in Tibet. Coleman, by his scientific researches and energetic management, in a few years raised the college to a high standard of usefulness ; under his care the progress of the veterinary art was such as to qualify its practitioners to hold commissions in the army; and he himself was appointed veterinary surgeon- general to the British cavalry. In 1831 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. Owing to the lack of funds, the teaching at the college must have been very meagre, and had it not been for the liberality of several medical men in throwing open the doors of their theatres to its pupils for instruction without fee or reward, their professional knowledge would have been sadly deficient. The board of examiners was for many years chiefly composed of eminent members of the medical profession. Coleman died in 1839, and with him disappeared much of the interest the medical profession of London took in the progress of veterinary medicine. Vet the Royal Veterinary College (first styled " Royal " during the presidentship of the duke of Kent) continued to do good work in a purely veterinary direction, and received such public financial support that it was soon able to dispense with the small annual grant given to it by the government. In the early years of the institution the horse was the only animal to which much attention was given. But at the instigation of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, which gave £200 per annum for the purpose, an addi- tional professor was appointed to investigate and teach the treatment of the diseases of cattle, sheep and other animals; outbreaks of disease among these were also to be inquired into by the officers of the college. This help to the institution was withdrawn in 1875, but renewed and augmented in 1886. For fifteen years the Royal Agricultural Society annually voted a sum of £500 towards the expenses of the department of comparative pathology, but in 1902 this grant was reduced to £200. As the result of representations made to the senate of the uni- versity of London by the governors of the Royal Veterinary College, the university in 1906 instituted a degree in veterinary science (B.Sc.). The possession of this degree does not of itself entitle the holder to practise as a veterinary surgeon, but it was hoped that an increasing number of students would, while studying for the diploma of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, also adopt the curriculum which is necessary to qualify for the university examina- tions and obtain the degree of bachelor of science. To provide equipment for the higher studies required for the university degree, the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1906 made a grant to the college of £800 per annum. At this school post-graduate instruc- tion is given on the principles of bacteriological research, vaccination and protective inoculation, the preparation of toxins and vaccines and the bacteriology of the specific diseases of animals. The London Veterinary School has been the parent of other schools in Great Britain, one of which, the first in Scotland, was founded by Professor Dick, a student under Coleman, and a man of great per- severance and ability. Beginning at Edinburgh in 1819-20 with only one student, in three years he gained the patronage of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, which placed a small sum of money at the disposal of a committee appointed by itself to take charge of a department of veterinary surgery it had formed. This patronage, and very much in the way of material assistance and encouragement, were continued to the time of Dick's death in 1866. During the long period in which he presided over the school considerable progress was made in diffusing a sound knowledge of veterinary medicine in Scotland and beyond it For many years his examining board, which gave certificates of proficiency under the auspices of the Highland and Agricultural Sodety, was composed of the most distinguished medical men in Scotland, such as Goodsir, Syme, Lizars, Ballingall, Simpson and Knox. By his will Dick vested the college in the lord provost and town council of Edinburgh as trustees, and left a large portion of the fortune he had made to maintain it for the purposes for which it was founded. In 1859 another veterinary school was established in Edinburgh by John Gamgee, and the Veterinary College, Glasgow, was founded in 1863 by James McCall. Gamgee's school was discontinued in 1865; and William Williams established in 1873 the " New Veterinary College," Edinburgh. This school was transferred in 1904 to the university, Liverpool. In 1900 a veterinary school was founded in Dublin. In 1844 the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (to be carefully distinguished from the Royal Veterinary College) obtained its charter of incorporation. The functions of this body were until 1 88 1 limited almost entirely to examining students taught in the veterinary schools, and bestowing diplomas of membership on those who successfully passed the examinations conducted by the boards which sat in London and Edinburgh. Soon after the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons obtained its charter of incorporation, a difference arose between the college and Dick, which resulted in the latter seceding altogether from the union that had been established, and forming an independent examining board, the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland granting certificates of proficiency to those students who were deemed competent. This schism operated very injuriously on the progress of veterinary education and on professional advancement, as the competition engendered was of a rather deteriorating nature. After the death of Dick in 1866, the dualism in veterinary licensing was suppressed and the Highland Society ceased to grant certificates. Now there is only one portal of entry into the profession, and the veterinary students of England, Ireland and Scotland must satisfy the examiners appointed by the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons before they can practise their profession. Before beginning their professional studies students of veterinary medicine must pass an examination in general education equivalent in every respect to that required of students of human medicine. The minimum length of the professional training is four years of three terms each, and during that course four searching examinations must be passed before the student obtains his diploma or licence to practise as a veterinary surgeon. The subjects taught in the schools have been increased in numbers conformably with the requirements of ever extending science, and the teaching is more thorough and practical. During the four years' curriculum, besides the pre- liminary technical training essential to every scientist, the student must study the anatomy and physiology of the domesticated animals, the pathology and bacteriology of the diseases to which these animals are exposed, medicine, surgery, hygiene, dietetics and meat inspec- tion, and learn to know the results of disease as seen post mortem or in the slaughter-house. In 1881 an act of parliament was obtained protecting the title of the graduates of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons and conferring other advantages, not the least of which is the power granted to the college to remove the names of unworthy members from its register. In some respects the Veterinary Surgeons Act is superior to the Medical Act, while it places the profession on the same level as other learned bodies, and prevents the public being misled by empirics and imposters. In 1876 the college instituted a higher degree than membership — that of fellow (F.R.C.V.S.), which can only be obtained after the graduate has been five years in practice, and by furnishing a thesis and passing a severe written and oral examination on pathology and bacteriology, hygiene and sanitary science, and veterinary medicine and surgery. Only fellows can be elected members of the examining boards for the membership and fellowship diplomas. The graduates of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons registered from its foundation in 1844 until 1907 numbered about 6000. In the British army a veterinary service was first instituted at the beginning of the igth century, when veterinary surgeons with the relative rank of lieutenant were appointed to regiments of cavalry, the royal artillery and the royal wagon train. After the Crimean War, and consequent on the abolition of the East India Company (which then possessed its own veterinary service), the number of veterinary surgeons employed was increased, and in 1878 they were constituted a " department, " with distinctive uniform, instead of being regimental officers as was previously the case. At the same time they were all brought on to a general roster for foreign service, so that every one in turn has to serve abroad. In 1903 the officers of the department were given substantive rank, and in 1904 were constituted a " corps, " with a small number of non-commissioned officers and men under their command and specially trained by them. In 1907 the Army Veterinary Corps consisted of 167 officers and 220 VETERINARY SCIENCE non-commissioned officers and men. The men are stationed at the veterinary hospitals, Woolwich depot, Aldershot, Bulford and the Curragh, but when trained are available for duty under veterinary officers at any station, and a proportion of them are employed at the various hospitals in South Africa. Owing to their liability to service abroad in rotation, it follows that every officer spends a considerable portion of his service in India, Burma, Egypt or South Africa. Each tour abroad is five years, and the average length of service abroad is about one-half the total. This offers a wide and varied field for the professional activities of the corps, but naturally entails a corresponding strain on the individuals. Commissions as lieutenants are obtained by examination, the candidates having previously qualified as members of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Promotion to captain and major is granted at five and fifteen years' service respectively, and subsequently, by selection, to lieutenant-colonel and colonel, as vacancies occur. The director- general has the honorary rank of major-general. The Indian civil veterinary department was at first recruited from the A. V. Corps, but candidates who qualified as members of the R.C.V.S. were subsequently granted direct appoint- ments by the India Office, by selection. The service is paid and pensioned on the lines of the other Indian civil services, and offers an excellent professional career to those whose constitu- tion permits them to live in the tropics. The work comprises the investigation of disease in animals and the management of studs and farms, in addition to the clinical practice which falls to the share of all veterinary surgeons. In India there are schools for the training of natives as veterinary surgeons in Bombay, Lahore, Ajmere and Bengal. The courses extend over two and three years, and the instruction is very thorough. The professors are officers of the Indian civil veterinary depart- ment, and graduates are given subordinate appointments in that service, or find ready employment in the native cavalry or in civil life. In the United States of America, veterinary science made very slow progress until 1884, when the Bureau of Animal Industry was established in connexion with the Department of Agriculture at Washington. The immediate cause of the formation of the bureau was the urgent need by the Federal government of official information concerning the nature and prevalence of animal diseases, and of the means required to control and eradicate them, and also the necessity of having an executive agency to carry out the measures necessary to stop the spread of disease and to prevent the importation of contagion into the country, as well as to conduct investigations through which further knowledge might be obtained. In 1907 the bureau consisted of ten divisions, employing the services of 815 veterinary surgeons. It deals with the investigation, control and eradication of contagious diseases of animals, the inspection and quarantine of live stock, horse-breeding, experiments in feeding, diseases of poultry and the inspection of meat and dairy produce. It makes original investiga- tions as to the nature, cause and prevention of communicable diseases of live stock, and takes measures for their repression, frequently in conjunction with state and territorial authorities. It prepares tuberculin and mallein, and supplies these substances free of charge to public health officers, conducts experiments with immunizing agents, and prepares vaccines, sera and antitoxins for the protection of animals against disease. It prepares and publishes reports of scientific investigations and treatises on various subjects relating to live stock. The diseases which claim most attention are Texas fever, sheep scab, cattle mange, venereal disease of horses, tuberculosis of cattle and pigs, hog cholera, glanders, anthrax, black-quarter, and parasitic diseases of cattle, sheep and horses. The effect of the work of the bureau on the health and value of farm animals and their products is well known, and the people of the United States now realize the immense importance of veterinary science. Veterinary schools were established in New York City in 1846, Boston in 1848, Chicago in 1883, and subsequently in Kansas City and elsewhere, but these, like those of Great Britain, were private institutions. The American Veterinary College, N.Y., founded in 1875, is connected with New York University, and the N.Y. State Veterinary College forms a department of Cornell University at Ithaca. Other veterinary schools attached to state universities or agricultural colleges are those in Philadelphia. Pa.; Columbus, Ohio; Ames, Iowa; Pullman, Washington; Auburn, Alabama; Manhattan, Kansas; and Fort Collins, Colorado. Other veterinary colleges are in San Francisco; Washington, D.C. (two); Grand Rapids, Michigan ;St Joseph, Missouri; and Cincinnati, Ohio. In Canada a veterinary school was founded at Toronto in 1862, and four years later another school was established at Montreal. Canada ^or sorne Vear? the Montreal school formed a department of McGill University, but in 1902 the veterinary branch was discontinued. Veterinary instruction in French is given by the faculty of comparative medicine at Laval University. The Canadian Department of Agriculture possesses a fully equipped veterinary sanitary service employing about 400 qualified veterinary surgeons as inspectors of "live stock, meat and dairy produce. In the Australian commonwealth there is only one veterinary school, which was established in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1888. The Public Health Departments of New South Wales, Western Australia, Tasmania and the other states employ AtatnU'- qualified veterinary surgeons as inspectors of live stock, cowsheds, meat and dairy produce. There is no veterinary school in New Zealand, but the Depart- ment of Agriculture has arranged to establish one at Wellington in connexion with the investigation laboratory and farm „ of the division of veterinary science at Wallaceville. The ^ew. government employs about forty qualified veterinarians as inspectors of live stock, abattoirs, meat- works and dairies. In Egypt a veterinary school with French teachers was founded in 1830 at Abu-Zabel, near Cairo, by Clot-Bey, a doctor of medicine. This school was discontinued in 1842. The Public Health Ervat Department in 1901 established at Cairo a new veterinary school for the instruction of natives. Ten qualified! veterinary surgeons are employed in the sanitary service. Each of the colonies Natal, Cape Colony, Transvaal, Orange River Colony, Swaziland, Bechuanaland and Rhodesia has a veterinary sanitary police service engaged in dealing with the south contagious diseases of animals. Laboratories for the Alrkm investigation of disease and the preparation of antitoxins and protective sera have been established at Grahamstown, Pretoria and Pietermaritzburg. Characteristics of Veterinary Medicine. Veterinary medicine has been far less exposed to the vagaries of theoretical doctrines and systems than human medicine. The explanation may perhaps be that the successful practice of this branch of medicine more clearly than m any other depends upon the careful observation of facts and the rational deductions to be made therefrom. No special doctrines seem, in later times at least, to have been adopted, and the dominating sentiment in regard to disease and its treatment has been a medical eclecticism, based on practical experience and anatomico- pathological investigation, rarely indeed on philosophical or abstract theories. In this way veterinary science has become pre-eminently a science of observation. At times indeed it has to some extent been influenced by the doctrines which have controlled the practice of human medicine — such as those of Broussais, Hahnemann, Brown, Rasori, Rademacher and others — yet this has not been for long: experience of them when tested upon dumb unimaginative animals soon exposed their fallacies and compelled their discontinuance. Of more moment than the cure of disease is its prevention, and this is now considered the most important object in con- nexion with veterinary science. More especially is this the case with those contagious disorders that depend for their existence and extension upon the presence of an infecting agent, and whose ravages for so many centuries are written largely in the history of civilization. Every advance made in human medicine affects the progress of veterinary science, and the invaluable investigations of Davaine, Pasteur, Chauveau, Lister and Koch have created as great a revolution in veterinary prac- tice as in the medicine of man. In " preventive medicine " the benefits derived from the application of the germ theory are now realized to be immense; and the sanitary police measures based on this knowledge, if carried rigorously into operation, must eventually lead to the extinction of animal plagues. Bacteriology has thrown much light on the nature, diagnosis and cure of disease both in man and animals, and it has developed the beneficent practice of aseptic and antiseptic surgery, enabling the practitioner to prevent exhausting suppuration and wound infection with its attendant septic fever, to ensure the rapid healing of wounds, and to undertake the more serious operations with greater confidence of a success- ful result. The medicine of the lower animals differs from that of man in no particular so much, perhaps, as in the application it makes of utilitarian principles. The life of man is sacred ; but in the case of animals, when there are doubts as to complete restora- tion to health or usefulness, pecuniary considerations gener- ally decide against the adoption of remedial measures. This feature in the medicine of domesticated animals brings very prominently before us the value of the old adage that " pre- vention is better than cure." In Great Britain the value of VETERINARY SCIENCE veterinary pathology in the relations it bears to human medicine, to the public health and wealth, as well as to agriculture, has not been sufficiently appreciated; and in consequence but little allowance has been made for the difficulties with which the practitioner of animal medicine has to contend. The rare instances in which animals can be seen by the veterinary surgeon in the earliest stages of disease, and when this would prove most amenable to medical treatment; delay, generally due to the inability of those who have the care of animals to perceive these early stages; the fact that animals cannot, except in a negative manner, tell their woes, describe their sensations or indicate what and where they suffer; the absence of those comforts and conveniences of the sick-room which cannot be called in to ameliorate their condition; the violence or stupor, as well as the attitude and structural peculiarities of the sick creatures, which only too frequently render favourable positions for recovery impossible; the slender means generally afforded for carrying out recommendations, together with the oftentimes intractable nature of their diseases; and the utilitarian in- fluences alluded to above — all these considerations, in the great majority of instances, militate against the adoption of curative treatment, or at least greatly increase its difficulties. But notwithstanding these difficulties, veterinary science has made greater strides since 1877 than at any previous period in its history. Every branch of veterinary knowledge has shared in this advance, but in none has the progress been so marked as in the domain of pathology, led by Nocard in France, Schiitz and Kitt in Germany, Bang in Denmark, and McFadyean in England. Bacteriological research has discovered new dis- eases, has revolutionized the views formerly held regarding many others, and has pointed the way to new methods of prevention and cure. Tuberculosis, anthrax, black-quarter, glanders, strangles and tetanus furnish ready examples of the progress of knowledge concerning the nature and causation of disease. These diseases, formerly attributed to the most varied causes — including climatic changes, dietetic errors, peculiar condition of the tissues, heredity, exposure, close breeding, overcrowding and even spontaneous origin — have been proved beyond the possibility of doubt to be due to infection by specific bacteria or germs. In the United Kingdom veterinary science has gained distinc- tion by the eradication of contagious animal diseases. For many years prior to 1865, when a government veterinary department was formed, destructive plagues of animals had prevailed almost continuously in the British islands, and scarcely any attempt had been made to check or extirpate them. Two exotic bovine diseases alone (contagious pleuro-pneumonia or lung plague and foot-and-mouth disease) are estimated to have caused the death, during the first thirty years of their prevalence in the United Kingdom, of 5,549,780 cattle, roughly valued at £83,616,854; while the invasion of cattle plague (rinderpest) in 1865-66 was calculated to have caused a money loss of from £5,000,000 to £8,000,000. The depredations made in South Africa and Australia by the lung plague alone are quite appalling; and in India the loss brought about by contagious diseases among animals has been stated at not less than £6,000,000 annually. The damage done by tuberculosis — a contagious disease of cattle, transmissible to other animals and to man by means of the milk and flesh of diseased beasts — cannot be even guessed at; but it must be enormous considering how widely this malady is diffused. But that terrible pest of all ages, cattle plague, has been promptly suppressed in England with comparatively trifling loss. Foot-and-mouth disease, which frequently proved a heavy infliction to agriculture, has been completely extirpated. Rabies may now be included, with rinderpest, lung plague and sheep-pox, in the category of extinct diseases; and new measures have been adopted for the suppression of glanders and swine fever. To combat such diseases as depend for their continuance on germs derived from the soil or herbage, which cannot be directly controlled by veterinary sanitary measures, recourse has been had to pro- tective inoculation with attenuated virus or antitoxic sera. The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has an efficient staff of trained veterinary inspectors, who devote their whole time to the work in connexion with the scheduled diseases of animals, and are frequently employed to inquire into other diseases of an apparently contagious nature, where the circumstances are of general importance to agriculturists. Veterinary science can offer much assistance in the study and prevention of the diseases to which mankind are liable. Some grave maladies of the human species are certainly derived from animals, and others may yet be added to the list. In the training of the physician great benefit would be derived from the study of disease in animals — a fact which has been strangely overlooked in England, as those can testify who understand how closely the health of man may depend upon the health of the creatures he has domesticated and derives subsistence from, and how much more advantageously morbid processes can be studied in animals than in our own species. Although as yet few chairs of comparative pathology have been established in British universities, on the European continent such chairs are now looked upon as almost indis- pensable to every university. Bourgelat, towards the middle of the 1 8th century, in speaking of the veterinary schools he had been instrumental in forming, urged that " leurs portes soient sans cesse ouvertes a ceux qui, charges par 1'etat de la conservation des hommes, auront acquis par le nom qu'ils se seront fait le droit d'interroger la nature, chercher des analogies, et verifier des idees dont la conformation ne peut elre qu'utile a 1'espece humaine." And the benefits to be mutually derived from this association of the two branches of medicine inspired Vicq d'Azyr to elaborate his Nouveau plan de la constitution de la medecine en France, which he presented to the National Assembly in 1790. His fundamental idea was to make veterinary teaching a preliminary (le premier dcgre) and, as it were, the principle of instruction in human medicine. His proposal went so far as to insist upon a veterinary school being annexed to every medical college established in France. This idea was reproduced in the Rapport sur I'instruclion publique which Talleyrand read before the National Assembly in 1790. In this project veterinary teaching was to form part of the National Institution at Paris. The idea was to initiate students of medicine into a knowledge of diseases by observing those of animals. The suffering animal always appears exactly as it is and feels, without the intervention of mind obscuring the symptomatology, the symptoms being really and truly the rigorous expression of its diseased condition. From this point of view, the dumb animal, when it is ill, offers the same diffi- culties in diagnosis as does the ailing infant or the comatose adult. Of the other objects of veterinary science there is only one to which allusion need here be made: that is the perfectioning of the domestic animals in everything that is likely to make them more valuable to man. This is in an especial manner the province of this science, the knowledge of the anatomy, physiology and other matters connected with these animals by its students being essential for such improvement. Diseases of Domestic Animals. Considerations of space forbid a complete or detailed descrip- tion of all the diseases, medical and surgical, to which the domesticated animals are liable. Separate articles are devoted to the principal plagues, or murrains, which affect animals— RINDERPEST, FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE, PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, ANTHRAX, &c. Reference will be made here only to the more important other disorders of animals which are of a communic- able nature. Diseases of the Horse. Every horseman should know something of the injuries, lame- nesses and diseases to which the horse is liable. Unfortunately not very much can be done in this direction by book instruction; indeed, there is generally too much doctoring and too little nursing of sick animals. Even in slight and favourable cases of illness recovery is often retarded by too zealous and injudicious medication; the object to be always kept in view in the treatment of animal patients is to place them in those conditions which allow nature to VETERINARY SCIENCE operate most freely in restoring health. This can best be rendered in the form of nursing, which sick animals greatly appreciate. How- ever indifferent a horse may be to caressing or kind atten- Nurslag. t;on during health, when ill he certainly appreciates both, and when in pain will often apparently endeavour to attract notice and seek relief from those with whom he is familiar. Fresh air and cleanliness, quiet and comfort, should always be secured, if possible. The stable or loose-box should be warm, without being close, and free from draughts. If the weather is cold, and especially if the horse is suffering from inflammation of the air-passages, it may be necessary to keep up the temperature by artificial means; but great care should be taken that this does not render the air too dry to breathe. The surface of the body can be kept warm by rugs, and the legs by woollen bandages. Yet a sick horse is easily fatigued and annoyed by too much clothing, and therefore it is better to resort to artificial heating of the stable than to overload the body or impede movement by heavy wrappings. If blankets are used, it is well to place a cotton or linen sheet under them, should the horse have an irritable skin. For bedding, long straw should be employed as little as possible, since it hampers movement. Clean old litter, sawdust or peat-moss litter is the best. If the hoofs are strong, and the horse likely to be confined for some weeks, it affords relief to take off the shoes. Tying up should be avoided, if possible, unless it is urgently required, the horse being allowed to move about or lie down as he may prefer. When a sick horse has lost his appetite, he should be tempted to eat by offering him such food as will be enticing to him. It should be given frequently and in small quantities, but should not Food for be forced on him ; food will often be taken if offered from the hand, when it will not be eaten out of the manger. horse. Whether the animal be fed from a bucket or from a manger, any food that is left should be thrown away, and the receptacle well cleaned out after each meal. As a rule, during sickness a horse requires laxative food, in order to allay fever or inflammatory symptoms, while supporting the strength. The following list comprises the usual laxative foods employed: green grass, green wheat, oats and barley, lucerne, carrots, parsnips, gruel, bran mash, linseed and bran mash, boiled barley, linseed tea, hay tea and linseed oil. Green grass, lucerne, and similar articles of food if cut when in a wet state, should be dried before being given. Boiled grain should be cooked with very little water, so that it may be floury and comparatively dry when ready; a little salt should be mixed with it. One gallon of good gruel may be made with a pound of meal and cold water, which should be stirred till it boils, and afterwards permitted to simmer over a gentle fire till the fluid is quite thick. To make a bran mash, scald a stable bucket, throw out the water, put in 3 Ib of bran and I oz. of salt, add 2j pints of boiling water, stir up well, cover over and _ allow the mash to stand for fifteen or twenty minutes until it is well cooked. For a bran and linseed mash, boil slowly for two or three hours i Jb of linseed, so as to have about a couple of quaYts of thick fluid, to which 2 Ib of bran and I oz. of salt may be added. The whole should be stirred up, covered over and allowed to steam as before described. The thicker the mash the more readily will the horse eat it. Linseed tea is made by boiling I ft of lin- seed in a couple of gallons of water until the grains are quite soft. It may be economically made by using less water to cook the linseed, and afterwards making up the quantity of water to about a gallon and a half. Hay tea may be prepared by filling a bucket, after scalding it, with good sweet hay, pouring in as much boiling water as the bucket will hold, covering it over, and allowing it to stand until cold, when the fluid may be strained off and given to the horse. This forms a refreshing drink. Linseed oil, in quantities of from i oz. to 6 oz. daily, may be mixed with the food ; it keeps the bowels in a lax condition, has a good effect on the skin and air- passages, and is useful as an article of diet. When debility has to be combated, as in low fever or other weakening diseases, strengthen- ing and other easily digested food must be administered, though some of the foods already mentioned, such as boiled grain, answer this purpose to a certain extent. Milk, eggs, bread and biscuits, malt, corn, &c., are often prescribed with this object. Milk may be given skimmed or unskimmed ; a little sugar may be mixed with it ; and one or two gallons may be given daily, according to circum- stances. One or two eggs may be given beaten up with a little sugar and mixed with milk, three or four times a day, or more frequently; or they may be boiled hard and powdered, and mixed in the milk. A quart of stout, ale or porter may be given two or three times a day, or a half to one bottle of port wine daily. Scalded oats, with a little salt added, are very useful when convalescence is nearly completed. As a rule, a sick horse should have as much water as he likes to drink, though it may be necessary in certain cases to restrict the quantity, and to have the chill taken off ; but it should never be warmer than 75° to 80°. As little grooming as possible should be allowed when a horse is very weak; it should be limited to sponging the mouth, nostrils, eyes and forehead with clean water, to which a little eucalyptus or sanitas may be added. Rub the legs and ears with the hand, take off the clothing, and shake or change it once a day, and if agreeable rub over the body with a soft cloth. Exercise is of course not required during sickness or injury, and the period at which it is allowed will depend upon circumstances. Care must be taken that it is not ordered too early, or carried too far at first. Much care is required in administering medicines in the form of ball or bolus; and practice, as well as courage and tact, is needed in order to give it without danger to the administrator or the animal. The ball should be held between the fingers ' of the right hand, the tips of the first and fourth being brought together below the second and third, which are ' placed on the upper side of the ball ; the right hand is thus made as small as possible, so as to admit of ready insertion into the mouth. The left hand grasps the horse's tongue, gently pulls it out and places it on that part of the right side of the lower jaw which is bare of teeth. With the right hand the ball is placed at the root of the tongue. The moment the right hand is withdrawn, the tongue should be released. This causes the ball to be carried still farther back. The operator then closes the mouth and watches the left side of the neck, to note the passage of the ball down the gullet. Many horses keep a ball in the mouth a considerable time before they will allow it to go down. A mouthful of water or a handful of food will generally make them swallow it readily. It is most essential to have the ball moderately soft ; nothing can be more dangerous than a hard one. To administer a drink or drench requires as much care as giving a ball, in order to avoid choking the horse, though it is unattended with risk to the administrator. An ordinary glass or stone bottle may be used, providing there are no sharp points around the mouth ; but either the usual drenching-horn or a tin vessel with a narrow mouth or spout is safer. It is necessary to raise the horse's head, so that the nose may be a little higher than the horizontal line. The drink must be given by a person standing on the right side (the attendant being in front or on the left side of the horse), the cheek being pulled out a little, to form a sack or funnel, into which the medicine is poured, a little at a time, allowing an interval now and again for the horse to swallow. If any of the fluid gets into the windpipe (which it is liable to do if the head is held too high), it will cause coughing, whereupon the head should be instantly lowered. Neither the tongue nor the nostrils should be interfered with. Powders may be given in a little mash or gruel, well stirred up, or in the drinking water. If a wide surface is to be fomented (as the chest, abdomen or loins), a blanket or other large woollen cloth should be dipped in water as hot as the hand can comfortably bear it, moderately wrung out and applied to the part, the heat and moisture being retained by covering it with a waterproof sheet or dry rug. When it has lost some of its heat, it should be removed, dipped in warm water and again applied. In cases of acute inflammation, it may be necessary to have the water a little hotter; and, to avoid the inconvenience of removing the blanket, or the danger of chill when it is removed, it may be secured round the body by skewers or twine, the hot water being poured on the outside of the top part of the blanket by any convenient vessel. To foment the feet, they should be placed in a bucket or tub (the latter with the bottom resting wholly on the ground) containing warm water; a quantity of moss litter put in the tub or bucket prevents splashing and retains the heat longer. Poultices are used for allaying pain, softening horn or other tissues, and, when antiseptic, cleansing and promoting healthy action in wounds. To be beneficial they should be large ^^ and always kept moist. For applying poultices to the feet, a piece of sacking, or better a poultice-boot, supplied by saddlers, may be used with advantage. Poultices are usually made with bran, though this has the disadvantage of drying quickly, to prevent which it may be mixed with linseed meal or a little linseed oil. Antiseptic poultices containing lysol, izal, carbolic acid or creolin, are very useful in the early treatment of foul and punctured wounds. A charcoal poultice is sometimes employed when there is an offensjve smell to be got rid of. It is made by mixing linseed meal with boiling water and stirring until a soft mass is produced; with this some wood charcoal in powder is mixed, and when ready to be applied some more charcoal is sprinkled on the surface. It may be noted that, in lieu of these materials for poultices, spongiopiline can be usefully employed. A piece of sufficient size is steeped in hot water, applied to the part, covered with oiled silk or water- proof sheeting, and secured by tapes. Even an ordinary sponge, steeped in hot water and covered with waterproof material, makes a good poulticing medium; it is well adapted for the throat, the space between the branches of the lower jaw, as well as for the lower joints of the limbs. Enemata or clysters are given in fevers, constipation, colic, &c., to empty the posterior part of the bowels. They can be administered by a large syringe capable of containing a quart or more of water, with a nozzle about 12 in. long, or by a large funnel with a long nozzle at a right angle. Water, soap and ^/Lj•• They are most dangerous when migrating from one organ to another. They are found in the anterior mesenteric artery, but they also produce aneurism of the coeliac axis and other abdominal blood vessels, including: the aorta. These parasitic aneurisms are a frequent cause of fatal colic in young horses. Sclerostomum tetracanthum, or four-spined sclerostome, is about the same size as the palisade worm, and like it is found in the colon, caecum and small intestine. It finds its way to the bowel in water or green fodder swallowed by the horse. It is a true blood-sucker, and its development is very similar to that of the S. equinum, except that it directly encysts itself in the mucous membrane and does not enter the blood vessels. The symptoms of its presence are emacia- tion, colicky pains, harsh unthrifty coat, flabby muscles, flatu- lence, foetid diarrhoea, anaemia, great weakness and, sometimes, haemorrhagic enteritis. Treatment of equine sclerostomiasis fre- quently fails, as the remedies cannot reach the encysted parasites. As vermicides, thymol, areca, ferrous sulphate, tartar emetic, arsenic, sodium chloride, oil of turpentine, lysol, creolin and carbolic acid have been found useful. Oxyuris curoula, or pin worm, is a common parasite of the large intestine. The anterior part of the body is curved and the tail sharply pointed. The male is seldom seen. The female measures i to ij in. in length. It is found in the caecum, colon and rectum, and it causes pruritus of the anus, from which it may be found pro- jecting. This parasite is best treated by means of a cathartic, followed by a course of mineral tonics, and repeated rectal injections of sodium chloride solution, infusion of quassia or diluted creolin. The cestodes or taeniae of the horse are insignificant in size and they produce no special symptoms. Three species — Anoplocefhala perfoltata (26-28 mm. long), A. plicata (i$-8cm.)andA.mamillana (1-3 cm.) — have been described. The first is found in the_small intestine and caecum, rarely in the colon ; the second occurs in the small intestine and stomach; the third in the small intestine. Generally a horse may be proved to be infested with tape-worm by finding some of the ripe segments or proglottides in the faeces. The best remedy is male fern extract with turpentine and linseed oil. Gastrophilus equi, or the common bot-fly, is classed _with the parasites on account of its larval form living as a parasite. The bot-fly deposits its eggs on the fore-arm, knee and shank of the horse at pasture. In twenty-four hours the ova are hatched and the embryo, crawling on the skin, causes itching, which induces the horse to nibble or lick the part, and in this way the embryo is carried by the tongue to the mouth and swallowed. In the stomach the embryo attaches itself to the mucous membrane, moults three times, in- creases in size and changes from a blood-red to a yellowish-brown 12 VETERINARY SCIENCE colour. The bot remains in the stomach till the following spring, when it detaches itself, passes into the food and is discharged with the faeces. When very numerous, bots may cause symptoms of indigestion, though frequently their presence in the stomach is not indicated by any sign of ill-health. They are difficult to dislodge or kill. Green food, iodine, naphthalin, hydrochloric acid and vegetable bitters have been recommended; but the most effective remedy is a dose of carbon bisulphide given in a gelatin capsule, repeated in twelve hours, and followed twelve hours later by an aloetic ball. Of the parasites which infest cattle and sheep mention will only be made of Distomum hepaticum, or common fluke, which causes liver-rot or distomiasis, a very fatal disease of lambs and sheep under two years old. It occurs most frequently p' after a wet season on low-lying, marshy or undrainedland, but it may be carried to other pastures by sheep which have been driven through a fluke-infested country, and sheep allowed to graze along ditches by the roadside may contract the parasite. For a full description of its anatomy and development see TREMATODES. Preventive treatment comprises the destruction of flukes and snails; avoidance of low-lying, wet pastures draining infested land, and top-dressing with salt, gas-lime, lime water or soot; supplying sheep with pure drinking water; placing rock-salt in the fields, and providing extra food and a tonic lick consisting of salt, aniseed, ferrous sulphate, linseed and peas-meal. Husk, hoose or verminous bronchitis of calves is caused by St'ongylus micrurus, or pointed-tailed strongyle, a thread-worm i to 3 in. long, and 5. pulmonaris, a similar but smaller nematode; and the corresponding disease of sheep is due to S.^filaria and 5. rufescens. The male S.filaria is I to 2 in., and the female 2 to 4 in. long. They are white in colour and of the thickness of ordinary sewing cotton. The 5. rufescens is thinner and shorter than S.filaria and its colour is brownish red. The development of these strongyles is not accurately known. When expelled and deposited in water or moist earth, the embryos may live for many months. Hoose occurs in spring and continues until autumn, when it may be most severe. In sheep the symptoms are coughing, at first strong, with long intervals, then weak and frequent, leaving the sheep distressed and wheezing; discharge from the nose, salivation, occasional retching with expulsion of parasites in frothy mucus, advancing emaciation, anaemia and weakness. In calves the symptoms are similar but less acute. Various methods of cure have been tried. Remedies given by the mouth are seldom satisfactory. Good results have followed fumigations with chlorine, burning sulphur, tar, &c., and intra-tracheat injections of chloroform, iodine and ether, oil of turpentine, carbolic acid, and opium tincture,, or chloroform, ether, creosote and olive oil. The system should be supported with as much good nourishing food as possible. The principal parasites which infest the alimentary canal of cattle or sheep are strongyles and taeniae. The strongyles of the fourth stomach are 5. contortus, or twisted wire-worm (male 10 to 20 mm., female 20 to 30 mm. long), 5. convolutus (female 10 to 13 mm.), 5. ceroicornis (female 10 to 12 mm.), 5. gracilis (female 3 to 4 mm.), and an unnamed species (female 9 mm. long) discovered by McFadyean in 1896. In the contents of the stomach the contortus may easily be recognized, but the other parasites, owing to their small size or situation in the mucous membrane, may be overlooked in an ordinary post-mortem examination. The contortus, which is best known, may serve as the type. It lives on the blood which it abstracts from the mucous membrane, and, according to the state of repletion, its body may be red or white. The ova of this worm are discharged in the faeces and spread over the pastures by infected sheep. The oya hatch in a few days, and, according to Ransom, within a fortnight embryos one-thirtieth of an inch long may be found encased in a chitinoid investment, which protects them from the effects of excessive cold, heat or moisture. When the ground is damp and the temperature not too low, the embryos creep up the leaves of grasses and other plants, but when the temperature is below 40 F. they are inactive (Ransom). Sheep feeding on infected pasture gather the young worms and convey them to the fourth stomach, where they attain maturity in two or three weeks. In wet weather the embryos may be washed into ponds and ditches, and cattle and sheep may swallow them when drinking. Strongyles cause loss of appetite, irritation and inflam- mation of the stomach and bowel, diarrhoea, anaemia, progressive emaciation, and, if not destroyed or expelled, a lingering death from exhaustion. The success or failure of medicinal treatment depends on the degree of infestation. A change of pasture is always de- sirable, and as remedies a few doses of oil of turpentine in linseed oil, or a solution of lysol or cyllin, and a powder consisting of arsenic, ferrous sulphate, areca, nux vomica and common salt may be tried. The ox may be the bearer of three and the sheep of twelve species of taeniae, and of these the commonest is Moniezia (taenia) expanse, which is more frequently found in sheep than in cattle. It is the longest tapeworm, being from 6 to 30 ft. in sheep and from 40 to loo ft. in cattle. Its maximum breadth is J in.; it is found in the small intestine, and sometimes in sufficient numbers in lambs to obstruct the bowel. Infested animals are constantly spreading the ripe segments over the pastures, from which the ova or embryos are gathered by sheep. The symptoms are inappetence, dry harsh wool, weakness, anaemia and diarrhoea with segments of the worms in the faeces. Various drugs have been prescribed for the expulsion of tapeworms, but the most useful are male fern extract, turpentine, kamala, kousso, aloes and linseed oil. Very young animals should be supported by dry nourishing food and tonics, including salt and ferrous sulphate. The principal round-worms of the intestine of ruminants are Ascaris vitulorum, or calf ascarid, Strongylus filicollis, S. ventricosus, Sderostomum hypostomum, Anchylostomum cernuum and Tricho- cephalus qffinis, or common whip-worm, which sometimes causes severe symptoms in sheep. For a full account of the development of Cysticercus bovis, or beef measle, the larval form of Taenia saginata of the human subject, see TAPEWORMS. Another bladder-worm, found in the peritoneum of sheep and cattle, is Cysticercus tenui- collis, or slender-necked hydatid, the larval form of Taenia marginata of the dog. It seldom produces serious lesions. An important hydatid of ruminants in Coenurus cerebralis, which produces in sheep, cattle, goats and deer gid or sturdy, a peculiar affection of the central nervous system characterized by congestion, compression of the brain, vertigo, inco-ordination, and other symptoms of cerebro- spinal paralysis. This bladder-worm is the cystic form of Taenia coenurus of the dog. It is found in the cranial cavity, resting on the brain, within its substance or at its base, and sometimes in the spinal canal. The symptoms vary with the position and number of the vesicles. In an ordinary case the animal feeds intermittently or not at all, appears unaccountably nervous or very dull, more or less blind and deaf, with glazed eye, dilated pupil, the head twisted or inclined always to one side — that occupied by the cyst — and when moving the sheep constantly tends to turn in the same direction. When the vesicle is deep-seated or within the cerebral lobe, the sheep carries the head low, brings the feet together and turns round and round like a dog preparing to lie down. When the developing cyst exerts pressure at the base of the cerebellum, the sheep re- peatedly falls and rolls over. In other cases the chief symptoms may be frequent falling, always on the same side, high trotting action with varying length of step, advancing by rearing and leaping, complete motor paralysis, and in spinal cases posterior paralysis with dragging of the hind limbs. Medicinal treatment is of no avail, but in some cases the hydatid can be removed by trephining the skull. Gid may be prevented by attending to the treatment of dogs infested with the tapeworm. The helminthes of the pig, although not very detrimental to the animal itself, are nevertheless of great importance as regards the entozoa of man. Allusion must be made to Trichinella spiralis, which causes trichinosis. The male is Ath, the female Jth in. long, and the embryos ^jth to fain in. The ova measure uVsth '"• m their long diameter; they are hatched within the body of the female worm. When scraps of trichinous flesh or infested rats have been ingested by the pig, the cysts en- closing the larval trichinae are dissolved by the gastric juice in about eighteen hours, and the worms are found free in the intestine. In twenty-four to forty-eight hours later these larvae, having under- gone certain transformations, become sexually mature; then they copulate, and after an interval the embryos leave the body of the female worm and immediately begin to penetrate the intestinal wall in order to pass into various voluntary muscles, where they become encysted. About twelve days elapse from the time they begin their wandering. Usually each larva is enveloped in a capsule, but two or even three larvae have been found in one investment. They have been known to live in their capsules for eighteen months to two years. Cysticercus cettulosae is the larval form of Taenia solium of man (see TAPEWORMS). " Measly pork " is caused by the presence in the flesh of the pig of this entozoon, which is bladder-like in form. It has also been discovered in the dog. Other important parasites of the pig are Stephanurus dentatus, or crown-tailed strongyle, Echinorhynchus gigas, or thorn-headed worm, Ascaris suis, or pig ascarid, and Strongyloides suis. For these the most useful remedies are castor oil seeds, given with the food, and oil of turpentine in milk, followed by a dose of Epsom salts. Of all the domesticated animals the dog is by far the most fre- quently infested with worms. A very common round-worm is Ascaris marginata (3 to 8 in. long), a variety of the ascarid (A. mystax) of the cat. It occurs in the intestine or stomach of young dogs. The symptoms are emaciation, drooping belly, irritable skin, irregular appetite, vomiting the worms in mucus, colic and diarrhoea. The treatment comprises the administration of areca or santonin in milk, followed by a dose of purgative medicine. A nematode, Filaria immitis, inhabits the heart of the dog, and its larvae may be found in the blood, causing endocarditis, obstruction of the vessels, and fits, which often end in death. Spiroptera sanguinolenta may be found in the dog encysted in the wall of the stomach. Other nematodes of the dog are Anchylostomum trigonocephalum, which causes frequent bleeding from the nose and pernicious anaemia, and Trichocephalus depressius- culus, or whip-worm, which is found in the caecum. The dog harbours eight species of taeniae and five species of Bolhriocephalus. Taenia serrata, about 3 ft. in length, is found in about 10% of VETERINARY SCIENCE Derma- iozoa. English dogs, most frequently in sporting dogs and those employed on farms, owing to their eating the viscera of rabbits, &c., in which the larval form (Cysticercus pisiformis) of this taj»eworrn dwells. T. marginata is the largest cestode of the dog. It varies in length from 5 to 8 ft., and is found in the small intestine of 30% of dogs in Great Britain ; its cystic form (C. tenuicollis) occurs in the peritoneum of sheep. T. co'.nurus causes gid in sheep as previously stated. It seldom exceeds 3 ft. in length. Dogs contract this parasite by eating the heads of sheep infested with the bladder-worm (Coenurus cerebralis). Dipyliaium caninum, T. cucumerina, or melon seed tapeworm, is a very common parasite of dogs. It varies in length from 3 to 15 in.; its larval form (Cryptocystis trichodectis et pulicis) is found in the abdomen of the dog-flea (Pulex serraticeps) , the dog- louse (Trichodectis latus) and in the flea (P. irriians) of the human subject. The dog contracts this worm by swallowing fleas or lice containing the cryptocysts. T. echinococcus may be distinguished from the other tapeworms by its small size. It seldom exceeds J in. in length, and consists of four segments including the head. The fourth or terminal proglottis when ripe is larger than all the rest. Its cystic form is Echinococcus 'veterinorum, which causes hydatid disease of the liver, lungs, and other organs of cattle, pigs, sheep, horses, and even man. This affection may not be discovered during life. In well-marked cases the liver is much deformed, greatly enlarged, and increased in weight; in the ox the hydatid liver may weigh from 50 to 100 Ib or more. Another tapeworm (T. serialis) sometimes occurs in the small intestine. Its cystic form is found in rodents. Bolhriocephalus latus, or broad tapeworm, about 25 ft. long and I in. broad, is found in the intestine of the dog and sometimes in man. Its occurrence appears to be confined to certain parts of the European continent. Its larval form is met with in pike, turbot, tench, perch, and other fishes. The heart- shaped bothriocephalus (B. cordatus) infests the dog and man in Greenland. For the expulsion of tapeworm male fern extract has been found the most effectual agent; areca powder in linseed oil, and a combination of areca, colocynth and jalap, the dose varying according to the age, size and condition of the dog, have also proved beneficial. The parasites which cause numerous skin affections in the domesticated animals may be arranged in two groups, viz. animal parasites or Dermatozoa, and vegetable parasites or Dermatophytes. The dermatozoa, or those which produce pruritus, mange, scab, &c., are lice, fleas, ticks, acari or mange mites, and the larvae of certain flies. The lice of the horse are Haematopinus macrocephalus , Trichodectes pilosus and T. pubescens; those of cattle, H. eurysternus, or large ox-louse, H. vituli, or calf-louse, and T. scalaris, or small ox-louse ; and sheep may be attacked by T. sphaerocephalus, or sheep-louse, and by the louse-like ked or fag (Melophagus minus) which belongs to the pupiparous diptera. Dogs may be infested with two species of lice, H. piliferus and T. latus, and the pig with one, H. urius. Ticks belong to the family Ixodidae of the order Acarina. A few species have been proved responsible for the transmission of diseases caused by blood parasites, and this knowledge has greatly increased the importance of ticks in veterinary practice. The best known ticks are Ixodes ricinus, or castor-bean tick, and /. hexagonus, which are found all over Europe, and which attack dogs, cattle, sheep, deer and horses. Rhipicephalus annulatus, or Texan fever-tick of the United States, Rh. decoloratus, or blue-tick of South Africa, and Rk. australis, or scrub-tick of Australia, transmit the parasite of red water or bovine piroplasmosis. Rh. appendiculatus carries the germs of East Coast fever, Rh. bursa is the bearer of the parasite of ovine piroplasmosis, and Rh. evertsi distributes the germs of equine biliary fever. Amblyomma hebraeum conveys the parasite of " heart-water " of cattle and sheep, and Haemaphysalts leachi transmits the parasite of canine piroplasmosis. Hyalomma aegyptium, or Egyptian tick, Rh. simus and Rh. capensis, are common in most parts of Africa. The acari of itch, scab or mange are species of Sarcoptts, which burrow in the skin; Psoroptes, which puncture the skin and live on the surface sheltered by hairs and scurf; and Chorioptes, which live in colonies and simply pierce the epidermis. Representatives of these three genera have been found on the horse, ox and sheep; varieties of the first genus (Sarcoptes) cause mange in the dog and pig; and Chorioptes cynotis sometimes invades the ears of the dog and cat. These parasites live on the exudation produced by the irritation which they excite. Another acarus (Demodex folliculorum) invades the dog's skin and sometimes occurs in other animals. It inhabits the hair follicles and sebaceous glands, and causes a very intractable acariasis — the follicular or demodecic mange of the dog (see MITE). A useful remedy for mange in the horse is a mixture of sulphur, oil of tar and whale oil, applied daily for three days, then washed off and applied again. For the dog, sulphur, olive oil and potassium carbonate, or oil of tar and fish oil, may be tried. Various approved patent dips are employed for scab in sheep. A good remedy for destroying lice may be compounded from Stavesacre powder, soft soap and hot water, applied warm to the skin. Follic- ular mange is nearly incurable, but recent cases should be treated by daily rubbing with an ointment of 5 parts cyllin and 100 parts of lanoline. The vegetable parasites, or Dermatophytes, which cause tinea or ringworm in horses, cattle and dogs, belong to five distinct genera: Trichophyton, Microsporum, Eidamella, Achorion and Oospora. Ringworm of the horse is either a Tricho- phytosis produced by one of four species of fungi (Tricho- phyton mentagrophytes, T. flavum, T. equinum and T. verrucosum), or a Microsporosis caused by Microsporum audouini. Ringworm of cattle is always a Trichophytosis, and due to T. mentagrophytes. Four different dermatpphytes (T. caninum, M. audouini var. caninum, Eidamella spinosa and Oospora canina) affect the dog, producing Trichophytic, Microsporous and Eidamellian ringworm and favus. Little is known of ringworm in sheep and swine. The fungi attack the roots of the hairs, which after a time lose their elasticity and break off, leaving a greyish-yellow, bran-like crust of epidermic products, dried blood and sometimes pus. In favus the crusts are yellow, cupped, almost entirely composed of fungi, and have an odour like that of mouldy cheese. Ringworm may affect any part of the skin, but occurs principally on the head, face, neck, back and hind quarters. It is very contagious, and it may be communicated from one species to another, ana from animals to man. The affected parts should be carefully scraped and the crusts destroyed by burning; then the patches should be dressed with iodine tincture, solution of copper sulphate or carbolic acid, or with oil of tar. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Modern veterinary literature affords striking evidence of the progress made by the science: excellent text-books, manuals and treatises on every subject belonging to it are numerous, and are published in every European language, while the abundant periodical press, with marked ability and discrimination, records and distributes the ever-increasing knowledge. The substantial advances in veterinary pathology, bacteriology, hygiene, surgery and preventive medicine point to a still greater rate of progress. The schools in every way are better equipped, the education and training — general and technical — of students of veterinary medicine are more comprehensive and thorough, and the appliances for observation and investigation of disease have been greatly improved. Among the numerous modern works in English on the various branches of veterinary science, the following may be mentioned: McFadyean, Anatomy of the Horse: a Dissection Guide (London, 1902) ; Chauveau, Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals (London, 1891); Cuyer, Artistic Anatomy of Animals (London, 1905); Share-Jones, Surgical Anatomy of the Horse (London, J5°7)j Jowett, Blood-Serum Therapy and Preventive Inoculation (London, 1906); Swithinbank and Newman, The Bacteriology of Milk (London, 1905); Fleming, Animal Plagues (London, 1882); Merillat, Animal Dentistry (London, 1905); Liautard, Animal Castration (gth ed., London, 1902); Moussu and Dollar, Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Coats and Swine (London, 1905) ; Reeks, Common Colics of the Horse (London, 1905); Sessions, Cattle Tuberculosis (London, 1905); Sewell, Dogs: their Management (London, 1897); Hobday, Surgical Diseases of the Dog and Cat (London, 1906); Hill, Management and Diseases of the Dog (London, 1905); Sewell, The Dog's Medical Dictionary (London, 1907); Goubaux and Barrier, Exterior of the Horse (London, 1904) ; Reeks, Diseases of the Foot of the Horse (London, 1906); Roberge, The Foot of the Horse (London, 1894); Jensen, Milk Hygiene: a Treatise on Dairy and Milk Inspection, &c. (London, 1907); Smith, Manual of Veterinary Hygiene (London, 1905); Fleming, Human and Animal Variolae (London, 1881); Hunting, The Art of Horse- shoeing (London, 1899); Fleming, Horse-shoeing (London, 1900); Dollar and Wheatley, Handbook of Horse-shoeing (London, 1898); Lungwitz, Text-Book of Horse-shoeing (London, 1904); Axe, The Horse: its Treatment in Health and Disease (9 vols., London, 1905) ; Hayes, The Points of the Horse (London, 1904); Robertson, Equine Medicine (London, 1883); Hayes, Horses on Board Ship (London, 1902); FitzWygram, Horses and Stables (London, 1901); Liautard, Lameness of Horses (London, 1888); Walley, Meat Inspection (2nd ed., London, 1901); Ostertag, Handbook of Meat Inspection (London, 1907); Courtenay, Practice' of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery (London, 1902); Williams, Principles and Practice of Veterinary Medicine (8th ed., London, 1897); J. Law, Text-book of Veterinary Medicine (5 vpls., New York, 1905); Cadiot and Dollar, Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery (London, 1900); Steel, Diseases of the Ox (London, i88i);'Leblanc, Diseases of the Mam- mary Gland (London, 1904); De Bruin, Bovine Obstetrics (London, 1901); Fleming, Veterinary Obstetrics (London, 1896); Dalrymple, Veterinary Obstetrics (London, 1898); Neumann, Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals (London, 1905); F. Smith, Veterinary Physiology (3rd ed., London, 1907); Meade Smith, Physiology of the Domestic Animals (London, 1889); Kitt, Comparative General Pathology (London, 1907) ; Friedberger and Frohner, Veterinary Pathology (London, 1905); Brown, Atlas of the Pig (London, 1900); Rush worth, Sheep and their Diseases (London, 1903); Fleming, Operative Veterinary Surgery (London, 1903); Williams, Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery (loth ed., London, 1903); Moller and Dollar, Practice of Veterinary Surgery (London, 1904); Frohner, General Veterinary Surgery (New York, 1906); Merillat, Principles of Veterinary Surgery and Surgical Pathology (London, 1907); Cadiot and Almy, Surgical VETO Therapeutics of Domestic Animals (London, 1906); Hayes, Stable Management (London, 1903); Dun, Veterinary Medicines: their Actions and Uses (llth ed., Edinburgh, 1906); Tuson, A Pharma- copoeia (London, 1904); Hoare, Veterinary Therapeutics and Pharmacology (London, 1907); Gresswell, The Veterinary Pharma- copoeia and Manual of Therapeutics (London, 1903); Winslow, Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics (New York, 1901) ; Nunn, Veterinary Toxicology (London, 1907); Laveran and Mesnil, Trypanosomata and the Trypanosomiases (London, 1907); Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics (quarterly, Edinburgh) ; The Veterinary Journal (monthly, London) ; The Veterinary Record (weekly, London) ; The Veterinary News (weekly, London). (G. FL.; J.MAC.) VETO (Lat. for " I forbid "), generally the right of preventing any act, or its actual prohibition; in public law, the constitu- tional right of the competent authority, or in republics of the whole people in their primary assembly, to protest against a legislative or administrative act, and to prevent wholly, or for the time being, the validation or execution of the same. It is generally stated that this right was called into existence in the Roman republic by the tribunicia potestas, because by this authority decisions of the senate, and of the consuls and other magistrates, could be declared inoperative. Such a state- ment must, however, be qualified by reference to the facts that inlerdico, inlerdicimus were the expressions used, and, in general, that in ancient Rome every holder of a magistracy would check a negotiation set on foot by a colleague, his equal in rank, by his opposition and intervention. This was a consequence of the position that each of the colleagues possessed the whole power of the magistracy, and this right of intervention must have come into existence with the introduction of colleagued authorities, i.e. with the commencement of the republic. In the Roman magistracy a twofold power must be distinguished: the positive management of the affairs of the state entrusted to each indi- vidual, and the power of restraining the acts of magistrates of equal or inferior rank by his protest. As the tribuni plebis possessed this latter negative competence to a great extent, it is customary to attribute to them the origin of the veto. In the former kingdom of Poland the precedent first set in 1652 was established by law as a constant right, that in the imperial diet a single deputy by his protest " Nie pozwalam," i.e. " I do not permit it," could invalidate the decision sanctioned by the other members. The king of France received the right of a suspensory veto at the commencement of the French Revolution, from the National Assembly sitting at Ver- sailles in 1789, with regard to the decrees of the latter, which was only to be valid for the time being against the decisions come to and during the following National Assembly, but during the period of the third session it was to lose its power if the Assembly persisted in its resolution. By this means it was endeavoured to diminish the odium of the measure; but, as is well known, the monarchy was soon afterwards entirely abol- ished. Similarly the Spanish Constitution of 1812 prescribed that the king might twice refuse his sanction to bills laid twice before him by two sessions 6f the cortes, but if the third session repeated the same he could no longer exercise the power of veto. The same was the ca^e in the Norwegian Constitution of 1814. In the French republic the president has no veto strictly so called, but he has a power somewhat resembling it. He can, when a bill has passed both Chambers, by a message to them, refer it back for further deliberation. The king or queen of England has the right to withhold sanction from a bill passed by both houses of parliament. This royal prerogative has not been exercised since 1692 and may now be considered obsolete. The governor of an English colony with a representative legis- lature has the power of veto against a bill passed by the legis- lative body of a colony. In this case the bill is finally lost, just as a bill would be which had been rejected by the colonial council, or as a bill passed by the English houses of parliament would be if the crown were to exert the prerogative of refusing the royal assent. The governor may, however, without refusing his assent, reserve the bill for the consideration of the crown. In that case the bill does not come into force until it has either actually or constructively received the royal assent, which is in effect the assent of the English ministry, and therefore indirectly of the imperial parliament. Thus the colonial liberty of legisla- tion is made legally reconcilable with imperial sovereignty, and conflicts between colonial and imperial laws are prevented.1 The constitution of the United States of America contains in art. i., sect. 7, par. 2, the following order: — " Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the president of the United States; if he approve, he" shall sign it, if not, he shall return it with his objections to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such recon- sideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two- thirds of that house, it shall become a law. Every order, resolution or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the president of the United States, and, before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being dis- approved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill." In all states of the Union except one the governors, in the same manner or to a modified extent, possess the right of vetoing bills passed by the legislature. Here, therefore, we have again a suspensory veto which is frequently exercised. According to the constitution of the German empire of 1871, the imperial legislation is executed by the federal council and imperial diet; the emperor is not mentioned. In the federal council the simple majority of votes decides. But in the case of bills concerning the army, the navy and certain specially noted taxes, as well as in the case of decisions concerning the alteration of orders for the administration, and arrangements for the execution of the laws of customs and taxes, the proposal of the federal council is only accepted if the Prussian votes are on the side of the majority in favour of the same (art. vii., sect. 3). Prussia presides in the federal council. The state of things is therefore, in fact, as follows: it is not the German emperor, but the same monarch as king of Prussia, who has the right of veto against bills and decisions of the federal council, and therefore can prevent the passing of an imperial law. The superior power of the presidential vote obtains, it is true, its due influence only in one legislative body, but in reality it has the same effect as the veto of the head of the empire. The Swiss federal constitution grants the president of the Confederation no superior position at all; neither he nor the federal council possesses the power of veto against laws or decisions of the federal assembly. But in some cantons, viz. St Gall (1831), Basel (1832) and Lucerne (1841), the veto was introduced as a right of the people. The citizens had the power to submit to a plebiscite laws which had been debated and accepted by the cantonal council (the legislative authority), and to reject the same. If this plebiscite was not demanded within a certain short specified time, the law came into force. But, if the voting took place, and if the number of persons voting against the law exceeded by one vote half the number of persons entitled to vote in the canton, the law was rejected. The absent voters were considered as having voted in favour of the law. An attempt to introduce the veto in Zurich in 1847 failed. Thurgau and Schaffhausen accepted it later. Meanwhile another arrangement has quite driven it out of the field. This is the so-called " refer- endum " — properly speaking, direct legislation by the people — which has been introduced into most of the Swiss cantons. Formerly in all cantons — with the exception of the small moun- tainous districts of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Glarus and Appenzell — it was not a pure democracy, but a representative constitution that prevailed: the great councillors or cantonal councillors periodically chosen by the people were the possessors of the sovereign power, and after deliberating twice passed the bills definitely. Now they have only to discuss the bills, which 1 A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, pp. in seq. (6th ed., London, 1902); Sir H. Jenkyns, British Rule and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas, pp. 113 seq. (London, 1902). VETTER— VEVEY are printed and sent to all voters with an explanatory message; then the people on a certain day vote for the acceptance or re- jection of the law by writing " yes " or " no " on a printed voting paper, which is placed in an urn under official control. In some cantons important financial resolutions involving large state expenses are also submitted to the decision of the people. In the revised federal constitution of 1874, under certain sup- positions which have no further interest for us at present, a facultative referendum or Initiative (i.e. the possibility of de- manding a plebiscite under exceptional circumstances) was introduced for federal laws. Since that period it has often been employed and has operated like a veto. It is evident that by the compulsory referendum in the cantons the mere veto is rendered superfluous. In examining the question as to what position the veto occupies in jurisprudence, we must separate quite different conceptions which are comprised under the same name. 1. The veto may be a mere right of intervention on the part of a magistrate against the order of another official, or against that of an authority of equal or inferior rank. This was the case in ancient Rome. To this class belong also those cases in which, as in the French republic, the president makes his " no " valid against decisions of the general councillors, and the prefect does the same against decisions of the communal councillors. The use of the expres- sion here is quite justifiable, and this veto is not confined to bills, but refers particularly to administrative measures. It affords a guarantee against the abuse of an official position. 2. The veto may be a safety-valve against precipitate decisions, and so a preventive measure. This task is fulfilled by the suspensory veto of the president of the United States. Similarly, to this class belong the above-mentioned prescriptions of the Spanish and Norwegian constitutions, and also the veto of the governor of an English colony against decisions of the legislature; for this protest is only intended to prevent a certain want of harmony between the general and the colonial legislation, by calling forth a renewed investigation. This veto is neither an interference with the com- petence of an authority, nor a division of the legislative power among different factors, but simply a guarantee against precipitancy in the case of a purely legislative measure. The wisdom of estab- lishing this veto power by the constitution is thus manifest. 3. It is wrong to apply the term veto to what is merely the negative side of the sanctioning of the laws, in other words, an act of sove- reignty. It would not be in accordance with the nature of a con- stitutional monarchy to declare the monarch's consent to a law unnecessary, or make it a compulsory duty; the legislative power is divided between him and the chambers. The sovereign must therefore be perfectly at liberty to say " yes " or " no " in each single case according to his opinion. If he says the latter, we speak of it as his veto, but this — if he possesses an absolute and not merely a suspensory veto — is not an intervention and not a preventive measure, but the negative side of the exercise of the legislative power, and therefore an act of sovereignty. That this right belongs fully and entirely to the holder of sovereign power — however he may be called — is self-evident. One chamber can also by protest prevent a bill of the other from coming into force. The " placet of the temporal power for church affairs — when it occurs — also involves in this manner in itself the veto or non placet." Where in pure democracies the people in their assembly have the right of veto or referendum, the exercise of it is also a result of the sovereign rights of legislature. (For the question of the conflict between the two houses of England, see REPRESENTATION.) The peculiar power of veto possessed by the (Prussian) president of the federal council of Germany lies on the boundary between (2) and (3). (A. v. O.) VETTER [Vatter or Welter, often written, with the addition of the definite article, Vettern], a lake of southern Sweden, 80 m. long, and 18 m. in extreme breadth. It has an area of 733 sq. m., and a drainage area of 2528 sq. m.; its maximum depth in 390 ft., and its elevation above sea-level 289 ft. It drains eastward by the Motala river to the Baltic. Its waters are of remarkable transparency and blueness, its shores pictur- esque and steep on the east side, where the Omberg (863 ft.) rises abruptly, with furrowed flanks pierced by caves. The lake is subject to sudden storms. Its northern part is crossed from Karlsborg to Motala (W. to E.) by the Gota canal route. At the southern end is the important manufacturing town of Jonkoping, and 15 m. N. of it the picturesque island of Vising, with a ruined palace of the I7th century and a fine church. Vadstena, 8 m. S. of Motala, with a staple industry in lace, has a convent (now a hospital) of St Bridget or Birgitta (1383), a beautiful monastic church (1395-1424) and a castle of King Gustavus Vasa. At Alvastra, 16 m. S. again, are ruins of a Cistercian monastery of the nth century. Close to Motala are some of the largest mechanical workshops in Sweden, building warships, machinery, bridges, &c. VETULONIUM, or VETULONIA (Etruscan Velluna), an ancient town of Etruria, Italy, the site of which is probably occupied by the modern village of Vetulonia, which up to 1887 bore the name of Colonna. It lies 1130 ft. above sea-level, about 10 m. direct N.W. of Grosseto, on the N.E. side of the hills which project from the flat Maremma and form the promontory of Castiglione. The place is little mentioned in ancient literature, though Silius Italicus tells us that it was hence that the Romans took their magisterial insignia (fasces, curule chair, purple toga and brazen trumpets), and it was undoubtedly one of the twelve cities of Etruria. Its site was not identified before 1881, and the identification has been denied in various works by C. Dotto dei Dauli, who places it on the Poggio Castiglione near Massa Marittima, where scanty remains of buildings (possibly of city walls) have also been found. This site seems to agree better with the indications of medieval documents. But certainly an Etruscan city was situated on the hi)l of Colonna, where there are remains of city walls of massive limestone, in almost hori- zontal courses. The objects discovered in its extensive necro- polis, where over 1000 tombs have been excavated, are now in the museums of Grcsseto and Florence. The most important were surrounded by tumuli, which still form a prominent feature in the landscape. See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883), ii. 263; Notizie degli Scavi, passim; I. Falchi, Ricerche di Vetulonia (Prato, 1881), and other works, especially Vetulonia e la sup, necropoli antichissima (Florence, 1891); G. Sordini, Vetulonia (Spoleto, 1894) and references. (T. As.) VEUILLOT, LOUIS (1813-1883), French journalist and man of letters, was born ot humble parents at Boynes (Loiret) on the nth of October 1813. When Louis Veuillot was five years old his parents removed to Paris. After a very slight education he entered a lawyer's office, and was sent in 1830 to serve on a Rouen paper, and afterwards to Perigueux. He returned to Paris in 1837, and a year later visited Rome during Holy Week. There he embraced extravagant ultramontane sentiments, and was from that time an ardent champion of Catholicism. The results of his conversion appeared in P'tler- inage en Suisse (1839), Rome el Lorelle (1841) and other works. In 1843 he entered the staff of the Univers religieux. His violent methods of journalism had already provoked more than one duel, and for his polemics against the university of Paris in the Univers he was imprisoned for a short time. In 1848 he became editor of the paper, which was suppressed in 1860, but revived in 1867, when Veuillot recommenced his ultra- montane propaganda, which brought about a second suppression of his journal in 1874. When his paper was suppressed Veuillot occupied himself in writing violent pamphlets directed against the moderate Catholics, the Second Empire and the Italian government. His services to the papal see were fully recog- nized by Pius IX., on whom he wrote (1878) a monograph. He died on the 7th of March 1883. Some of his scattered papers were collected in Melanges religieux, historiques et litteraires (12 vols., 1857-75), and his Correspondance (6 vols., 1883-85) has great political interest. His younger brother, Eugene Veuillot, published (1901-4) a comprehensive and valuable life, Louis Veuillot. VEVEY [German Vims], a small town in the Swiss canton of Vaud and near the eastern extremity of the Lake of Geneva. It is by rail 12 m. S.E. of Lausanne or 3! m. N.W. of the Vernex- Montreux railway station, while it is well served by steamers plying over the Lake of Geneva. In 1900 it had a population of 11,781, of whom 8878 were French-speaking, while there were 8277 Protestants to 3424 Romanists and 56 Jews. It is the second town in point of population in the canton, coming next after Lausanne, though inferior to the " agglomeration " known as Montreux. It stands at the mouth of the Veveyse and commands fine views of the snowy mountains seen over the glassy surface of the lake. The whole of the surrounding i6 VEXILLUM— VIANDEN country is covered with vineyards, which (with the entertain- ment of foreign visitors) occupy the inhabitants. Every twenty years or so (last in 1889 and 1905) the Fetedes Vigneronsis held here by an ancient gild of vinedressers, and attracts much attention. Besides a railway line that joins the Montreux- Bernese Oberland line at Chamby (5 m. from Vevey and ij m. below Les Avants) there is a funicular railway from Vevey up the Mont Pelerin (3557 ft.) to the north-west. Vevey was a Roman settlement [Viviscus] and later formed part of the barony of Vaud, that was held by the counts and dukes of Savoy till 1536, when it was conquered by Bern. In 1798 it was freed from Bernese rule and became part of the canton du Leman (renamed canton de Vaud in 1803) of the Helvetic Republic. (W. A. B. C.) VEXILLUM (Lat. dim. of velum, piece of cloth, sail, awning, or from vehere, vectum, to carry), the name for a small ensign consisting of a square cloth suspended from a cross-piece fixed to a spear. The vexillum was strictly the ensign of the maniple, as signum was of the cohort, but the term came to be used for all standards or ensigns other than the eagle (aquila) of the legion (see FLAG). Caesar (B.C. ii. 20) uses the phrase vexillum proponere of the red flag hoisted over the general's tent as a signal for the march or battle. The Gtandard-bearer of the maniple was styled vexillarius, but by the time of the Empire vexillum and vexillarius had gained a new significance. Tacitus uses these terms frequently both of a body of soldiers serving apart from the legion under a separate standard, and also with the addition of some word implying connexion with a legion of those soldiers who, after serving sixteen years with the legion, continued their service, under their own vexillum, with the legion. The term is also used for the scarf wrapped round a bishop's pastoral staff (q.v.). Modern science has adopted the word for the web or vein of a feather of a bird and of the large upper petal of flowers, such as the pea, whose corolla is shaped like a butterfly. VEXIO, or WEXIO, a town and bishop's see of Sweden, capital of the district (Ian) of Kronoberg, 124 m. N.E. of Malmo by rail. Pop. (1900) 7365. It is pleasantly situated among low wooded hills at the north end of Lake Vexio, and near the south end of Lake Helga. Its appearance is modem, for it was burnt in 1843. The cathedral of St Siegfrid dates from about 1300, but has been restored, the last time in 1898. The Smaland Museum has antiquarian and numismatic collections, a library and a bust of Linnaeus. There are iron foundries, a match factory, &c. At Ostrabo, the episcopal residence without the town, the poet Esaias Tegner died in 1846, and he is buried in the town cemetery. On the shore of Lake Helga is the royal estate of Kronoberg, and on an island in the lake the ruins of a former castle of the same name. VEZELAY, a village of France, in the department of Yonne, 10 m. W.S.W. of Avallon by road. Its population, which was over 10,000 in the middle ages, was 524 in 1906. It is situated on the summit and slopes of a hill on the left bank of the Cure, and owes its renown to the Madeleine, one of the largest and most beautiful basilicas in France. The Madeleine dates from the 1 2th century and was skilfully restored by Viollet-le-Duc. It consists of a narthex, with nave and aisles; a triple nave, without triforium, entered from the narthex by three door- ways; transepts; and a choir with triforium. The oldest portion of the church is the nave, constructed about 1125. Its groined vaulting is supported on wide, low, semicircular arches, and on piers and columns, the capitals of which are embellished with sculptures full of animation. The narthex was probably built about 1140. The central entrance, leading from it to the nave, is one of the most remarkable features of the church; it consists of two doorways, divided by a central pier supporting sculptured figures, and is surmounted by a tympanum carved with a representation of Christ bestowing the Holy Spirit upon His apostles. The choir and transepts are later in date than the rest of the church, which they surpass in height and grace of proportion. They resemble the eastern portion of the church of St Denis, and were doubtless built in place of a Romanesque choir damaged in a fire in 1165. A crypt beneath the choir is perhaps the relic of a previous Romanesque church which was destroyed by fire in 1120. The west facade of the Madeleine has three portals; that in the centre is divided by a pier and surmounted by a tympanum sculptured with a bas-relief of the Last Judgment. The upper portion of this front belongs to the i3th century. Only the lower portion of the northernmost of the two flanking towers is left, and of the two towers which formerly rose above the transept that to the north has disappeared. Of the other buildings of the abbey, there remains a chapter-house (i3th century) adjoining the south transept. Most of the ramparts of the town, which have a circuit of over a mile, are still in existence. In particular the Porte Neuve, consisting of two massive towers flanking a gateway, is in good preservation. There are several interesting old nouses, among them one in which Theodore of Beza was born. Of the old parish church, built in the i7th century, the clock-tower alone is left. A mile and a half from Vezelay, in the village of St Pere-sous-Vezelay, there is a remarkable Burgundian Gothic church, built by the monks of Vezelay in the i3th century. The west facade, flanked on the north by a fine tower, is richly decorated; its lower portion is formed of a projecting porch surmounted by pinnacles and adorned with elaborate sculpture. The history of Vezelay is bound up with its Benedictine abbey, which was founded in the gth century under the influence of the abbey of Cluny. This dependence was soon shaken off by the younger monastery, and the acquisition of the relics of St Magdalen, soon after its foundation, began to attract crowds of pilgrims, whose presence enriched both the monks and the town which had grown up round the abbey and ac- knowledged its supremacy. At the beginning of the I2th century the exactions of the abbot Artaud, who required money to defray the expense of the reconstruction of the church, and the refusal of the monks to grant political independ- ence to the citizens, resulted in an insurrection in which the abbey was burnt and the abbot murdered. During the next fifty years three similar revolts occurred, fanned by the counts of Nevers, who wished to acquire the suzerainty over Vezelay for themselves. The monks were, however, aided by the influence both of the Pope and of Louis VII., and the towns- men were unsuccessful on each occasion. During the i2th century V6zelay was the scene of the preaching of the second crusade in 1146, and of the assumption of the cross in 1190 by Richard Cceur de Lion and Philip Augustus. The influence of the abbey began to diminish in 1280 when the Benedictines of St Maximin in Provence affirmed that the true body of St Magdalen had been discovered in their church; its decline was precipitated during the wars of religion of the i6th century, when Vezelay suffered great hardships. VIANDEN, an ancient town in the grand duchy of Luxem- burg, on the banks of the Our, close to the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1905) 2350. It possesses one of the oldest charters in Europe, granted early in the i4th century by Philip, count of Vianden, from whom the family of Nassau-Vianden sprang, and who was consequently the ancestor of William of Orange and Queen Wilhelmina of Holland. The semi-mythical foundress of this family was Bertha, " the White Lady " who figures in many German legends. The original name of Vianden was Viennensis or Vienna, and its probable derivation is from the Celtic Vien (rock). The extensive ruins of the ancient castle stand on an eminence of the little town, but the chapel which forms part of it was restored in 1849 by Prince Henry of the Netherlands. The size and importance of this castle in its prime may be gauged from the fact that the Knights' Hall could accommodate five hundred men-at-arms. A re- markable feature of the chapel is an hexagonal hole in the centre of the floor, opening upon a bare subterranean dungeon. This has been regarded as an instance of the " double chapel," but it seems to have been constructed by order of the crusader Count Frederick II. on the model of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In the neighbourhood of Vianden are other ruined castles, notably those of Stolzemburg and Falkenstein. The VIANNA DO CASTELLO— VICAIRE little town and its pleasant surroundings have been praised by many, among others by Victor Hugo, who resided here on several occasions. During his last visit he wrote his fine work V Annie terrible. In the time of the Romans the Vianden valley was covered with vineyards, but at the present day its chief source of wealth is derived from the rearing of pigs. VIANNA DO CASTELLO, a seaport and the capital of the district of Vianna do Castello, Portugal; at the mouth of the river Lima, which is here crossed by the iron bridge of the Oporto- Valenca do Minho railway. Pop. (1900) 10,000. Vianna do Castello has manufactures of lace and dairy produce. Its fisheries are important. Salmon and lampreys are exported, both fresh and preserved. The administrative district of Vianna do Castello coincides with the northern part of the ancient province of Entre Minho e Douro (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 215,267; area, 857 sq. m. VIAREGGIO, a maritime town and sea-bathing resort of Tus- cany, Italy, in the province of Lucca, on the Mediterranean, 13 m. N.W. of Pisa by rail, 7 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906) 14,863 (town); 21,557 (commune). Being sheltered by dense pine-woods on the north, and its malaria having been banished by drainage, it is frequented as a winter resort, and in summer by some thousands for its sea-bathing. In 1740 the population was only 300, and in 1841, 6549. The body of Shelley was burned on the shore near Viareggio after his death by drowning in 1822. The town possesses a school of navigation and a technical school, and carries on some shipbuilding. VIATICUM (a Latin word meaning " provision for a journey "; Gr. TO. i66ia), is often used by early Christian writers to denote the sacrament of the Eucharist, and is sometimes also applied to baptism. Ultimately it came to be employed in a restricted sense to denote the last communicn given to the dying. The I3th canon of the council of Nicaea is to the effect that " none, even of the lapsed, shall be deprived of the last and most neces- sary viaticum («0o6«w)," and that the bishop, on examination, is to give the oblation to all who desire to partake of the Eucharist on the point of death. The same principle still rules the canon law, it being of course understood that penitential discipline, which in ordinary circumstances would have been due for their offence, is to be undergone by lapsed persons who have thus received the viaticum, in the event of recovery. In extreme cases it is lawful to administer the viaticum to persons not fasting, and the same person may receive it frequently if his illness be prolonged. The ritual to be observed in its adminis- tration does not differ from that laid down in the office for the communion of the sick, except in the words of the formula, which is " accipe, carissime f rater (carissima soror), viaticum corpotis nostri Jesu Christi, quod te custodial ab hoste maligno, protegat te, et perducat te ad vitam aeternam. Amen." After- wards the priest rinses his fingers in a little water, which the communicant drinks. The viaticum is given before extreme unction, a reversal of the medieval practice due to the impor- tance of receiving the Eucharist while the mind is still clear. In the early centuries the sick, like those in health, generally re- ceived both kinds, though there are instances of the viaticum being given under one form only, sometimes the bread and sometimes, where swallowing was difficult, the wine. In times of persecution laymen occasionally carried the viaticum to the sick, a practice that persisted into the 9th century, and deacons continued to do so even after the Council of Ansa (near Lyons) in 990 restricted the function to priests. VIBORG, a town of Denmark, capital of the ami (county) of its name, lying in the bleak midland district of Jutland, though the immediate situation, on the small Viborg lake, is picturesque. Pop. (1901) 8623. It has a station on the railway running east and west between Langaa and Vemb. The most notable building is the cathedral (1130-1169, restored 1864- 1876). The Black Friars' church is of the i3th century, and the museum possesses specimens of the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages, also medieval antiquities. The Borgevold Park borders the lake on the site of a former castle. The industries embrace distilleries, iron foundries and manufactures of cloth. The country to the south attains to a certain degree of beauty near Lake Hald, where the ground is slightly elevated. VIBORG (Finnish Viipuri), capital of a province of the same name in Finland, is situated at the head of the Bay of Viborg in the Gulf of Finland, at the mouth of the Saima Canal and on the railway which connects St Petersburg with Helsingfors. Population of the town (1904) 34,672, of the province 458,269. The Saima Canal (37 m. long), a fine engineering work, connects with the sea Lake Saima — the principal lake of Finland, 249 ft. above sea-level — and a series of others, including Puruvesi, Orivesi, Hoytianen and Kallavesi, all of which are navigated by steamers, as far north as lisalmi in 63° 30' N. lat. Viborg is thus the seaport of Karelia and eastern Savolaks, with the towns of Vilmanstrand (2393 inhabitants in 1904), St Michel (3933), Myslott (2687), Kuopio (13, 5 19) and lisalmi, with their numerous saw-mills and iron-works. Viborg stands most picturesquely on the glaciated and dome-shaped granite hills surrounding the bay, which is protected at its entrance by the naval station of Bjorko and at its head by several forts. The castle of Viborg, built in 1293 by Marshal Torkel Knutson, was the first centre for the spread of Christianity in Karelia, and for establishing the power of Sweden; it is now used as a prison. Its lofty and elegant tower has fallen into decay. The court-house (1839), the town-house, the gymnasium (1641; with an excellent library), and the museum are among the principal buildings of the city. There are also a lyceum and two higher schools for girls, a school of navigation and several primary schools, both public and private, a literary and an agricultural society, and several benevolent institutions. There are foundries, machine works and saw-mills, and a considerable export of timber and wood products. The coasting trade is also considerable. The environs are most picturesque and are visited by many tourists in the summer. The park of Monrepos (Old Viborg), in a bay dotted with dome-shaped islands, is specially attractive. The scenery of the Saima Canal and of the Finnish lakes with the grand ds of Pungaharju; the Imatra rapids, by which the Vuoksen discharges the water of Lake Saima into Lake Ladoga, with the castle of Kexholm at its mouth; Serdobol and Valamo monastery on Lake Ladoga — all visited from Viborg — attract many tourists from St Petersburg as well as from other parts of Finland. VIBURNUM, in medicine, the dried bark of the black haw or Viburnum prunifolium, grown in India and North America. The black haw contains viburnin and valerianic, tannic, gallic, citric and malic acids. The British Pharmacopoeial prepara- tion is the Extraclum Viburni Prunifolii liquidum; the United States preparation is the fluid extract prepared from the Viburnum opulus. The physiological action of viburnum is to lower the blood pressure. In overdose it depresses the motor functions of the spinal cord and so produces loss of reflex and paralysis. Therapeutically the drug is used as an anti- spasmodic in dysmenorrhoea and in menorrhagia. VICAIRE, LOUIS GABRIEL CHARLES (1848-1000), French •poet, was born at Belfort on the 25th of January 1848. He served in the campaign of 1870, and then settled in Paris to practise at the bar, which, however, he soon abandoned for literature. His work was twice " crowned " by the Academy, and in 1892 he received the cross of the Legion of Honour. Born in the Vosges, and a Parisian by adoption, Vicaire remained all his life an enthusiastic lover of the country to which his family belonged — La Bresse — spending much of his time at Ambe'rieu. His freshest and best work is his Emaux bressans (1884), a volume of poems full of the gaiety and spirit of the old French chansons. Other volumes followed: Le Livre de la patric, L'Hture en- chantee (1890), A la bonne franquetle (1892), Au bois joli (1894) and l*e Clos des f(es (1897). Vicaire wrote in collaboration with Jules Truffier two short pieces for the stage, Fleurs d'avrU (1800) and La Farce du mari refondu (1895); also the Miracle de Saint Nicolas (1888). With his friend Henri Beauclair he produced a parody of the Decadents entitled Les Deliquescence* and signed Ador£ Floupette. His fame rests on his £maux bressans and on his Rabelaisian drinking songs; the religious and fairy poems. i8 VICAR— VICE-CHANCELLOR charming as they often are, carry simplicity to the verge of affectation. The poet died in Paris, after a long and painful illness, on the 23rd of September 1900. See Henri Corbel, Un Poete, Gabriel Vicaire (1902). VICAR (Lat. vicarius, substitute), a title, more especially ecclesi- astical, describing various officials acting in some special way for a superior. Cicero uses the name vicarius to describe an under-slave kept by another as part of his private property. The vicarius was an important official in the reorganized empire of Diocletian. It remained as a title of secular officials in the middle ages, being applied to persons appointed by the Roman emperor to judge cases in distant parts of the empire, or to wield power in certain districts, or, in the absence of the emperor, over the whole empire. The prefects of the city at Rome were called Vicarti Romae. In the early middle ages the term was applied to representatives of a count administering justice for him in the country or small towns and dealing with unimportant cases, levying taxes, &c. Monasteries and religious houses often employed a vicar to answer to their feudal lords for those of their lands which did not pass into mortmain. The title of " vicar of Jesus Christ," borne by the popes, was introduced as their special designation during the 8th century, in place of the older style of " vicar of St Peter " (or vicarius prin- cipis apostolorum) . In the early Church other bishops commonly described themselves as vicars of Christ (Du Cange gives an example as late as the 9th century from the capitularies of Charles the Bald) ; but there is no proof in their case, or indeed in that of " vicar of St Peter " given to the popes, that it was part of their formal style. The assumption of the style " vicar of Christ " by the popes coincided with a tendency on the part of the Roman chancery to insist on placing the pontiff's name before that of emperors and kings and to refuse to other bishops the right to address him as" brother "(MasLatrie, s." Sabinien," p. 1047). It was not till the i3th century that the alternative style " vicar of St Peter " was definitively forbidden, this pro- hibition thus coinciding with the extreme claims of the pope to rule the world as the immediate " vicar of God " (see INNOCENT III.). All bishops were looked upon as in some sort vicars of the pope, but the title vicarius sedis apostolicae came especially to be ap- plied as an alternative to legatus sedis apostolicae to describe papal legates to whom in certain places the pope delegated a portion of his authority. Pope Benedict XIV. tells us in his treatise De synodo dioecesana that the pope often names vicars-apostolic for the government of a particular diocese because the episcopal see is vacant or, being filled, the titular bishop cannot fulfil his functions. The Roman Catholic Church in England was governed by vicars-apostolic from 1685 until 1850, when Pope Pius IX. re-established the hierarchy. Vicars-apostolic at the present day are nearly always titular bishops taking their titles from places not acknowledging allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. The title is generally given by the pope to bishops sent on Eastern missions. A neighbouring bishop was sometimes appointed by the pope vicar of a church which happened to be without a pastor. A special vicar was appointed by the pope to superintend the spiritual affairs of Rome and its suburbs, to visit its churches, monasteries, &c., and to correct abuses. It became early a custom for the prebendaries and canons of a cathedral to employ " priest-vicars " or " vicars-choral " as their substitutes when it was their turn as hebdomedary to sing High Mass and conduct divine office. In the English Church these priest-vicars remain in the cathedrals of the old foundations as beneficed clergy on the foundation; in the cathedrals of the new foundation they are paid by the chapters. " Lay vicars " also were and are employed to sing those parts of the office which can be sung by laymen. In the early Church the assistant bishops (chorepiscopi) were sometimes described as vicarii episcoporum. The employment of such vicars was by no means general in the early Church, but towards the I3th century it became very general for a bishop to employ a vicar-general, often to curb the growing authority of the archdeacons. In the middle ages there was not a very clear distinction drawn between the vicar and the official of the bishop. When the voluntary and contentious jurisdiction came to be dis- tinguished, the former fell generally to the vicars, the latter to the officials. In the style of the Roman chancery, official docu- ments are addressed to the bishops or their vicars for dioceses beyond the Alps, but for French dioceses to the bishops or their officials. The institution of vicars-general to help the bishops is now general in the Catholic Church, but it is not certain that a bishop is obliged to have such an official. He may have two. Such a vicar possesses an ordinary and not a delegated juris- diction, which he exercises like the bishop. He cannot, however, exercise functions which concern the episcopal order, or confer benefices without express and particular commission. In the Anglican Church a vicar-general is employed by the archbishop of Canterbury and some other bishops to assist in such matters as ecclesiastical visitations. In the Roman Catholic Church bishops sometimes appoint lesser vicars to exercise a more limited authority over a limited district. They are called " vicars-forane " or rural deans. They are entrusted especially with the surveillance of the parish priests and other priests of their districts, and with matters of ecclesiastical discipline. They are charged especially with the care of sick priests and in case of death with the celebration of their funerals and the charge of their vacant parishes. In canon law priests doing work in place of the parish priest are called vicars. Thus in France the cure or head priest in a parish church is assisted by several vicaires. Formerly, and especially in England, many churches were appropriated to monasteries or colleges of canons, whose custom it was to appoint one of their own body to perform divine service in such churches, but in the I3th century such corporations were obliged to appoint permanent paid vicars who were called perpetual vicars. Hence in England the distinction between rectors, who draw both the greater and lesser tithes, and vicars, who are attached to parishes of which the great tithes, formerly held by monasteries, are now drawn by lay rectors. (See APPRO- PRIATION.) See Du Cange, Glossarium mediae et infiniae Latinitatis, ed. L. Favre (Niort, 1883, &c.); Migne, Encyclopedic theologique, series i. vol. 10 (Droit Canon) ; Comte de Mas Latrie, Tresor de chronologic (Paris, 1889); and Sir R. J. Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England (2nd ed. 1895). (E. O'N.) VICE, (i) (Through Fr. from Lat. vitium), a fault, blemish, more specifically a moral fault, hence depravity, sin, or a par- ticular form of depravity. In the medieval morality plays a special character who acted as an attendant on the devil was styled " the Vice," but sometimes took the name of specific vices such as Envy, Fraud, Iniquity and the like. He was usually dressed in the garb that is identified with that of the domestic fool or jester, and was armed with a wooden sword or dagger. (2) (M.E. vyce, vise or vyse; Fr. vis; Lat. vitis, a vine, or bryony, i.e. something that twists or winds), a portable or fixed tool or appliance which holds or grips an object while it is being worked; a special form of clamp. The tool consists essentially of movable jaws, either jointed by a hinge or moving on slides, and the closing motion is applied by a screw, whence the name, as of something which turns or winds, or by a lever, ratchet, &c. (see TOOLS). (3) (Lat. vice, in place of, abl. sing, of a noun not found in the nom.), a word chiefly used as a prefix in combination with names of office-holders, indicating a position subordinate or alternative to the chief office-holder, especially one who takes second rank or acts in default of his superior, e.g. vice-chairman, vice-admiral, &c. VICE-CHANCELLOR, the deputy of a chancellor (q.v.). In the English legal system vice-chancellors in equity were formerly important officials. The first vice-chancellor was appointed in 1813 in order to lighten the work of the lord chancellor and the master of the rolls, who were at that time the sole judges in equity. Two additional vice-chancellors were appointed in 1841. The vice-chancellors sat separately from the lord chancellor and the lords justices, to whom there was an appeal from their decisions. By the Judicature Act 1873 VICENTE they became judges of the High Court of Justice, retaining their titles, but it was enacted that on the death or retirement of any one his successor was to be styled " judge." Vice-chancellor Sir J. Bacon (1798-1895) was the last to hold the office, resigning in 1886. Vice-chancellor is also the title given to the judge of the duchy court of Lancaster. For the vice-chancellor of a university, see CHANCELLOR. VICENTE, GIL (1470-1540), the father of the Portuguese drama, was born at Guimaraes, but came to Lisbon in boyhood and studied jurisprudence at the university without taking a degree. In 1493 we find him acting as master of rhetoric to the duke of Beja, afterwards King Manoel, a post which gave him admission to the court; and the Cancioneiro Geral contains some early lyrics of his which show that he took part in the famous seroes do paco. The birth of King John III. furnished the occasion for his first dramatic essay — The Neatherd's Monologue, which he recited on the night of the 7th-8th June 1502 in the queen's chamber in the presence of King Manoel and his court. It was written in Spanish out of compliment to the queen, a daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and because that language was then the fashionable medium with the higher classes. This manger-hymn, which was a novelty in Portugal, so pleased the king's mother, the infanta D. Beatriz, that she desired Gil Vicente to repeat it the following Christmas, but he composed instead the CastUian Pastoral Auto, a more developed piece in which he introduced six characters. The infanta, pleased again, required a further diversion for Twelfth Day, whereupon he produced the Auto of the Wise Kings. He had now estab- lished his reputation as a playwright, and for the next thirty years he entertained the courts of Kings Manoel and John III., accompanying them as they moved frcm place to place, and providing by his autos a distraction in times of calamity, and in times of rejoicing giving expression to the feelings of the people. Though himself both actor and author, Gil Vicente had no regular company of players, but it is probable that he easily found students and court servants willing to get up a part for a small fee, especially as the plays would not ordinarily run for. more than one night. The Auto of the Sybil Cassandra (produced at the monastery of Euxobregas at Christmas 1503), the Auto of St Martin (played in the church at Caldas on the feast of Corpus Christi 1504), and a mystery play, the Auto of the Four Seasons, all belong, like their predecessors, to the religious drama, but in 1505 Gil Vicente wrote a comedy of real life, Who has Bran to sell? a title given it by the public. It is a clever farce depicting an amorous poor squire and his ill-paid servants, and opens a rich portrait-gallery in which the dramatist includes every type of Portuguese society, depicting the fail- ings of each with the freedom of a Rabelais. The next three years saw no new play, but in 1506 Gil Vicente delivered before the court at Almeirim a sermon in verse on the theme Non volo, volo, et deficior, in which he protested against the intolerance shown to the Jews, just as in 1531 he interfered to prevent a massacre of the " New Christians " at Santarem. The Auto of the Soul, a Catholic prototype of Goethe's Faust, containing some beautiful lyrics, appeared in 1508, and in 1509 the Auto da India, a farce which has the eastern enterprise of his country- men for background, while the Auto da Fama (1516) and the Exhortation to War (1513) are inspired by the achievements that made Portugal a world-power. If the farce of The Old Man of the Garden (1514) breathes the influence and spirit of the Celestina, the popular trilogy of the Boats of Hell, Purgatory and Glory (1517, 1518, 1519) is at once a dance of death, full of splendid pageantry and caustic irony, and a kind of Portuguese Divina Commedia. The Auto of the Fairies (1516), the Farce of the Doctors (1519) and the Comedy of Rubena (1521) ridicule unchaste clerics and ignorant physicians with considerable freedom and a medieval coarseness of wit, and the Farce of the Gipsies is interesting as the first piece of the European theatre dealing professedly with that race. Ignez Pereira, usually held to be Gil Vicente's masterpiece, was produced in 1523 before King John III. at the convent of Christ at Thomar, and owed its origin to certain men of bom saber, perhaps envious partisan* of the classical school. They pretended to doubt his author- ship of the autos, and accordingly gave him as a theme for a fresh piece the proverb: " I prefer an ass that carries me to a horse that throws me." Gil Vicente accepted the challenge, and furnished a triumphant reply to his detractors in this comedy of ready wit and lively dialogue. The Beira Judge (1526), the Forge of Love (1525) and The Beira Priest (1526) satirize the maladministration of justice by ignorant magistrates and the lax morals of the regular clergy, and the Farce of the Muleteers (1526) dramatizes the type of poor nobleman described in Cleynart's Letters. The Comedy of the Arms of Ihs City of Coimbra (1527) has a considerable antiquarian interest, and the facetious Ship of Love is full of quaint imagery, while the lengthy Auto of the Fair (1527), with its twenty-two characters, may be described as at once an indictment of the society of the time from the standpoint of a practical Christian and a telling appeal for the reform of the church. In an oft-quoted passage, Rome personified comes to the booth of Mercury and Time, and offers her indulgences, saying, " Sell me the peace of heaven, since I have power here below "; but Mercury refuses, declaring that Rome absolves the whole world and never thinks of her own sins. The play concludes with a dance and hymn to the Blessed Virgin. The Triumph of Winter (1529) exposes the unskilful pilots and ignorant seamen who cause the loss of ships and lives on the route to India, and the Auto da Lusitania (1532) portrays the household of a poor Jewish tailor, ending with a curious dialogue between "All the World" and "Nobody." The Pilgrimage of the Aggrieved (1533) is an attack on discontent and ambition, lay and clerical. After representing the Auto da festa for the Conde de Vimioso (1535), and dramatizing the romances of chivalry in D. Duardos and Amadis de Gaula, Gil Vicente ended his dramatic career in 1536 with a mirthful comedy, The Garden of Deceptions. He spent the evening of life in preparing his works for the press at the instance of King John III., and died in 1540, his wife Branca Bezerra having predeceased him. Four children were bom of their union, and among them Paula Vicente attained distinction as a member of the group of cultured women who formed a sort of female academy presided over by the infanta D. Maria. The forty-four pieces comprising the theatre of Gil Vicente fall from the point of view of language into three groups: (i) those in Portuguese only, numbering fourteen; (2) those in Spanish only, numbering eleven; and (3) the bilingual, being the remainder, nineteen in all. They are also from their nature divisible as follows : a. Works of a religious character or of devotion. Most of these are a development of the mystery or miracle play of the middle ages; and they may be subdivided into (i) Biblical pieces; (2) pieces founded on incidents in the life of a saint ; and .(3) religious allegories. In this department Gil Vicente reaches his highest poetical nights, and the Auto of the Soul is a triumph of elevation of idea and feeling allied to beauty of expression, b. Aristocratic works, or tragi- comedies, the composition of which was the result of his contact with the court ; these," though often more spectacular than strictly dramatic, are remarkable for opulence of invention and sweetness of versification, c. The popular theatre, or comedies and farces. Gil Vicente's plays contain some evidence of his knowledge and appreciation of French poetry ; e.e. The Beira Judge wears a general likeness to the products of the Oercs de la Basocne, and his Testa- ment of Maria Parda is reminiscent of the better-known work of Francois Villon. Most of the plays are written in the national redondilha verse, and are preceded by initial rubrics stating the date when, the place where, in whose presence, and on what occasion each was first performed, and these make up the annals of the first thirty-four years of the Portuguese drama. Most of them were put on the stage at the different royal pala_ces; some, however, were played in hospitals, and, it is said, even in churches, though this is doubtful; those of which the subjects are liturgical at the great festivals of Christmas, Epiphany and Maundy Thursday, others on the happening of some event of importance to the royal family or the nation. Many of the plays contain songs, either written and set to music by the author, or collected by him from popular sources, while at the close the characters leave the stage singing and dancing, as was the custom in the medieval comedjes. Though so large a proportion of his pieces are' in Spanish, they are all eminently national in idea, texture and subject. No other Portuguese writer reflects so faithfully the language, types, customs and colour of his age as Gil Vicente, and the rudest of his dramas are full of genuine comic feeling. If they never attain to perfect 20 VICENZA art, they possess the supreme gift of life. None of them are, strictly speaking, historical, and he never attempted to write a tragedy. Himself a man of the people, he would not imitate the products of the classical theatre as did Sa de Miranda and Ferreira, but though he remained faithful to the Old or Spanish school in form, yet he had imbibed the critical spirit and mental ferment of the Renaissance without its culture or erudition. Endowed by nature with acute observation and considerable powers of analysis, Gil Vicente possessed a felicity of phrase and an unmatched knowledge of popular super- stitions, language and lore. Above all, he was a moralist, with satire and ridicule as his main weapons; but if his invective is often stinging it is rarely bitter, while more than one incident in his career shows that he possessed a kindly heart as well as an impartial judgment, and a well-balanced outlook on life. If he owed his early inspiration to Juan de Encina, he repaid the debt by showing a better way to the dramatists of the neighbouring country, so that he may truly be called the father of the rich Spanish drama, of Lope de Vega and Calderon. Much of his fame abroad is due to his position as an innovator, and, as Dr Garnett truly remarked, " One little corner of Europe alone possessed in the early i6th century a drama at once living, indigenous and admirable as literature." Gil Vicente perhaps lacks psychological depth, but he possesses a breadth of mental vision and a critical acumen unknown in any medieval dramatist. In his attitude to religion he acts as the spokesman of the better men of his age and country. A convinced but liberal-minded Catholic, he has no sympathy with attacks on the unity of the Church, but he cries out for a reform of morals, pillories the corruption and ignorance of the clergy and laity, and pens the most bitter things of the popes and their court. He strove to take a middle course at a time when moderation was still possible, though, had he lived a few years longer, in the reign of religious fanaticism inaugurated by the Inquisition, his bold stand for religious toleration would have meant his imprisonment or exile, if not a worse fate. He is a great dramatist in embryo, who, if he had been born fifty years later and preserved his liberty of thought and expression, might with added culture have surpassed Calderon and taken his place as the Latin and Catholic rival of Shakespeare. Some of the plays were printed in Gil Vicente's lifetime, but the first collected edition, whicli included his lyrics, was published after his death by his son Luiz (Lisbon, 1562), with a dedication to King Sebastian. A second edition appeared in 1586, with various omissions and alterations made at the instance of the Inquisition. A critical edition of the text in 3 vols. came out at Hamburg (1834), with a glossary and introductory essay on Vicente's life and writings, and a poor reprint of this edition is dated Lisbon 1852. He has never found a translator, doubtless because of the difficulty of rendering his form and explaining his wealth of topical allusions. AUTHORITIES. — Dr Theophilo Braga, Gil Vicente e as origens do theatre national (Oporto, 1898); J. I. de Brito Rebello, Gil Vicente (Lisbon, 1902); "The Portuguese Drama in the l6th Century — Gil Vicente," in the Manchester Quarterly (July and October 1897); introduction by the Conde de Sabugosa to his edition of the Auto defesla (Lisbon, 1906). (E. PR.) • VICENZA, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, capital of the province of Vicenza, 42 m. W. of Venice by rail, 131 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 32,200 (town); 47,558 (com- mune). It lies at the northern base of the Monti Berici, on both sides of the Bacchiglione, at its confluence with the Retrone. It was surrounded by 13th-century walls, once about 3 m. in circumference, but these are now in great part demolished. Though many of the streets are narrow and irregular, the town has a number of fine buildings, many of them the work of Andrea Palladio. The best of these is the town hall, otherwise known as the basilica, one of the finest works of the Renaissance period, of which Palladio himself said that it might stand comparison with any similar work of antiquity. It is especially noteworthy owing to the difficulty of the task the architect had to accom- plish— that of transforming the exterior of the Palazzo della Ragione, a Gothic building of the latter half of the isth century, which the colonnades of the basilica entirely enclose. It was begun in 1549, but not finished till 1614, long after his death. He also designed many of the fine palaces which give Vicenza its individuality; only two of them, the Barbarano and Chieri- cati palaces (the latter containing the picture gallery), have two orders of architecture, the rest having a heavy rustica basis with only one order above it. Many palaces, however, have been wrongly attributed to him which are really the work of Scamozzi and others of his successors. The famous Teatro Olrmpico was begun by him, but only finished after his death; it is a remarkable attempt to construct a theatre in the ancient style, and the stage, with the representation of streets ascending at the back, is curious. The cathedral, which is Italian Gothic, dating mainly from the i3th century, consists of a nave with eight chapels on each side, and a very high Renaissance domed choir; it contains examples of the Montagnas and of Lorenzo da Venezia. The churches of S. Lorenzo (1280-1344) and S. Corona (1260-1300), both of brick, are better examples of Gothic than the cathedral; both contain interesting works of art — the latter a very fine " Baptism of Christ," by Giovanni Bellini. In S. Stefano is an imposing altar-piece by Palma Vecchio. The church of SS. Felice e Fortunato was restored in A.D. 975, but has been much altered, and was transformed in 1613. The portal is of 1154, and the Lombardesque square brick tower of 1160. Under it a mosaic pavement with the names of the donors, belonging to the original church of the Lombard period (?), was discovered in 1895 (see F. Berchet, ///. Relazione dell' Ujficio Regionale per la conservazione del monumenli del Veneto, Venice, 1895, p. in). None of the churches of Vicenza is the work of Palladio. Of the Palladian villas in the neighbourhood, La Rotonda, or Villa Palladiana, 15 m. S.E., deserves special mention. It is a square building with Ionic colonnades and a central dome, like an ancient temple, but curiously unlike a Roman villa. Vicenza also contains some interesting remains of the Gothic period besides the churches mentioned — the lofty tower of the town hall (1174-1311-1446; the Piazza contains two columns of the Venetian period, with S. Theodore and the Lion of S. Mark on them) and several palaces in the Venetian style. Among these may be especially noted the small Casa Pigafetta dating from 1481, but still half Gothic, prettily decorated. Some of these earlier houses had painted facades. The fine picture of " Christ bearing the Cross " (wrongly ascribed to Giorgione) , according to Burckhardt once in the Palazzo Loschi, is now in the Gardner collection at Boston, U.S.A. The most im- portant manufacture is that of silk, which employs a large proportion of the inhabitants. Great numbers of mulberry trees are grown in the neighbourhood. Woollen and linen cloth, leather, earthenware, paper, and articles in gold and silver are also made in Vicenza, and a considerable trade in these articles, as well as in corn and wine, is carried on. Vicenza is the ancient Vicetia, an ancient town of Venetia. It was of less importance than its neighbours Venetia and Patavium, and we hear little of it in history. It no doubt acquired Roman citizenship in 49 B.C., and became a muni- cipii'tn', and is mentioned two years later apropos of a dispute between the citizens and their slaves. Remains of a theatre and of a late mosaic pavement with hunting scenes have been found, three of the bridges across the Bacchiglione and Retrone are of Roman origin, and arches of the aqueduct exist outside Porta S. Croce. A road diverged here to Opitergium (mod. Oderzo) from the main road between Verona and Patavium (Padua) : see T. Mommsen in Corp. Inscr. Latin, v. (Berlin, 1883), p. 304. It suffered severely in the invasion of Attila, by whom it was laid waste, and in subsequent incursions. It was for some time during the middle ages an independent republic, but was subdued by the Venetians in 1405. Towards the end of the 1 5th century it became the seat of a school of painting strongly influenced by Mantegna, of which the principal repre- sentatives were, besides Bartolomeo Montagna, its founder, his son Benedetto Montagna, Giovanni Speranza and Gio- vanni Buonconsiglio. Good altar-pieces by the former exist in S. Bartolommeo, S. Corona, and the cathedral, and several pictures also in the picture gallery; while his son Benedetto had greater merits as an engraver than a painter. Some works by both of the last two exist at Vicenza— the best is a Pieta in tempera in the gallery by Buonconsiglio, by whom is also a good Madonna at S. Rocco. Andrea Palladio (1518-1580) was a native of Vicenza, as was also a contemporary, Vincenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616), who was largely dependent on him, but is better known for his work on architecture (Architctlura universale, 1615). Palladio inaugurated a school of followers who continued to erect similar buildings in Vicenza even down to the French Revolution. (T. As.) See G. Petting, Vicenza (Bergamo, 1905). VICEROY— VICKSBURG 21 VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or ro i, king) , the governor of a kingdom or colony to whom is delegated by his sovereign the power to exercise regal authority in his name. The lord-lieutenant of Ireland and the governor-general of India are frequently referred to as viceroys, but the title has no official recognition in British government. VICH, a city of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Barcelona, on the river Gurri, a small right-hand tributary of the Ter, and on the Granollers-Ripoll railway. Pop. (1900) 11,628. Vich is an ancient episcopal city, with narrow, ill- paved streets and many curious old houses irregularly built on the slope of a hill, which rises above one of the side valleys of the Ter basin. The cathedral, founded about 1040 and built chiefly in the I4th century, was to some extent modernized in 1803. Its Gothic cloisters (1340) are remarkable for the beauti- ful tracery in their windows, and there is a fine altar of sculp- tured marble. Some valuable manuscripts are preserved in the library of the chapter-house, and the museum contains an interesting archaeological collection, besides statuary, pic- tures, &c. The city is locally celebrated for the manufacture of sausages; other industries include tanning and the weaving of linen and woollen fabrics. Vich, the Ausa of the ancient geographers, was the chief town of the Ausetani; in the middle ages it was called Ausona and Vicus Ausonensis, hence Vic de Osona, and simply Vich. VICHY, a town of central France in the department of Allier, on the right bank of the Allier, 33 m. S. by E. of Moulins by rail. Pop. (1906) 14,520. Vichy owes its importance to its mineral waters, which were well known in the time of the Romans. They afterwards lost their celebrity and did not regain it till the I7th century, in the latter half of which they were visited and written of by Madame de Sevigne. Within the town or in its immediate vicinity there are between thirty and forty springs, twelve of which are state property, four of these having been tapped by boring. The waters of those which are outside the town are brought in by means of aqueducts. The most celebrated and frequented are the Grande Grille, L'Hopital, the Celestins, and Lardy. The most copious of all, the Puits Carre, is reserved for the baths. All these, whether cold or hot (maximum temperature, 113° F.), are largely charged with bicarbonate of soda; some also are chalybeate and tonic. The waters, which are limpid, have an alkaline taste and emit a slight odour of sulphuretted hydrogen. They are recom- mended in cases of stomachic and liver complaint, also for diabetes, gravel and gout. Large quantities are bottled and exported. A luxurious bathing establishment, the property of the state, was opened in 1903. In addition to this, Vichy has the hydropathic establishments of Lardy, Larbaud and L'Hopital, and a large military hospital, founded in 1843. A fine casino and two public parks add to its attraction. The promenade commands a splendid view of the mountains of Auvergne. Cusset, about i m. distant, has similar mineral waters and a bathing establishment. VICKSBURG, a city and the county-seat of Warren county, Mississippi, U.S.A., on the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers,1 44 m. by rail W. of Jackson, and 236 m. N. by W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1800) 13,373; (1000) 14,834, of whom 8147 were negroes; (1910 census) 20,814, being the second largest city in Mississippi. It is served by the Alabama & Yicksburg, the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific, and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railways, and by steamboat lines. It is built among the Walnut Hills, which rise about 260 ft. above the river. Among the principal buildings and institutions are the court-house, standing on one of the highest hills, a fine Federal building, the city hall, a state charity hospital, an 'The channel of the Mississippi has changed greatly: until 1876 the entire city was on the Mississippi, which made a bend forming a tongue of land opposite the city; in 1876 the river cut across this tongue and formed an island, making the northern part of the city front on the shallow " Lake Centennial." The Federal govern- ment, by turning the Yazoo through a canal across the upper end of the old channel, gave the city a river front once more. infirmary, a sanatorium, a public library, the medical college of the university of Mississippi, All Saints' Episcopal College (Protestant Episcopal, 1009) for girls, Saint Francis Xavier's Academy, and Saint Aloysius College (Roman Catholic). The Civil War battle-ground has been converted into a beautiful National Military Park, embracing 1283 acres and containing numerous markers, memorials and monuments, including one (1910) to Lieut. -General Stephen Dill Lee, who was super- intendent of the Military Park from 1899 until his death in 1908. On the bluffs just beyond the northern limits of the city and ad- joining the Military Park is the Vicksburg National Cemetery, in which are the graves of 16,892 Federal soldiers (12,769 unknown). The principal industry of Vicksburg is the construction and repair of rolling stock for steam railways. It has also a dry dock and cotton compresses; and among its manufactures are cottonseed oil and cake, hardwood lumber, furniture, boxes and baskets. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $1,887,924. The city has a large trade in long-staple cotton grown in the surrounding country. It is a port of entry but has practically no foreign trade. The French built Fort St Peter near the site of Vicksburg early in the i8th century, and on the 2nd of January 1730 its garrison was murdered by the Yazoo Indians. As early as 1783 the Spanish erected Fort Nogales, and in 1798 this was taken by some United States troops and renamed Fort McHenry. The first permanent settlement in the vicinity was made about 1811 by Rev. Newell (or Newit) Vick (d. 1819), a Methodist preacher. In accordance with his will a town was laid out in 1824; and Vicksburg was incorporated as a town in 1825, and was chartered as a city in 1836. The campaigns of which it was the centre in 1862 and 1863 are described below. Vicks- burg was the home of Seargent Smith Prentiss from 1832 to 1845- See H. F. Simrall, " Vicksburg: the City on the Walnut Hills," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Southern States (New York, 1900). Campaign of 1862-63. — Vicksburg is historically famous as being the centre of interest of one of the most important cam- paigns of the Civil War. The command of the Mississippi, which would imply the severance of the Confederacy into two halves, and also the reopening of free commercial navigation from St Louis to the sea, was one of the principal objects of the Western Union armies from the time that they began their southward advance from Illinois, Missouri and Kentucky in February 1862. A series of victories in the spring and summer carried them as far as the line Memphis-Corinth, but in the autumn they came to a standstill and were called upon to repulse the counter-advance of the Southern armies. These armies were accompanied by a flotilla of thinly armoured but powerful gunboats which had been built on the upper Mississippi in the autumn of 1861, and had co-operated with the army at Fort Donelson, Shiloh and Island No. 10, besides winning a victory on the water at Memphis. At the same time a squadron of sea-going vessels under Flag-officer Farragut had forced the defences of New Orleans (q.v.) and, accompanied by a very small military force, had steamed up the great river. On reaching Vicksburg the heavy vessels again forced their way past the batteries, but both at Vicksburg and at Port Hudson they had to deal, no longer with low-sited fortifications, but with inconspicuous earth- works on bluffs far above the river-level, and they failed to make any impression. Farragut then returned to New Orleans. From Helena to Port Hudson the Confederates maintained complete control of the Mississippi, the improvised fortresses of Vicksburg, Port Hudson and Arkansas Post (near the mouth of Arkansas river) being the framework of the defence. It was to be the task of Grant's army around Corinth and the flotilla at Memphis to break up this system of defences, and, by joining hands with Farragut and clearing the whole course of the Mississippi, to cut the Confederacy in half. The long and painful operations by which this was achieved group themselves into four episodes: (a) the Grenada expedition 22 VICKSBURG of Grant's force, (6) the river column under McClernand and Sherman, (c) the operations in the bayoux, and (d) the final " overland " campaign from Grand Gulf. The country in which these operations took place divides itself sharply into two zones, the upland east of the river, upon which it looks down from high bluffs, and the levels west of it, which are a maze of bayoux, backwaters and side channels, the intervening land being kept dry near the river itself by artificial banks (levees) but elsewhere swampy. At Vicksburg, it is important to observe, the bluffs trend away from the Mississippi to follow the course of the Yazoo, rejoining the great river at Memphis. Thus there are two obvious lines of advance for the Northern army, on the upland (Memphis and Grand Junction on Grenada- Jackson), and downstream through the bayou country (Memphis-Helena- Vicksburg). The main army of the defenders, who were commanded by Lieut.-General J. C. Pemberton, between Vicksburg and Jackson and Grenada, could front either north against an advance by Grenada or west along the bluffs above and below Vicksburg. STTE N/N E S SEE VICKSBURG Scale.i:3,30o.ooo Engllsb Miles 0 ? 10 .to » Emt ry Walker sc. The first advance was made at the end of November 1862 by two columns from Grand Junction and Memphis on Grenada. The Confederates in the field, greatly outnumbered, fell back without fighting. But Grant's line of supply was one long single-line, ill-equipped railway through Grand Junction to Columbus, and the opposing cavalry under Van Dorn swept round his flank and, by destroying one of his principal magazines (at Holly Springs), without further effort compelled the abandon- ment of the advance. Meantime one of Grant's subordinates, McClernand, was intriguing to be appointed to command an expedition by the river-line, and Grant meeting half-way an evil which he felt himself unable to prevent, had sent Sherman with the flotilla and some 30,000 men to attack Vicksburg from the water-side, while he himself should deal with the Confederate field army on the high ground. But the scheme broke down completely when Van Dorn cut Grant's line of supply, and the Confederate army was free to turn on Sherman. The latter, ignorant of Grant's retreat, attacked the Yazoo bluffs above Vicksburg (battle of Chickasaw Bayou) on Decem- ber 2gth; but a large portion of Pemberton's field army had arrived to help the Vicksburg garrison, and the Federals were easily repulsed with a loss of 2000 men. McClernand now appeared and took the command out of Sherman's hands, informing him at the same time of Grant's retreat. Sherman thereupon proposed, before attempting fresh operations against Vicksburg, to clear the country behind them by destroying the Confederate garrison at Arkansas Post. This expedition was completely successful: at a cost of about 1000 men the fort and its 5000 defenders were captured on the nth of January 1863. McClernand, elated at his victory, would have continued to ascend the Arkansas, but such an eccentric operation would have been profitless if not dangerous, and Grant, authorized by the general-in-chief, Halleck, per- emptorily ordered McClernand back to the Mississippi. airipaign against VICKSBURG April and May, 1863 Scale, 1:1,400,000 Retreating from the upland, Grant sailed down the river and joined McClernand and Sherman at Milliken's Bend at the beginning of February, and, superseding the resentful McClernand, assumed command of the three corps (XIII., McClernand; XV., Sherman; XVII., McPherson) available. He had already imagined the daring solution of his most difficult problem which he afterwards put into execution, but for the present he tried a series of less risky expedients to reach the high ground beyond Pemberton's flanks, without indeed much confidence in their success, yet desirous in these unhealthy flats of keeping up the spirits of his army by active work, and of avoiding, at a crisis in the fortunes of the war, any appearance of discouragement. Three such attempts were made in all, with the co-operation of the flotilla under Captain David D. Porter. First, Grant endeavoured to cut a canal across the bend of the Mississippi at Vicksburg, hoping thus to isolate the fortress, to gain a water connection with the lower river, and to land an army on the bluffs beyond Pemberton's left flank. This was unsuccessful. Next he tried to make a practicable channel from the Mississippi to the upper Yazoo, and so to turn Pemberton's right, but the Confederates, warned in time, constructed a fort at the point where Grant's advance emerged from the bayoux. Lastly, an advance through a maze of creeks (Steele's Bayou expedition), towards the middle Yazoo and Haines's Bluff, encountered the enemy, not on the bluffs, but in the low-lying woods and islands, and these so harassed and delayed the progress of the expedition that Grant recalled it. Shortly afterwards Grant determined en the manoeuvre in rear of Vicksburg which established his repu- tation. The troops marched overland from Milliken's Bend to New Carthage, and \m the i6th of April Porter's gunboat flotilla and the transports ran past the Vicksburg batteries. All this, which involved careful arrangement and hard work, was done by the 24th of April. General Banks, with a Union army from New Orleans, was now advancing up the river to invest Port Hudson, and by way of diverting attention from the Mississippi, a cavalry brigade under Benjamin Grierson rode from La Grange to Baton Rouge (600 m. in 16 days), destroying railways and magazines and cutting the telegraph VICO wires en route. Sherman's XV. corps, too, made vigorous demonstrations at Haines's Bluff, and in the confusion and uncertainty Pemberton was at a loss. On the 30th of April McClernand and the XIII. corps crossed the Mississippi 6 m. below Grand Gulf, followed by McPherson. The nearest Confederate brigades, attempting to oppose the advance at Port Gibson, were driven back. Grant had now deliberately placed himself in the middle of the enemy, and although his engineers had opened up a water-line for the barges carrying his supplies from Milliken's Bend to New Carthage, his long line of supply curving round the enemy's flank was very exposed. But his resolute purpose outweighed all text-book strategy. Having crossed the Mississippi, he collected wheeled transport for five days' rations, and on Sherman's arrival cut loose from his base altogether (May 7th). Free to move, he aimed north from the Big Black river, so as to interpose between the Confederate forces at Vicksburg and those at Jackson. A fight took place at Raymond on the I2th of May, and Jackson was captured just in time to forestall the arrival of reinforcements for Pemberton under General Joseph E. Johnston. The latter, being in supreme command of the Confederates, ordered Pemberton to come out of Vicksburg and attack Grant. But Pemberton did not do so until it was too late. On May i6th Grant, with all his forces well in hand, defeated him in the battle of Champion Hill with a loss of nearly 4000 men, and sharply pursuing him drove him into Vicksburg. By the ipth of May Vicksburg and Pemberton's army in it was invested by land and water. Grant promptly assaulted his works, but was repulsed with loss (May ipth); the assault was repeated on the 22nd of May with the same result, and Grant found himself compelled to resort to a blockade. Reinforcements were hurried up from all quarters, Johnston's force (east of Jackson), was held off by a covering corps under Blair (afterwards under Sherman), and though another un- successful assault was made on the 25th of June, resistance was almost at an end. On the 4th of July, the day after, far away in Pennsylvania, the great battle of Gettysburg had closed with Lee's defeat, the garrison of Vicksburg, 37,000 strong, surrendered. VICO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1668-1744), Italian jurist and philosopher, was born at Naples on the 23rd of June 1668. At the university he made rapid progress, especially in juris- prudence, though preferring the study of history, literature, juridical science and philosophy. Being appointed tutor to the nephews of the bishop of Ischia, G. B. Rocca, he accom- panied them to the castle of Vatolla, near Cilento, in the province of Salerno. There he passed nine studious years, chiefly de- voted to classical reading, Plato and Tacitus being his favourite authors, because " the former described the ideal man, and the latter man as he really is." On his return to Naples he found himself out of touch with the prevailing Cartesianism, and lived quietly until in 1697 he gained the professorship of rhetoric at the university, with a scanty stipend of 100 scudi. On this he supported a growing family and gave himself to untiring study. Two authors exercised a weighty influence on his mind — Francis Bacon and Grotius. He was no follower of their ideas, indeed often opposed to them; but he derived from Bacon an increasing stimulus towards the investigation of certain great problems of history and philosophy, while Grotius proved valuable in his study of philosophic jurispru- dence. In 1708 he published his De ratione studiorum, in 1710 De antiquissima Italorum sapientia, in 1720 De universi juris uno principle el fine uno, and in 1721 De constantia jurispru- dentis. On the strength of these works he offered himself as a candidate for the university chair of jurisprudence, but as he had no personal or family influence was not elected. With calm courage he returned to his poverty and his favourite studies, and in 1725 published the first edition of the work that forms the basis of his renown, Principii d' una sciensa nuova. In 1730 he produced a second edition of the Scienza nuova, so much altered in style and with so many substantial additions that it was practically a new work. In 1735 Charles III. of Naples marked his recognition of Vice's merits by appointing him historiographer-royal, with a yearly stipend of 100 ducats. Soon after his mind began to give way, but during frequent intervals of lucidity he made new corrections in his great work, of which a third edition appeard in 1744, prefaced by a letter of dedication to Cardinal Trojano Acquaviva. He died on the 2oth of January of the same year. Fate seemed bent on persecuting him to the last. A fierce quarrel arose over his burial between the brotherhood of St Stephen, to which he had belonged, and the university professors, who desired to escort his corpse to the grave. Finally the canons of the cathedral, together with the professors, buried the body in the church of the Gerolimini. Vico has been generally described as a solitary soul, out of harmony with the spirit of his time and often directly opposed to it. Yet a closer inquiry into_ the social conditions of Vko's time, and of the studies then flourishing, shows him to have been thoroughly in touch with them. Owing to the historical past of Naples, and its social and economic condition at the end of the I7th century, the only study that really flourished there was that of law; and this soon penetrated from the courts to the university, and was raised to the level of a science. A great school of jurisprudence was thus formed, including many men of vast learning and great ability, although little known outside their immediate surroundings. Three men, however, obtained a wider recognition. By his exposition of the political history of the kingdom, based on a study of its laws and institutions and of the legal conflicts between the state and the court of Rome, Pietrp Giannone was the initiator of what has been since known as civil history. Gioyan Vincenzo Gravina wrote a history of Roman law, specially distinguished for its accuracy and elegance. Vico raised the problem to a higher plane, by tracing the origin of law in the human mind and explaining the historical changes of the one by those of the other. Thus he made the original discovery of certain ideas which constitute the modern psychologico-historic method. This problem he proceeded to develop in various works, until in his Scienza nuova he arrived at a more complete solution, which may be formulated as follows: If the principle of justice and law be one, eternal and immutable, why should there be so many different codes of legislation? These differences are not caused by difference of nationality only, but are to be noted in the history of the same people, even in that of the Romans. This problem is touched upon in his Orations or Inaugural Addresses (Orazioni o Prolusioni) and in his Minor Works (Scritti minori). Finally he applied himself to its solution in his Universal Law (Dirillo universal*), which is divided into two books. The first of these, De uno el universi juris principle et fine uno, was subdivided into two parts; so like- wise was the second, with the respective titles of De constantia philologiae and De constantia jurisprudenlis. The following is the general idea derived from these researches. Vico held God to be the ruler of the world of nations, but ruling, not as the providence of the middle ages by means of continued miracles, but as He rules nature, by means of natural laws. If, therefore, the physicist seeks to discover the laws of nature by study of natural phenomena, so the philosopher must seek the laws of historical change by the investigation of human events and of the human mind. According to Vico, law emanates from the conscience of mankind, in whom God has infused a sentiment of justice, and is therefore in close and continual relation with the human mind, and participates in its changes. This sentiment of justice is at first confused, uncertain and almost instinctive-^is, as it were, a divine and religious inspiration instilled by Heaven into the primi- tive tribes of the earth. It is an unconscious, universal sentiment, not the personal, conscious and rational sentiment of the superior few. Hence the law to which it gives birth is enwrapped in religious forms which are likewise visible and palpable, inasmuch as primitive man is incapable of abstract, philosophical ideas. This law is not the individual work of any philosophical legislator, for no man was, or could be, a philosopher at that time. It is first displayed in the shape of natural and necessary usages consecrated by religion. The names of leading legislators, which we so often find recorded in the history of primitive peoples, are symbols and myths, merely serving to mark an historic period or epoch by some definite and personal denomination. For nations, or rather tribes, were then distinguished by personal names only. The first obscure and con- fused conception of law gradually becomes clearer and better defined. Its visible and religious forms then give way to abstract formulae, which in their turn are slowly replaced by the rational manifestation of the philosophic principles of law that gains the victory in the final stage of development, designated by Vico as that of civil and human law. This is the penod of individual and philosophic legislators. Thus Roman law has passed through three great periods — the divine, the heroic and the human — which are like- wise the three chief periods of the history of Rome, with which it is intimately and intrinsically connected. Nevertheless, on carefu examination of these three successive stages, it will easily be seen that, in spite of the apparent difference between them, all have a common foundation, source and purpose. The human and civil VICO philosophic law of the third period is assuredly very different in form from the primitive law; but in substance it is merely the abstract, scientific and philosophic manifestation of the same senti- ment of justice and the same principles which were vaguely felt in primitive times. Hence one development of law may be easily translated into another. Thus in the varied manifestations of law Vico was able to discover a single and enduring principle (De universi juris uno principio el fine uno). On these grounds it has been sought to establish a close relation between Vico and Grotius. The latter clearly distinguished between a positive law differing in different nations and a natural taw based on a general and unchanging prin- ciple of human nature, and therefore obligatory upon all. But Vico was opposed to Grotius, especially as regards his conception of the origin of society, and therefore of law. Grotius holds that its origin was not divine, but human, and neither collective, spontaneous nor unconscious, but personal, rational and conscious. He believed, moreover, that natural law and positive law moved on almost constant and immutable parallel lines. But Vico maintained that the one was continually progressing towards the other, positive law showing an increasing tendency to draw nearer to natural and rational law. Hence the conception that law is of necessity a spontaneous birth, not the creation of any individual legislator; and hence the idea that it necessarily proceeds by a natural and logical process of evolu- tion constituting its history. Vico may have derived from Grotius the idea of natural law; but his discovery of the historic evolution of law was first suggested to him by his study of Roman law. He saw that the history of Roman jurisprudence was a continuous progress of the narrow, rigorous, primitive and almost iron law of the XII. Tables towards the wider, more general and more humane jus gentium. Having once derived this conception from Roman history, he was easily and indeed necessarily carried on to the next — • that the positive law of all nations, throughout history, is a continual advance, keeping pace with the progress of civilization, towards the philosophic and natural law founded on the principles of human nature and human reason. As already stated, the Scienza nuova appeared in three different editions. The third may be disregarded; but the first and second editions are almost distinct works. In the former the author sets forth the analytical process by which the laws he discovered were deduced from facts. In the second he not only enlarges his matter and gives multiplied applications of his ideas, but also follows the synthetic method, first expounding the laws he had dis- covered and then proving them by the facts to which they are applied. In this edition the fragmentary and jerky arrangement, the intricate style, and a peculiar and often purely conventional terminology seriously checked the diffusion of the work, which accordingly was little studied in Italy and remained almost un- known to the rest of Europe. Its fundamental idea consists in that which Vico, in his peculiar terminology, styles " poetical wisdom " (sapienza poetica) and " occult wisdom " (sapienza riposta), and in the historical process by which the one is merged in the other. He frequently declares that this discovery was the result of the literary labours of his whole life. Vico was the first thinker who asked, Why have we a science of nature, but no science of history? Because our glance can easily be turned outwards and survey the exterior world ; but it is far harder to turn the mind's eye inwards and contemplate the world of the spirit. All our errors in explaining the origin of human society arise from our obstinacy in believing that primitive man was entirely similar to ourselves, who are civilized, i.e. developed by the results of a lengthy process of anterior historic evolution. We must learn to issue from ourselves, transport ourselves back to other times, and become children again in order to comprehend the infancy of the human race. As in children, imagination and the senses prevailed in those men of the past. They had no abstract ideas; in their minds all was concrete, visible and tangible. All the phenomena, forces and laws of nature, together with mental conceptions, were alike personified. To suppose that all mythical stories are fables invented by the philosophers is to write history backwards and confound the instinctive, impersonal, poetic wisdom of the earliest times with the civilized, rational and abstract occult wisdom of pur own day. But how can we explain the formation of this poetic wisdom, which, albeit the work of ignorant men, has so deep and intrinsic a philosophic value? The only possible reply is that already given when treating of the origin of law. Providence has instilled into the heart of man a sentiment of justice and goodness, of beauty and of truth, that is manifested differently at different times. The ideal truth within us, constituting the inner life that is studied by philosophers, becomes transmuted by the facts of history into assured reality. For Vico psychology and history were the two poles of the new world he discovered. After having extolled the work of God and proclaimed Him the source of all knowledge, he adds that a great truth is continually flashed on us and proved to us by history, namely, " that this world of nations is the work of man, and its explanation therefore only to be found in the mind of man." Thus poetical wisdom, appearing as a spon- taneous emanation of the human conscience, is almost the product of divine inspiration. From this, by the aid of civilization, reason and philosophy, there is gradually developed the civil, occult wisdom. The continual, slow and laborious progress from the one to the other is that which really constitutes history, and man be- comes civilized by rendering himself the conscious and independent possessor of all that in poetical wisdom remained impersonal, unconscious, that came, as it were, from without by divine afflatus. Vico gives many applications of this fundamental idea. The religion of primitive peoples is no less mythical than their history, since they could only conceive of it by means of myths. On these lines he interprets the whole history of primitive Rome. One book of the second edition of the Scienza nuova is devoted to " The Discovery of the True Homer." Why all the cities of Greece dispute the honour of being his birthplace is because the Iliad and the Odyssey are not the work of one, but of many popular poets, and a true creation of the Greek people which is in every city of Greece. And because the primitive peoples are unconscious and self-ignorant Homer is represented as being blind. In all parts of history in which he was best versed Vico pursues a stricter and more scientific method, and arrives at safer conclusions. This is the case in Roman history, especially in such portions as related to the history of law. Here he sometimes attains, even in details, to divinations of the truth afterwards confirmed by new documents and later research. The aristocratic origin of Rome, the struggle between the patricians and the plebeians, the laws of the XII. Tables, not, as tradition would have it, imported from Greece, but the natural and spon- taneous product of ancient Roman customs, and many other similar theories were discovered by Vico, and expounded with his usual originality, though not always without blunders and exaggerations. Vico may be said to base his considerations on the history of two nations. The greater part of his ideas on poetical wisdom were derived from Greece. Nearly all the rest, more especially the transi- tion from poetical to occult wisdom, was derived from Rome. Having once formulated his idea, he made it more general in order to apply it to the history of all nations. From the savage state, through the terror that gives birth to religions, through the creation of families by marriage, through burial rites and piety towards the dead, men approach civilization with the aid of poetic wisdom, and pass through three periods — the divine, heroic and human — in which they have three forms of government, language, litera- ture, jurisprudence and civilization. The primary government is aristocratic. Patrician tyranny rouses the populace to revolt, and then democratic equality is established under a republic. Democratic excesses cause the rise of an empire, which, becoming corrupt, declines into barbarism, and, again emerging from it, re- traces the same course. This is the law of cycles, constituting that which is designated by Vico as the " eternal ideal history, or rather course of humanity, invariably followed by all nations." It must not be held to imply that one nation imitates the course pursued by another, nor that the points of resemblance between them are transmitted by tradition from one to the other, but merely that all are subject to one law, inasmuch as this is based on the human nature common to all alike. Thus, while on the one hand the various cycles traced and retraced by all nations are similar and yet independent, on the other hand, being actually derived from Roman history, they become converted in the Scienza nuova into a bed of Procrustes, to which the history of all nations has to be fitted by force. And wherever Vico's historical know- ledge failed he was led into increased error by this artificial and arbitrary effort. It has been justly observed by many that this continuous cyclical movement entirely excludes the progress of humanity towards a better future. It has been replied that these cycles are similar without being identical, and that, if one might differ from another, the idea of progress was not necessarily excluded by the law of cycles. Vico undoubtedly considered the poetic wisdom of the Middle Ages to be different from that of the Greeks and Romans, and Christianity to be very superior to the pagan religion. But he never investigated the question whether, since there is a law of progressive evolution in the history of different nations, separately examined, there may not likewise be another law ruling the general history of these nations, every one of which must have represented a new period, as it were, in the history of humanity at large. There- fore, although the Scienza nuova cannot be said absolutely to deny the law of progress, it must be allowed that Vico not only failed to solve the problem but even shrank from attacking it. Vico founded no school, and though during his lifetime and for a while after his death he had many admirers both in Naples and the northern cities, his fame and name were soon obscured, especially as the Kantian system dominated the world of thought. At the beginning of the igth century, however, some Neapolitan exiles at Milan called attention to the merits of their great countryman, and his reinstatement was completed by Michelet, who in 1827 translated the Scienza nuova and other works with a laudatory introduction. Vico's writings suffer through their author's not having followed a regular course of studies, and his style is very involved. He was a deeply religious man, but his exemption of Jewish origins from the canons of historical inquiry which he elsewhere applied was probably due to the conditions of his age, which preceded the dawn of Semitic investigation and regarded the Old Testament and the Hebrew religion as sui generis. VICTOR— VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS For Vice's personal history see his autobiography, written at the request of the Conte di Porcia, and his letters; also Cantoni, C. B. Vico, Studii Critici e Comparative (Turin, 1867); R. Flint, Vico (Edinburgh and London, 1884). For editions of Vice's own works, see Opere, ed. Giuseppe Ferrari, with introductory essay, " La Mente de Vico " (6 vols., Milan, 1834-35), and Michelct, (Euvres Choisies de Vico (2 vols., Paris, 1835). A full list is given in B. Croce, BMiografia Vichiana (Naples, 1904). See also O. Klemm, G. B. Vico als Geschichtsphilosoph und Volkerpsycholog (Leipzig. 1906); M. H. Rafferty in Journal of the Society of Com- parative Legislation, New Series, xvii., xx. VICTOR, the name taken by three popes and two antipopes. VICTOR I. was bishop of Rome from about 190 to 198. He submitted to the opinion of the episcopate in the various parts of Christendom the divergence between the Easter usage of Rome and that of the bishops of Asia. The bishops, particu- larly St Irenaeus of Lyons, declared themselves in favour of the usage of Rome, but refused to associate themselves with the excommunication pronounced by Victor against their Asiatic colleagues. At Rome Victor excommunicated Theodotus of Byzantium on account of his doctrine as to the person of Christ. St Jerome attributes to Victor some opuscula in Latin, which are believed to be recognized in certain apo- cryphal treatises of St Cyprian. VICTOR II., the successor of Leo IX., was consecrated in St Peter's, Rome, on the i3th of April 1055. His father was a Swabian baron, Count Hartwig von Calw, and his own baptismal name was Gebhard. At the instance of Gebhard, bishop of Regensburg, uncle of the emperor Henry III., he had been appointed while still a young man to the see of Eichstadt; in this position his great talents soon enabled him to render important services to Henry, whose chief adviser he ultimately became. His nomination to the papacy by Henry, at Mainz, in September 1054, was made at the instance of a Roman deputation headed by Hildebrand, whose policy doubtless was to detach from the imperial interest one of its ablest supporters. In June 1055 Victor met the emperor at Florence, and held a council, which anew condemned clerical marriages, simony and the alienation of the estates of the church. In the follow- ing year he was summoned to Germany to the side of the emperor, and was with him when he died at Botfeld in the Harz on the sth of October 1056. As guardian of Henry's infant son, and adviser of the empress Agnes, Victor now wielded enormous power, which he began to use with much tact for the maintenance of peace throughout the empire and for strengthening the papacy against the aggressions of the barons. He died shortly after his return to Italy, at Arezzo, on the z8th of July 1057. His successor was Stephen IX. (Frederick of Lorraine). (L. D.*) VICTOR III. (Dauferius Epifani), pope from the 24th of May 1086 to the i6th of September 1087, was the successor of Gregory VII. He was a son of Landolfo V., prince of Bene- vento, and was born in 1027. After studying in various monasteries he became provost of St Benedict at Capua, and in 1055 obtained permission from Victor II. to enter the cloister at Monte Cassino, changing his name to Desiderius. He succeeded Stephen IX. as abbot in 1057, and his rule marks the golden age of that celebrated monastery; he promoted literary activity, and established an important school of mosaic. Desiderius was created cardinal priest of Sta Cecilia by Nicholas II. in 1059, and as papal vicar in south Italy conducted frequent negotiations between the Normans and the pope. Among the four men suggested by Gregory VII. on his death-bed as most worthy to succeed him was Desiderius, who was favoured by the cardinals because of his great learning, his connexion with the Normans and his diplomatic ability. The abbot, however, declined the papal crown, and the year 1085 passed without an election. The cardinals at length proclaimed him pope against his will on the 24th of May 1086, but he was driven from Rome by imperialists before his consecration was complete, and, laying aside the papal insignia at Terracina, he retired to his beloved monastery. As vicar of the Holy See he convened a synod at Capua on the 7th of March 1087, resumed the papal insignia on the 2ist of March, and received tardy consecration at Rome on the 9th of May. Owing to the presence of the antipope, Clement III. (Guibert of Ravenna), who had powerful partisans, his stay at Rome was brief. He sent an army to Tunis, which defeated the Saracens and compelled the sultan to pay tribute to the papal see. In August 1087 he held a synod at Bene- vento, which renewed the excommunication of Guibert; banned Archbishop Hugo of Lyons and Abbot Richard of Marseilles as schismatics; and confirmed the prohibition of lay investiture. Falling ill at the synod, Vicar returned to Monte Cassino, where he died on the i6th of September 1087. He was buried at the monastery and is accounted a saint by the Benedictine order. His successor was Urban II. Victor III., while abbot of Monte Cassino contributed personally to the literary activity of the monastery. He wrote Dialogi de miraculis S. Benedicti, which, along with his Epistolae, are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lai. vol. 149, and an account of the miracles of Leo IX. (in Ada Sanctorum, igth of April). The chief sources for his life are the " Chronica monasterii Casinensis," in the Hon. Germ. hist. Script, vii., and the Vitae in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lai. vol. 149, and in J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman. Vitae. See J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-2); K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte (2nd ed., 1873-90), vol. 5; Hirsch, " Desiderius von Monte Cassino als Papst Victor III.," in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, vol. 7 (Gottingen, 1867); H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, vol. 3 (repub. London, 1899). VICTOR IV. was a title taken by two antipopes. (i) Gregorio Conti, cardinal priest of Santi Dodici Apostoli, was chosen by a party opposed to Innocent II. in succession to the antipope Anacletus II., on the isth of March 1138, but through the in- fluence of Bernard of Clairvaux he was induced to make his submission on the 29th of May. (2) Octavian, count of Tusculum and cardinal deacon of St Nicola in carcere Tulliano, the Ghi- belline antipope, was elected at Rome on the ?th of September 1159, in opposition to Alexander III., and supported by the emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Consecrated at Farfa on the 4th of October, Victor was the first of the series of antipopes supported by Frederick against Alexander III. Though the excommunication of Frederick by Alexander in March 1160 made only a slight impression in Germany, this pope was never- theless able to gain the support of the rest of western Europe, because since the days of Hildebrand the power of the pope over the church in the various countries had increased so greatly that the kings of France and of England could not view with indifference a revival of such imperial control of the papacy as had been exercised by the emperor Henry III. He died at Lucca on the 2oth of April 1164 and was succeeded by the anti- pope Paschal III. (1164-1168). See M. Meyer, Die Wahl Alexanders III. und Victors IV. 1159 (Gottingen, 1871); and A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, Band iv. (C. H. HA.) VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.), Roman writer on rhetoric, possibly of Gallic origin. His extant manual (in C. Halm's Rhetores Lalini Minores, 1863) is of some importance as facilitating the textual criticism of Quintilian, whom he closely follows in many places. VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS, prefect of Pannonia about 360 (Amm. Marc. xxi. 10), possibly the same as the consul (jointly with Valentinian) in 373 and as the prefect of the city who is mentioned in an inscription of the time of Theodosius. Four small historical works have been ascribed to him on more or less doubtful grounds — (i) Origo Gentis Romance, (2) De Viribus Illvstribus Romae, (3) De Caesaribus, (4) De Vila et Moribus Imperatorum Romanorum excerpta ex Libris Sex. Aw. Victoris. The four have generally been published together under the name Historia Romano, but the fourth piece is a rfchau/f of the third. The second was first printed at Naples about 1472, in 4to, under the name of Pliny (the younger), and the fourth at Strassburg in 1 505. The first edition of all four was that of A. Schottus (8vo, Ant- werp, 1579). The most recent edition of the De Caesaribus is by F. Pichlmayr (Munich, 1892). VICTOR AMEDEUS II.— VICTOR EMMANUEL II. VICTOR AMEDEUS II. (1666-1732), duke of Savoy and first king of Sardinia, was the son of Duke Charles Emmanuel II. and Jeanne de Savoie-Nemours. Born at Turin, he lost his father in 1675, and spent his youth under the regency of his mother, known as " Madama Reale " (madame royale), an able but ambitious and overbearing woman. He assumed the reins of government at the age of sixteen, and married Princess Anne, daughter of Philip of Orleans and Henrietta of England, and niece of Louis XIV., king of France. That sovereign was determined to dominate the young duke of Savoy, who from the first resented the monarch's insolent bearing. In 1685 Victor was forced by Louis to persecute his Waldensian subjects, because they had given shelter to the French Huguenot refugees after the revoca- tion of the edict of Nantes. With the unwelcome help of a French army under Marshal Catinat, he invaded the Waldensian valleys, and after a difficult campaign, characterized by great cruelty, he subjugated them. Nevertheless, he became more anxious than ever to emancipate himself from French thraldom, and his first sign of independence was his visit to Venice in 1687, where he conferred on political affairs with Prince Eugene of Savoy and other personages, without consulting Louis. About this time the duke plunged into a whirl of dissipation, and chose the beautiful but unscrupulous Contessa di Verrua as bis mistress, neglecting his faithful and devoted wife. Louis having dis- covered Victor's intrigues with the emperor, tried to precipitate hostilities by demanding his participation in a second expedi- tion against the Waldensians. The duke unwillingly complied, but when the French entered Piedmont and demanded the cession of the fortresses of Turin and Verrua, he refused, and while still professing to negotiate with Louis, joined the league of Austria, Spain and Venice. War was declared in 1690, but at the battle of Staffarda (i8th of August 1691), Victor, in spite of his great courage and skill, was defeated by the French under Catinat. Other reverses followed, but the attack on Cuneo was heroically repulsed by the citizens. The war dragged on with varying success, until the severe defeat of the allies at Marsiglia and their selfish neglect of Victor's interests induced him to open negotiations with France once more. Louis agreed to restore most of the fortresses he had captured and to make other concessions; a treaty was signed in 1696, and Victor appointed generalissimo of the Franco-Piedmontese forces in Italy operating against the imperialists. By the treaty of Ryswick (1697) a general peace was concluded. On the out- break of the war of the Spanish Succession in 1 700 the duke was again on the French side, but the insolence of Louis and of Philip V. of Spain towards him induced him, at the end of the two years for which he had bound himself to them, to go over to the imperialists (1704). At first the French were successful and captured several Piedmontese fortresses, but after besieging Turin, which was skilfully defended by the duke, for several months, they were completely defeated by Victor and Prince Eugene of Savoy (1706), and eventually driven out of the other towns they had captured. By the peace of Utrecht (1713) the Powers conferred the kingdom of Sicily on Victor Amedeus, whose government proved efficient and at first popular. But after a brief stay in the island he returned to Piedmont and left his new possessions to a viceroy, which caused much discontent among the Sicilians; and when the Quadruple Alliance decreed in 1718 that Sicily should be restored to Spain, Victor was unable to offer any opposition, and had to content himself with receiving Sardinia in exchange. The last years of Victor Amedeus's life were saddened by domestic troubles. In 1715 his eldest son died, and hi 1728 he lost his queen. After her death, much against the advice of his remaining son and heir, Carlino (afterwards Charles Emmanuel III.), he married the Contessa di San Sebastiano, whom he created Marchesa di Spigno, abdicated the crown and retired to Chambery to end his days (1730). But his second wife, an ambitious intrigante, soon tired of her quiet life, and induced him to return to Turin and attempt to revoke his abdication. This led to a quarrel with his son, who with quite unnecessary harshness, partly due to his minister the Marquis d'Ormea, arrested his father and confined him at Rivoli and later at Mon- calieri; there Victor, overwhelmed with sorrow, died on the 3ist of October 1732. Victor Amedeus, although accused not without reason of bad faith in his diplomatic dealings and of cruelty, was undoubtedly a great soldier and a still greater administrator. He not only- won for his country a high place in the council of nations, but he doubled its revenues and increased its prosperity and industries, and he also emphasized its character as an Italian state. His infidelity to his wife and his harshness towards his son Carlino are blemishes on a splendid career, but he more than expiated these faults by his tragic end. See D. Carutvi, Storia del Regno di Vittorio Amedeo II. (Turin, 1856); and E. Parri, Vittorio Amedio II. ed Eugenia di Savoia (Milan, I888J. The Marchesa Vitelleschi's work. The Romance of Savoy (2 vols., London, 1905), is based on original authorities, and is the most complete monograph on the subject. VICTOR EMMANUEL II. (1820-1878), king of Sardinia and first king of Italy, was born at Turin on the i4th of March 1820, and was the son of Charles Albert, prince of Savoy- Carignano, who became king of Sardinia in 1831. Brought up in the bigoted and chilling atmosphere of the Piedmontese court, he received a rigid military and religious training, but little intellectual education. In 1842 he was married to Adelaide, daughter of the Austrian Archduke Rainer, as the king desired at that time to improve his relations with Austria. The young couple led a somewhat dreary life, hidebound by court etiquette, which Victor Emmanuel hated. He played no part in politics during his father's lifetime, but took an active interest in military matters. When the war with Austria broke out in 1848, he was delighted at the prospect of distinguishing himself, and was given the command of a division. At Goito he was slightly wounded and displayed great bravery, and after Custozza defended the rearguard to the last (25th of July 1848). In the campaign of March 1849 he commanded the same division. After the disastrous defeat at Novara on the 23rd of March, Charles Albert, having rejected the peace terms offered by the Austrian field-marshal Radetzky, abdicated in favour of his son, and withdrew to a monastery in Portugal, where he died a few months later. Victor Emmanuel repaired to Radetzky's camp, where he was received with every sign of respect, and the field-marshal offered not only to waive the claim that Austria should occupy a part of Piedmont, but to give him an extension of territory, provided he revoked the constitution and substituted the old blue Piedmontese flag for the Italian tricolour, which savoured too much of revolution. But although the young king had not yet sworn to observe the charter, and in any case the other Italian princes had all violated their constitutional promises, he rejected the offer. Consequently he had to agree to the temporary Austrian occupation of the territory comprised within the Po, the Sesia and the Ticino, and of half the citadel of Alessandria, to disband his Lombard, Polish and Hungarian volunteers, and to withdraw his fleet from the Adriatic; but he secured an amnesty for all the Lom- bards compromised in the recent revolution, having even threatened to go to war again if it were not granted. It was the maintenance of the constitution in the face of the over- whelming tide of reaction that established his position as the champion of Italian freedom and earned him the sobriquet of Re Galanluomo (the honest king). But the task entrusted to him was a most difficult one: the army disorganized, the treasury empty, the people despondent if not actively disloyal, and he himself reviled, misunderstood, and, like his father, accused of treachery. Parliament having rejected the peace treaty, the king dissolved the assembly; in the famous pro- clamation from Moncalieri he appealed to the people's loyalty, and the new Chamber ratified the treaty (gth of January 1850). This same year, Cavour (q.v.) was appointed minister of agri- culture in D'Azeglio's cabinet, and in 1852, after the fall of the latter, he became prime minister, a post which with brief in- terruptions he held until his death. In having Cavour as his chief adviser Victor Emmanuel was VICTOR EMMANUEL II. 27 most fortunate, and but for that statesman's astounding diplomatic genius the liberation of Italy would have been impossible. The years from 1850 to 1859 were devoted to restor- ing the shattered finances of Sardinia, reorganizing the army and modernizing the antiquated institutions of the kingdom. Among other reforms the abolition of the joro ecclesiastico (privileged ecclesiastical courts) brought down a storm of hostility from the Church both on the king and on Cavour, but both remained firm in sustaining the prerogatives of the civil power. When the Crimean War broke out, the king strongly supported Cavour in the proposal that Piedmont should join France and England against Russia so as to secure a place in the councils of the great Powers and establish a claim on them for eventual assistance in Italian affairs (1854). The following year Victor Emmanuel was stricken with a threefold family misfortune; for his mother, the Queen Dowager Maria Teresa, his wife, Queen Adelaide, and his brother Ferdinand, duke of Genoa, died within a few weeks of each other. The clerical party were not slow to point to this circumstance as a judgment on the king for what they deemed his sacrilegious policy. At the end of 1855, while the allied troops were still in the East, Victor Emmanuel visited Paris and London, where he was warmly welcomed by the emperor Napoleon III. and Queen Victoria, as well as by the peoples of the two countries. Victor Emmanuel's object now was the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy and the expansion of Piedmont into a North Italian kingdom, but he did not regard the idea of Italian unity as coming within the sphere of practical politics for the time being, although a movement to that end was already beginning to gain ground. He was in communication with some of the conspirators, especially with La Farina, the leader of the Societ^ Nazionale, an association the object of which was to unite Italy under the king of Sardinia, and he even com- municated with Mazzini and the republicans, both in Italy and abroad, whenever he thought that they could help in the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy. In 1859 Cavour's diplomacy succeeded in drawing Napoleon III. into an alliance against Austria, although the king had to agree to the cession of Savoy and possibly of Nice and to the marriage of his daughter Clothilde to Prince Napoleon. These conditions were very painful to him, for Savoy was the hereditary home of his family, and he was greatly attached to Princess Clothilde and disliked the idea of marrying her to a man who gave little promise of proving a good husband. But he was always ready to sacrifice his own personal feelings for the good of his country. He had an interview with Garibaldi and appointed him commander of the newly raised volunteer corps, the Cacciatori delle Alpi. Even then Napoleon would not decide on immediate hostilities, and it required all Cavour's genius to bring him to the point and lead Austria into a declaration of war (April 1859). Although the Franco-Sardinian forces were successful in the field, Napoleon, fearing an attack by Prussia and disliking the idea of a too powerful Italian kingdom on the frontiers of France, insisted on making peace with Austria, while Venetia still remained to be freed. Victor Emmanuel, realizing that he could not continue the campaign alone, agreed most unwillingly to the armistice of Villafranca. When Cavour heard the news he hurried to the king's headquarters at Monzambano, and in violent, almost disrespectful language implored him to continue the campaign at all hazards, relying on his own army and the revolutionary movement in the rest of Italy. But the king on this occasion showed more political insight than his great minister and saw that by adopting the heroic course proposed by the latter he ran the risk of finding Napoleon on the side of the enemy, whereas by waiting all might be gained. Cavour resigned office, and by the peace of Zurich (xoth of November 1859) Austria ceded Lombardy to Piedmont but retained Venetia; the central Italian princes who had been deposed by the revolu- tion were to be reinstated, and Italy formed into a confederation of independent states. But this solution was most unacceptable to Italian public opinion, and both the king and Cavour deter- mined -to assist the people in preventing its realization, and consequently entered into secret relations with the revolutionary governments of Tuscany, the duchies and of Romagna. As a result of the events of 1859-60, those provinces were all annexed to Piedmont, and when Garibaldi decided on the Sicilian expedition Victor Emmanuel assisted him in various ways. He had considerable influence with Garibaldi, who, although in theory a republican, was greatly attached to the bluff soldier-king, and on several occasions restrained him from too foolhardy courses. When Garibaldi having conquered Sicily was determined to invade the mainland possessions of Francis II. of Naples, Victor Emmanuel foreseeing international difficulties wrote to the chief of the red shirts asking him not to cross the Straits; but Garibaldi, although acting throughout in the name of His Majesty, refused to obey and continued his victorious march, for he knew that the king's letter was dictated by diplomatic considerations rather than by his own personal desire. Then, on Cavour's advice, King Victor decided to participate himself in the occupation of Neapolitan territory, lest Garibaldi's entourage should proclaim the republic or create anarchy. When he accepted the annexation of Romagna offered by the inhabitants themselves the pope excommunicated him, but, although a devout Catholic, he continued in his course undeterred by ecclesiastical thunders, and led his army in person through the Papal States, occupying the Marches and Umbria, to Naples. On the 29th of October he met Garibaldi, who handed over his conquests to the king. The whole peninsula, except Rome and Venice, was now annexed to Piedmont, and on the i8th of February 1861 the parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of united Italy. The next few years were occupied with preparations for the liberation of Venice, and the king corresponded with Mazzini, Klapka, Tiirr and other conspirators against Austria in Venetia itself, Hungary, Poland and elsewhere, keeping his activity secret even from his own ministers. The alliance with Prussia and the war with Austria of 1866, although fortune did not favour Italian arms, added Venetia to his dominions. The Roman question yet remained unsolved, for Napoleon, although he had assisted Piedmont in 1859 and had reluctantly consented to the annexation of the central and southern provinces, and of part of the Papal States, would not permit Rome to be occupied, and maintained a French garrison there to protect the pope. When war with Prussia appeared imminent he tried to obtain Italian assistance, and Victor Emmanuel was very anxious to fly to the assistance of the man who had helped him to expel the Austrians from Italy, but he could not do so unless Napoleon gave him a free hand in Rome. This the emperor would not do until it was too late. Even after the first French defeats the chivalrous king, in spite of the advice of his more prudent councillors, wished to go to the rescue, and asked Thiers, the French representative who was imploring him for help, if with 100,000 Italian troops France could be saved, but Thiers could give no such undertaking and Italy remained neutral. On the 2oth of September 1870, the French troops having been' withdrawn, the Italian army entered Rome, and on the 2nd of July 1871 Victor Emmanuel made his solemn entry into the Eternal City, which then be- came the capital of Italy. The pope refused to recognize the new kingdom even before the occupation of Rome, and the latter event rendered relations between church and state for many years extremely delicate. The king himself was anxious to be reconciled with the Vatican, but the pope, or rather his entourage, rejected all overtures, and the two sovereigns dwelt side by side in Rome until death without ever meeting. Victor Emmanuel devoted himself to his duties as a constitutional king with great conscientious- ness, but he took more interest in foreign than in domestic politics and contributed not a little to improving Italy's inter- national position. In 1873 he visited the emperor Francis Joseph at Vienna and the emperor William at Berlin. He received an enthusiastic welcome in both capitals, but the visit to Vienna was never returned in Rome, for Francis Joseph as a Catholic sovereign feared to offend the pope, a circumstance VICTOR EMMANUEL III.— VICTORIA, QUEEN which served to embitter Austro-Italian relations. On the 9th of January 1878, Victor Emmanuel died of fever in Rome, and was buried in the Pantheon. He was succeeded by his son Humbert. Bluff, hearty, good-natured and simple in his habits, yet he always had a high idea of his own kingly dignity, and his really statesmanlike qualities often surprised foreign diplomats, who were deceived by his homely exterior. As a soldier he was very brave, but he did not show great qualities as a military leader in the campaign of 1866. He was a keen sportsman and would spend many days at a time pursuing chamois or steinbock in the Alpine fastnesses of Piedmont with nothing but bread and cheese to eat. He always used the dialect of Piedmont when conversing with natives of that country, and he had a vast fund of humorous anecdotes and proverbs with which to illustrate his arguments. He had a great weakness for female society, and kept several mistresses; one of them, the beautiful Rosa Vercellone, he created Countess Mirafiori e Fontanafredda and married morganatically in 1869; she bore him one son. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Besides the general works on Italy and Savoy see V. Bersezio, // Regno di Vitlorio Emanuele II. (8 vols., Turin, 1869); G. Massari, La Vila ed il Regno di Vittorio Emanuele II. (2 vols., Milan, 1878); N. Bianchi, Storia della Diplomazia Europea in Italia (8 vols., Turin, 1865). (L. V.*) VICTOR EMMANUEL III. (1860- ), king of Italy, son of King Humbert I. and Queen Margherita of Savoy, was born at Naples on the nth of November 1869. Carefully educated by his mother and under the direction of Colonel Osio, he outgrew the weakness of his childhood and became expert in horsemanship and military exercises. Entering the army at an early age he passed through the various grades and, soon after attaining his majority, was appointed to the command of the Florence Army Corps. During frequent journeys to Germany he enlarged his military experience, and upon his appointment to the command of the Naples Army Corps in 1896 displayed sound military and administrative capacity. A keen huntsman, and passionately fond of the sea, he extended his yachting and hunting excursions as far east as Syria and as far north as Spitsbergen. As representative of King Humbert he attended the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II. in 1896, the Victorian Jubilee celebrations of 1897, and the festivities connected with the coming of age of the German crown prince in 1900. The prince's intellectual and artistic leanings were well known; in particular, he has made a magnifi- cent collection of historic Italian coins, on which subject he became a recognized authority. At the time of the assassina- tion of his father, King Humbert (the 29th of July 1900), he was returning from a yachting cruise in the eastern Mediterranean. Landing at Reggio di Calabria he hastened to Monza, where he conducted with firmness and tact the preparations for the burial of King Humbert and for his own formal accession, which took place on the gth and nth of August 1900. On the 24th of October 1896 he married Princess Elena of Montenegro, who, on the ist of June 1901, bore him a daughter named Yolanda Margherita, on the I9th of November 1902 a second daughter named Mafalda, and on the isth of September 1904 a son, Prince Humbert. VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA], Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India (1819-1901), only child of Edward, duke of Kent, fourth son of King George III., and of Princess Victoria Mary Louisa of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (widow of Prince Emich Karl of Lein- ingen, by whom she already had two children), was born at Kensington Palace on the 24th of May 1819. The duke and duchess of Kent had been living at Amorbach, in Franconia, owing to their straitened circumstances, but they returned to London on purpose that (heir child should be born in England. In 1817 the death of Princess Charlotte (only child of the prince regent, afterwards George IV., and wife of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians), had left the ultimate succession to the throne of England, in the younger generation, so uncertain that the three unmarried sons of George III., the dukes of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), Kent and Cambridge, all married in the following year, the two elder on the same day. All three had children, but the duke of Clarence's two baby daughters died in infancy, in 1819 and 1821; and the duke of Cambridge's son George, born on the 26th of March 1819, was only two months old when the birth of the duke of Kent's daughter put her before him in the succession. The question as to what name the child should bear was not settled without bickerings. The duke of Kent wished her to be christened Elizabeth, and the prince regent wanted Georgiana, while the tsar Alexander L, who had promised to stand sponsor, stipulated for Alexandrina. The baptism was performed in a drawing-room of Kensington Palace on the 24th of June by Dr Manners Sutton, archbishop of Canterbury. The prince regent, who was present, named the child Alexandrina; then, being requested by the duke of Kent to give a second name, he said, rather abruptly, " Let her be called Victoria, after her mother, but this name must come after the other." 1 Six weeks after her christening the princess was vaccinated, this being the first occasion on which a member of the royal family underwent the operation. In January 1820 the duke of Kent died, five days before his brother succeeded to the throne as George IV. The widowed duchess of Kent was now a woman of thirty-four, handsome, homely, a German at heart, and with little liking for English ways. But she was a woman of experience, and shrewd; and fortunately she had a safe and affectionate adviser in her brother, Prince Leopold of Coburg, afterwards (1831) king of the Belgians, who as the husband of the late Princess Charlotte had once been a prospective prince consort of England. His former doctor and private secretary, Baron Stockmar (q.v.), a man of encyclopaedic information and remarkable judgment, who had given special attention to the problems of a sovereign's position in England, was afterwards to play an important r61e in Queen Victoria's life; and Leopold himself took a fatherly interest in the young princess's education, and contributed some thousands of pounds annually to the duchess of Kent's income. Prince Leopold still lived at this time at Claremont, where Princess Charlotte had died, and this became the duchess of Kent's occasional English home; but she was much addicted to travelling, and spent several months every year in visits to watering-places. It was said at court that she liked the demonstrative homage of crowds; but she had good reason to fear lest her child should be taken away from her to be educated according to the views of George IV. Between the king and his sister-in-law there was little love, and when the death of the duke of Clarence's second infant daughter Elizabeth in 1821 made it pretty certain that Princess Victoria would eventually become queen, the duchess felt that the king might possibly obtain the support of his ministers if he insisted that the future sovereign should be brought up under masters and mistresses designated by himself. The little princess could not have received a better education than that which was given her under Prince Leopold's direction. Her uncle considered that she ought to be kept as long as possible from the knowledge of her position, which might raise a large growth of pride or vanity in her and make her un- manageable; so Victoria was twelve years old before she knew that she was to wear a crown. Until she became queen she never slept a night away from her mother's room, and she was not allowed to converse with any grown-up person, friend, tutor or servant without the duchess of Kent or the Baroness Lehzen, her private governess, being present. Louise Lehzen, a native of Coburg, had come to England as governess to the Princess Fecdore of Leiningen, the duchess of Kent's daughter 1 The question of her name, as that of one who was to be queen, remained even up to her accession to the throne a much-debated one. In August 1831, in a discussion in parliament upon a grant to the duchess of Kent, Sir M. W. Ridley suggested changing it to Elizabeth as "more accordant to the feelings of the people"; and the idea o_f a change seems to have been powerfully supported. In 1836 William IV. approved of a proposal to change it to Charlotte; but, to the princess's own delight, it was given u'p. VICTORIA, QUEEN 29 by her first husband, and she became teacher to the Princess Victoria when the latter was five years old. George IV. in 1827 made her a baroness of Hanover, and she continued as lady-in- attendance after the duchess of Northumberland was appointed official governess in 1830, but actually performed the functions first of governess and then of private secretary till 1842, when she left the court and returned to Germany, where she died in 1870. The Rev. George Davys, afterwards bishop of Peter- borough, taught the princess Latin; Mr J. B. Sale, music; Mr Westall, history; and Mr Thomas Steward, the writing master of Westminster School, instructed her in penmanship. In 1830 George IV. died, and the duke of York (George III.'s second son) having died childless in 1827, the duke of Clarence became king as William IV. Princess Victoria now became the direct heir to the throne. William IV. cherished affectionate feelings towards his niece; unfortunately he took offence at the duchess of Kent for declining to let her child come and live at his court for several months in each year, and through the whole of his reign there was strife between the two; and Prince Leopold was no longer in England to act as peacemaker. In the early hours of the 2oth of June 1837, William IV. died. His thoughts had dwelt often on his niece, and he repeatedly said that he was sure she would be " a good woman and a good queen. It will touch every sailor's heart to have a girl queen to fight for. They'll be tattooing her face on their arms, and I'll be bound they'll all think she was christened after Nelson's ship." Dr Howley, archbishop of Canterbury, and the marquis of Conyngham, bearing the news of the king's death, started in a landau with four horses for Kensington, which they reached at five o'clock. Their servants rang, knocked and thumped; and when at last admittance was gained, the primate and the marquis were shown into a lower room and there left to wait. Presently a maid appeared and said that the Princess Victoria was " in a sweet sleep and could not be disturbed." Dr Howley, who was nothing if not pompous, answered that he had come on state business, to which everything, even sleep, must give place. The princess was accordingly roused, and quickly came downstairs in a dressing-gown, her fair hair flowing loose over her shoulders. Her own account of this interview, written the same day in her journal (Letters, i. p. 97), shows her to have been quite prepared. The privy council assembled at Kensington in the morning; and the usual oaths were administered to the queen by Lord Chancellor Cottenham, after which all present did homage. There was a touching incident when the queen's uncles, the dukes of Cumberland and Sussex, two old men, came forward to perform their obeisance. The queen blushed, and descending from her throne, kissed them both, without allowing them to kneel. By the death of William IV., the duke of Cumberland had become King Ernest of Hanover, and immediately after the ceremony he made haste to reach his kingdom. Had Queen Victoria died without issue, this prince, who was arro- gant, ill-tempered and rash, would have become king of Great Britain; and, as nothing but mischief could have resulted from this, the young queen's life became very precious in the sight of her people. She, of course, retained the late king's ministers in their offices, and it was under Lord Melbourne's direction that the privy council drew up their declaration to the kingdom. This document described the queen as Alexandrina Victoria, and all the peers who subscribed the roll in the House of Lords on the 2oth of June swore allegiance to her under those names. It was not till the following day that the sovereign's style was altered to Victoria simply, and this necessitated the issuing of a new declaration and a re-signing of the peers' roll. The public proclamation of the queen took place on the 2istatSt James's Palace with great pomp. The queen opened her first parliament in person, and in a well-written speech, which she read with much feeling, adverted to her youth and to the necessity which existed for her being guided by enlightened advisers. When both houses had voted loyal addresses, the question of the Civil List was considered, and a week or two later a message was brought to parliament requesting an increase of the grant formerly made to the duchess of Kent. Government recommended an addition of £30,000 a year, which was voted, and before the close of the year a Civil List Bill was passed, settling £385,000 a year on the queen. The duchess of Kent and her brothers, King Leopold and the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, had always hoped to arrange that the queen should marry her cousin, Albert (q.v.) of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha, and the prince himself had been made acquainted with this plan from his earliest years. In 1836 Prince Albert, who was born in the same year as his future wife, had come on a visit to England with his father and with his brother, Prince Ernest, and his handsome face, gentle disposition and playful humour had produced a favourable impression on the princess. The duchess of Kent had communicated her projects to Lord Mel- bourne, and they were known to many other statesmen, and to persons in society; but the gossip of drawing-rooms during the years 1837-38 continually represented that the young queen had fallen in love with Prince This or Lord That, and the more imaginative babblers hinted at post-chaises waiting outside Ken- sington Gardens in the night, private marriages and so forth. The coronation took place on the 28th of June 1838. No more touching ceremony of the kind had ever been performed in Westminster Abbey. Anne was a middle-aged married woman at the time of her coronation; she waddled and wheezed, and made no majestic appearance upon her throne. Mary was odious to her Protestant subjects, Eliza- beth to those of the unreformed religion, and both these queens succeeded to the crown in times of general sadness; but the youthful Queen Victoria had no enemies except a few Chartists, and the land was peaceful and prosperous when she began to reign over it. The cost of George IV. 's coronation amounted to £240,000; that of William IV. had amounted to £50,000 only; and in asking £70,000 the government had judged that things could be done with suitable luxury, but without waste. The traditional banquet in Westminster Hall, with the throwing down of the glove by the king's champion in armour, had been dispensed with at the coronation of William IV., and it was resolved not to revive it. But it was arranged that the sove- reign's procession to the abbey through the streets should be made a finer show than on previous occasions; and it drew to London 400,000 country visitors. Three ambassadors for different reasons became objects of great interest on the occasion. Marshal Soult, Wellington's old foe, received a hearty popular welcome as a military hero; Prince Esterhazy, who represented Austria, dazzled society by his Magyar uniform, which was encrusted all over, even to the boots, with pearls and diamonds; while the Turkish ambassador, Sarim Effendi, caused much diversion by his bewilderment. He was so wonder-struck that he could not walk to his place, but stood as if he had lost his senses, and kept muttering, " All this for a woman ! " Within a year the court was brought into sudden disfavour with the country by two events of unequal importance, but both exciting. The first was the case of Lady Flora Hastings, nt In February 1839 this young lady, a daughter of the " Bed- marquis of Hastings, and a maid of honour to the duchess of Kent, was accused by certain ladies of the bedchamber of immoral conduct. The charge having been laid before Lord Melbourne, he communicated it to Sir James Clark, the queen's physician, and the result was that Lady Flora was subjected to the indignity of a medical examination, which, while it cleared her character, seriously affected her health. In fact, she died in the following July, and it was then discovered that the physical appearances which first provoked suspicion against her had been due to enlargement of the liver. The queen's conduct towards Lady Flora was kind and sisterly from the beginning to the end of this painful business; but the scandal was made public through some indignant letters which the marchioness of Hastings addressed to Lord Melbourne pray- ing for the punishment of her daughter's traducers, and the general opinion was that Lady Flora had been grossly treated at the instigation of some private court enemies. While the agitation about the affair was yet unappeased, the political chamber Plot." VICTORIA, QUEEN crisis known as the " Bedchamber Plot " occurred. The Whig ministry had introduced a bill suspending the Constitution of Jamaica because the Assembly in that colony had refused to adopt the Prisons Act passed by the Imperial Legislature. Sir Robert Peel moved an amendment, which, on a division (6th May), was defeated by a majority of five only in a house of 583, and ministers thereupon resigned. The duke of Wellington was first sent for, but he advised that the task of forming an administration should be entrusted to Sir Robert Peel. Sir Robert was ready to form a cabinet in which the duke of Welling- ton, Lords Lyndhurst, Aberdeen and Stanley, and Sir James Graham would have served; but he stipulated that the mistress of the robes and the ladies of the bedchamber appointed by the Whig administration should be removed, and to this the queen would not consent. On the loth of May she wrote curtly that the course proposed by Sir Robert Peel was contrary to usage and repugnant to her feelings; the Tory leader then had to inform the House of Commons that, having failed to obtain the proof which he desired of her majesty's confidence, it was im- possible for him to accept office. The ladies of the bedchamber were so unpopular in consequence of their behaviour to Lady Flora Hastings that the public took alarm at the notion that the queen had fallen into the hands of an intriguing coterie; and Lord Melbourne, who was accused of wishing to rule on the strength of court favour, resumed office with diminished prestige. The Tories thus felt aggrieved; and the Chartists were so prompt to make political capital out of the affair that large numbers were added to their ranks. On the i4th of June Mr Attwood, M.P. for Birmingham, presented to the House of Commons a Chartist petition alleged to have been signed by 1,280,000 people. It was a cylinder of parchment of about the diameter of a coach- wheel, and was literally rolled up on the floor of the house. On the day after this curious document had furnished both amuse- ment and uneasiness to the Commons, a woman, describing herself as Sophia Elizabeth Guelph Sims, made application at the Mansion House for advice and assistance to prove herself the lawful child of George IV. and Mrs Fitzherbert; and this incident, trumpery as it was, added fuel to the disloyal flame then raging. Going in state to Ascot the queen was hissed by some ladies as her carriage drove on to the course, and two peeresses, one of them a Tory duchess, were openly accused of this unseemly act. Meanwhile some monster Chartist demon- strations were being organized, and they commenced on the 4th of July with riots at Birmingham. It was an untoward coinci- dence that Lady Flora Hastings died on the 5th of July, for though she repeated on her deathbed, and wished it to be published, that the queen had taken no part whatever in the proceedings which had shortened her life, it was remarked that the ladies who were believed to have persecuted her still retained the sovereign's favour. The riots at Birmingham lasted ten days, and had to be put down by armed force. They were followed by others at Newcastle, Manchester, Bolton, Chester and Macclesfield. These troublous events had the effect of hastening the queen's marriage. Lord Melbourne ascertained that the queen's dis- The positions towards her cousin, Prince Albert, were un- seen's changed, and he advised King Leopold, through M. marriage, yan der Weyer, the Belgian minister, that the prince should come to England and press his suit. The prince arrived with his brother on a visit to Windsor on the loth of October 1839. On the I2th the queen wrote to King Leopold: " Albert's beauty is most striking, and he is so amiable and unaffected — in short, very fascinating." On the isth all was settled; and the queen wrote to her uncle, " I love him more than I can say." The queen's public announcement of her betrothal was enthusiastically received. But the royal lovers still had some parliamentary mortifications to undergo. The government proposed that Prince Albert should receive an annuity of £50,000, but an amendment of Colonel Sibthorp — a politician of no great repute — for making the annuity £30,000 was carried against ministers by 262 votes to 158, the Tories and Radicals going into the same lobby, and many ministerialists taking no part in the division. Prince Albert had not been described, in the queen's declaration to the privy council, as a Protestant prince; and Lord Palmerston was obliged to ask Baron Stockmar for assurance that Prince Albert did not belong to any sect of Protestants whose rules might prevent him from taking the Sacrament according to the ritual of the English Church. He got an answer couched in somewhat ironical terms to the effect that Protestantism owed its existence in a measure to the house of Saxony, from which the prince descended, seeing that this house and that of the landgrave of Hesse had stood quite alone against Europe in upholding Luther and his cause. Even after this certain High Churchmen held that a Lutheran was a " dissenter," and that the prince should be asked to subscribe to the Thirty-Nine Articles. The queen was particularly concerned by the question of the prince's future status as an Englishman. It was impractic- able for him to receive the title of king consort; but the queen naturally desired that her husband should be placed by act of parliament in a position which would secure to him precedence, not only in England, but in foreign courts. Lord Melbourne sought to effect this by a clause introduced in a naturalization bill; but he found himself obliged to drop the clause, and to leave the queen to confer what precedence she pleased by letters-patent. This was a lame way out of the difficulty, for the queen could only confer precedence within her own realms, whereas an act of parliament bestowing the title of prince consort would have made the prince's right to rank above all royal imperial highnesses quite clear, and would have left no room for such disputes as afterwards occurred when foreign princes chose to treat Prince Albert as having mere courtesy rank in his wife's kingdom. The result of these political diffi- culties was to make the queen more than ever disgusted with the Tories. But there was no other flaw in the happiness of the marriage, which was solemnized on the loth of February 1840 in the Chapel Royal, St James's. It is interesting to note that the queen was dressed entirely in articles of British manu- facture. Her dress was of Spitalfields silk; her veil of Hcniton lace; her ribbons came from Coventry; even her gloves had been made in London of English kid — a novel thing in days when the French had a monopoly in the finer kinds of gloves. From the time of the queen's marriage the crown played an increasingly active part in the affairs of state. Previously, ministers had tried to spare the queen all disagree- able and fatiguing details. Lord Melbourne saw her every day, whether she was in London or at Windsor, and he used to explain all current business in a benevolent, chatty manner, which offered a pleasant contrast to the style of his two principal colleagues, Lord John Russell and Lord Palmerston. A statesman of firmer mould than Lord Melbourne would hardly have succeeded so well as he did in making rough places smooth for Prince Albert. Lord John Russell and Lord Palmerston were naturally jealous of the prince's interference — and of King Leopold's and Baron Stockmar's — in state affairs; but Lord Melbourne took the common-sense view that a husband will control his wife whether people wish it cr not. Ably advised by his private secretary, George Anson, and by Stockmar, the prince thus soon took the de facto place of the sovereign's private secretary, though he had no official status as such; and his system of classifying and annotating the queen's papers and letters resulted in the preservation of what the editors of the Letters of Queen Victoria (1907) describe as " probably the most extraordinary collection of state documents in the world " — those up to 1861 being contained in between 500 and 600 bound volumes at Windsor. To confer on Prince Albert every honour that the crown could bestow, and to let him make bis way gradually into public favour by his own tact, was the advice which Lord Melbourne gave; and the prince acted upon it so well, avoiding every appearance of intrusion, and treating men of all parties and degrees with urbanity, that within five months of his marriage he obtained a signal mark of the public confidence. In expectation of the queen becoming a mother, a bill was passed through parliament providing for the appointment of Prince Albert as sole regent in case the VICTORIA, QUEEN queen, after giving birth to a child, died before her son or daughter came of age. The Regency Bill had been hurried on in consequence of the attempt of a crazy pot-boy, Edward Oxford, to take the queen's . life. On loth June 1840, the queen and Prince Albert were driving up Constitution Hill in an open carriage, queea's when Oxford fired two pistols, the bullets from which Ufe- flew, it is said, close by the prince's head. He was arrested on the spot, and when his lodgings were searched a quantity of powder and shot was found, with the rules of a secret society, called " Young England," whose members were pledged to meet, " carrying swords and pistols and wearing crape masks." These discoveries raised the surmise that Oxford was the tool of a widespread Chartist conspiracy — or, as the Irish pretended, of a conspiracy of Orangemen to set the duke of Cumberland on the throne; and while these delusions were fresh, they threw well-disposed persons into a paroxysm of loyalty. Even the London street dogs, as Sydney Smith said, joined with O'Connell in barking " God save the Queen." Oxford seems to have been craving for notoriety; but it may be doubted whether the jury who tried him did right to pronounce his acquittal on the ground of insanity. He feigned madness at his trial, but during the forty years of his subsequent confinement at Bedlam he talked and acted like a rational being, and when he was at length released and sent to Australia he earned his living there as a house painter, and used to declare that he had never been mad at all. His acquittal was to be deprecated as establishing a dangerous precedent in regard to outrages on the sovereign. It was always Prince Albert's opinion that if Oxford had been flogged the attempt of Francis on the queen in 1842 and of Bean in the same year would never have been perpetrated. After the attempt of Bean — who was a hunchback, really insane — parliament passed a bill empowering judges to order whipping as a punishment for those who molested the queen; but some- how this salutary act was never enforced. In 1850 a half -pay officer, named Pate, assaulted the queen by striking her with a stick, and crushing her bonnet. He was sentenced to seven years' transportation; but the judge. Baron Alderson, excused him the flogging. In 1869 an Irish lad, O'Connor, was sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment and a whipping for presenting a pistol at the queen, with a petition, in St James's Park; but this time it was the queen herself who privately remitted the corporal punishment, and she even pushed clemency to the length of sending her aggressor to Australia at her own expense. The series of attempts on the queen was closed in 1882 by Maclean, who fired a pistol at her majesty as she was leaving the Great Western Railway station at Windsor. He, like Bean, 'was a genuine madman, and was relegated to Broadmoor. The birth of the princess royal, on the 2ist of November 1840, removing the unpopular King Ernest of Hanover from Birth tne Posit*011 °f heir-presumptive to the British crown, of the was a subject of loud congratulations to the people. princess A curious scare was occasioned at Buckingham Palace, nva7- when the little princess was a fortnight old, by the discovery of a boy named Joles concealed under a bed in the royal nursery. Jones had a mania for palace-breaking. Three times he effected a clandestine entry into the queen's residence, and twice he managed to spend several days there. By day he concealed himself in cupboards or under furniture, and by night he groped his way into the royal kitchen to eat whatever he could find. After his third capture, in March 1841, he coolly boasted that he had lain under a sofa, and listened to a private con- versation between the queen and Prince Albert. This third time he was not punished, but sent to sea, and turned out very well. The incident strengthened Prince Albert's hands in trying to carry out sundry domestic reforms which were being stoutly resisted by vested interests. The royal residences and grounds used to be under the control of four different officials — the lord chamberlain, the lord steward, the master of the horse and the commissioners of woods and forests. Baron Stockmar describing the confusion fostered by this state of things, said — ' The lord steward finds the fuel and lays the fire; the lord chamberlain lights it. The lord chamberlain provides the lamps; :he lord steward must clean, trim and light them. The inside cleaning of windows belongs to the lord chamberlain's depart- ment, but the outer parts must be attended to by the office of woods and forests, so that windows remain dirty unless the two departments can come to an understanding." It took Prince Albert four years of firmness and diplomacy sefore in 1845 he was able to bring the queen's home under the efficient control of a master of the household. At the general election of 1841 the Whigs returned in a minority of seventy-six, and Lord Melbourne was defeated on the Address and resigned. The queen was affected sir Robert to tears at parting with him; but the crisis had been Peer* tully expected and prepared for by confidential com- mlal*try- munications between Mr Anson and Sir Robert Peel, who now became prime minister (see Letters of Queen Victoria, I. 341 et seq.). The old difficulty as to the appointments to the royal household was tactfully removed, and Tory appoint- ments were made, which were agreeable both to the queen and to Peel. The only temporary embarrassment was the queen's continued private correspondence with Lord Melbourne, which led Stockmar to remonstrate with him; but Melbourne used his influence sensibly; moreover, he gradually dropped out of politics, and the queen got used to his not being indis- pensable. On Prince Albert's position the change had a marked effect, for in the absence of Melbourne the queen relied more particularly on his advice, and Peel himself at once dis- covered and recognized the prince's unusual charm and capacity. One of the Tory premier's first acts was to propose that a royal commission should be appointed to consider the best means for promoting art and science in the kingdom, and he nominated Prince Albert as president. The International Exhibition of 1851, the creation of the Museum and Science and Art Department at South Kensington, the founding of art schools and picture galleries all over the country, the spread of musical taste and the fostering of technical education may be attri- buted, more or less directly, to the commission of distinguished men which began its labours under Prince Albert's auspices. The queen's second child, the prince of Wales (see EDWARD VII.), was born on the gth of November 1841; and this event " filled the measure of the queen's domestic Birth of happiness," as she said in her speech from the throne the prince at the opening of the session of 1842. It is unnecessary 0/ '*'•*"• from this point onwards to go seriatim through the domestic history of the reign, which is given in the article ENGLISH HISTORY. At this time there was much political unrest at home, and serious difficulties abroad. As regards internal politics, it may be remarked that the queen and Prince Albert were much relieved when Peel, who had come in as the leader of the Protectionist party, adopted Free Trade and re- pealed the Corn Laws, for it closed a dangerous agitation which gave them much anxiety. When the country was in distress, the queen felt a womanly repugnance for festivities; and yet it was undesirable that the court should incur the The court reproach of living meanly to save money. There *atthe was a conversation between the queen and Sir Robert country. Peel on this subject in the early days of the Tory adminis- tration, and the queen talked of reducing her establishment in order that she might give away larger sums in charities. " I am afraid the people would only say that your majesty -was returning them change for their pounds in halfpence," answered Peel. " Your majesty is not perhaps aware that the most unpopular person in the parish is the relieving officer, and if the queen were to constitute herself a relieving officer for all the parishes in the kingdom she would find her money go a very little way, and she would provoke more grumbling than thanks." Peel added that a sovereign must do all things in order, not seeking praise for doing one particular thing well, but striving to be an example in all respects, even in dinner-giving. Meanwhile the year 1842 was ushered in by splendid ffites in honour of the king of Prussia, who held the prince of Wales at the font. In the spring there was a fancy-dress ball at Bucking- ham Palace, which remained memorable owing to the offence VICTORIA, QUEEN Tht queen'* tint rail- way journey. which it gave in France. Prince Albert was costumed as Edward III., the queen as Queen Philippa, and all the gentle- men of the court as knights of Poitiers. The French chose to view this as an unfriendly demonstration, and there was some talk of getting up a counter-ball in Paris, the duke of Orleans to figure as William the Conqueror. In June the queen took her first railway journey, travelling from Windsor to Paddington on the Great Western line. The master of the horse, whose business it was to provide for the queen's ordinary journeys by road, was much put out by this innovation. He marched into the station several hours before the start to inspect the engine, as he would have examined a steed; but greater merriment was occasioned by the queen's coachman, who insisted that, as a matter of form, he ought to make-believe to drive the engine. After some dispute, he was told that he might climb on to the pilot engine which was to precede the royal train; but his scarlet livery, white gloves and wig suffered so much from soot and sparks that he made no more fuss about his rights in after trips. The motion of the train was found to be so pleasant that the queen readily trusted herself to the railway for a longer journey a few weeks later, when she paid her first visit to Scotland. A report by Sir James Clark led to the queen's visiting Balmoral in 1848, and to the purchase of the Balmoral estate in 1852, and the queen's diary of hej journeys in Scotland shows what constant enjoyment she derived from her Highland home. Seven years before this the estate of Osborne had been pur- chased in the Isle of Wight, in order that the queen might have a home of her own. Windsor she considered too stately, and the Pavilion at Brighton too uncomfortable. The first stone of Osborne House was laid in 1845, and the royal family entered into possession in September 1846. In August 1843 the queen and Prince Albert paid a visit to King Louis Philippe at the chateau d'Eu. They sailed from Relations Southampton for Treport in a yacht, and, as it hap- pened to be raining hard when they embarked, the loyal members of the Southampton Corporation remem- bered Raleigh, and spread their robes on the ground for the queen to walk over. In 1844 Louis Philippe returned the visit by coming to Windsor. It was the first visit ever paid by a king of France to a sovereign of England, and Louis Philippe was much pleased at receiving the Order of the Garter. He said that he did not feel that he belonged to the " Club " of European sovereigns until he received this decoration. As the father of King Leopold of Belgium's con- sort, the queen was much interested in his visit, which went off with great success and goodwill. The tsar Nicholas had visited Windsor earlier that year, in which also Prince Alfred, who was to marry the tsar's grand-daughter, was born. In 1846 the affair of the " Spanish marriages " seriously troubled the relations between the United Kingdom and France. Louis Philippe and Guizot had planned the marriage of the duke of Montpensier with the infanta Louisa of Spain, younger sister of Queen Isabella, who, it was thought at the time, was not likely ever to have children. The intrigue was therefore one for placing a son of the French king on the Spanish throne. (See SPAIN, History.) As to Queen Victoria's intervention on this question and on others, these words, written by W. E. Gladstone in 1875, may be quoted: — " Although the admirable arrangements of the Constitution have now shielded the sovereign from personal responsibility, they have left ample scope for the exercise of direct and personal influence in the whole work of government. . . . The sovereign as compared with her ministers has, because she is the sovereign, the advantage of long experience, wide survey, elevated position and entire dis- connexion from the bias of party. Further, personal and domestic relations with the ruling families abroad give openings in delicate cases for saying more, and saying it at once more gently and more efficaciously, than could be ventured in the formal correspondence and rude contacts of government. We know with how much truth, fulness and decision, and with how much tact and delicacy, the queen, aided by Prince Albert, took a principal part on behalf of the nation in the painful question of the Spanish marriages." ' The year 1848, which shook so many continental thrones, with foreign *ove- ntgns. left that of the United Kingdom unhurt. Revolutions broke out in Paris, Vienna, Berlin, Madrid, Rome, Naples, Venice, Munich, Dresden and Budapest. The queen and Prince Albert were affected in many private ways by the events abroad. Panic-stricken princes wrote to them for political assistance or pecuniary aid. Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to Eng- land almost destitute, being smuggled over the Channel by the cleverness of the British consul at Havre, and the queen employed Sir Robert Peel as her intermediary for providing him with money to meet his immediate wants. Subsequently Clare- mont was assigned to the exiled royal family of France as a residence. During a few weeks of 1848 Prince William of Prussia (afterwards German emperor) found an asylum in England. In August 1849 the queen and Prince Albert, accompanied by the little princess royal and the prince of Wales, paid a visit to Ireland, landing at the Cove of Cork, which from that day was renamed Queenstown. The recep- tion was enthusiastic, and so was that at Dublin. " Such a day of jubilee," wrote The Times, " such a night of rejoicing, has never been beheld in the ancient capital of Ireland since first it arose on the banks of the Liffey." The queen was greatly pleased and touched. The project of estab- lishing a royal residence in Ireland was often mooted at this time, but the queen's advisers never urged it with sufficient warmth. There was no repugnance to the idea on the queen's part, but Sir Robert Peel thought unfavourably of it as an " empirical " plan, and the question of expense was always mooted as a serious consideration. There is no doubt that the absence of a royal residence in Ireland was felt as a slur upon the Irish people in certain circles. During these years the queen's family was rapidly becoming larger. Princess Alice (afterwards grand duchess of Hesse) was born on the 25th of April 1843; Prince Alfred (afterwards duke of Edinburgh and duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha) on the 6th of August 1844; Princess Helena (Princess Christian) on the 25th of May 1846; Princess Louise (duchess of Argyll) on the i8th of March 1848; and Prince Arthur (duke of Con- naught) on the ist of May 1850. At the end of 1851 an important event took place, which ended a long-standing grievance on the part of the queen, in Lord Palmerston's dismissal from the office of foreign secre- The tary on account of his expressing approval of Louis queen and Napoleon's coup d'etat in Paris. The circumstances LonlPai- are of extreme interest for the light they throw on * the queen's estimate of her constitutional position and authority. Lord Palmerston had never been persona grata at court. His Anglo-Irish nature was not sympathetic with the somewhat formal character and German training of Prince Albert; and his views of ministerial independence were not at all in accord with those of the queen and her husband. The queen had more than once to remind her foreign secretary that his des- patches must be seen by her before they were sent out, and though Palmerston assented, the queen's complaint had to be continually repeated. She also protested to the prime minister (Lord John Russell) in 1848, 1849 and 1850, against various instances in which Palmerston had expressed his own personal opinions in matters of foreign affairs, without his despatches being properly approved either by herself or by the cabinet. Lord John Russell, who did not want to offend his popular and headstrong colleague, did his best to smooth things over; but the queen remained exceedingly sore, and tried hard to get Palmerston removed, without success. On the I2th of August 1850 the queen wrote to Lord John Russell the following important memorandum, which followed in its terms a private memorandum drawn up for her by Stockmar a few months earlier (Letters, ii. 282): — " With reference to the conversation about Lord Palmerston which the queen had with Lord John Russell the other day, and Lord Palmerston's disavowal that he ever intended any disrespect to her by the various neglects of which she has had so long and so often to complain, she thinks it right, in order to avoid any mis- takes for the future, to explain what it is she expects from the foreign secretary. VICTORIA, QUEEN 33 " She requires — " I. That he will distinctly state what he proposes in a given case, in order that the queen may know as distinctly to what she has given her royal sanction. " 2. Having given her sanction to a measure, that it be not arbitrarily altered or modified by the minister. Such an act she must regard as failing in sincerity to the crown, and justly to be visited by the exercise of her constitutional right of dismissing that minister. She expects to be kept informed of what passes between him and the foreign ministers, before important decisions are taken, based upon that intercourse; to receive the foreign despatches in good time, and to have the drafts for her approval sent her in sufficient time to make herself acquainted with their contents before they must be sent off. The queen thinks it best that Lord John Russell should show this letter to Lord Palmerston." Lord Palmerston took a copy of this letter, and promised to attend to its direction. But the queen thoroughly distrusted him, and in October 1851 his proposed reception of Kossuth nearly led to a crisis. Then finally she discovered (December 13) at the time of the coup d' Mai, that he had, of his own initiative, given assurances of approval to Count Walewski, which were not in accord with the views of the cabinet and with the " neutrality which had been enjoined " by the queen. This was too much even for Lord Jphn Russell, and after a short and decisive correspondence Lord Palmerston resigned the seals of office. The death of the duke of Wellington in 1852 deeply affected the queen. The duke had acquired a position above parties, Death of and was the trusted adviser of all statesmen and of the the duke court in emergencies. The queen sadly needed such ''''". a counsellor, for Prince Albert's position was one full Prfo°e of difficulty, and party malignity was continually Albert's putting wrong constructions upon the advice which he position, gave, and imputing to him advice which he did not give. During the Corn Law agitation offence was taken at his having attended a debate in the House of Commons, the Tories declaring that he had gone down to overawe the house in favour of Peel's measures. After Palmerston's en- forced resignation, there was a new and more absurd hubbub. A climax was reached when the difficulties with Russia arose which led to the Crimean War; the prince was accused by the peace party of wanting war, and by the war party of plotting surrender; and it came to be publicly rumoured that the queen's husband had been found conspiring against the state, and had been committed to the Tower. Some said that the queen had been arrested too, and the prince wrote to Stockman " Thou- sands of people surrounded the Tower to see the queen and me brought to it." This gave infinite pain to the queen, and at length she wrote to Lord Aberdeen on the subject. Eventually, on 3ist January 1854, Lord John Russell took occasion to deny most emphatically that Prince Albert interfered unduly with foreign affairs, and in both houses the statesmen of the two parties delivered feeling panegyrics of the prince, asserting at the same time his entire constitutional right to give private advice to the sovereign on matters of state. From this time it may be said that Prince Albert's position was established on a secure footing. He had declined (1850) to accept the post of commander-in-chief at the duke of Wellington's suggestion, and he always refused to let himself be placed in any situation which would have modified ever so slightly his proper relations with the queen. The queen was very anxious that he should receive the title of " King Consort," and that the crown should be jointly borne as it was by William III. and Mary; but he himself never spoke a word for this arrangement. It was only to please the queen that he consented to take the title of Prince Con- sort (by letters patent of June 25, 1857), and he only did this when it was manifest that statesmen of all parties approved the change. For the queen and royal family the Crimean War time was a very busy and exciting one. Her majesty personally super- The intended the committees of ladies who organized Crimean relief for the wounded; she helped Florence Nightin- **'"'• gale in raising bands of trained nurses; she visited the crippled soldiers in*"the hospitals, and it was through her resolute complaints of the utter insufficiency of the hospital accommodation that Netley1 Hospital was built. The xxvm. 2 distribution of medals to the soldiers and the institution of the Victoria Cross (February 1857) as a reward for individual instances of merit and valour must also be noted among the incidents which occupied the queen's time and thoughts. In 1855 the emperor and empress of the French visited the queen at Windsor Castle, and the same year her majesty and the prince consort paid a visit to Paris. The queen's family life was most happy. At Balmoral and Windsor the court lived in virtual privacy, and the queen and the prince consort saw much of their children. Count- The less entries in the queen's diaries testify to the anxious queen affection with which the progress of each little member aj>a btt of the household was watched. Two more children had been born to the royal pair, Prince Leopold (duke of Albany) on the 7th of April 1853, and on the I4th of April 1857 their last child, the princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenberg), bringing the royal family up to nine — four sons and five daughters. Less than a year after Princess Beatrice's birth the princess royal was married to Prince Frederick William of Prussia, afterwards the emperor Frederick. The next marriage after the princess royal's was that of the princess Alice to Prince Louis (afterwards grand duke) of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1862. In 1863 the prince of Wales married the princess Alex- andra of Denmark. In 1866 the princess Helena became the wife of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. In 1871 the princess Louise was wedded to the marquis of Lome, eldest son of the duke of Argyll. In 1874 Prince Alfred, duke of Edin- burgh, married Princess Marie Alexandrovna, only daughter of the tsar Alexander II. The duke of Connaught married in 1879 the princess Louise of Prussia, daughter of the soldier- prince Frederick Charles. In 1882 Prince Leopold, duke of Albany, wedded the princess Helen of Waldeck-Pyrmont. Finally came the marriage of Princess Beatrice in 1885 with Prince Henry of Battenberg. On the occasion of the coming of age of the queen's sons and the marriages of her daughters parliament made provision. The prince of Wales, in addition to the revenues of the duchy of Cornwall, had £40,000 a year, the princess £10,000, and an addition of £36,000 a year for their children was granted by parliament in 1889. The princess royal received a dowry of £40,000 and £8000 a year for life, the younger daughters £30,000 and £6000 a year each. The dukes of Edinburgh, Connaught and Albany were each voted an income of £15,000, and £10,000 on marrying. The dispute with the United States concerning the " Trent " affair of 1861 will always be memorable for the part played in its settlement by the queen and the prince consort. The In 1861 the accession of Abraham Lincoln to the presi- xmertcaa dency of the United States of America caused the clvU Wtr' Southern States of the Union to revolt, and the war began. During November trie British West India steamer "Trent " was boarded by a vessel of the Federal Navy, the " San Jacinto," and Messrs Slidell and Mason, commissioners for the Confederate States, who were on their way to England, were seized. The British government were on the point of demanding reparation for this act in a peremptory manner which could hardly have meant anything but war, but Prince Albert insisted on revising Lord Russell's despatch in a way which gave the American government an opportunity to concede the surrender of the prisoners without humiliation. The memorandum from the queen on this point was the prince consort's last political draft. The year 1861 was the saddest in the queen's life. On i6th March, her mother, the duchess of Kent, died, and on i4th December, while the dispute with America about the Death of " Trent " affair was yet unsettled, the prince consort theprtoce breathed his last at Windsor. His death left a void 00»»»rt- in the queen's life which nothing could ever fill. She built at Frogmore a magnificent mausoleum where she might be buried with him. Never again during her reign did the queen live in London, and Buckingham Palace was only used for occasional viiits of a few days. 34 VICTORIA, QUEEN At the time of the prince consort's death the prince of Wales was in his twenty-first year. He had spent several terms at Marriage e^cn °f tne two universities of Oxford and Cambridge, of the and he had already travelled much, having visited prince of most of Europe, Egypt and the United States. Wales, u^ marriage was solemnized at Windsor on the loth of March 1863. The queen witnessed the wedding from the private pew or box of St George's Chapel, Windsor, but she wore the deep mourning which she was never wholly to put off to the end of her life, and she took no part in the festivities of the wedding. In foreign imperial affairs, and in the adjustment of serious parliamentary difficulties, the queen's dynastic influence abroad and her position as above party at home, together with the respect due to her character, good sense and experience, still remained a powerful element in the British polity, as was shown Austro- on more than one occasion. In 1866 the Austro- Prussian Prussian War broke out , and many short-sighted people War. were tempted to side with France when, in 1867, Napoleon III. sought to obtain a " moral compensation " by laying a claim to the duchy of Luxemburg. A conference met in London, and the difficulty was settled by neutralizing the duchy and ordering the evacuation of the Prussian troops who kept garrison there. But this solution, which averted an imminent war, was only arrived at through Queen Victoria's personal intercession. In the words of a French writer — " The queen wrote both to the king of Prussia and to the emperor Napoleon. Her letter to the emperor, pervaded with the religious and almost mystic sentiments which predominate in the queen's mind, particularly since the death of Prince Albert, seems to have made a deep impression on the sovereign who, amid the struggles of politics, had never completely repudiated the philanthropic theories of his youth, and who, on the battlefield of Solferino, covered with the dead and wounded, was seized with an unspeakable horror of war." Moreover, Disraeli's two premierships (1868, 1874-80) did a good deal to give new encouragement to a right idea of the Disraeli constitutional function of the crown. Disraeli thought and that the queen ought to be a power in the state. His notion of duty— at once a loyal and chivalrous one — was that he was obliged to give the queen the best of his advice, but that the final decision in any course lay with her, and that once she had decided, he was bound, what- ever might be his own opinion, to stand up for her decision in public. The queen, not unnaturally, came to trust Disraeli implicitly, and she frequently showed her friendship for him. At his death she paid an exceptional tribute to his " dear and honoured memory " from his " grateful and affectionate sovereign and friend." To something like this position Lord Salisbury after 1886 succeeded. A somewhat different con- ception of the sovereign's functions was that of Disraeli's great rival, Gladstone, who, though his respect for the person and office of the sovereign was unbounded, not only expected all people, the queen included, to agree with him when he changed his mind, but to become suddenly enthusiastic about his new ideas. The queen consequently never felt safe with him. Nor did she like his manner — he spoke to her (she is believed to have said) as if she were a public meeting. The queen was opposed to the Disestablishment of the Irish Church (1869) — the question which brought Gladstone to be premier — and though she yielded with good grace, Gladstone was fretful and astonished because she would not pretend to give a hearty assent to the measure. Through her secretary, General Grey, the queen pointed out that she had not concealed from Gladstone " how deeply she deplored " his having felt himself under the necessity of raising the question, and how appre- hensive she was of the possible consequences of the measure; but, when a general election had pronounced on the principle, when the bill had been carried through the House of Commons by unvarying majorities, she did not see what good could be gained by rejecting it in the Lords. Later, when through the skilful diplomacy of the primate the Lords had passed the second reading by a small but sufficient majority (179 to 146), and after amendments had been adopted, the queen herself wrote — " The queen ... is very sensible of the prudence and, at the same time, the anxiety for the welfare of the Irish Establishment which the archbishop has manifested during the course of the debates, and she will be very glad if the amendments which have been adopted at his suggestion lead to a settlement of the ques- tion; but to effect this, concessions, the queen believes, will have to be made on both sides. The queen must say that she cannot view without alarm possible consequences of another year of agita- tion on the Irish Church, and she would ask the archbishop seriously to consider, in case the concessions to which the government may agree should not go so far as he may himself wish, whether the postponement of the settlement for another year may not be likely to result in worse rather than in better terms for the Church. The queen trusts, therefore, that the archbishop will himself consider, and, as far as he can, endeavour to induce the others to consider, any concessions that may be offered by the House of Commons in the most conciliatory spirit." The correspondence of which this letter forms a part is one of the few published witnesses to the queen's careful and active interest in home politics during the latter half of her reign; but it is enough to prove how wise, how moderate and how steeped in the spirit of the Constitution she was. Another instance is that of the County Franchise and Redistribution Bills of 1884-85. There, again, a conflict between the two houses was imminent, and the queen's wish for a settlement had considerable weight in bringing about the curious but effective conference of the two parties, of which the first suggestion, it is believed, was due to Lord Randolph Churchill. In 1876 a bill was introduced into parliament for conferring on the queen the title of " Empress of India." It met with much opposition, and Disraeli was accused of ministering simply to a whim of the sovereign, whereas, in fact, the title was intended to impress the idea of British suzerainty forcibly upon the minds of the native princes, and upon the population of Hindustan. The prince of Wales's voyage to India in the winter of 1875-76 had brought the heir to the throne into personal relationship with the great Indian vassals of the British crown, and it was felt that a further demonstra- tion of the queen's interest in her magnificent dependency would confirm their loyalty. The queen's private life during the decade 1870-80 was one of quiet, broken only by one great sorrow when the Princess Alice died in 1878. In 1867 her majesty had started in author- ship by publishing The Early Days of the Prince fife™'' Consort, compiled by General Grey; in 1869 she gave to the world her interesting and simply written diary entitled Leaves from the Journal of our Life in the Highlands, and in 1874 appeared the first volume of The Life and Letters of the Prince Consort (2nd vol. in 1880), edited by Sir Theodore Martin. A second instalment of the Highland journal appeared in 1885. These literary occupations solaced the hours of a life which was mostly spent in privacy. A few trips to the Continent, in which the queen was always accompanied by her youngest daughter, the Princess Beatrice, brought a little variety into the home-life, and aided much in keeping up the good health which the queen enjoyed almost uninterruptedly. So far as public ceremonies were concerned, the prince and princess of Wales were now coming forward more and more to represent the royal family. People noticed meanwhile that the queen had taken a great affection for her Scottish man-servant, John Brown, who had been in her service since 1849; she made him her constant personal attendant, and looked on him more as a friend than as servant. When he died in 1883 the queen's grief was intense. From 1880 onwards Ireland almost monopolized the field of domestic politics. The queen was privately opposed to Gladstone's Home Rule policy; but she observed in public a constitutional reticence on the subject. In the year, however, of the Crimes Act 1887, an event took place which was of more intimate personal concern to the queen, and of more attractive import to the country and the empire at large. June 2oth was the fiftieth anniversary of her accession to ™biiee. the throne, and on the following day, for the second time in English history, a great Jubilee celebration was held to commemorate so happy an event. The country threw VICTORIA, QUEEN 35 itself into the celebration with unchecked enthusiasm; large sums of, money were everywhere subscribed; in every city, town and village something was done both in the way of rejoicing and in the way of establishing some permanent memorial of the event. In London the day itself was kept by a solemn service in Westminster Abbey, to which the queen went in state, surrounded by the most brilliant, royal, and princely escort that had ever accompanied a British sovereign, and cheered on her way by the applause of hundreds of thousands of her subjects. The queen had already paid a memorable visit to the East End, when she opened the People's Palace on the I4th of May. On the 2nd of July she reviewed at Buckingham Palace some 28,000 volunteers of London and the home counties. On the 4th of July she laid the foundation stone of the Imperial Institute, the building at Kensington to which, at the instance of the prince of Wales, it had been determined to devote the large sum of money collected as a Jubilee offering, and which was opened by the queen in 1893. On the pth of July the queen reviewed 60,000 men at Aldershot; and, last and chief of all, on the 23rd of July, one of the most brilliant days of a brilliant summer, she reviewed the fleet at Spithead. The year 1888 witnessed two events which greatly affected European history, and in a minor, though still marked, degree The queen the life of the English court. On the gth of March and the emperor William I. died at Berlin. He was Bismarck. succeeded by his son, the emperor Frederick III., regarded with special affection in England as the husband of the princess royal. But at the time he was suffering from a malignant disease of the throat, and he died on the 1 5th of June, being succeeded by his eldest son, the emperor William II., the grandson of the queen. Meanwhile Queen Victoria spent some weeks at Florence at the Villa Palmieri, and returned home by Darmstadt and Berlin. In spite of the illness of the emperor Frederick a certain number of court festivities were held in her honour, and she had long con- versations with Prince Bismarck, who was deeply impressed by her majesty's personality. Just before, the prince, who was still chancellor, had taken a very strong line with regard to a royal marriage in which the queen was keenly interested — the proposal that Prince Alexander of Battenberg, lately ruler of Bulgaria, and brother of the queen's son-in-law, Prince Henry, should marry Princess Victoria, the eldest daughter of the emperor Frederick. Prince Bismarck, who had been anti- Battenberg from the beginning, vehemently opposed this mar- riage, on the ground that for reasons of state policy it would never do for a daughter of the German emperor to marry a prince who was personally disliked by the tsar. This affair causod no little agitation in royal circles, but in the end state reasons were allowed to prevail and the^chancellor had his way. The queen had borne so well the fatigue of the Jubilee that during the succeeding years she was encouraged to make some- what more frequent appearances among her subjects. In May 1888 she attended a performance of Sir Arthur Sullivan's Golden Legend at the Albert Hall, and in August she visited Glasgow to open the magnificent new municipal buildings, remaining for a couple of nights at Blythswood, the seat of Sir Archibald Campbell. Early in 1889 she received at Windsor a special embassy, which was the beginning of a memorable chapter of English history: two Matabele chiefs were sent by King Lobengula to present his respects to the " great White Queen," as to whose very existence, it was said, he had up till that time been sceptical. Soon afterwards her majesty went to Biarritz, and the occasion was made memorable by a visit which she paid to the queen-regent of Spain at San Sebas- tian, the only visit that an English reigning sovereign had ever paid to the Peninsula. The relations between the court and the country forme'd matter in 1889 for a somewhat sharp discussion in parliament and in the press. A royal message was brought by Mr W. H. Smith on the 2nd of July, expressing, on the one hand, the queen's desire to provide for Prince Albert Victor of Wales, and, on the other, informing the house of the intended marriage of the prince of Wales's daughter, the Princess Louise, to the earl (afterwards duke) of Fife. On the proposal of Mr Smith, seconded by Gladstone, a select committee meatary was appointed to consider these messages and to grant to report to the house as to the existing practice and as the prince to the principles to be adopted for the future. The ' evidence laid before the committee explained to the country for the first time the actual state of the royal income, and on the proposal of Gladstone, amending the proposal of the government, it was proposed to grant a fixed, addition of £36,000 per annum to the prince of Wales, out of which he should be expected to provide for his children without further application to the country. Effect was given to this proposal in a bill called " The Prince of Wales's Children's Bill," which was carried in spite of the persistent opposition of a small group of Radicals. In the spring of 1890 the queen visited Aix-les-Bains in the hope that the waters of that health resort might alleviate the rheumatism from which she was now frequently i/Mn-gi suffering. She returned as usual by way of Darmstadt, and shortly after her arrival at Windsor paid a visit to Baron Ferdinand Rothschild at Waddesdon Manor. In February she launched the battleship " Royal Sovereign " at Portsmouth; a week later she visited the Horse Show at Islington. Her annual spring visit to the South was this year paid to the little town of Grasse. At the beginning of 1892 a heavy blow fell upon the queen in the death of the prince of Wales's eldest son Albert Victor, duke of Clarence and Avondale. He had never been p^^ of a robust constitution, and after a little more than of the a week's illness from pneumonia following influenza, *"*« of he died at Sandringham. The pathos of his death Clmn was increased by the fact that only a short time before it had been announced that the prince was about to marry his second cousin, Princess May, daughter of the duke and duchess of Teck. The death of the young prince threw a gloom over the country, and caused the royal family to spend the year in such retirement as was possible. The queen this year paid a visit to Costebelle, and stayed there for some quiet weeks. In 1893 the country, on the expiration of the royal mourning, began to take a more than usual interest in the affairs of the royal family. On the igth of February the queen left home for a visit to Florence, and spent it in the Villa Palmieri. She was able to display remarkable energy in visiting the sights of the city, and even went as far afield as San Gimignano; and her visit had a notable effect in strengthening the bonds of friendship between the United Kingdom and the Italian people. On 28th April she arrived home, and a few days later the prince of Wales's second son, George, duke of York (see GEORGE V.), who by his brother's death had been left in the direct line of succession to the throne, was betrothed to the Princess May, the marriage being celebrated on 6th July in the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace. In 1894 the queen stayed for some weeks at Florence, and on her return she stopped at Coburg to witness the marriage between two of her grandchildren, the grand duke of Hesse and the Princess Victoria Melita of Coburg. On the next day the emperor William officially announced the betrothal of the Cesarevitch (afterwards the tsar Nicholas II.) to the princess Alix of Hesse, a granddaughter whom the queen had always regarded with special affection. Aftei a few weeks in London the queen went northwards and stopped at Manchester, where she opened the Ship Canal. Two days afterwards she celebrated her seventy-fifth birthday in quiet at Balmoral. A month later (June 23) took place the birth of a son to the duke and duchess of York, the child receiving the thoroughly English name of Edward. In 1895 the queen lost her faithful and most efficient private secretary, General Sir Henry Ponsonby, who for many years VICTORIA, QUEEN had helped her in the management of her most private affairs and had acted as an intermediary between her and her ministers Death of w'tn Sm8u'ar ability and success. His successor was Prince Sir Arthur Bigge. The following year, 1896, was Henry of marked by a loss which touched the queen even more f*tten' nearly and more personally. At his own urgent request Prince Henry of Battenberg, the queen's son-in-law, was permitted to join the Ashanti expedition, and early in January the prince was struck down with fever. He was brought to the coast and put on board her majesty's ship " Blonde," where, on the aoth, he died. In September 1896 the queen's reign had reached a point at which it exceeded in length that of any other English The sovereign; but by her special request all public Diamond celebrations of the fact were deferred until the follow- Jubilee. mg june> which marked the completion of sixty years from her accession. As the time drew on it was obvious that the celebrations of this Diamond Jubilee, as it was popularly called, would exceed in magnificence those of the Jubilee of 1887. Mr Chamberlain, the secretary for the colonies, induced his colleagues to seize the opportunity of making the jubilee a festival of the British empire. Accordingly, the prime ministers of all the self-governing colonies, with their families, were invited to come to London as the guests of the country to take part in the Jubilee procession; and drafts of the troops from every British colony and dependency were brought home for the same purpose. The procession was, in the strictest sense of the term, unique. Here was a display, not only of Englishmen, Scotsmen, Irishmen, Welsh- men, but of Mounted Rifles from Victoria and New South Wales, from the Cape and from Natal, and from the Dominion of Canada. Here were Hausas from the Niger and the Gold Coast, coloured men from the West India regiments, zaptiehs from Cyprus, Chinamen from Hong Kong, and Dyaks— now civilized into military police — from British North Borneo. Here, most brilliant sight of all, were the Imperial Service troops sent by the native princes of India; while the detachments of Sikhs who marched earlier in the procession received their full meed of admiration and applause. Altogether the queen was in her carriage for more than four hours, in itself an extraordinary physical feat for a woman of seventy-eight. Her own feelings were shown by the simple but significant message she sent to her people throughout the world: " From my heart I thank my beloved people. May God bless them." The illuminations in London and the great provincial towns were magnificent, and all the hills from Ben Nevis to the South Downs were crowned with bonfires. The queen herself held a great review at Aldershot; but a much more significant display was the review by the prince of Wales of the fleet at Spithead on Saturday, the 26th"of June. No less than 165 vessels of all classes were drawn up in four lines, extending altogether to a length of 30 m. The two years that followed the Diamond Jubilee were, as regards the queen, comparatively uneventful. Her health remained good, and her visit to Cimiez in the spring of 1898 was as enjoyable and as beneficial as before. In May 1899, after another visit to the Riviera, the queen performed what proved to be her last ceremonial function in London: she proceeded in " semi-state " to South Kensington, and laid the foundation stone of the new buildings completing the Museum — henceforth to be called the Victoria and Albert Museum — which had been planned more than forty years before by the prince consort. Griefs and anxieties encompassed the queen during the last year of her life. But if the South African War proved more Tae serious than had been anticipated, it did more to queen's weld the empire together than years of peaceful last year, progress might have accomplished. The queen's frequent messages of thanks and greeting to her colonies and to the troops sent by them, and her reception of the latter at Windsor, gave evidence of the heartfelt joy with which she saw the sons of the empire giving their lives for the defence of its integrity; and the satisfaction which she showed in the Federation of the Australian colonies was no less keen. The reverses of the first part of the Boer cam- paign, together with the loss of so many of her officers and soldiers, caused no small part of that " great strain " of which the Court Circular spoke in the ominous words which first told the country that she was seriously ill. But the queen faced the new situation with her usual courage, devotion and strength of will. She reviewed the departing regiments; she entertained the wives and children of the Windsor soldiers who had gone to the war; she showed by frequent messages her watchful interest in the course of the campaign and in the efforts which were being made throughout the whole empire; and her Christmas gift of a box of chocolate to every soldier in South Africa was a touching proof of her sympathy and interest. She relinquished her annual holiday on the Riviera, feeling that at such a time she ought not to leave her country. Entirely on her own initiative, and moved by admiration for the fine achievements of " her brave Irish " during the war, the queen announced her intention of paying a long visit to Dublin; and there, accordingly, she went for the month of April 1900, staying in the Viceregal Lodge, receiving many of the leaders of Irish society, inspecting some 50,000 school children from all parts of Ireland, and taking many a drive amid the charming scenery of the neighbourhood of Dublin. She went even further than this attempt to conciliate Irish feeling, and to show her recognition of the gallantry of the Irish soldiers she issued an order for them to wear the shamrock on St Patrick's Day, and for a new regiment of Irish Guards to be constituted. In the previous November the queen had had the pleasure of receiving, on a private visit, her grandson, the German Em- peror, who came accompanied by the empress and by two of their sons. This visit cheered the queen, and the successes of the army which followed the arrival of Lord Roberts in Africa occasioned great joy to her, as she testified by many published messages. But independently of the public anxieties of the war, and of those aroused by the violent and unexpected out- break of fanaticism in China, the year brought deep private griefs to the queen. In 1899 her grandson, the hereditary prince of Coburg, had succumbed to phthisis, and in 1900 his father, the duke of Coburg, the queen's second son, previously known as the duke of Edinburgh, also died (July 30). Then Prince Christian Victor, the queen's grandson, fell a victim to enteric fever at Pretoria; and during the autumn it came to be known that the empress Frederick, the queen's eldest daughter, was very seriously ill. Moreover, just at the end of the year a loss which greatly shocked and grieved the queen was experienced in the sudden death, at Windsor Castle, of the Dowager Lady Churchill, one of her oldest and most intimate friends. These losses told upon the queen at her advanced age- Throughout her life she had enjoyed excellent health, and even in the last few years the only marks of age were rheumatic stiffness of the joints, which prevented walking, and a diminished power of eyesight. In the autumn of 1900, however, her health began definitely to fail, and though arrangements were made Death for another holiday in the South, it was plain that her strength was seriously affected. Still she continued the ordinary routine of her duties and occupations. Before Christmas she made her usual journey to Osborne, and there on the 2nd of January she received Lord Roberts on his return from South Africa and handed to him the insignia of the Garter. A fortnight later she commanded a second visit from the field- marshal; she continued to transact business, and until a week before her death she still took her daily drive. A sudden loss of power then supervened, and on Friday evening, the i8th of January, the Court Circular published an authoritative announce- ment of her illness. On Tuesday, the 22nd of January 1901, she died. Queen Victoria was a ruler of a new type. When she ascended the throne the popular faith in kings and queens was on the decline. She revived that faith; she consolidated her throne; she not only captivated the affections of the multitude, but VICTORIA, T. L. DA— VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) won the respect of thoughtful men; and all this she achieved by methods which to her predecessors would have seemed im- practicable— methods which it required no less shrewdness to discover than force of character and honesty of heart to adopt steadfastly. Whilst all who approached the queen bore witness to her candour and reasonableness in relation to her ministers, all likewise proclaimed how anxiously she considered advice that was submitted to her before letting herself be persuaded that she must accept it for the good of her people. Though richly endowed with saving common sense, the queen was not specially remarkable for high develcpment of any specialized intellectual force. Her whole life, public and private, was an abiding lesson in the paramount importance of character. John Bright said of her that what specially struck him was her absolute truthfulness. The extent of her family connexions, and the correspondence she maintained with foreign sovereigns, together with the confidence inspired by her personal character, often enabled her to smooth the rugged places of international relations; and she gradually became in later years the link between all parts of a demo- cratic empire, the citizens of which felt a passionate loyalty for their venerable queen. By her long reign and unblemished record her name had become associated inseparably with British institutions and imperial solidarity. Her own life was by choice, and as far as her position would admit, one of almost austere simplicity and homeliness; and her subjects were proud of a royalty which involved none of the mischiefs of caprice or ostentation, but set an example alike of motherly sympathy and of queenly dignity. She was mourned at her death not by her own country only, nor even by all English-speaking people, but by the whole world. The funeral in London on the ist and 2nd of February, including first the passage of the coffin from the Isle of Wight to Gosport between lines of warships, and secondly a military procession from London to Windsor, was a memorable solemnity: the greatest of English sovereigns, whose name would in history mark an age, had gone to her rest. There is a good bibliographical note at the end of Mr Sidney Lee's article in the National Dictionary of Biography. See also the Letters of Queen Victoria (1907), and the obituary published by The Times, from which some passages have been borrowed above. (H. CH.) VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (c. 1540-c. 1613), Spanish musical composer, was born at Avila (unless, as Haberl conjectures, his title of Presbyter Abulensis refers not to his birthplace but to his parish as priest, so that his name would indicate that he was born at Vittoria). In 1573 he was appointed as Maestro di Cappella to the Collegium Germani- cum at Rome, where he had probably been trained. Victoria left Rome in 1589, being then appointed vice-master of the Royal Chapel at Madrid, a post which he held until 1602. In 1603 he composed for the funeral of the empress Maria the greatest requiem of the Golden Age, which is his last known work, though in 1613 a contemporary speaks of him as still living. He was not ostensibly Palestrina's pupil; but Palestrina had the main influence upon his art, and the personal relations between the two were as intimate as were the artistic. The work begun by Morales and perfected by Palestrina left no stumbling-blocks in Victoria's 'path and he was able from the outset to express the purity of his ideals of religious music without having to sift the good from the bad in that Flemish tradition which had entangled Palestrina's path while it enlarged his style. From Victoria's first publication in 1572 to his last requiem (the Officium Defunclorum of 1605) there is practically no change of style, all being pure church music of unswerving loftiness and showing no inequality except in concentration of thought. Like his countryman and predecessor Morales, he wrote no secular music;1 yet he differs from Morales, perhaps more than can be accounted for by his later date, in that his devotional spirit is impulsive rather than ascetic. His work 1 One French song is mentioned by Hawkins, but no secular mus_ic appears in the prospectus of the modern complete edition of his works published by Breitkopf and Hartel. 37 is the crown of Spanish music: music which has been regarded as not constituting a special school, since it absorbed itself so thoroughly in the Rome of Palestrina. Yet, as has been aptly pointed out in the admirable article " Vittoria " in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Roman music owes so much to that Spanish school which produced Guerrero, Morales and Victoria, that it might fairly be called the Hispano-Roman school. In spite of the comparative smallness of Victoria's output as compared with that of many of his contemporaries, there is no mistaking his claim to rank with Palestrina and Orlando di Lasso in the triad of supreme 16th-century masters. In any extensive anthology of liturgical polyphony such as the Musica Divina of Proske, his work stands out as impressively as Palestrina's and Lasso's; and the style, in spite of a resem- blance to Palestrina which amounts to imitation, is as individual as only a successful imitator of Palestrina can be. That is to say, Victoria's individuality is strong enough to assert itself by the very act of following Palestrina's path. When he is below his best his style does not become crabbed or harsh, but over-facile and thin, though never failing in euphony. If he seldom displays an elaborate technique it is not because be conceals it, or lacks it. His mastery is unfailing, but his methods are those of direct emotional effect; and the intellectual qualities that strengthen and deepen this emotion are themselves innate and not sought out. The emotion is reasonable and lofty, not because he has trained himself to think correctly, but because he does not know that any one can think otherwise. His works fill eight volumes in the complete edition of Messrs Breitkopf and Hartel. ( D. F. T.) VICTORIA, a British colonial state, occupying the south- eastern corner of Australia. Its western boundary is in 140° 58' E. ; on the east it runs out to a point at Cape Howe, in 1 50° E. long., being thus rudely triangular in shape; the river Murray constitutes nearly the whole of the northern boundary, its most northerly point being in 34° S. lat.; the southern boundary is the coast-line of the Southern Ocean and of Bass Strait; the most southerly point is Wilson's Promontory in 39° S. lat, The greatest length east and west is about 480 m. ; the greatest width, in the west, is about 250 m. The area is officially stated to be 87,884 sq. m. The coast-line may be estimated at about 800 m. It begins about the 14131 meridian with bold but not lofty sand- stone cliffs, worn into deep caves and capped by grassy undu- lations, which extend inland to pleasant park-like lands. Capes Bridgewater and Nelson form a peninsula of forest lands, broken by patches of meadow. To the east of Cape Nelson lies the moderately sheltered inlet of Portland Bay, consisting of a sweep of sandy beach flanked by bold granite rocks. Then comes a long unbroken stretch of high cliffs, which, owing to insetting currents, have been the scene of many calamitous wrecks. Cape Otway is the termination of a wild mountain range that here abuts on the coast. Its brown cliffs rise verti- cally from the water; and the steep slopes above are covered with dense forests of exceedingly tall timber and tree-ferns. Eastwards from this cape the line of cliffs gradually diminishes in height to about 20 to 40 ft. at the entrance to Port Phillip. Next comes Port Phillip Bay, at the head of which stands the city of Melbourne. When the tide recedes from this bay through the narrow entrance it often encounters a strong current just outside; the broken and somewhat dangerous sea thus caused is called " the Rip." East of Port Phillip Bay the shores consist for 15 m. of a line of sandbanks; but at Cape Schanck they suddenly become high and bold. East of this comes Western Port, a deep inlet more than half occupied by French Island and Phillip Island. Its shores are flat and uninteresting, in some parts swampy. The bay is shallow and of little use for navigation. The coast continues rocky round Cape Liptrap. Wilson's Promontory is a great rounded mass of granite hills, with wild and striking scenery, tree-fern gullies and gigantic gum-trees, connected with the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. At its extremity lie a multitude of rocky islets, with steep granite edges. North of this cape, and VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) S~~0 U T H SCvW%w> VICTORIA *»' C Bass Str°dit°*-r> opening to the east, lies Corner Inlet, which is dry at low water. The coast now continues low to the extremity of the colony. The slight bend northward forms a sort of bight called the Ninety Mile Beach, but it really exceeds that length. It is an unbroken line of sandy shore, backed by low sandhills, on which grows a sparse dwarf vegetation. Behind these hills comes a succession of lakes, surrounded by excellent land, and beyond these rise the soft blue outlines of the mountain masses of the interior. The shores on the extreme east are somewhat higher, and occasionally rise in bold points. They terminate in Cape Howe, off which lies Gabo Island, of small extent but containing an important lighthouse and signalling station. The western half of Victoria is Jeyel or slightly undulating, and as a rule tame in its scenery, exhibiting only thinly timbered grassy lands, with all the appearance of open parks. The north-west corner of the colony, equally flat, is dry and sometimes sandy, and frequently bare of vegetation, though in one part some seven or eight millions of acres are covered with the dense brushwood known as " malice scrub." This wide western plain is slightly broken in two places. In the south the wild ranges of Cape Otway are covered over a considerable area with richly .luxurious but almost impassable forests. This district has been reserved as a state forest and its coast forms a favourite holiday resort, the scenery being very attractive. The middle of the plain is crossed by a thin line of mountains, known as the Australian Pyrenees, at the western extremity of which there are several irregularly placed transverse ranges, the chief being the Grampians, the Victoria Range and the Sierra Range. Their highest point is Mount William (3600 feet). The eastern half of the colony is wholly different. Though there is plenty of level land, it occurs in small patches, and chiefly in the south, in Gippsland, which extends from Corner Inlet to Cape Howe. But a great part of this eastern half is occupied with the complicated mass of ranges known collectively as the Australian Alps. The whole forms a plateau averaging from 1000 to 2000 ft. high, with many smaller table- lands ranging from 3000 to 5000 ft. in height. The highest peak, Bogong, is 6308 ft. in altitude. The ranges are so densely covered with vegetation that it is extremely difficult to penetrate them. About fifteen peaks over 5000 ft. in height have been measured. Along the ranges grow the giant trees for which Victoria is famous. The narrow valleys and gullies contain exquisite scenery, the rocky streams being overshadowed by groves of graceful tree-ferns, from amid whose waving; fronds rise the tall smooth stems of the white gums. Over ten millions of acres are thus covered with forest-clad mountains which in due time will become a very valuable asset of the state. The Australian Alps are connected with the Pyrenees by a long ridge called the Dividing Range (1500 to 3000 ft. high). Victoria is fairly well watered, but its streams are generally too small to admit of navigation. This, however, is not the case with Rivers. the Murray river (q.v.). The Murray for a distance of 670 m. (or 1250 m. if its various windings be followed) forms the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria; it receives a number of tributaries from the Victorian side. The Mitta Mitta, which rises in the heart of the Australian Alps, is 150 m. long. The Ovens, rising among the same mountains, is slightly shorter. The Goulburn (340 m.) flows almost entirely through well-settled agricultural country,' and is deep enough to be used in its lower part for navigation. The valley of this river is. a fertile grain- producing district. The Campaspe (150 m.) has too little volume of water to be of use for navigation ; its valley is also agricultural, and along its banks there lie a close succession of thriving town- ships. The Loddon (over 200 m.) rises in the Pyrenees. The upper part flows through a plain, to the right agricultural and to the left auriferous, containing nearly forty thriving towns, including Bendigo (formerly named Sandhurst) and Castlemaine. In the lower part of the valley the soil is also fertile, but the rainfall is small. To the west of the Loddon is the Avoca river with a length of 140 m.; it is of slight volume, and though it flows towards the Murray it loses itself in marshes and salt lagoons before reaching that river. The rivers which flow southwards into the ocean are numerous. The Snowy river rises in New South Wales, and in Victoria flows entirely through wild and almost wholly unoccupied territory. VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) The Tambo (120 m. long), which rises in the heart of the Australian Alps, crosses the Gippsland plains and falls into Lake King, one of the Gippsland lakes; into the same lake falls the Mitchell river, rising ajso in the Australian Alps. The Mitchell is navigated for a short distance. The Latrobe empties itself into Lake Wellington after a course of 135 m.; it rises at Mount Baw Baw. The Yarra Yarra rises in the " Black Spur " of the Australian Alps. Emerging in a deep valley from the ranges, it follows a sinuous course through the undulating plains called the " Yarra Flats," which are wholly enclosed by hills, on whose slopes are some of the best vineyards of Australia; it finds its way out of the Flats between high and pre- cipitous but well-wooded banks, and finally reaches Port Phillip Bay below Melbourne. Owing to its numerous windings its course through that city and its suburbs is at least thirty miles. Nearer to the sea its waterway, formerly available for vessels drawing 16 ft., has now been deepened so as to be available for vessels drawing 20 ft. The Barwon, farther west, is a river of considerable length but little volume, flowing chiefly through pastoral lands. The Hopkins and Glenelg (280 m.) both water the splendid pastoral lands of the west, the lower course of the former passing through the fertile district of Warrnambool, well known throughout Australia as a potato-growing region. In the west there are Lakes Corangamite and Colac, due north of Cape Otway. The former is intensely salt; the latter is fresh, having an outlet for its waters. Lakes Tyrrell and Hindmarsh lie in the plains of the north-west. In summer they are dried up, and in winter are again formed by the waters of nvers that have no outlet. In the east are the Gippsland lakes, formed by the waters of the Latrobe, Mitchell and Tambo, being dammed back by the sandhills of the Ninety Mile Beach. They are connected with Bass Strait by a narrow and shifting channel through a shallow bar; the government of Victoria has done a great deal of late years to deepen the entrance and make it safer. The upper lake is called Lake Wellington; a narrow passage leads into Lake Victoria, which is joined to a wider expanse called Lake King. These are all fresh- water lakes and are visited by tourists, being readily accessible from Melbourne. (T. A. C.) Geology. — Victoria includes a more varied and complete geo- logical sequence than any other area of equal size in Australia. Its geological foundation consists of a band of Archean and Lower Palaeozoic rocks, which forms the backbone of the state. The sedimentary rocks in this foundation have been thrown into folds, of which the axes trend approximately north and south. The Lower Palaeozoic and Archean rocks build up the Highlands of Victoria, which occupy the whole width of the state at its eastern end, extending from the New South Wales border on the north to the shore of the Southern Ocean on the south. These Highlands constitute the whole of the mountainous country of Gippsland and the north-eastern districts. They become narrower to the west, and finally, beyond the old plateau of Dundas, disappear beneath the recent loams of the plains along the South Australian border. The Lower Palaeozoic and Archean rocks bear upon their surface some Upper Palaeozoic rocks, which occur in belts running north and south, and have been preserved by infolding or faulting; such are the Grampian Sandstones in the west; the Cathedral Mountain Sandstones to the north-east of Melbourne; the belt of Devonian and Lower Carboniferous rocks that extends across eastern Victoria, through Mount Wellington to Mansfield; and finally, far to the east, is the belt of the Snowy river porphyries, erupted by a chain of Lower Devonian volcanoes. Further Upper Palaeozoic rocks and the Upper Carboniferous glacial beds occur in basins on both northern and southern flanks of the Highlands. The Mesozoic rocks are confined to southern Victoria; they build up the hills of southern Gippsland and the Otway Ranges; and farther west, hidden by later rocks, they occur under the coast of the western district. Between the southern mountain chain and the Victorian Highlands occurs the Great Valley of Victoria, occupied by sedimentary and volcanic rocks of Kainozoic age. The North- Western Plains, occurring between the northern foot of the Highlands and the Murray, are occupied by Kainozoic sediments. Victoria has a fairly complete geological sequence, though it is poorer than New South Wales in the Upper Carboniferous and Lower Mesozoic. The Archean rocks form two blocks of gneisses and schists, which build up the Highlands of Dundas in the west, and of the north-eastern part of Victoria. They were originally de- scribed as metamorphosed Silurian rocks, but must be of Archean age. Another series of Archean rocks is more widely developed, and forms the old framework upon which the geology of Victoria has been built up. They are known as the Heathcotian series, and consist of phyllites, schists and amphibolites; while their most characteristic feature is the constant association of foliated diabase and beds of jasperoids. Volcanic agglomerates occur in the series at the typical locality of Heathcote. The Heathcotian rocks form the Colbmabbin Range, which runs for 40 m. northward and southward, east of Bendigo. They are also exposed on the surface at the eastern foot of the Grampian Ranee, and at Dookie, and on the southern coast in Waratah Bay ; they have been proved by bores under Rushworth, and they apparently underlie parts of the Gipps- land coalfields. The Cambrian rocks have so far only been de- 39 finitely proved near Mansfield. Mr A. M. Howitt has there collected some fragmentary remains of Olenellus and worm tubes of the Cambrian genus Salterella. These beds at Mansfield contain phos- phatic limestones and wavellite. The. Ordovician system is well developed. It consists of slates and quartzites; and some schists around the granites of the western district, and in the Pyrenees, are regarded as metamorphic Ordovician. The Ordovician has a rich graptolitic fauna, and they have been classified into the following divisions: — Upper Ordovician . . Darriwill Series ( Castlemaine Series Lower Ordovician . . j Bendigo Series ( Lanceneld Series The Ordovician beds are best developed in a band running north- north-west and south-south-east across Victoria, of which the eastern boundary passes through Melbourne. This Ordovician band begins on the south with the block forming the plateau of Arthur's Seat and Mornington Peninsula, as proved by Ferguson. This outlier is bounded to the north by the depression of Port Phillip and the basalt plains west of Melbourne. It reappears north of them at Lanceneld, whence it extends along the Highlands, past Ballarat, with southern outliers as far as Steiglitz. It forms the whole of the Ballarat Plateau, and is continued northward through the goldfields of Castlemaine, Bendigo and the Pyrenees, till it dips under the North-Western Plains. Certain evidence as to the age of the rocks in the Pyrenees has not yet been collected, and they may be pre-Ordovician. Some Upper Ordovician rocks occur in the mountains of eastern Gippsland, as near Woods Point, and in north-eastern Victoria, in Wombat Creek. The Silurian system consists of two divisions: the lower or Mel- bourn ian, and the upper or Yeringian. Both consist in the main of sandstones, quartzites and shales; but the upper series includes lenticular masses of limestone, at Lillydale, Loyola and along the Thomson river. The limestones are rich in typical Silurian corals and bryozoa, and the shales and sandstones contain brachio- pods and trilobites. The Silurian rocks are well exposed in sections near Melbourne; they occur in a belt running from the southern coast at Waratah Bay, west of Wilson's Promontory, north-north-west- ward across Victoria, and parallel to the Ordovician belt, which underlies them on the west. The Silurian rocks include the gold- fields of the Upper Yarra, Woods Point, Walhalla and Rushworth, while the limestones are worked for lime at Lillydale and Waratah Bay. The Devonian system includes representatives of the lower, middle and upper series. The Lower Devonian series includes the porphyries and their associated igneous rocks, along the valley of the Snowy river. They represent the remains of an old chain of volcanoes which once extended north and south across Victoria. The Middle Devonian is mainly formed of marine sandstones, and lime- stones in eastern Gippsland. It is best developed in the valleys of the Mitchell, the Tambo and the Snowy nvers. The Upper Devonian rocks include sandstones, shales and coarse conglomerates. At the close of Middle Devonian times there were intense crustal disturbances, and the granitic massifs, which formed the primitive mountain axis of Victoria, were then intruded. The Carboniferous system begins with the Avon river sandstones, containing Lepidodendron, and the red sandstones, with Lower Carboniferous fish, collected by Mr Geo. Sweet near Mansfield. Probably the Grampian Sandstone, the Cathedral Mountain Sand- stone, and some in the Mount Wellington district belong to the same period. The Upper Carboniferous includes the famous glacial deposits and boulder clays, by which the occurrence of a Carboni- ferous glaciation in the Southern Hemisphere was first demonstrated. These beds occur at Heathcote, Bendigo, the Loddon Valley, southern Gippsland and the North-Eastern district. The beds comprise boulder clay, containing ice-scratched boulders, and sometimes rest upon ice-scratched, moutonn6 surfaces, and some lake deposits, similar to those laid down in glacial lakes. The glacial beds are overlain by sandstones containing Gangamopteris, and Kitson's work in Northern Tasmania leaves no doubt that they are on the horizon of the Greta or Lower Coal Measures of New South Wales. The Mesozoic group is represented only by Jurassic rocks, which form the mountains of southern Gippsland and include its coal- fields. The rocks contain fossil land plants, occasional fish remains and the claw of a dinosaur, &c. The coal is of excellent quality. The mudstones, which form the main bulk of this series, are largely composed of volcanic debris, which decomposes to a fertile soil. These rocks trend south-westward along the Bass Range, which reaches Western Port. They skirt the Mornington Peninsula, underlie part of Port Phillip and the Bellarine Peninsula, and are exposed in the Barrabool Hills to the south-west of Geelong; thence they extend into the Otway Ranges, which are wholly built of these rocks ar.d contain some coal seams. Farther west they disappear below the recent sediments and volcanic rocks of the \\arrnambool district. They are exposed again in the Portland Peninsula, and rise again to form the Wannon Hills, to the south of Dundas. The Kainozoic beds include three main series: lacustrine, marine and volcanic. The main lacustrine series is probably of Oligocene 40 age, and is important from its thick beds of brown coal, which are thickest in the Great Valley of Victoria in southern Gippsland. A cliff face on the banks of the Latrobe, near Morwell, shows 90 ft. of it, and a bore near Morwell is recorded as having passed through 850 ft. of brown coal. Its thickness, at least in patches, is very great. The brown coals occur to the south-east of Melbourne, under the basalts between it and Geelong. Brown coal is also abundant under the Murray plains in north-western Victoria. The Kainozoic marine rocks occur at intervals along the southern coast and in the valleys opening from it. The most important horizon is apparently of Miocene age. The rocks occur at intervals in eastern Victoria, along the coast and up the river valleys, from the Snowy river westward to Alberton. At the time of the deposition of these beds Wilson's Promontory probably extended south-eastward and joined Tasmania; for the mid-Kainozoic marine deposits do not occur between Alberton and Flinders, to the west of Western Port. They extend up the old valley of Port Phillip as far as Keilor to the north of Melbourne, and are widely distributed under the volcanic rocks of the Western Plains. They are exposed on the floors of the volcanic cauldrons, and have been found by mining; operations under the volcanic rocks of the Ballarat plateau near Pitfield. The Miocene sea extended up the Glenelg valley, round the western border of the Dundas Highlands, and spread over the Lower Murray Basin into New South Wales; its farthest south-eastern limit was in a valley at Stawell. Some later marine deposits occur at the Lakes Entrance in eastern Gippsland, and in the valley of the Glenelg. The volcanic series begins with a line of great dacite domes including the geburite-dacite of Macedon, which is associated with solvsbergites and trachy-dolerites. The eruption of these domes was followed by that of sheets of basalt of several different ages, and the intrusion of some trachyte dykes. The oldest basalts are associated with the Oligocene lake deposits; and fragments of the large lava sheets of this period form some of the table-topped moun- tains in the Highlands of eastern Victoria. The river gravels below the lavas have been worked for gold, and land plants discovered in the workings. At Flinders the basalts are associated with Miocene limestones. The largest development of the volcanic rocks are a series of confluent sheets of basalt, forming the Western Plains, which occupy over 10,000 sq. m. of south-western Victoria. They are crossed almost continuously by the South- Western railway for 166 m. from Melbourne to Warrnambool. The volcanic craters built up by later eruptions are well preserved: such are Mount Elephant, a simple breached cone; Mount Noprat, with a large primary crater and four secondary craters on its flanks; Mount Warrenheip, near Ballarat, a single cone with the crater breached to the north-west. Mount Franklin, standing on the Ordovician rocks north of Daylesford, is a weathered cone breached to the south-east. In addition to the volcanic craters, there are numerous volcanic cauldrons formed by subsidence, such as Bullen- merri and Gnotuk near Camperdown, Keilembete near Terang, and Tower Hill near Port Fairy. Tower Hill consists of a large volcanic cauldron, and rising from an island in a lake on its floor is a later volcanic crater. The Pleistocene, or perhaps Upper Pliocene, deposits of most interest are those containing the bones of giant marsupials, such as the Diprotodon and Palorchestes, which have been found near Geelong, Castlemaine, Lake Kolungulak, &c. ; at the last locality Diprotodon and various extinct kangaroos have been found in association with the dingo. There is no trace in these deposits of the existence of man, and J. W. Gregory has reasserted the striking absence of evidence of man's residence in Victoria, except for a very limited period. There is no convincing evidence of Pleistocene glacial deposits in Victoria. Of the many records, the only one that can still be regarded as at all probable is that regarding Mount Bogong. The chief literature on the geology of Victoria is to be found in the maps arid publications of the Geological Survey — a branch of the Mines Department. A map of the State, on the scale of eight inches to the mile, was issued in 1902. The Survey has published numerous quarter-sheet maps, and maps of the gold fields and parishes. The geology is described in the Reports, Bulletins and Memoirs of the Survey, and in the Quarterly Reports of the Mining Registrars. Statistics of the mining industry are stated in the Annual Report of the Secretary for Mines. See also the general summary of the geology of Victoria, by R. Murray, issued by the Mines Department in 1887 and 1895. Numerous papers on the geology p\ the State are contained in the Trans. R. Soc. Victoria, and on its mining geology in the Trans, of the Austral. Inst. Min. Engineers. The physical geography has been described by J. W. Gregory in the Geography of Victoria (1903). (J. W. G.) Flora. — The native trees belong chiefly to the Myrtaceae, being largely composed of Eucalypti or gum trees. There are several hundred species, the most notable being Eucalyptus amygdalina, a tree with tall white stem, smooth as a marble column, and without branches for 60 or 70 ft. from the ground. It is singularly beautiful when seen in groves, for these have all the appearance of lofty pillared cathedrals. These trees are among the tallest in the world, averaging in some districts about 300 ft. The longest ever measured was found prostrate on the Black Spur: it measured VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) 470 ft. in length; it was 81 ft. in girth near the root. Eucalyptus globulus or blue gum has broad green leaves, which yield the eucalyptus oil of the pharmacopoeia. Eucalyptus rostrata is ex- tensively used in the colony as a timber, being popularly known as red gum or hard wood. It is quite unaffected by weather, and almost indestructible when used as piles for piers or wharves. Smaller species of eucalyptus form the common " bush." Mela- leucas, also of Myrtacea kind, are prominent objects along all the coasts, where they grow densely on the sand-hills, forming " ti-tree " scrub. Eucalyptus dumosa is a species which grows only 6 to 12 ft. high, but with a straight stem; the trees grow so close together that it is difficult to penetrate the scrub formed by them. Eleven and a half million acres of the Wimmera district are covered with this " mallee scrub," as it is called. Recent legislation has made this land easy of acquisition, and the whole of it has been taken up on pastoral leases. Five hundred thousand acres have recently been taken up as an irrigation colony on Californian principles and laid out in 4O-acre farms and orchards. The Leguminosae are chiefly tepresented by acacias, of which the wattle is the commonest. The black wattle is of considerable value, its gum being marketable and its bark worth from £5 to £10 a ton for tanning purposes. The golden wattle is a beautiful tree, whose rich yellow blossoms fill the river-valleys in early spring with delicious scent. The Casuarinae or she-oaks are gloomy trees, of little use, but of frequent occurrence. Heaths, grass-trees and magnificent ferns and fern-trees are also notable features in Victorian forests. But European and subtropical vegetation has been introduced into the colony to such an extent as to have largely altered the characters of the flora in many districts. Fauna. — The indigenous animals belong almost wholly to the Marsupialia. Kangaroos are tolerably abundant on the grassy plains, but the process of settlement is causing their extermination. A smaller species of almost identical appearance called the wallaby is still numerous in the forest lands. Kangaroo rats, opossums, wombats, native bears, bandicoots and native cats all belong to the same class. The wombat forms extensive burrows in some districts. The native bear is a frugivorous little animal, and very harmless. Bats are numerous, the largest species being the flying fox, very abundant in some districts. Eagles, hawks, turkeys, pigeons, ducks, quail, snipe and plover are common; but the characteristic denizens of the forest are vast flocks of parrots, parakeets and cockatoos, with sulphur-coloured or crimson crests. The laughing jackass (giant kingfisher) is heard in all the country parts, and magpies are numerous everywhere. Snakes are numerous, but less than one-fourth of the species are venomous, and they are all very shy. The deaths from snake-bite do not average two per annum. A great change is rapidly taking place in the fauna of the country, owing to cultivation and acclimatization. Dingoes have nearly disappeared, and rabbits, which were introduced only a few years ago, now abound in such numbers as to be a positive nuisance. Deer are also rapidly becoming numerous. Sparrows and swallows are as common as in England. The trout, which has also been acclimatized, is taking full possession of some of the streams. Climate. — Victoria enjoys an exceptionally fine climate. Roughly speaking, about one-half of the days in the year present a bright, cloudless sky, with a bracing and dry atmosphere, pleasantly warm but not relaxing. These days are mainly in the autumn and spring. During forty-eight years, ending with 1905, there have been on an average 132 days annually on which rain has fallen more or less (chiefly in winter, but rainy days do not exceed thirty in the year. The average yearly rainfall was 25-61 in. The disagreeable feature of the Victorian climate is the occurrence of north winds, which blow on an average about sixty days in the year. In winter they are cold and dry, and have a slightly depressing effect; but in summer they are hot and dry, and generally bring with them disagreeable clouds of dust. The winds themselves blow for periods of two or three days at a time, and if the summer has six or eight such periods it becomes relaxing and produces languor. These winds cease with extraordinary suddenness, being replaced in a minute or two by a cool and bracing breeze from the south. The_ temperature often falls 40° or 50 F. in an hour. The maximum shade temperature at Melbourne in 1905 was 108-5°, and the minimum 32 , giving a mean of 56-1°. The temperature never falls below freezing-point, except for an hour or two before sunrise in the coldest month. Snow has been known to fall in Melbourne for a few minutes two or three times during a long period of years. It is common enough, however, on the plateau; Ballarat, which is over 1000 ft. high, always has a few snowstorms, and the roads to Omeo among the Australian Alps lie under several feet of snow in the winter. The general healthiness of the climate is shown by the fact that the average death-rate for the last five years has been only 12-71 of the population. Population. — As regards population, Victoria maintained the leading position among the Australasian colonies until the end of 1891, when New South Wales overtook it. The population in 1905 was 1,218,571, the proportion of the sexes being nearly equal. In 1860 the population numbered 537,847; in 1870, VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) 720,599; in 1880, 860,067; and in 1890, 1,133,266. The state had gained little, if anything, by immigration during these years, for the excess of immigration over emigration from 1861 to 1870 and from 1881 to 1890 was counterbalanced by the excess of departures during the period 1871 to 1880 and from 1891 to 1905. The mean population of Melbourne in 1905 was 511,900. The births in 1905 numbered 30,107 and the deaths 14,676, representing respectively 24-83 and 12-10 per 1000 of the popula- tion. The birth-rate has fallen markedly since 1875, as the following statement of the averages arranged in quinquennial periods shows : — Period. Births per 1000 of Population. Period. Births per 1000 of Population. 1861-65 1866-70 I87I-75 1876-80 43-30 39-27 35-69 31-43 1881-85 1886-90 1891-95 1896-1900 1901-1905 30-76 32-72 31-08 26-20 24-97 The number of illegitimate births during 1905 was 1689, which gives a proportion of 5-61 to every 100 births registered. The death-rate has greatly improved. periods the death-rates were : — Arranged in quinquennial Period. Deaths per 1000 of Population. Period. Deaths per 1000 of Population. 1861-65 1866-70 1871-75 1876-80 I7-36 16-52 15-64 14-92 1881-85 1886-90 1891-95 1896-1900 1901-1905 14-65 16-07 14-10 13-67 12-71 The marriages in 1905 numbered 8774, which represents a rate of 7-24 per 1000 persons. This was the highest number reached during a period of fourteen years, and was 564 more than in 1904 and 1 169 more than in 1903. In the five years 1871-75 the marriage- rate stood at 6-38 per 1000; in 1876-80, 6-02; in 1881-85, 7-37; in 1886^-90, 8-13; in 1901-5, 6-86. Outside Melbourne and suburbs, the most important towns are Ballarat (49,648), Bendigo (43,666), Geelong (26,642), Castlemaine (8063), Warrnambool (6600), Maryborough (6000) and Stawell (5200). Religion. — The Church of England, as disclosed at the census of 1901, had 432,704 adherents; the Roman Catholic Church came next with 263,710; the Presbyterians had 190,725; Wesleyans and Methodists, 180,272; Congregationalists, 17,141; Baptists, 32,648; Lutherans, 13,935; Jews, 5907; and the Salvation Army, whose Australian headquarters are in Melbourne, 8830. Education. — There were in 1905 1930 state schools, in which there were 210,200 children enrolled, the teachers numbering 4689. There were also 771 private schools with 2289 teachers and a net enrolment of 43,014 children; the majority of them being connected with one or other of the principal religious denominations. The total cost of primary instruction in 1905 was £676,238, being us. 2d. per head of population and £4, 143. 40!. per head of scholars in average attendance. Melbourne University maintains its high position as a teaching body. In 1905 the number of matriculants was 493 and the graduates 118. Crime is decreasing. In 1905 the number of persons brought before the magistrates was 48,345. Drunkenness accounted for 14,458, which represents 11-92 per 1000 of the population: in 1901 the proportion was 14-43. Charges against the person numbered 1932, and against property 4032. Administration. — As one of the six states of the Common- wealth, Victoria returns six senators and twenty-three repre- sentatives to the federal parliament. The local legislative authority is vested in a parliament of two chambers, both elective — the Legislative Council, composed of thirty-five members, and the Legislative Assembly, composed of sixty-eight members. One-half of the members of the Council retire every three years. The members of the Assembly are elected by universal suffrage for the term of three years, but the chamber can be dissolved at any time by the Governor in council. Members of the Assembly are paid £300 a year. The whole of Victoria in 1905 was under the control of munici- palities, with the exception of about 600 sq. m. in the mountain- ous part of Wonnangatta, and 64 sq. m. in French Island. The number of municipalities in that year was 206; they comprised ii cities, ii towns, 38 boroughs and 146 shires. Finance. — The public revenue in 1905 showed an increase on that of the three previous years, being £7,515,142, equal to £6, 45. id. per head of population; the expenditure amounted to £7,343,742, which also showed a slight increase and was equal to £6, is. 4d. per inhabitant. The public revenue in five-yearly periods since 1880 was: 1880, £4,621,282; 1885, £6,290,361; 1890, £8,519,159; 1895. £6.712.512; and 1901, £7,722,307. The chief sources of revenue in 1905 were: Customs duties (federal refunds), £2,017,378; other taxation, £979,029; railway receipts, £3,609,120; public lands, £408,836; other sources, £501,379. The main items of expenditure were: railways (working expenses), £2,004,601; public instruction, £661,794; interest and charges on public debt, £1,884,208; other services, £2,793,139. On the 3Oth of June 1005 the public debt of the state stood at £51,513,767, equal to £42, 95. ?d. per inhabitant. The great bulk of the proceeds of loans was applied to the construction of revenue-yielding works, only about three millions sterling being otherwise used. Up to 1905 the state had alienated 26,346,802 acres of the public domain, and had 17,994,233 acres underlease; the area neither alienated nor leased amounted to 11,904,725 acres. The capital value of properties as returned by the municipalities in 1905 was £210,920,174, and the annual value £11,743,270. In 1884 the values were 104 millions and £8,099,000, and in 1891, 203 millions and £13,734,000; the year last mentioned marked the highest point of inflation in land values, and during the following years there was a vast reduction, both in capital and in annual values, the lowest point touched being in 1895; since 1895 a gradual improvement has taken place, and there is every evidence that this improvement will continue. The revenues of municipalities are derived chiefly from rates, but the rates are largely supplemented by fees and licences, and contributions for services rendered. Ex- cluding government endowments and special grants, which in 1905 amounted to £90,572, the revenues of the municipalities in the years named were: 1880, £616,132; 1885, £789,429; 1890, £1-273-85.5: 1895- £1,038,720; 1900, £1,036,497; 1905, £1,345,221. In addition to the municipalities there arc other local bodies empowered to levy rates; these and their revenues in 1905 were: Melbourne Harbour Trust, £189,983; Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works, £390,441; Fire Boards, £53,279. The Board of Works is the authority administering the metropolitan water and sewerage works. Excluding revenue from services rendered, the amount of taxation levied in Victoria reached in 1905 £4,621,608; of this the federal government levied £2,488,843, the state government £979,029, the municipalities £986,009, and the Melbourne Harbour "rust £167,727. Productions and Industry: Minerals. — About 25,400 persons find employment in the goldfields, and the quantity of gold won in 1905 was 810,050 oz., valued at £3,173,744, a decrease of IO_,9<>7 oz. as compared with 1904. The dividends paid by gold-mining com- panies in 1905 amounted to £454,431, which, although about the average of recent years, showed a decline of £168,966 as compared with the sum distributed in 1904. Up to the close of 1905 the total value of gold won from the first discovery in 1851 was £273,236,500. No other metallic minerals are systematically worked, although many valuable deposits are known to exist. Brown coal, or lignite, occurs extensively, and attempts have frequently been made to use the mineral for ordinary fuel purposes, but without much success. Black coal is now being raised in increasingly large quantities. The principal collieries are the Outrim Howitt, the Coal Creek Proprietary, the Jumbunna and the Korumburra, all in the Gipps- land district. The production of coal in 1905 was 155,185 tons, valued at £79,060; £4100 worth of silver and £11,159 worth of tin were raised; the value of other minerals produced was !93-392, making a total mineral production (exclusive of gold) of ;i87,7il. Agriculture. — Judged by the area under tillage, Victoria ranks first among the states of the Australian group. The area under crop in 1905 was 4,269,877 acres, compared with 2,116,000 acres in 1891 and 1,435,000 acres in 1881. Wheat-growing claims the chief attention, 2,070,517 acres being under that cereal in 1905. The areas devoted to other crops were as follows: maize, 11,785 acres; oats, 312,052 acres; barley,- 40,938 acres; other cereals, 14,212 acres; hay, 591,771 acres; potatoes, 44,670 acres; vines, 26,402 acres; green foliage, 34,041 acres; other tillage, 73,574 acres; land in fallow comprised 1,049,915 acres. Victorian wheat is of exception- ally fine quality, and usually commands a high price in the London market. The average yield per acre in 1905 was 11-31 bushels; except for the year 1903, the total crop and the average per acre in 1905 were the highest ever obtained. The yield of oats was 23-18 bushels per acre, of barley 25-95, a"d of potatoes 2-58 tons. Great progress has been made in the cultivation of the grape vine, and Victoria now produces more than one-third of the wine made in Australia. Live Stock. — The number of sheep in 1905 was 11,455,115. The quality of the sheep is steadily improving. Systematic attention to stock has brought about an improvement in the weight of the fleece, and careful observations show that between 1861 and 1871 the average weight of wool per sheep increased about one-third; between 1871 and 1881 about one pound was added to the weight 42 per fleece, and there has been a further improvement since the year named. Tht following were the number of sheep depastured at the dates named: 1861, 6,240,000; 1871, 10,002,000; 1881, 10,267,000; 1891, 12,928,000; 1901, 10,841,790. The horses number 385,513, the swine 273,682, and the horned cattle 1,737,690; of these last, 649,100 were dairy cows. Butter- making has greatly increased since 1890, and a fairly large export trade has arisen. In 1905, 57,606,821 Ib of butter were made, 4,297,350 ft of cheese and 16,433,665 Ib of bacon and hams. Manufactures. — There has been a good deal of fluctuation in the amount of employment afforded by the factories, as the following figures show: hands employed, 1885, 49,297; 1890, 56,639; 1893, 39,473; 1895, 46,095; 1900, 64,207; 1905, 80,235. Of the hands last named, 52,925 were males and 27,310 females. The total number of establishments was 4264, and the horse-power of machinery actually used, 43,492. The value of machinery was returned at £6,187,919, and of land and buildings £7,771,238. The majority of the establishments were small ; those employing from 50 to 100 hands in 1905 were 161, and upwards of 100 hands, 124. Commerce. — Excluding the coastal trade, the tonnage of vessels entering Victorian ports in 1905 was 3,989,903, or about 3J tons per inhabitant. The imports in the same year were valued at £22,337,886, and the exports at £22,758,828. These figures repre- sent £18, 8s. 5d. and £18, 153. 6d. per inhabitant respectively. The domestic produce exported was valued at £14,276,961 ; in 1891 the value was £13,026,426; and in 1881, £12,480,567. The compara- tively small increase over the period named is due mainly to the large fall in prices of the staple articles of local production. There has, however, been some loss of trade due to the action of the New South Wales government in extending its railways into districts formerly supplied from Melbourne. The principal articles of local production exported during 1905 with their values were as follows : butter and cheese, £1,576,189; gold (coined and bullion), £1,078,560; wheat, £1,835,204; frozen mutton, £275,195; frozen and preserved rabbits and hares, £220,940; skins and hides, £535,086; wool, £2,501,990; horses, £278,033; cattle, £293,241; sheep, £326,526; oats, £165,585; flour, £590,297; hay and chaff, £97,471; bacon and ham, £89,943; jams and jellies, £73,233; fruit (dried and fresh), £125,330. The bulk of the trade passes through Melbourne, the imports in 1905 at that port being £18,112,528. Defence. — The Commonwealth defence forces in Victoria nuipber about 5700 men, 4360 being partially paid militia and 1000 unpaid volunteers. There are also 18,400 riflemen belonging to rifle clubs. Besides these there are 200 naval artillerymen, capable of being employed either as a light artillery land force, or on board war vessels. The total expenditure in 1905 for purposes of defence in the state was £291,577. Railways. — The railways have a total length of 3394 m., and the cost of their construction and equipment up to the 3Oth of June 1905 was £41,259,387; this sum was obtained by raising loans, mostly in London, on the security of the general revenues of the state. In 1905 the gross railway earnings were £3,582,266, and the working expenses £2,222,279; so that the net earnings were £1,359,987, which sum represents 3-30% on the capital cost. Posts and Telegraphs. — Victoria had a length of 6338 m. of tele- graph line in operation in 1905; there were 969 stations, and the business done was represented by 2,256,482 telegrams. The post- offices, properly so-called, numbered 1673; during that year 119,689,000 letters and postcards and 59,024,000 newspapers and packets passed through them. The postal service is carried on at a profit; the revenue in 1905 was £708,369, and the expenditure £627,735. Telephones are widely used; in 1905 the length of telephone wire in use was 28,638 m., and the number of telephones 14,134; the revenue from this source for the year was £102,396. Banking. — At the end of 1905 the banks of issue in Victoria, eleven in number, had liabilities to the extent of £36,422,844, and assets of £40,511,335. The principal items among the liabilities were: notes in circulation, £835,499; deposits bearing interest, £23,055,743; and deposits not bearing interest, £12,068,153. The chief assets were: coin and bullion, £8,056,666; debts due, £29,918,226; property, £1,919,230; other assets, £617,213. The money in deposit in the sayings banks amounted to £10,896,741, the number of depositors being 447,382. The total sum on deposit in the state in 1905 was, therefore, £46,020,637, which represents £37, 155. 4d. per head of population. AUTHORITIES. — J. Bonwick, Discovery and Settlement of Port Phillip (Melbourne, 1856), Early Days of Melbourne (Melbourne, 1857), and Port Phillip Settlement (London, 1883) ; Rev. J. D. Lang, Historical Account of the Separation of Victoria from New South Wales (Sydney, 1870); Victorian Year-Booh (annually, 1873- 1905, Melbourne) ; F. P. Labilliere, Early History of the Colony of Victoria (London, 1878); G. W. Rusden, Discovery, Survey and Settlement of Port Phillip (Melbourne, 1878); R. B. Smyth, The Aborigines of Victoria (2 vols., Melbourne, 1878); J. J. Shillinglaw, Historical Records of Port Phillip (Melbourne, 1879); David Blair, Cyclopaedia of Australasia (Melbourne, 1881); E. Jenks, The Government of Victoria (London, 1881); E. M. Curr, The Australian Race: its Origin, Language, Customs, &c. (Melbourne, 1886-87); Edmund Finn, Chronicles of Early Melbourne (Melbourne, 1889); VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) Philip Mennell, The Dictionary of Australasian Biography (Melbourne, 1892); T. A. Coghlan, Australia and New Zealand (1903-4). (T. A. C.) History. — The first discoverer of Victoria was Captain Cook, in command of H.M.S. " Endeavour," who sighted Cape Everard, about half-way between Cape Howe and the mouth of the Snowy river, on the ipth of April 1770, a few days prior to his arrival at Botany Bay. The first persons to land in Victoria were the supercargo and a portion of the crew of the merchant ship " Sydney Cove," which was wrecked at the Furneaux Islands in Bass Strait on the 9th of February 1797. In the same year, Mr Bass, a surgeon in the navy, discovered the strait which bears his name and separates Victoria from Tasmania. Lieut. Grant in the" Lady Nelson" surveyed the south coast in 1800, and in 1801 Port Phillip was for the first time entered by Lieut. Murray. In 1802 that harbour was surveyed by Captain Flinders, and in the same year Mr Grimes, the surveyor-general of New South Wales, explored the country in the neighbour- hood of the present site of Melbourne. In 1804 Lieut.-Colonel Collins, who had been sent from England, formed a penal settlement on the shores of Port Phillip, but after remaining a little more than three months near Indented Head, he removed his party to Van Die-men Land. Victoria was visited in 1824 by two sheep farmers named Hume and Hovell, who rode overland from Lake George, New South Wales, to the shores of Corio Bay. In 1826 a convict establishment was attempted by the government of New South Wales at Settlement Point, near French Island, Western Port Bay, but it was abandoned shortly afterwards. In 1834 Messrs Edward and Francis Henty, who had taken part in the original expedition to Swan river, West Australia, and afterwards migrated to Van Diemen Land, crossed Bass Strait, established a shore whaling station at Portland Bay, and formed sheep and cattle stations on the river Wannon and Wando rivulet, near the site of the present towns of Merino, Casterton and Coleraine. In 1835 a number of flock owners in Van Diemen Land purchased through Batman from the aborigines a tract of 700,000 acres on the shores of Port Phillip. The sale was repudiated by the British government, which regarded all unoccupied land in any part of Australia as the property of the crown, and did not recognize the title of the aborigines. Batman, however, remained at Port Phillip, and commenced farming within the boundaries of the present city of Melbourne. He was followed by John Pascoe Fawkner and other settlers from Van Diemen Land, who occupied the fertile plains of the new territory. In 1836 Captain Lonsdale was sent to Melbourne by the government of New South Wales to act as resident magis- trate in Port Phillip. The first census taken in 1838 showed that the population was 3511, of whom 3080 were males and 431 females. In 1839 Mr Latrobe was appointed superintendent of Port Phillip, and a resident judge was nominated for Melbourne, with jurisdiction over the territory which now forms the state of Victoria. The years 1840 and 1841 were periods of depression owing to the decline in the value of all descriptions of live stock, for which the first settlers had paid high prices; but there was a steady immigration from Great Britain of men with means, attracted by the profits of sheep-farming, and of labourers and artisans who obtained free passages under the provisions of the Wakefield system, under which half the proceeds from the sale and occupation of crown lands were expended upon the introduction of workers. The whole district was occupied by sheep and cattle graziers, and in 1841 the population had increased to 11,738. Melbourne was incorporated as a town in 1842, and was raised to the dignity of a city in 1847. In that same year the first Anglican was ordained, and in 1848 the first Roman Catholic bishop. The third census (taken in 1846) showed a population of 32,870. The elective element was introduced into the Legislative Council of New South Wales in 1842, in the proportion of twenty-four members to twelve nominated by the crown, and the district of Port Phillip, including Melbourne, returned six members. But the colonists were not satisfied with government VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) from and by Sydney; an agitation in favour of separation commenced, and in 1851 Victoria was formed into a separate colony with an Executive Council appointed by the crown, and a Legislative Council, partly elective and partly nominated, on the same lines as that of New South Wales. The population at that date was 77,435. Gold was discovered a few weeks after the colony had entered upon its separate existence, and a large number of persons were attracted to the mines, first from the neighbouring colonies — some of which, such as South Australia, Van Diemen's Land and West Australia, were almost denuded of able-bodied men and women — and subsequently from Europe and America. Notwithstanding the difficulties with which the local government had to contend, the task of maintaining law and order was fairly grappled with; the foundations of a liberal system of primary, secondary and university education were laid; roads, bridges and telegraphs were constructed, and Melbourne was provided with an excellent supply of water. Local self-government was introduced in 1853, and the Legislature found time to discuss a new Constitution, which not Local sell- only eliminated the nominee element from the Legis- govern- lature, but made the executive government responsible to the people. The administration of the gold-fields was not popular, and the miners were dissatisfied at the amount charged for permission to mine for gold, and at there being no representation for the gold-fields in the local Legislature. The discontent culminated, at Ballarat in December 1854, in riots in which there was a considerable loss of life both amongst the miners and the troops. Eventually, an export duty on gold was substituted for the licence fee, but every miner had to take out a right which enabled him to occupy a limited area of land for mining, and also for residence. The census taken in 1854 showed a population of 236,778. The new Constitution was proclaimed in 1855, and the old Executive Council was gazetted as the first responsible ministry. It held office for about sixteen months, and was succeeded by an administration formed from the popular party. Several changes were made in the direction of democratizing the government, and vote by ballot, manhood suffrage and the abolition of the property qualification followed each other in rapid succession. To several of these changes there was strenuous opposition, not so much in the Assembly which represented the manhood, as in the Council in which the property of the colony was supreme. The crown lands were occupied by graziers, termed locally " squatters," who held them under a licence renewable annually at a low rental. These licences were very valuable, and the goodwill of a grazing farm or " run " commanded a high price. Persons who desired to acquire freeholds for the purpose of tillage could only do so by purchasing the land at auction, and the local squatters, unwilling to be deprived of any portion of a valuable property, were generally willing to pay a price per acre with which no person of small means desirous of embarking upon agricultural pursuits could compete. The result was that although the population had increased in 1861 to 540,322, the area of land under crop had not grown proportionately, and Victoria was dependent upon the neighbouring colonies and even more distant countries for a considerable portion of its food. A series of Land Acts was passed, the first in 1860, with the view of encouraging a class of small freeholders. The principle underlying all these laws was that residence by landowners on their farms, and their cultivation, were more important to the state than the sum realized by the sale of the land. The policy was only partially successful, and by a number of ingenious evasions a large proportion of the best land in the colony passed into the posses- sion of the original squatters. But a sufficient proportion was purchased by small farmers to convert Victoria into a great agricultural country, and to enable it to export large quantities of farm and dairy produce. The greater portion of the revenue was raised by the taxation through the customs of a small number of products, such as spirits, tobacco, wine, tea, coffee, &c. But an agitation arose in favour of such an adjustment of the import duties as would protect the manufactures which at that time were being com- 43 menced. A determined opposition to this policy was made by a large minority in the Assembly, and by a large majority in the Council, but by degrees the democratic party triumphed. The victory was not gained without a number of political crises which shook the whole fabric of society to its foundations. The Assembly tacked the tariff to the Appropriation Bill, and the Council threw out both. The result was that there was no legal means of paying either the civil servants or the contractors, and the government had recourse to an ingenious though questionable system by which advances were made by a bank which was recouped through the crown " confessing " that it owed the money, whereupon the governor issued his warrant for its payment without any recourse to parliament. Similar opposition was made by the Council to payment of members, and to a grant made to Lady Darling, the wife of Governor Sir Charles Darling, who had been recalled by the secretary of state on the charge of having shown partiality to the democratic party. Indeed on one occasion the dispute between the government and the Council was so violent that the former dismissed all the police, magistrates, county court judges and other high officials, on the ground that no provision had been made by the Council, which had thrown out the Appropriation Bill, for the payment of salaries. Notwithstanding these political struggles, the population of the colony steadily increased, and the Legislature found time to pass some measures which affected the social life and the commercial position of the colonies. State aid to religion was abolished, and divorce was made comparatively easy. A system of free, compulsory and secular primary education was introduced. The import duties were increased and the transfer of land was simplified. In 1880 a fortnightly mail service via Suez between England and Melbourne was introduced, and in 1880 the first International Exhibition ever held in Victoria was opened. In the following year the census showed a popu- lation of 862,346, of whom 452,083 were males and 410,263 females. During the same year the lengthy dispute between the two houses of parliament, which had caused so much incon- venience, so many heartburnings and so many political crises, was brought to an end by the passage of an act which reduced the qualifications for members and the election of the Legis- lative Council, shortened the tenure of their seats, increased the number of provinces to fourteen and the number of members to forty-two. In 1883 a coalition government, in which the Liberal or protectionist and the Conservative or free-trade party were represented, took office, and with some changes remained in power for seven years. During this political truce several important changes were made in the Constitution. An act for giving greater facilities for divorce was passed, and with some difficulty obtained the royal assent. The Victorian railways were handed over to the control of three commissioners, who to a considerable extent were made independent of the govern- ment, and the civil service was placed under the supervision of an independent board. In 1887 the representatives of Victoria met those of the other British colonies and of the United Kingdom in London, under the presidency of Lord Knutsford, in order to discuss the questions of defence, postal and telegraphic com- munication, and the contribution of Australia to the Imperial navy. In 1888 a weekly mail service was established via Suez by the steamers of the P. & O. and the Orient Companies, and the second Victorian International Exhibition was opened. In 1890 all the Australian colonies, including New South Wales and New Zealand, sent representatives to a conference at Melbourne, at which resolutions were passed in favour of the establishment of a National Australian Convention empowered to consider and report upon an adequate scheme for the Federal Constitution. This Convention met in Sydney in 1891 and took the first step towards federation (see AUSTRALIA). In 1891 the coalition government resigned and a Liberal administration was formed. An act passed in that year placed the railways again under the control of the government. Measures of a democratic and collectivist tendency have since obtained the assent of the Legislature.' The franchise of 44 VICTORIA— VICTORIA FALLS Crisis Of 1892. property-holders not resident in an electorate was abolished and the principle of " one man one vote " was established. Acts have been passed sanctioning Old Age Pensions; pro- hibiting shops, except those selling perishable goods, from keeping open more than eight hours; compelling the pro- prietors to give their assistants one half-holiday every six days; preventing persons from working more than forty-eight hours a week; and appointing for each trade a tribunal com- posed of an equal number of employers and employed to fix a minimum wage. (See AUSTRALIA.) Victoria enjoyed a large measure of prosperity during the later 'eighties and earlier 'nineties, and its financial prosperity enabled the government to expend large sums in extending railway communication to almost every locality and to com- mence a system of irrigation. The soil of Victoria is on the whole more fertile than in any other colony on the mainland of Australia, and in no portion of the continent is there any locality equal in fertility to the western district and some parts of Gippsland. The rainfall is more equable than in any portion of Australia, but the northern and north-western districts, which are the most remote from the sea and the Dividing Range, are subject to droughts, which, although not so severe or so frequent as in the interior of the continent, are sufficiently disastrous in their effects. The results of the expenditure upon irrigation have not been so successful as was hoped. Victoria has no mountains covered with snow, which in Italy and South America supply with water the rivers at the season of the year when the land needs irrigation, and it was necessary to construct large and expensive reservoirs. The cost of water is therefore greater than the ordinary agriculturist who grows grain or breeds and fattens stock can afford to pay, although the price may not be too high for orchardists and vine-growers. In 1892 the prosperity of the colony was checked by a great strike which for some months affected produc- tion, but speculation in land continued for some time longer, especially in Melbourne, which at that time contained nearly half the population, 500,000 out of a total of 1,140,105. There does not seem to have been any other reasons for this increase in land values, for there was no immigration, and the value of every description of produce had fallen — except that the working classes were prosperous and well paid, and that the purchase of small allotments in the suburbs was a popular mode of investment. In 1893 there was a collapse. The value of land declined enormously, hundreds of persons believed to be wealthy were ruined, and there was a financial panic which caused the suspension of all the banks, with the exception of the Australasia, the Union of Australia, and the New South Wales. Most of them resumed payment, but three went into liquidation. It was some years before the normal condition of prosperity was restored, but the great resources of the colony and the energy of its people discovered new markets, and new products for them, and enabled them materially to increase the export trade. (G. C. L.) VICTORIA, a city and port of Brazil, capital of the state of Espirito Santo, on the W. side of an island at the head of the Bay of Espirito Santo, 270 m. N.E. of Rio de Janeiro, in lat. 20° 18' S., long. 40° 20' W. Pop. (1902, estimated) 9000. The city occupies the beach and talus at the base of a high, wooded mountain. The principal streets follow the water-line, rising in terraces from the shore, and are crossed by narrow, steep, roughly paved streets. The buildings are old and of the colonial type. The governor's residence is an old convent, with its church at one side. The entrance to the bay is rather tortuous and difficult, but is sufficiently deep for the largest vessels. It is defended by five small forts. The harbour is not large, but is safe and deep, being completely shut in by hills. A large quay, pier, warehouses, &c., facilitate the hand- ling of cargoes, which were previously transported to and from the anchorage by lighters. Victoria is a port of call for coasting steamers and a shipping port in the coffee trade. The other exports are sugar, rice and mandioca (manioc) to home ports. Victoria was founded in 1535 by Vasco Fernando Coutinho, on the S. side and nearer the entrance to the bay, and received the name of Espirito Santo. The old site is still occupied, and is known as Villa Velha (Old Town). The name of Victoria was adopted in 1558 in commemoration of a crushing defeat inflicted by Fernando da Sa on the allied tribes of the Aimores, Tapininguins and Goitacazes in that year. It was attacked (1592) by the freebooter Cavendish, who was repelled by one of the forts at the entrance to the bay. VICTORIA, the capital of British Columbia and the principal city of Vancouver Island, in the S.E. corner of which it is finely situated (48° 25' 20" N., 123° 22' 24" W.), on a small arm of the sea, its harbour, however, only admitting vessels drawing 18 ft. Pop. (1906) about 25,000. It is the oldest city in the province. It has fine streets, handsome villas and public buildings, government offices and churches. The high school is affiliated with McGill University, in Montreal. Victoria is connected with the mainland by cable, and is a favourite tourist resort for the whole west coast of North America. Till 1858 Victoria was a post of the Hudson's Bay Company. The city was incorporated in 1862, and according to the census of 1886 the population was 14,000, including Chinese and Indians, spread over an area of 4 sq. m. Until the redistribution of the fleet in 1905, the headquarters of the British Pacific squadron was at Esquimalt, a fine harbour about 3 m. W. of Victoria. This harbour, though spacious, is not much used by merchant vessels. It is provided with a large dry-dock and is defended by fortifications of a modern type. VICTORIA FALLS, the greatest waterfall in the world, forming the most remarkable feature of the river Zambezi, Central Africa. The falls are about midway in the course of the Zambezi in 17° 51' S., 25° 41' E. For a considerable dis- tance above the falls the river flows over a level sheet of basalt, its valley bounded by low and distant sandstone hills. Its VICTORIA FALLS R i u e r v-*R~.r2r. i, vsX£"i Bowjy Walkc* K. clear blue waters are dotted with numerous tree-clad islands. These islands increase in number as the river, without quicken- ing its current, approaches the falls, whose nearness is indicated only by a veil of spray. At the spot where the Zambezi is at its widest — over 1860 yds. — it falls abruptly over the edge of an almost vertical chasm with a roar as of continuous thunder, VICTORIA NYANZA 45 sending up vast columns of vapour. Hence the native name Musi-oa-tunya, " Smoke does sound there." The chasm ex- tends the whole breadth of the river and is more than twice the depth of Niagara, varying from 256 ft. at the right bank 10343 ft. in the centre. Unlike Niagara the water does not fall into an open basin but is arrested at a distance of from 80 to 240 ft. by the opposite wall of the chasm. Both walls are of the same height, so that the falls appear to be formed by a huge crack in the bed of the river. The only outlet is a narrow channel cut in the barrier wall at a point about three- fifths from the western end of the chasm, and through this gorge, not more than 100 ft. wide, the whole volume of the river pours for 130 yds. before emerging into an enormous zigzag trough (the Grand Canon) which conducts the river past the basalt plateau. The tremendous pressure to which the water is subjected in the confinement of the chasm causes the perpetual columns of mist which rise over the precipice. The fall is broken by islands on the lip of the precipice into four parts. Close to the right bank is a sloping cataract 36 yds. wide, called the Leaping Water, then beyond Boaruka Island, about 300 yds. wide, is the Main Fall, 473 yds. broad, and divided by Livingstone Island from the Rainbow Fall 535 yds. wide. At both these falls the rock is sharp cut and the river maintains its level to the edge of the precipice. At the left bank of the river is the Eastern Cataract, a millrace resembling the Leaping Water. From opposite the western end of the falls to Danger Point, which overlooks the entrance of the gorge, the escarpment of the chasm is covered with great trees known as the Rain Forest; looking across the gorge the eastern part of the wall (the Knife Edge) is less densely wooded. At the end of the gorge the river has hollowed out a deep pool, named the Boiling Pot. It is some 500 ft. across; its surface, smooth at low water, is at flood-time troubled by slow, enormous swirls and heavy boilings. Thence the channel turns sharply westward, beginning the great zigzag mentioned. This grand and gloomy canon is over 40 m. long. Its almost perpendicular walls are over 400 ft. high, the level of the escarp- ment being that of the lip of the falls. A little below the Boiling Pot, and almost at right angles to the falls, the canon is spanned by a bridge (completed in April 1905) which forms a link in the Cape to Cairo railway scheme. This bridge, 650 ft. long, with a main arch of 500 ft. span, is slightly below the top of the gorge. The height from low-water level to the rails is 420 ft. The volume of water borne over the falls varies greatly, the level of the river in the canon sinking as much as 60 ft. between the full flood of April and the end of the dry season in October. When the river is high the water rolls over the main falls in one great unbroken expanse; at low water (when alone it is possible to look into the grey depths of the great chasm) the falls are broken by crevices in the rock into numerous cascades. The falls are in the territory of Rhodesia. They were dis- covered by David Livingstone on the i;th of November 1855, and by him named after Queen Victoria of England. Living- stone approached them from above and gained his first view of the falls from the island on its lip now named after him. In 1860 Livingstone, with Dr (afterwards Sir John) Kirk, made a careful investigation of the falls, but until the opening of the railway from Bulav/ayo (1905) they were rarely visited. The land in the vicinity of the falls is preserved by the Rhodesian government as a public park. See Livingstone's Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (London, 1857) for the story of the discovery of the falls, and the Popular Account of Dr Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries 1858-1864 (London, 1894) 'or a fuller description of the falls and a theory as to their origin. How I crossed Africa, by Major Serpa Pinto (English trans., London, 1881), contains a graphic account of the visit paid to the falls by the Portuguese explorer. In the Geographical Journal for January 1905 is an article by A. J. C. Molyneux on " The Physical History of the Victoria Falls." The article is illustrated by excellent photo- graphs and gives a bibliography. Consultalso" The Gorge and Basin of the Zambesi below the Victoria Falls," by G. W. Lamplugh in the Geog. Jour. (1908), vol. xxxi. (F. R. C.) VICTORIA NYANZA, the largest lake in Africa and chief reservoir of the Nile, lying between o° 20' N. to 3° S. and 31° 40' to 34° 52' E. Among the fresh-water lakes of the world it is exceeded in size by Lake Superior only and has an area of over 26,000 sq. m., being nearly the size of Scotland. In shape it is an irregular quadrilateral, but its shores, save on the west, are deeply indented. Its greatest length, taking into account the principal gulfs. N. to S. is 250 m., its greatest breadth 200 m. Its coast-line exceeds 2000 m. It fills a depression in the central part of the great plateau which stretches between the western (Albertine) and eastern rift-valleys (see AFRICA, § i), and has an elevation of about 3720 ft. above the sea.1 Its greatest ascertained depth is some 270 ft., which compares with soundings of 2000 ft. on Tanganyika and 2500 ft. on Nyasa. Victoria Nyanza is remarkable for the severe and sudden storms which sweep across it, rendering navigation dangerous. It contains many groups of islands, the majority being near the coast-line. The lake is full of reefs, many just below the surface of the water, which is clear and very fresh. It is abundantly stocked with fish. Geological research shows that the land surrounding the lake consists of gneiss, quartz and schistose rocks, covered, in the higher regions, with marl and red clay, and in the valleys with a rich black loam. Shores and Islands. — The shores of the lake present varied aspects. The western coast, which contains no large indentations, is, in its southern part, backed by precipices of 300 or more ft. high, behind which rise downs to thrice the height of the cliffs. Going north, the hills give way to papyrus and ambach swamps, which mark the delta of the Kagera. Beyond the mouth of that river the hills reappear, and increase in height, till on reaching the N.W. corner of the nyanza they rise some 500 ft. above the water. This western shore is marked by a continuous fault line which runs parallel to the lake at a short distance inland. The northern coast of the lake is very deeply indented and is marked throughout its length by rocky headlands jutting into the waters. This high land is very narrow, and the streams which rise on its northern face within a mile or two of the nyanza drain north away from the lake. On a promontory about 30 m. east of the Katonga (see below) is Entebbe, the port of Uganda and seat of the British administration. The chief indenta- tions on the north side are Murchison Bay and Napoleon Gulf, the entrance to the last named being partly filled by the triangular- shaped island of Buvuma or Uvuma (area 160 sq. m.). Napoleon Gulf itself is deeply indented, one bay, that of Jinja, running N.W. and being the outlet of the Nile, the water here forcing its way through the rock-bound shore of the lake. The north-east corner of the lake is flat and bare. A narrow channel, partly masked by islands, leads into Kavirondo Gulf, which, with an average width of 6 m., extends 45 m. E. of the normal coast-line — a fact taken advantage of in building the railway from Mombasa to the lake. A promontory, 174 ft. above lake-level, jutting into the small bay of Ugowe, at the north-east end of Kavirondo Gulf, is the point where the railway terminates. The station is known as Port Florence. On the south side of the gulf tall hills approach, and in some cases reach, the water's edge, and behind them towers the rugged range of Kasagunga with its saw-like edge. Proceeding south the shore trends generally south-west and is marked with many deep inlets, the coast presenting a succession of bold bluffs, while inland the whole district is distinctly mountainous. At the S.E. corner of the lake Speke Gulf projects eastward, and at the S.W. corner Emin Pasha Gulf pushes southward. Here the coast is barren and hilly, while long ridges of rock run into the lake. The largest island in the lake, Ukerewe, on the S.E. coast, imme- diately north of Speke Gulf, is almost a peninsula, but the strip of land connecting it with the shore is pierced by two narrow channels about j of a mile long. Ukerewe is 25 m. long, and 12 broad at its greatest width. It is uninhabited, wooded and hilly, rising 650 ft. above the lake. At the N.W. corner of the nyanza is the Sess6 archipelago, consisting of sixty-two islands. The largest island jn this group, namely, Bugala, is narrow, resembling the letter S in shape, and is almost cut in two in the middle. Most of these islands are densely forested, and some of them attain considerable elevation. Their scenery is of striking beauty. Forty-two were inhabited.1 Buvuma Island, at the entrance of Napoleon Gulf, has already been mentioned. Between it and as far as the mouth of Kavirondo Gulf are numerous other islands, of which the chief are Bugaia, Lolui, Rusunga and Mfwanganu. In general char- acteristics and the beauty of their scenery these islands resemble those of the Sesse' archipelago. The islands are of ironstone forma- tion overlying quartzite ana crystalline schists. Rivers. — The Kagera, the largest and most important of the lake 1 For the altitude see Geog. Jour., March 1907 and July 1908. * To prevent the spread of sleeping sickness the inhabitants were removed to the mainland (1909). 46 VICTORINUS— VICTOR-PERRIN affluents, which has its rise in the hill country east of Lake Kivu, and enters the west side of the nyanza just north of I ° S., is described in the article NILE, of which it is the most remote head-stream. The other rivers entering Victoria Nyanza from the west are the Katonga and Ruizi, both north of the Kagera. The Katonga rises in the plateau east of the Dweru branch of Albert Edward Nyanza, and after a sluggish course of 155 m. enters Victoria Nyanza in a wide swamp at its N.W. corner. The Ruizi (180 m.) is a deep, wide and swift stream with sinuous course flowing in part through great gorges and in part through large swamps. It rises in the Ankole district and reaches the nyanza a little north of the Kagera. Be- tween the Katonga and the Nile outlet, the rivers which rise close to the lake drain away northward, the watershed being the lake shore. On the N.E. side of the nyanza, however, several con- siderable streams reach the lake — notably the Sio, Nzoia and Lukos (or Yala). The Nzoia (150 m.), the largest of the three, rises in the foothills of the Elgeyo escarpment and flows swiftly over a rocky bed in a south-westerly direction, emptying into the lake south of Berkeley Bay. On the east side the Mara Dabagh enters the lake between 1° and 2° S. It is, next to the Kagera, the largest of the lake tributaries. All the rivers mentioned are per- ennial, and most of them bring down a considerable volume of water, even in the dry season. On the S., S.E. and S.W. shores a number of short rivers drain into the lake. They traverse a tree- less and arid region, have but an intermittent flow, and are of little importance in the hydrography of the district. The only outlet of the lake is the Nile (q.v.). Drainage Area, Rainfall and Lake Level. — The very important part played by the Victoria Nyanza in the Nile system has led to careful study of its drainage basin and rainfall and the perplexing variations in the level of the lake. The area drained by the lake covers, with the lake itself, 92,240 sq. m. In part it is densely forested, part consists of lofty mountains, and a considerable portion is somewhat arid tableland. According to the calculations of Sir William Garstin the rainfall over the whole area averages 50 in. a year. Allowing that as much as 25 % of this amount enters the lake, this is equivalent to a total of 138,750,000,000 cub. metres in a year. Measurements at the Ripon Falls show that 18,000,000,000, or some 13% of this amount, is taken off by the Nile, and when allow- ance has been made for the annual rise and fall of the lake-level it is apparent that by far the greater part of the water which enters the nyanza is lost by evaporation; in fact, that the amount drawn off by the river plays a comparatively small part in the annual oscillation of the water surface. Rain falls more or less in every month, but is heaviest during March, April, May and again in September, October and November. The level of the lake is chiefly affected by the autumn rains and generally reaches its maximum in July. The annual rise and fall is on an average from I to 3 ft., but between November 1900 and June 1901 a difference of 42 in. was recorded. Considerable speculation was caused by the fact that whereas in 1878-79 the lake-level was high, from 1880 to 1890 the level was falling, and that after a few years (1892-95) of higher level there was, from 1896 to 1902, again a steady fall, amounting in seven years to 30 in. in the average levels of the lake. In 1903, however, the level rose and everywhere the land gained from the lake in the previous years was flooded. These variations are attributed by Sir William Garstin to deficiency or excess of rainfall. Any secular shrinking of the lake in common with the lakes of Central Africa generally must be so gradual as to have no practical importance. It must also be remembered that in such a vast sheet of water as is the nyanza the wind exercises an influence on the level, tending to pile up the water at different parts of the lake. The winds may also be the cause of the daily variation of level, which on Speke Gulf has been found to reach 20 in.; but this may also partake of the character of a " seiche." Currents setting towards the north or north-west have been observed in various parts of the lake. Discovery and Exploration. — The quest for the Nile sources led to the discovery of the lake by J. H. Speke in 1858, and it was by him named Victoria in honour of the queen of England. In 1862 Speke and his companion, J. A. Grant, partially explored the N.W. shore, leaving the lake at the Nile outlet. Great differences of opinion existed as to its size until its circum- navigation in 1874 by H. M. Stanley, which proved it to be of vast extent. The invitation sent by King Mtesa of Uganda through Stanley to the Christian missionaries led to the despatch from England in 1876 of the Rev. C. T. Wilson, to whom we owe our first detailed knowledge of the nyanza. Mr Wilson and Lieut. Shergold Smith, R.N., made, in 1877, the first voyage across the nyanza. Lieut. Smith and a Mr O'Neill, both members of the Church Missionary Society, were in the same year murdered on Ukerewe Island. In 1889 Stanley further explored the lake, discovering Einin Pasha Gulf, the entrance to which is masked by several islands. In 1890 the ownership of the lake was divided by Great Britain and Germany, the first degree of south latitude being taken as the boundary line. The southern portion, which fell to Germany, was visited and described by scientists of that nation, whose objects, however, were not primarily geographic. At the instance of the British Foreign Office a survey of the northern shores of the lake was carried out in 1899-1900 by Commander B. Whitehouse, R.N. The same officer, in 1903, undertook, in agreement with the German government, a survey of the southern shores. Com- mander Whitehouse's work led to considerable modification of the previously accepted maps. He discovered numerous islands and bays whose existence had previously been unknown. Previously to 1896 navigation was confined to Arab dhows, which trade between the. south end of the lake and Uganda, and to canoes. In the year named a small steamer (the" Ruwen- zori ") was launched on the lake by a Zanzibar firm, .while in 1900 a somewhat larger steamer (the " William Mackinnon" ), built in Glasgow at the instance of Sir W. Mackinnon, and afterwards taken over by the British government, made her first trip on the lake. In 1903, the year in which the railway from Mombasa to the lake was completed, a steamer of 600 tons burden was launched at Port Florence. Since that date trade has considerably increased. See NILE and UGANDA and the British Blue-book Egypt No. 2 (1904), which is a Report by Sir Wm. Garstin upon the Basin of the Upper Nile. This report, besides giving (pp. 4-24) much original information upon the Victoria Nyanza, summarizes the informa- tion of previous travellers, whose works are quoted. In 1908 the British Admiralty published a chart of the lake (scale 4 in. to the mile) from the surveys of Commander Whitehouse. Non-official books which deal with the lake include: C. T. Wilson, Uganda and the Soudan (London, 1882) ; (Sir) F. D. Lugard, The Rise of our East African Empire, vol. ii. (London, 1893) ; Franz Stuhlmann, Mil Emin Pasha, &c. (Berlin, 1894); Paul Kollmann, The Victoria Nyanza (English translation; London, 1899); E. G. Ravenstein, " The Lake-level of the Victoria Nyanza," Geographical Journal, October 1901 ; Sir H. H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate (London, 1902). In most of these publications the descriptions of the lake occupy but a small part. (W. E. G. ; F. R. C.) VICTORINUS, GAIUS MARIUS (4th century A.D.), Roman grammarian, rhetorician and neo-Platonic philosopher, an African by birth (whence his surname Afer), lived during the reign of Constantius II. He taught rhetoric at Rome (one of his pupils being Jerome), and in his old age became a convert to Christianity. His conversion is said to have greatly influenced that of Augustine. When Julian published an edict forbidding Christians to lecture on polite literature, Victorinus closed his school. A statue was erected in his honour as a teacher in the Forum Trajanum. His translations of platonic writers are lost, but the treatise De Definilionibus (ed. T. Stangl in Tulliana et Mario-Victoriniana, Munich, 1888) is probably by him and not by Boetius, to whom it was formerly attributed. His manual of prosody, in four books, taken almost literally from the work of Aphthonius, is extant (H. Keil, Grammatici Latini, vi.). It is doubtful whether he is the author of certain other extant treatises attributed to him on metrical and grammatical subjects, which will be found in Keil. His com- mentary on Cicero's De Inventions (in Halm's Rhetores Latini Minores, 1863) is very diffuse, and is itself in need of commentary. His extant theological writings, which will be found in J. P. Migne, Cursus Patrologiae Latinae, viii., include commentaries on Galatians, Ephesians and Philippians; De Trinitate contra Arium; Ad Juslinum Manichaeum de Vera Came Christi; and a little tract on " The Evening and the Morning were one day " (the genuineness of the last two is doubtful). Some Christian poems under the name of Victorinus are probably not his. See G. Geiger, C. Marius Victorinus Afer, ein neuplalonischer Philosoph (Metten, 1888); G. Koffmann, De Mario Victorino philosopho Christiana (Breslau, 1880); R. Schmid, Marius Vic- torinus Rhetor und seine Beziehungen zu Augustin (Kiel, 1895) ; Gore in Dictionary of Christian Biography, iv. ; M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, iv. I (1904); Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. tr., 1900), 408. VICTOR-PERRIN, CLAUDE, DUKE OF BELLUNO (1764- 1841), marshal of France, was born at La Marche (Vosges) on the 7th of December 1764. In 1781 he entered the army as a private soldier, and after ten years' service he received his discharge and settled at Valence. Soon afterwards he joined the local volunteers, and distinguishing himself in the war on the Alpine frontier, in less than a year he had risen to the VICTUAL— VIDAME 47 command of a battalion. For his bravery at the siege of Toulon in 1793 he was raised to -the rank of general of brigade. He afterwards served for some time with the army of the Eastern Pyrenees, and in the Italian campaign of 1796-97 he so acquitted himself at Mondovi, Roveredo and Mantua that he was promoted to be general of division. After commanding for some time the forces in the department of La Vendee, he was again employed in Italy, where he did good service against the papal troops, and he took a very important part in the battle of Marengo. In 1802 he was governor of the colony of Louisiana for a short time, in 1803 he commanded the Batavian army, and afterwards he acted for eighteen months (1805-6) as French plenipotentiary at Copenhagen. On the outbreak of hostilities with Prussia he joined the V. army corps (Marshal Lannes) as chief of the general staff. He distinguished himself at Saalfeld and Jena, and at Friedland he commanded the I. corps in such a manner that Napoleon gave him the marshal- ate. After the peace of Tilsit he became governor of Berlin, and in 1808 he was created duke of Belluno. In the same year he was sent to Spain, where he took a prominent part in the Peninsular War (especially at Espinosa, Talavera, Barrosa and Cadiz), until his appointment in 1812 to a corps command in the invasion of Russia. Here his most important service was in protecting the retreating army at the crossing of the Beresina. He took an active part in the wars of 1813-14, till in February of the latter year he had the misfortune to arrive too late at Montereau-sur-Yonne. The result was a scene of violent recrimination and his supersession by the emperor, who transferred his command to Gerard. Thus wounded in his amour-propre, Victor now transferred his allegiance to the Bourbon dynasty, and in December 1814 received from Louis XVIII. the command of the second military division. In 1815 he accompanied the king to Ghent, and on the second restoration he was made a peer of France. He was also president of a commission which inquired into the conduct of the officers during the Hundred Days, and dismissed Napoleon's sympathizers. In 1821 he was appointed war minister and held this office for two years. In 1830 he was major-general of the royal guard, and after the revolution of that year he retired altogether into private life. His death took place at Paris on the ist of March 1841. His papers for the period 1793-1800 have been published (Paris, 1846). VICTUAL, food, provisions, most commonly in the plural, "victuals." The word and its pronunciation came into English from the O. Fr. vitaille. The modern French and English spelling are due to a pedantic approximation to the Latin original, victualia, a neuter plural substantive formed from viclualis, victus, nourishment, provisions (vivere, to live). The most familiar use of the term is in " licensed victualler," to which the Licensing Act 1872 (§ 27) has applied the wide significance of any person selling any intoxicating liquor under a licence from a justice of the peace. Properly a " victualling house " is one where persons are provided with food and drink but not lodgings, and is thus distinct from an inn, which also provides the last. VICUGflA, one of the two wild living South American re- presentatives of the camel-tribe, a Came- lidae (see TYLOPODA). From its relative the guanaco the vicugna (Lama vicunia) differs by its inferior stature, more slender build and shorter head, as well as by the absence of bare patches or Head of Vicugna. callosities on the hind limbs. The general colour of the woolly coat is orange-red. Vicugnas live in herds on the bleak and elevated parts of the mountain range bordering the region of perpetual snow, amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in various parts of Peru, in the southern part of Ecuador, and as far south as the middle of Bolivia. The wool is extremely delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of weaving, but the quantity which each animal produces is not great. VIDA, MARCO GIROLAMO (c. 1489-1566), Italian scholar and Latin poet, was born at Cremona shortly before the year 1490. He received the name of Marcantonio in baptism, but changed this to Marco Girolamo when he entered the order of the Canonici Regolari Lateranensi. During his early manhood he acquired considerable fame by the composition of two didactic poems in the Latin tongue, on the Came of Chess (Scacchiae Ludus) and on the Silkworm (Bombyx). This reputa- tion induced him to seek the papal court in Rome, which was rapidly becoming the headquarters of polite learning, the place where students might expect advancement through their literary talents. Vida reached Rome in the last years of the pontificate of Julius II. Leo X., on succeeding to the papal chair (1513), treated him with marked favour, bestowed on him the priory of St Sylvester at Frascati, and bade him compose a heroic Latin poem on the life of Christ. Such was the origin of the Christiad, Vida's most celebrated, if not his best, per- formance. It did not, however, see the light in Leo's lifetime. Between the years 1520 and 1527 Vida produced the second of his masterpieces in Latin hexameters, a didactic poem on the Art of Poetry (see Baldi's edition, WUrzburg, 1881). Clement VII. raised him to the rank of apostolic protonotary, and in 1532 conferred on him the bishopric of Alba. It is probable that he took up his residence in this town soon after the death of Clement ; and here he spent the greater portion of his remain- ing years. Vida attended the council of Trent, where he enjoyed the society of Cardinals Cervini, Pole and Del Monte, together with his friend the poet Flaminio. A record of their conversations may be studied in Vida's Latin dialogue De Republica. Among his other writings should be mentioned three eloquent orations in defence of Cremona against Pavia, composed upon the occasion of some dispute as to precedency between those two cities. Vida died at Alba on the 2 7th of September 1566. See the Life by Lancetti (Milan. 1840). VIDAME (Lat. vice-dominus) , a French feudal title. The vidame was originally, like the avoue (advocatus), an official chosen by the bishop of the diocese, with the consent of the count (see ADVOCATE). Unlike the advocate, however, the vice-dominus was at the outset an ecclesiastic, who acted as the bishop's lieutenant (locum tenens) or vicar. But the causes that changed the character of the advocatus operated also in the case of the vidame. During the Carolingian epoch, indeed, advocatus and vice-dominus were interchangeable terms; and it was only in the nth century 'that they became generally differentiated: the title of avoue being commonly reserved for nobles charged with the protection of an abbey, that of vidame for those guarding an episcopal see. With the crystallization of the feudal system in the i2th century the office of vidame, like that of avou6, had become an hereditary fief. As a title, however, it was much less common and also less dignified than that of avoufi. The advocali were often great barons who added their function of protector of an abbey to their own temporal sovereignty; whereas the vidames were usually petty nobles, who exercised their office in strict subordination to the bishop. Their chief functions were: to protect the temporalities of the see, to represent the bishop at the count's court of justice, to exercise the bishop's temporal jurisdiction in his name (placitum or curia vice-dominf) and to lead the episcopal levies to war. In return they usually had a house near the episcopal palace, a domain within and without the city, and sometimes the right to levy certain dues on the city. The vidames usually took their title from the see they represented, but not infrequently they styled themselves, not after their official fief, but after VIDIN— VIDYASAGAR their private seigneuries. Thus the vidame de Picquigny was the representative of the bishop of Amiens, the vidame de Gerberoy of the bishop of Beauvais. In many sees there were no vidames, their function being exercised by viscounts or chitelains. With the growth of the central power and of that of the municipalities the vidames gradually lost all importance, and the title became merely honorary See A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franc.aises (Paris, 1892); Du Cange, Glossarium (ed. Niort, 1887), s. " Vice-dpminus " ; A. Mallet, " Etude hist, sur les avou£s et les vidames," in Position des theses de l'£cole des chartes (an. 1870-72). VIDIN (formerly written WIDIN or WIDDIN), a fortified river-port and the capital of a department in the extreme N.E. of Bulgaria; on the right bank of the river Danube, near the Servian frontier and 151 m. W.N.W. of Sofia. Pop. (1906) 16,168, including about 3000 Turks and 1500 Spanish Jews — descendants of the refugees who fled hither from the Inquisition in the i6th century. Vidin is an episcopal see and the head- quarters of a brigade; it was formerly a stronghold of some importance, and was rendered difficult to besiege by the sur- rounding marshes, formed where the Topolovitza and other streams join the Danube. A steam ferry connects it with Calafat, on the Rumanian bank of the Danube, and there is a branch railway to Mezdra, on the main line Sofia-Plevna. The city consists of three divisions — the modern suburbs extending beside the Danube, the citadel and the old town, still sur- rounded by walls, though only four of its nine towers remain standing. The old town, containing several mosques and synagogues and a bazaar, preserves its oriental appearance; the citadel is used as a military magazine. There are a modern cathedral, a school of viticulture and a high school, besides an ancient clock- tower and the palace (Konak) formerly occupied by the Turkish pashas. Vidin exports cereals and fruit, and is locally celebrated for its gold and silver filigree. It has important fisheries and manufactures of spirits, beer and tobacco. Vidin stands on the site of the Roman town of Bononia in Moesia Superior, not to be confounded with the Pannonian Bononia, which stood higher up the Danube to the north of Sirmium. Its name figures conspicuously in the military annals of medieval and recent times; and it is specially memorable for the overthrow of the Turks by the imperial forces in 1689 and for the crushing defeat of the hospodar Michael Sustos by Pasvan Oglu in 1801. It was again the scene of stirring events during the Russo-Turkish Wars of 1854-55 and 1877-78, and successfully resisted the assaults of the Servians in the Servo-Bulgarian War of 1886-87. VIDOCQ, FRANCOIS EUGENE (1775-1857), French detective, was born at Arras in 1775 (or possibly 1773). After an adven- turous youth he joined the French army, where he rose to be lieutenant. At Lille he was imprisoned as the result of a quarrel with a brother officer, and while in gaol became involved, possibly innocently, in the forgery of an order for the release of another prisoner. He was sentenced to eight years' hard labour, and sent to the galleys at Brest, whence he escaped twice but was recaptured. For the third time he succeeded in getting free, and lived for some time in the company of thieves and other criminals in Paris and elsewhere, making a careful study of their methods. He then offered his services as a spy to the Paris police (1809). The offer was accepted, on condition that he should extend his knowledge of the criminal classes by himself serving a further term in prison in Paris, and subse- quently Vidocq was made chief of the reorganized detective department of the Paris police, with a body of ex-convicts under his immediate command. In this capacity Vidocq was ex- tremely successful, for he possessed unbounded energy and a real genius for hunting down criminals. In 1827, having saved a considerable sum of money, he retired from his post and started a paper-mill, the work-people in which were drawn entirely from ex-convicts. The venture, however, was a failure, and in 1832 Vidocq re-entered the police service and was em- ployed mainly in political work, though given no special office. Anxious to get back to his old detective post he himself foolishly organized a daring theft. The authorities were unable to trace the thieves, who at the proper moment were " discovered " by Vidocq. His real part in the matter became known, however, and he was dismissed from service. He subsequently started a private inquiry agency, which was indifferently successful, and was finally suppressed. Vidocq died in great poverty in 1857. Several volumes have been published under his name, the best known of which is Memoires de Vidocq (1828). It is, however, extremely doubtful whether he wrote any of them. See Charles Ledru, La Vie, la mart et les derniers moments de Vidocq (Paris, 1857). VIDYASAGAR, ISWAR CHANDRA (1820-1891), writer and social reformer of Bengal, was born at Birsinha in the Midnapur district in 1820, of a Kulin Brahman family. He was removed to Calcutta at the age of nine, was admitted into the Sanskrit College, and carried on his studies in the midst of privations and extreme poverty. In 1839 he obtained the title of Vidyasagar ( = " Ocean of learning ") after passing a brilliant examination, and in 1850 was appointed head pandit of Fort William College. In 1846 appeared his first work in Bengali prose, The Twenty- Five Tales of a Rctal. This was succeeded by his Sakuntala in 1855, and by his greatest work, The Exile of Sila, in 1862. These are marked by a grace and beauty which Bengali prose had never known before. The literature of Bengal, previous to the igth century, was entirely in verse. Ram Mohan Roy, the religious reformer of Bengal, created the literary prose of Bengal early in the igth century by his numerous translations and religious tracts; and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and his fellow- worker, Akhay Kumar Datta, added to its power and beauty about the middle of that century. These three writers are generally re- cognized as the fathers of Bengali prose literature. As a social reformer and educationist, too, Iswar Chandra made his mark. He associated himself with Drinkwater Bethune in the cause of female education; and the management of the girls' school, called after Bethune, was entrusted to him in 1851. And when Rosomoy Datta resigned the post of secretary to the Sanskrit College of Calcutta, a new post of principal was created, and Iswar Chandra was appointed to it. Iswar Chandra's influence in the education department was now unbounded. He simpli- fied the method of learning Sanskrit, and thus spread a know- ledge of that ancient tongue among his countrymen. He was consulted in all educational matters by Sir Frederick Halliday, the first lieutenant-governor of Bengal. And when the great scheme of education under Sir Charles Wood's despatch of 1854 was inaugurated in India, Iswar Chandra established numerous aided schools under that scheme in the most advanced districts of Bengal. In 1858 he resigned his appointment under govern- ment, and shortly afterwards became manager of the Metro- politan Institution, a private college at Calcutta. But a greater task than literary work or educational reforms claimed his attention. He had discovered that the ancient Hindu scriptures did not enjoin perpetual widowhood, and in 1855 he startled the Hindu world by his work on the Remarriage of Hindu Widows. Such a work, from a learned and presumably orthodox Brahman, caused the greatest excitement, but Iswar Chandra remained unmoved amidst a storm of indignation. Associating himself with the most influential men of the day, like Prosonno Kumar Tagore and Ram Gopal Ghosh, he appealed to the British government to declare that the sons of remarried Hindu widows should be considered legitimate heirs. The British govern- ment responded; the act was passed in 1856, and some years after Iswar Chandra's own son was married to a widow. In the last years of his life Iswar Chardra wrote works against Hindu polygamy. He was as well known for his charity and wide philanthropy as for his educational and social reforms. His large income, derived from the sale of school-books, was devoted almost entirely to the succour of the needy; hundreds of young men owed their education to him; hundreds of widows depended on him for their daily bread. The Indian government made him a Companion of the Indian Empire in 1880. He died on the 29th of July 1891. (R. C. D.) VIEIRA 49 VIEIRA, ANTONIO (1608-1697), Portuguese Jesuit and writer, the " prince of Catholic pulpit-orators of his time," was born in Lisbon on the 6th of February 1608. Accompanying his parents to Brazil in 1615 he received his education at the Jesuit college at Bahia. He entered the Jesuit novitiate in 1625, and two years later pronounced his first vows. At the age of eighteen he was teaching rhetoric, and a little later dogmatic theology, at the college of Olinda, besides writing the " annual letters " of the province. In 1635 he received the priesthood. He soon began to distinguish himself as an orator, and the three patriotic sermons he delivered at Bahia (1638-40) are remarkable for their imaginative power and dignity of language. The sermon for the success of the arms of Portugal against Holland was considered by the Abb6 Raynal to be " perhaps the most extraordinary discourse ever heard from a Christian pulpit." When the revolution of 1640 placed John IV. on the throne of Portugal, Brazil gave him its allegi- ance, and Vieira was chosen to accompany the viceroy's son to Lisbon to congratulate the new king. His talents and aptitude for affairs impressed John IV. so favourably that he appointed him royal preacher, gave him free access to the palace and constantly consulted him on the business of the state. Pos- sessed of great political sagacity and knowledge of the lessons of history, Vieira used the pulpit as a tribune from which he propounded measures for improving the general and particularly the economic condition of Portugal. His pen was as busy as his voice, and in four notable pamphlets he advocated the crea- tion of companies of commerce, the abolition of the distinction between Old and New Christians, the reform of the procedure of the Inquisition and the admission of Jewish and foreign traders, with guarantees for their security from religious per- secution. Moreover, he did not spare his own estate, for in his Sexagesima sermon he boldly attacked the current style of preaching, its subtleties, affectation, obscurity and abuse of metaphor, and declared the ideal of a sermon to be one which sent men away " not contented with the preacher, but discon- tented with themselves." In 1647 Vieira began his career as a diplomat, in the course of which he visited England, France, Holland and Italy. In his Papel Forte he urged the cession of Pernambuco to the Dutch as the price of peace, while his mission to Rome in 1650 was undertaken in the hope of arranging a marriage between the heir to the throne of Portugal and the only daughter of King Philip IV. of Spain. His success, freedom of speech and reforming zeal had made him enemies on all sides, and only the intervention of the king prevented his expulsion from the Company of Jesus, so that prudence coun- selled his return to Brazil. In his youth he had vowed to consecrate his life to the con- version of the negro slaves and native Indians of his adopted country, and arriving in Maranhao early in 1653 he recom- menced his apostolic labours, which had been interrupted during his stay of fourteen years in the Old World. Starting from Par and sin 0/45, was resolved by him at once, all the twenty-three positive roots of which the said equation was capable being given at the same time (see TRIGONOMETRY). Such was the first encounter of the two scholars. A second took place when Vieta pointed to Apollonius's problem of taction as not yet being mastered, and Adriaan van Roomen gave a solution by the hyperbola. Vieta, however, did not accept it, as there existed a solution by means of the rule and the compass only, which he published himself in his Apollonius Callus (1600). In this paper Vieta made use of the centre of similitude of two circles. Lastly he gave an infinite product for the number v (see CIRCLE, SQUARING OF). Vieta's collected works were issued under the title of Opera Mathematica by F. van Schooten at Leiden in 1646. (M CA ) VIEUXTEMPS, HENRI (1820-1881), Belgian violinist and composer, was born at Venders, on the 2oth of February 1820. Until his seventh year he was a pupil of Lecloux, but when De Beriot heard him he adopted him as his pupil, taking him to appear in Paris in 1828. From 1833 onwards he spent the greater part of his life in concert tours, visiting all parts of the world with uniform success. He first appeared in London at a Philharmonic concert on the 2nd of June 1834, and in the following year studied composition with Reicha in Paris, and began to produce a long series of works, full of formidably difficult passages, though also of pleasing themes and fine musical ideas, which are consequently highly appreciated by violinists. From 1846 to 1852 he was solo violinist to the tsar, and professor in the conservatorium in St Petersburg. From 1871 to 1873 he was teacher of the violin class in the Brussels Conservatoire, but was disabled by an attack of paralysis in the latter year, and from that time could only superintend the studies of favourite pupils. He died at Mustapha, in Algiers, on the 6th of June 1881. He had a perfect command of technique, faultless intonation and a marvellous command of the bow. His staccato was famous all over the world, and his tone was exceptionally rich and full. VIGAN, a town and the capital of the province of Ilocos Sur, Luzon, Philippine Islands, at the mouth of the Abra river, about 200 m. N. by W. of Manila. Pop. of the municipality (1903) 14,945; after the census of 1903 was taken there were united to Vigan the municipalities of Bantay (pop. 7020), San Vicente (pop. 5060), Santa Catalina (pop. 5625) and Coayan (pop. 6201), making the total population of the municipality 38,851. Vigan is the residence of the bishop of Nueva Segovia and has a fine cathedral, a substantial court-house, other durable public buildings and a monument to Juan de Salcedo, its founder. It is engaged in farming, fishing, the manufacture of brick, tile, cotton fabrics and furniture, and the building of boats. The language is Ilocano. VIGlJE-LEBRUN, MARIE-ANNE ELISABETH (1755-1842), French painter, was born in Paris, the daughter of a painter, from whom she received her first instruction, though she bene- fited more by the advice of Doyen, Greuze, Joseph Vernet and other masters of the period. When only about twenty years of age she had already risen to fame with her portraits of Count Orloff and the duchess of Orleans, her personal charm making her at the same time a favourite in society. In 1776 she married the painter and art-critic J. B. P. Lebrun, and in 1783 her picture of " Peace bringing back Abundance" (now at the Louvre) gained her the membership of the Academy. When the Revolution broke out in 1789 she escaped first to Italy, , where she worked at Rome and Naples. At Rome she painted the portraits of Princesses Adelaide and Victoria, and at Naples the " Lady Hamilton as a Bacchante " now in the collection of Mr Tankerville Chamberlayne; and then jour- neyed to Vienna, Berlin and St Petersburg. She returned to Paris in 1781, but went in the following year to London, where she painted the portraits of Lord Byron and the prince of Wales, and in 1808 to Switzerland. Her numerous journeys, and the vogue she enjoyed wherever she went, account for the numerous portraits from her brush that are to be found in the great collections of many countries. Having returned to France from Switzerland, she lived first at her country house near Marly and then in Paris, where she died at the age of eighty-seven, in 1842, having been widowed for twenty-nine years. She published her own memoirs under the title of Souvenirs (Paris, 1835-37). Among her many sitters was VIGEVANO— VIGILANCE COMMITTEE 59 Marie Antoinette, of whom she painted over twenty portraits between 1779 and 1789. A portrait of the artist is in the hall of the painters at the Uffizi, and another at the National Gallery. The Louvre owns two portraits of Mme Lebrun and her daughter, besides five other portraits and an allegorical com- position. A full account of her eventful life is given in the artist's Souvenirs, and in C. Fillet's Mme Vigee-Le Brun (Paris, 1890). The artist's autobiography has been translated by Lionel Strachey, Memoirs of Mme Vigee-Lebrun (New York, 1903), fully illustrated. VIGEVANO, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Pavia, on the right bank of the Ticino, 24 m. by rail S.W. from Milan on the line to Mortara, 381 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 18,043 (town); 23,560 (commune). It is a medieval walled town, with an arcaded market-place, a cathedral, the Gothic church of S. Francesco, and a castle of the Sforza family, dating from the I4th century and adorned with a loggia by Bramante and a tower imitating that of Filarete in the Castello Sforzesco at Milan. It is a place of some importance in the silk trade and also produces excellent macaroni. There is a steam tramway to Novara. VfGFtiSSON. GtiDBRANDR (1828-1889), the foremost Scandinavian scholar of the igth century, was born of a good and old Icelandic family in BreiSaf jord in 1828. He was brought up, till he went to a tutor's, by his kinswoman, Kristm Vigfuss- dottir, to whom, he records, he " owed not only that he became a man of letters, but almost everything." He was sent to the old and famous school at Bessastad and (when it removed thither) at Reykjavik; and in 1849, already a fair scholar, he came to Copenhagen University as a bursarius in the Regense College. He was, after his student course, appointed stipendiarius by the Arna-Magnaean trustees, and worked for fourteen years in the Arna-Magnaean Library till, as he said, he knew every scrap of old vellum and of Icelandic written paper in that whole collection. During his Danish life he twice revisited Iceland (last in 1858), and made short tours in Norway and South Germany with friends. In 1866, after some months in London, he settled down in Oxford, which he made his home for the rest of his life, only quitting it for visits to the great Scandi- navian libraries or to London (to work during two or three long vacations with his fellow-labourer, F. Y. Powell), or for short trips to places such as the Isle of Man, the Orkneys and Shetlands, the old mootstead of the West Saxons at Downton, the Roman station at Pevensey, the burial-place of Bishop Brynjulf's ill-fated son at Yarmouth, and the like. He held the office of Reader in Scandinavian at the university of Oxford (a post created for him) from 1884 till his death. He was a Jubilee Doctor of Upsala, 1877, and received the Danish order of the Dannebrog in 1885. Vigfusson died of cancer on the 3ist of January 1889, and was buried in St Sepulchre's Cemetery, Oxford, on the 3rd of February. He was an excellent judge of literature, reading most European languages well and being acquainted with their classics. His memory was remarkable, and if the whole of the Eddie poems had been lost, he could have written them down from memory. He spoke English well and idiomatically, but with a strong Icelandic accent. He wrote a beautiful, distinctive and clear hand, in spite of the thousands of lines of MS. copying he had done in his early life. By his Tunatdl (written between October 1854 and April 1855) he laid the foundations for the chronology of Icelandic history, in a series of conclusions that have not been displaced (save by his own additions and corrections), and that justly earned the praise of Jacob Grimm. His editions of Icelandic classics (1858-68), Biskopa Sogur, Bardar Saga, Forn Sogur (with Mobius), Eyrbyggia Saga and Flateyar-bok (with Unger) opened a new era of Icelandic scholar- ship, and can only fitly be compared to the Rolls Series editions of chronicles by Dr Stubbs for the interest and value of their prefaces and texts. Seven years of constant and severe toil (1866-73) were given to the Oxford Icelandic-English Dictionary, incomparably the best guide to classic Icelandic, and a monumental example of single-handed work. His later series of editions (1874-85) included Orkneymga and Hdconar Saga, the great and complex mass of Icelandic historical sagas, known as Sturlunga, and the Corpus Poeticum Boreale, in which he edited the whole body of classic Scandinavian poetry. As an introduction to the Sturlunga, he wrote a complete though concise history of the classic Northern literature and its sources. In the introduction to the Corpus, he laid the foundations of a critical history of the Eddie poetry and Court poetry of the North in a series of brilliant, original and well- supported theories that are gradually being accepted even by those who were at first inclined to reject them. His little Icelandic Prose Reader (with F. York Powell) (1879) furnishes the English student with a pleasant and trustworthy path to a sound knowledge of Icelandic. The Grimm Centenary Papers (1886) give good examples of the range of his historic work, while his Appendix on Icelandic currency to Sir G. W. Dasent's Burnt Njal is a model of methodical investigation into an intricate and somewhat import- ant subject. As a writer in his own tongue he at once gained a high position by his excellent and delightful Relations of Travel in Norway and South Germany. In English, as his " Visit to Grimm " and his powerful letters to The Times show, he had attained no mean skill. His life is mainly a record of well-directed and efficient labour in Denmark and Oxford. (F. Y. P.) VIGIL (Lat. vigtiia, "watch"), in the Christian Church, the eve of a festival. The use of the word is, however, late, the vigiliae (pernoctationes, ira.vwx(Jt>K) having originally been the services, consisting of prayers, hymns, processions and some- times the eucharist, celebrated on the preceding night in pre- paration for the feast. The oldest of the vigils is that of Easter Eve, those of Pentecost and Christmas being instituted somewhat later. With the Easter vigil the eucharist was specially asso- ciated, and baptism with that of Pentecost (see WHITSUNDAY). The abuses connected with nocturnal vigils1 led to their being attacked, especially by Vigilentius of Barcelona (c. 400), against whom Jerome fulminated in this as in other matters. The custom, however, increased, vigils being instituted for the other festivals, including those of saints. In the middle ages the nocturnal vigtiia were, except in the monasteries, gradually discontinued, matins and vespers on the preceding day, with fasting, taking their place. In the Roman Catholic Church the vigil is now usually celebrated on the morning of the day preceding the festival, except at Christmas, when a midnight mass is celebrated, and on Easter Eve. These vigils are further distinguished as privileged and unprivileged. The former (except that of the Epiphany) have special offices; in the latter the vigil is merely commemorated. The Church of England has reverted to early custom in so fa.r as only " Easter Even " is distinguished by a special collect, gospel and epistle. The other vigils are recognized in the calendar (including those of the saints) and the rubric directs that " the collect appointed for any Holy-day that hath a Vigil or Eve, shall be said at the Evening Service next before." VIGILANCE COMMITTEE, in the United States, a self- constituted judicial body, occasionally organized in the western frontier districts for the protection of life and property. The first committee of prominence bearing the name was organized in San Francisco in June 1851, when the crimes of desperadoes who had immigrated to the gold-fields were rapidly increasing in numbers and it was said that there were venal judges, packed juries and false witnesses. At first this committee was com- posed of about 200 members; afterwards it was much larger. The general committee was governed by an executive committee and the city was policed by sub-committees. Within about thirty days four desperadoes were arrested, tried by the execu- tive committee and hanged, and about thirty others were banished. Satisfied with the results, the committee then quietly adjourned, but it was revived five years later. Similar committees were common in other parts of California and in the mining districts of Idaho and Montana. That in Montana exterminated in 1863-64 a band of outlaws organized under Henry Plummer, the sheriff of Montana City, twenty-four of the outlaws were hanged within a few months. Committees or societies of somewhat the same nature were formed in the Southern states during the Reconstruction period (1865-72) to protect white families from negroes and " carpet-baggers," and besides these there were the Ku-Klux-Klan (q.v.) and its branches; the Knights of the White Camelia, the Pale Faces, and the Invisible Empire of the South, the principal object of which was to control the negroes by striking them with terror. 1 The 35th canon of the council of Elvira (305) forbids women to attend them. 6o VIGILANTIUS— VIGLIUS See H. H. Bancroft, Popular Tribunals (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887); and T. J. Dimsdale, The Vigilantes of Montana (Virginia City, 1866). VIGiLANTIUS (fl. c. 400), the presbyter, celebrated as the author of a work, no longer extant, against superstitious prac- tices, which called forth one of the most violent and scurrilous of Jerome's polemical treatises, was born about 370 at Cala- gurris in Aquitania (the modern Cazeres or perhaps Saint Bertrand de Comminges in the department of Haute-Garonne) , where his father kept a " static " or inn on the great Roman road from Aquitania to Spain. While still a youth his talent became known to Sulpicius Severus, who had estates in that neighbourhood, and in 395 Sulpicius, who probably baptized him, sent him with letters to Paulinus of Nola, where he met with a friendly reception. On his return to Severus in Gaul he was ordained; and, having soon afterwards inherited means through the death of his father, he set out for Palestine, where he was received with great respect by Jerome at Bethlehem. The stay of Vigilantius lasted for some time; but, as was almost inevitable, he was dragged into the dispute then raging about Origen, in which he did not see fit wholly to adopt Jerome's attitude. On his return to the West he was the bearer of a letter from Jerome to Paulinus, and at various places where he stopped on the way he appears to have expressed himself about Jerome in a manner that when reported gave great offence to that father, and provoked him to write a reply (Ep. 61). Vigilantius -now settled for some time in Gaul, and is said by one authority (Gennadius) to have afterwards held a charge in the diocese of Barcelona. About 403, some years after his return from the East, Vigilantius wrote his celebrated work against superstitious practices, in which he argued against relic worship, as also against the vigils in the basilicas of the martyrs, then so common, the sending of alms to Jerusalem, the rejection of earthly goods and the attribution of special virtue to the unmarried state, especially in the case of the clergy. He thus covers a wider range than Jovinian, whom he surpasses also in intensity. He was especially indignant at the way in which spiritual worship was being ousted by the adoration of saints and their relics. All that is known of his work is through Jerome's treatise Contra Vigilantiwn, or, as that contro- versialist would seem to prefer saying, " Contra Dormitantium." Notwithstanding Jerome's exceedingly unfavourable opinion, there is no reason to believe that the tract of Vigilantius was exceptionally illiterate, or that the views it advocated were exceedingly "heretical." Soon, however, the great influence of Jerome in the Western Church caused its leaders to espouse all his quarrels, and Vigilantius gradually came to be ranked hi popular opinion among heretics, though his influence long remained potent both in France and Spain, as is proved by the polemical tract of Faustus of Rhegium (d. c. 490). VIGILIUS, pope from 537 to 555, succeeded Silverius and was followed by Pelagius I. He was ordained by order of Belisarius while Silverius was still alive; his elevation was due to Theodora, who, by an appeal at once to his ambition and, it is said, to his covetousness, had induced him to promise to disallow the council of Chalcedon, in connexion with the " three chapters " controversy. When, however, the time came for the fulfilment of his bargain, Vigilius declined to give his assent to the condemnation of that council involved in the imperial edict against the three chapters, and for this act of disobedience he was peremptorily summoned to Con- stantinople, which he reached in 547. Shortly after his arrival there he issued a document known to history as his Judicalum (548), in which he condemned indeed the three chapters, but expressly disavowed any intentions thereby to disparage the council of Chalcedon. After a good deal of trimming (for he desired to stand well with his own clergy, who were strongly orthodox, as well as with the court), he prepared another docu- ment, the Constitutum ad Imperatorem, which was laid before the so-called fifth " oecumenical " council in 553, and led to. his condemnation by the majority of that body, some say even to his banishment. Ultimately, however, he was induced to assent to and confirm the decrees of the council, and was allowed after an enforced absence of seven years to set out for Rome. He died, however, at Syracuse, before he reached his destination, on the 7th of June 553. VIGINTISEXVIRI, in Roman history, the collective name given in republican times to " twenty-six " magistrates of in- ferior rank. They were divided into six boards, two of which were abolished by Augustus. Their number was thereby reduced to twenty and their name altered to VIGINTIVIRI (" the twenty "). They were originally nominated by the higher magistrates, but subsequently elected in a body at a single sitting of the comitia tributa; under the empire they were chosen by the senate. The following are the names of the six boards: (i) Tresviri capitales (see TRESVIRI); (2) Tresviri monetales; (3) Quatuorviri viis in urbe purgandis, who had the care of the streets and roads inside the city; (4) Duoi'iri viis extra urbem purgandis (see DUOVIRI), abolished by Augustus; (5) Decemviri stlitibus judicandis (see DECEMVIRI); (6) Quatuor praefecti Capuam Cumas, abolished by Augustus. The members of the last-named board were appointed by the praetor urbanus of Rome to administer justice in ten Campanian towns (list in Mommsen), and received their name from the two most important of these. They were subsequently elected by the people under the title of quatuorviri jure dicundo, but the date is not known. See Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, ii. (1887), p. 592. VIGLIUS, the name taken by WIGLE VAN AYTTA VAN ZTHCHEM (1507-1577), Dutch statesman and jurist, a Frisian by birth, who was born on the igth of October 1507. He studied at various universities — Louvain, Dole and Bourges among others — devoting himself mainly to the study of jurisprudence, and after- wards visited many of the principal seats of learning in Europe. His great abilities attracted the notice of Erasmus and other celebrated men, and his renown was soon wide and general. Having lectured on law at the universities of Bourges and Padua, he accepted a judicial position under the bishop of Miinster which he resigned in 1535 to become assessor of the imperial court of justice (ReichskammergerichC). He would not, however, undertake the post of tutor to Philip, son of the emperor Charles V.; nor would he accept any of the many lucrative and honourable positions offered him by various European princes, preferring instead to remain at the uni- versity of Ingolstadt, where for five years he occupied a pro- fessorial chair. In 1542 the official connexion of Viglius with the Netherlands began. At the emperor's invitation he became a member of the council of Mechlin, and some years later president of that body. Other responsible positions were entrusted to him, and he was soon one of the most trusted of the ministers of Charles V., whom he accompanied during the war of the league of Schmalkalden in 1546. His rapid rise in the emperor's favour was probably due to his immense store of learning, which was useful in asserting the imperial rights where disputes arose between the empire and the estates. He was generally regarded as the author of the edict against toleration issued in 1550; a charge which he denied, maintaining, on the contrary, that he had vainly tried to induce Charles to modify its rigour. When the emperor abdicated in 1555 Viglius was anxious to retire also, but at the instance of King Philip II. he remained at his post and was rewarded by being made coadjutor abbot of St Bavon, and hi other ways. In 1559, when Margaret, duchess of Parma, became regent of the Netherlands, Viglius was an important member of the small circle who assisted her in the work of government. He was president of the privy council, member, and subsequently president, of the state council, and a member of the committee of the state council called the consulta. But his desire to resign soon returned. In 1565 he was allowed to give up the presi- dency of the state council, but was persuaded to retain his other posts. However, he had lost favour with Margaret, who accused him to Philip of dishonesty and simony, while his ortho- doxy was suspected. When the duke of Alva arrived in the Netherlands Viglius at first assisted him; but he subsequently VIGNE— VIGNY 61 opposed the duke's scheme of extortion, and sought to induce Philip himself to visit the Low Countries. His health was now impaired and his work was nearly over. Having suffered a short imprisonment with the other members of the state council in 1576, he died at Brussels on the sth of May 1577, and was buried in the abbey of St Bavon. Viglius was an advocate of peace and moderation, and as such could not expect support or sympathy from men engaged in a life-and-death struggle for liberty, or from their relentless enemies. He was undoubtedly avaricious, and accumulated great wealth, part of which he left to found a hospital at his native place, Zwichem, and a college at the university of Louvain. He married a rich lady, (Jacqueline Damant, but had no children. He wrote a Tagebuch des Schmalkaldischen Donaukriegs, edited by A. von Druffel (Munich, 1877), and some of his lectures were published under the title Commentarii in decent Institulionum tilulos (Lyons, 1564). His Vita et opera historica are given in the AnalectaBelgicaolC. P. Hoynck van Papendrecht (the Hague, 1743). See L. P. Gachard, Carres pondance de Philippe II. sur les affaires des Pays-Bas (Brussels, 1848-79) ; and Correspondance de Marguerite d'Autriche, duchesse de Parme, avec Philippe II. (Brussels, 1867-81) ; and E. Poullet, Correspondance de cardinal de GranveUe (Brussels, 1877-81). VIGNE, PAUL DE (1843-1901), Belgian sculptor, was born at Ghent. He was trained by his father, a statuary, and began by exhibiting his " Fra Angelico da Fiesole " at the Ghent Salon in 1868. In 1872 he exhibited at the Brussels Salon a marble statue, " Heliotrope " (Ghent Gallery), and in 1875, at Brussels, " Beatrix " and " Domenica." He was employed by the government to execute caryatides for the conservatoire at Brussels. In 1876 at the Antwerp Salon he had busts of E. Hiel and W. Wilson, which were afterwards placed in the communal museum at Brussels. Until 1882 he lived in Paris, where he produced the marble statue " Immor- tality " (Brussels Gallery), and " The Crowning of Art," a bronze group on the facade of the Palais des Beaux-Arts at Brussels. His monument to the popular heroes, Jean Breydel and Pierre de Coninck, was unveiled at Bruges in 1887. At his death he left unfinished his principal work, the Anspach monu- ment, which was erected at Brussels under the direction of the architect Janlet with the co-operation of various sculptors. Among other notable works by De Vigne may be mentioned " Volumnia " (1875); " Poverella " (1878); a bronze bust of " Psyche " (Brussels Gallery), of which there is an ivory replica; the marble statue of Marnix de Ste Aldegonde in the Square du Sablon, Brussels; the Metdepenningen monument in the cemetery at Ghent; and the monument to Canon de Haerne at Courtrai. See E. L. Detage, Les Artistes Beiges contemporains (Brussels), and O. G. Destree, The Renaissance of Sculpture in Belgium (London, 1895). VIGNETTE (Fr. for " little vine "), in architecture, a running ornament, representing, as its name imports, a little vine, with branches, leaves and grapes. It is common in the Tudor period, and runs or roves in a large hollow or casement. It is also called trayle. From the transference of the term to book- illustration resulted the sense of a small picture, 'vanishing gradually at the edge. VIGNY, ALFRED DE (1797-1863), French poet, was born at Loches (Indre-et-Loire) on the 27th of March 1797. Sainte- Beuve, in the rather ill-natured essay which he devoted to Vigny after his death, expresses a doubt whether the title of count which the poet bore was well authenticated, and hints that no very ancient proofs of the nobility of the family were forthcoming; but it is certain that in the i8th century persons of the name occupied positions which were not open to any but men of noble birth. For generations the ancestors of Alfred de Vigny had been soldiers, and he himself joined the army, with a commission in the Household Troops, at the age of sixteen. But the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars were over, and after twelve years of life in barracks he retired, preserving, however, a very high estimate of the duties and career of the soldier. While still serving he had made his mark, if as yet unrecognized, by the publication in 1822 of a volume of poems, and in 1826 by another, together with the famous prose romance of Cinq-Mars. Sainte-Beuve asserts that the poet antedated some of his most remarkable work. This may or may not be the case; he certainly could not ante- date the publication. And it so happens that some of his most celebrated pieces — Eloa, Dolorida, Mdise — appeared (1822-23) before the work of younger members of the Romantic school whose productions strongly resemble these poems. Nor is this originality limited to the point which he himself claimed in the Preface to his collected Poems in 1837 — that they were " the first of their kind in France, in which philosophic thought is clothed in epic or dramatic form." Indeed this claim is disputable in itself, and has misled not a few of Vigny's recent critics. It is in poetic, not philosophic quality, that his idiosyn- crasy and precursorship are most remarkable. It is quite certain that the other Alfred — Alfred de Mussel — felt the influence of his elder namesake, and an impartial critic might discern no insignificant marks of the same effect in the work of Hugo himself. Even Lamartme, considerably Vigny's elder and his predecessor in poetry, seems rather to have been guided by Vigny than Vigny by him. No one can read Dolo- rida or Le Cor without seeing that the author had little to learn from any of his French contemporaries and much to teach them. At the same time Vigny, from whatever cause, hardly made any further public appearance in poetry- proper during the more than thirty years of his life, and his entire poems, including posthumous fragments, form but one very small pocket volume. Cinq-Mars, which at least equalled the poems in popularity, will hardly stand the judgment of posterity so well. It had in its favour the support of the Royalist party, the immense vogue of the novels t>f Walter Scott, on which it was evidently modelled, the advantages of an exquisite style, and the taste of the day for the romance as opposed to the novel of analysis. It therefore gained a great name both in France and abroad. But any one who has read it critically must acknowledge it to be disappointing. The action is said to be dramatic; if it be so, it can only be said that this proves very conclusively that the action of drama and the action of the novel are two quite different things. To the reader who knows Scott or Dumas the story is singularly uninteresting (far less interesting than as told in history); the characters want life; and the book generally stagnates. Its author, though always as a kind of outsider (the phrase constantly applied to him in French literary essays and histories being that he shut himself up in a tour d'ivoire), attached himself more or less to the Romantic movement of 1830 and the years immediately preceding and following it, and was stimulated by this movement both to drama and to novel- writing. In the year before the revolution of July he pro- duced at the Thdatre Francais a translation, or rather paraphrase, of Othello, and an original piece, La Martchale d'Ancre. In 1832 he published the curious book Stfllo, contain- ing studies of unlucky youthful poets — Gilbert, Chatterton, Chenier — and in 1835 he brought out his drama of Chatterton, which, by the hero's suicide, shocked French taste even after five years of Romantic education, but had a considerable success. The same year saw the publication of Servitude et grandeur militaires, a singular collection of sketches rather than a con- nected work in which Vigny's military experience, his idea of the soldier's duties, and his rather poetical views of history were all worked in. The subjects of Chatlerton and Othello naturally suggest a certain familiarity with English, and in fact Alfred de Vigny knew English well, lived in England for some time and married in 1828 an Englishwoman, Lydia Bunbury. His father-in-law was, according to French gossip, so conspicuous an example of insular eccentricity that he never could remember his son-in-law's name or anything about him, except that he was a poet. By this fact, and the kindness of casual Frenchmen who went through the list of the chief living poets of their country, he was sometimes able to dis- cover his daughter's husband's designation. In 1845 Alfred de VIGO— VIKING Vigny was elected to the Academy, but made no compromise in his " discourse of reception," which was unflinchingly Romantic. Still, he produced nothing save a few scraps; and, beyond the work already enumerated, little has to be added except his Journal d'un poete and the poems called Les Destinies, edited, with a few fragments, by Louis Ratisbonne after his death. Among his dramatic work, however, should be mentioned Qutite pour la peur and an adaptation of the Merchant of Venice called Shylock. Les Deslinees excited no great admiration in France, but they contain some exceedingly beautiful poetry of an austere kind, such as the magnificent speech of Nature in " La Maison du berger " and the remarkable poem entitled " La Colere de Samson." Vigny died at Paris on the 1 7th of September 1863. His later life was almost wholly uneventful, and for the most part, as has been said, spent in retirement. His reputation, however, is perfectly secure. It may, and probably will, rest only on his small volume of poems, though it will not be lessened, as far as qualified literary criticism is concerned, should the reader proceed to the rest of the work. The whole of his non-dramatic verse does not amount to 5000 lines; it may be a good deal less. But the range of subject is comparatively wide, and extraordinary felicity of execution, not merely in language, but in thought, is evident throughout. Vigny, as may be seen in the speech of Nature referred to above, had the secret — very uncommon with French poets — of attaining solemnity without grandiosity, by means of an almost classical precision and gravity of form. The defect of volubility, of never leaving off, which mars to some extent his great contemporary Hugo, is never present in him, and he is equally free from the looseness and disorders of form which are sometimes blemishes in Musset, and from the effeminacy of Lamartine, while once more his nobility of thought and plentifulness of matter save him from the reproach which has been thought to rest on the technically perfect work of Theophile Gautier. The dramatic work is, perhaps, less likely to interest English than French readers, the local colour of Chatterton being entirely false, the sentiment conventional in the extreme, and the real pathos of the story exchanged for a commonplace devotion on the poet's part to his host's wife. In the same way, the finest passages of Othello simply disappear in Vigny's version. In his remaining works the defect of skill in managing the plot and characters of prose fiction, which has been noticed in Cinq-Mars, reappears, together (in the case of the Journal d'un poete and elsewhere) with signs of the fastidious and slightly affected temper which was Vigny's chief fault as a man. In his poems proper none of these faults appears, and he is seen wholly at his best. It should be said that of his posthu- mous work not a little had previously appeared piecemeal in the Revue des deux mondes, to which he was an occasional contributor. The prettiest of the complete editions of his works (of which there are several)is to be found in what is called thePetite bibliothequeCharpentier. For many years the critical attention paid to him was not great. Recently there has been a revival of interest as shown by mono- graphs: M. Paleologue's " Alfred de Vigny " in the Grands ecrivains francflis (180,1); L. Dorison's Alfred de Vigny, poete-philosophe (1892) and Un symbole social (1894); G. Asse's Alfred de Vigny et les editions originates de sa poesie (1895); E. Dupuy's La Jeunesse des Romantiques (1905); and E. Lauvriere's Alfred de Vigny (Paris, 1910). But in most of these rather excessive attention has been paid to the " philosophy " of a pessimistic kind which succeeded Vigny's early Christian Romanticism. This, though not unnote- worthy, is separable from his real poetical quality, and concentra- tion on it rather obscures the latter, which is of the rarest kind. It should be added that an interesting sidelight has been thrown on Vigny by the publication (1905) of his Fragments inedits sur P. et T. Corneille. (G. SA.) VIGO, a seaport and naval station of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra; on Vigo Bay (Ria de Vigo) and on a branch of the railway from Tuy to Corunna. Pop. (1900) 23,259. Vigo Bay, one of the finest of the Galician fjords, extends inland for 19 m., and is sheltered by low mountains and by the islands (Islas de Cies, ancient Insulae Siccae) at its mouth. The town is built on the south-eastern shore, and occupies a hilly site dominated by two obsolete forts. The older streets are steep, narrow and tortuous, but there is also a large modern quarter. Vigo owes its importance to its deep and spacious harbour, and to its fisheries. It is a port of call for many lines trading between Western Europe and South America. Shipbuilding is carried on, and large quanti- ties of sardines are canned for export. In 1909, 2041 ships of 2,710,691 tons (1,153,564 being British) entered at Vigo; the imports in that year, including tin and tinplate, coal, machinery, cement, sulphate of copper and foodstuffs, were valued at £481,752; the exports, including sardines, mineral waters and eggs, were valued at £554,824. The town contains flour, paper and sawmills, sugar and petroleum refineries, tanneries, distilleries and soap works; it has also a large agri- cultural trade and is visited in summer for sea-bathing. Vigo was attacked by Sir Francis Drake in 1585 and 1589. In 1702 a combined British and Dutch fleet under Sir George Rooke and the duke of Ormonde destroyed a Franco-Spanish fleet in the bay, and captured treasure to the value of about £1,000,000; numerous attempts have been made to recover the larger quantity of treasure which was supposed, on doubtful evidence, to have been sunk during the battle. In 1719 Vigo was captured by the British under Viscount Cobham. VIJAYANAGAR, or BIJANAGAR ("the city of victory"), an ancient Hindu kingdom and ruined city of southern India. The kingdom lasted from about 1336 to 1565, forming during all that period a bulwark against Mahommedan invasion from the north. Its foundation, and even great part of its history, is obscure; but its power and wealth are attested by more than one European traveller, and also by the character of the existing ruins. At the beginning of the I4th century Mahommedan raiders had effectually destroyed every Hindu principality throughout southern India, but did not attempt to occupy the country permanently. In this state of desolation Hindu nationality rose again under two brothers, named Harihara and Bukka, of whom little more can be said than that they were Kanarese by race. Hence their kingdom was afterwards known as the Carnatic. At its widest extent, it stretched across the peninsula from sea to sea, from Masulipatam to Goa; and every Hindu prince in the south acknowledged its supremacy. The site of the capital was chosen, with strategic skill, on the right bank of the river Tungabhadra, which here runs through a rocky gorge. Within thirty years the Hindu Rayas of Vijayanagar were able to hold their own against the Bahmani sultans, who had now established their independence of Delhi in the Deccan proper. Warfare with the Mahommedans across the border in the Raichur doab was carried on almost unceasingly, and with varying result. Two, or possibly three, different dynasties are believed to have occupied the throne of Vijayanagar as time went on; and its final downfall may be ascribed to the domestic dissensions thus produced. This occurred in 1565, when the confederate sultans of Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golconda, who had divided amongst themselves the Bahmani dominions, over- whelmed the Vijayanagar army in the plain of Talikota, and sacked the defenceless city. The Raya fled south to Penukonda, and later to Chandragiri, where one of his descendants granted to the English the site of Fort St George or Madras. The city has ever since remained a wilderness of immense ruins, which are now conserved by the British government. See R. Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (1900) ; and B. S. Row, History of Vijayanagar (Madras, 1906). VIKING. The word " Viking," in the sense in which it is used to-day, is derived from the Icelandic (Old Norse) Vikingr (m.), signifying simply a sea-rover or pirate. There is also in Icelandic the allied word viking (f.), a predatory voyage. As a loan-word viking occurs in A.S. poetry (vicing or wiring), e.g. in Widsilh, Byrnoth, Exodus. During the Saga Age (900-1050), in the beginning of Norse literature, vikingr is not as a rule used to designate any class of men. Almost every young Icelander of sufficient means and position, and a very large number of young Norsemen, made one or more viking expedi- tions. We read of such a one that he went "a-viking" (fara i viking, vera i viking, or very often fara, &c., vestan i viking). The procedure was almost a recognized part of education, and was analogous to the grand tour made by our great-grandfathers in the i8th century. But the use of vtkingr in a more generic sense is still to be found in the Saga Age. If the designation of this or that personage as mikill vtkingr or rauda vikingr (red viking) be not reckoned an instance of such use, we have it at all events in the name of a small quasi-nationality, the Jomsvi- kingar, settled at Jomsborg on the Baltic (in modern Pomerania), VIKING to whom a saga is dedicated: who possessed rather peculiar institutions evidently the relic of what is now called the Viking Age, that preceded the Saga Age by a century. Another instance of such more generic use occurs in the following typical passage from the Landnamabik (Sturlab6k), where it is recorded how Harald Fairhair harried the vikings of the Scottish isles — that famous harrying which led to most of the settlement of Iceland and the birth of Icelandic literature: — " Haraldr en harfari herjaSi vestr am haf . . . Hann lagfli " undir sig allar Sudreyjar. ... En er hann f6r vestann slogust " i eyjernar vikingar ok Skotar ok Irar ok herjuftu ok raentu " (Landn., ed. Jonsson, 1906, p. 135). It is in this more generic sense that the word " viking " is now generally employed. Historians of the north have dis- tinguished as the " Viking Age " ( Vikingertiden) the time when he Scandinavian folk first by their widespread piracies brought hemselves forcibly into the notice of all the Christian peoples oi western Europe. We cannot to-day determine the exact 3mcs or provenance of these freebooters, who were a terror Jike to the Prankish empire, to England and to Ireland and vest Scotland, who only came into view when their ships nchored in some Christian harbour, and who were called now Normanni, now Dacii, now Danes, now Lochlannoch; which last, the Irish name for them, though etymologically " men of the lakes or bays," might as well be translated " Norsemen," seeing that Lochlann was the Irish for Norway. The exact etymology of vlkingr itself is not certain: for we do not know vhether vik is used in a general sense (bay, harbour) in this onnexion, or in a particular sense as the Vik, the Skagerrack and Christiania Fjord. The reason for using " viking " in a more generic sense than is warranted by the actual employ- ment of the word in Old Norse literature rests on the fact that we have no other word by which to designate the early Scandi- navian pirates of the pth and the beginning of the loth century. We cannot tell for the most part whether they came from Denmark or Norway, so that we cannot give them a national ame. " Normanner " is used by some Scandinavian writers (as by Steenstrup in his classical work Normannerne). But " Normans " has for us quite different associations. And even those who have preferred not generally to use the word " vikings " to designate the pirates and invaders, have adhered to the term " Viking Age " for the period in which they were most active (cf. Munch, Del Norske Folks Historic, Deel I. Bd. i. p. 356; Steenstrup and others, Danmarks Riges Historic, bk. ii. &c.). At the same time, the significance which the word " viking " has had in our language is due in part to a false etymology, connecting the word with "king"; the effect of which still remains in the customary pronunciation vi-king instead of vik-ing, now so much embedded in the language that it is a pedantry to try and change it. We may fairly reckon the " Viking Age " to lie between the date of the first recorded appearance of a northern pirate fleet (A.D. 789) and the settlement of the Normans in Normandy by the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte, A.D. 911 or 91 2. l For a few years previous to that date our chief authority for the history of the piracies and raids in the Prankish empire fails us:2 we know that the Norsemen had a few years before that date been driven in great numbers out of Ireland ; and England had been in a sense pacified through the concession of a great part of the island to the invaders by the peace of Wedmore, A.D. 878. Although, outside the information we get from Christian chroniclers, this age is for the people of the north one of complete obscurity, it is evident that the Viking Age corresponds with some universal disturbance or unrest among the Scandinavian nations, strictly analogous to the unrest among more southern Teutonic nations which many centuries before had heralded the break-up of the Roman empire, an epoch known as that of the Folk-wanderings (Volkenvander- ungen). We judge this because we can dimly see that the 1 W. Vogel gives the former date; 912 is that more commonly accepted. 1 The Annales Vedastini. impulse which was driving part of the Norse and Danish peoples to piracies in the west was also driving the Swedes and perhaps a portion of the Danes to eastward invasion, which resulted in the establishment of a Scandinavian kingdom (GarSariki) in what is now Russia, with its capital first at Novgorod, after- wards at Kiev.8 This was, in fact, the germ of the Russian empire. If we could know the Viking Age from the other, the Scandinavian side, it would doubtless present far more interest than in the form in which the Christian chroniclers present it. But from knowledge of this sort we are almost wholly cut off. We have to content ourselves with what is for the greater part of this age a mere catalogue of embarka- tions and plunderings along all the coasts of western Europe without distinctive characteristics. The Viking Raids. — The detail of these raids is quite beyond the compass of the present article, and a summary or synopsis must suffice. For all record which we have, the Viking Age was inaugurated in A.D. 789 by the appearance in England on our Dorset coast of three pirate ships " from Haerethaland " (Hardeland or Hardyssel in Denmark or Hordeland in Norway), which are said in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to be " the first ships of the Danish men " who sought the land of England. They killed the port-reeve, took some booty and sailed away. Other pirates appeared in 793 on a different coast, Northumbria, attacked a monastery on Lindisfarne (Holy Island), slaying and capturing the monks; the following year they attacked and burnt Jarrow; after that they were caught in a storm, and all perished by shipwreck or at the hands of the country- men. In 795 a fleet appeared off Glamorganshire. They attacked Man in 798 and lona in 802. But after this date for the lifetime of a generation the chief scene of viking exploits was Ireland, and probably the western coasts and islands of Scotland. The usual course of procedure among the northern adven- turers remains the same to whatever land they may direct their attacks, or during whatever years of the 9th century these attacks may fall. They begin by more or less desultory raids, in the course of which they seize upon some island, which they generally use as an arsenal or point d'appui for attacks on the mainland. At first the raids are made in the summer: the first wintering in any new scene of plunder forms an epoch so far as that country or region is concerned. Almost always for a period all power of resistance on the part of the inhabitants seems after a while and for a limited time to break down, and the plunderers to have free course wherever they go. Then they show an ambition to settle in the country, and some sort of division of territory takes place. After that the northerners assimilate themselves more or less to the other inhabitants of the country, and their history merges to a less or greater extent in that of the country at large. This course is followed in the history of the viking attacks on Ireland, the earliest of their continuous series of attacks. Thus they begin by seizing the island of Rechru (now Lambay) in Dublin Bay (A.D. 795); in the course of about twenty years we have notice of them on the northern, western and southern coasts; by A.D. 825 they have already ventured raids to a considerable distance inland. And in A.D. 832 comes a large fleet (" a great royal fleet." say the Irish annals) of which the admiral's name is given, Turgesius (Thorgeis or Thorgisl?). The new invader, though with a somewhat chequered course, extended his conquests till in A.D. 842 one-half of Ireland (called Lethcuinn, or Con's Half) seems to have submitted to him; and we have the curious picture of Turgesius establishing his wife Ota as a sort of volva, or priestess, in what had been one of Ireland's most famous and most literary monasteries, Clonmacnoise. Turgesius was, however, killed very soon after this (in 845); and though in A.D. 853 Olaf the White was over-king of Ireland, the vikings' power on the whole diminished. In the end, territory was — if by no formal treaty — ceded to their influence; and the (Irish) kingdoms of Dublin and Waterford were established on the island. 1 The word garVr (fort) is preserved in the " gorod " of Novgorod. 64 VIKING This brief sketch may be taken as the prototype of viking invasion of any region of western Christendom which was the object of their continuous attacks. Of such regions we may distinguish five. Almost simultaneously with the attacks on Ireland came others, probably also from Norway, on the western regions (coasts and islands) of Scotland. Plunderings of lona are mentioned in A.D. 802, 806. In the course of a genera- tion almost all the monastic communities in western Scotland had been destroyed. But details of these viking plunderings are wanting. On the continent there were three distinct regions of attack. First the mouth of the Scheldt. There the Danes very early settled on the island of Walcheren, which bad in fact been given by the emperor Louis the Pious in fief to a Danish fugitive king, Harald by name, who sought the help of Louis, and adopted Christianity. After the partition of the territory of Charlemagne's empire among the sons of Louis the Pious, Walcheren and the Scheldt-mouth fell within the possessions of the emperor Lothair, and in the region sub- sequently distinguished as Lotharingia. From this centre, the Scheldt, the viking raids extended on either side; some- times eastward as far as the Rhine, and so into Germany proper, the territory assigned to Louis the German; at other times westward to the Somme, and thus into the territory of Charles the Bald, the future kingdom of France. In the event, toward the end of the Qth century all Frisia between Walcheren and the German Ocean seems to have become the permanent possession of the invaders. In like fashion was it with the next district, that of the Seine, only that here no important island served the pirates for their first arsenal and winter quarters. The serious attacks of the pirates in any part of the empire distant from their own lands begin about the time of the battle of Fontenoy between Louis' sons (A.D. 841). The first wintering of the vikings in the Seine territory (A.D. 850) was in " Givoldi fossa," the tomb of one Givoldus, not far from the mouth of the river, but no longer exactly determinable. Their first attack on Paris was in A.D. 845: a much more important but unsuccessful one took place in A.D. 885-87, un- successful that is so far as the city itself was concerned; but the invaders received an indemnity for raising the siege and leave to pass beyond Paris into Burgundy. The settlement of Danes under Rollo or Rolf on the lower Seine, i.e. in Normandy, dates from the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte, A.D. 912 (or 911). The third region is the mouth of the Loire. Here the island point d'appui was Noirmoutier, an island with an abbey at the Loire mouth. The northmen wintered there in A.D. 843. No region was more often ravaged than that of the lower Loire, so rich in abbeys — St Martin of Tours, Marmoutiers, St Bene- dict, &c. But the country ceded to the vikings under Hasting at the Loire mouth was insignificant and not in permanent occupation. Near the end of the gth century, however, the plundering expeditions which emanated from these three sources became so incessant and so widespread that we can signalize no part of west France as free from them, at the same time that the vikings wrought immense mischief in the Rhine country and in Burgundy. The defences of west France seem quite to have broken down, as did the Irish when Turgesius took " Con's half," or when in A.D. 853 Olaf the White became over-king of Ireland. Unfortunately at this point our best authority ceases; and we cannot well explain the changes which brought about the Christianization of the Normans and their settlement in Normandy as vassals, though recalcitrant ones, of the West Frankish kings. For the viking attacks in the sth (or 6th) territory, our own country, the course of events is much clearer. As a part of English history it is, however, sufficiently known, and the briefest summary thereof must suffice. That will show how in its general features it follows the normal course. The first appearance of the vikings in England we saw was in A.D. 789. The first serious attacks do not begin till 838. The island of Sheppey, however, was attacked in 835, and in the following year the vikings entrenched themselves there. The first wintering of the pirates in England was on the contiguous island of Thanet in A.D. 850. The breakdown of the English defences in all parts of the country save Wessex dates from 868: in Wessex that occurs in 877-88. But the position is suddenly recovered by Alfred in 878, by the battle of Aethandune, as suddenly though not so unaccountably as it was later in West Francia. As Rollo was to do in 912, the Danish leader Guthorm received baptism, taking the name of Aethelstan, and settled in his assigned territory, East Anglia, according to the terms of the peace of Wedmore. But the forces which Alfred de- feated at Aethandune represented but half of the viking army in England at the time. The other half under Halfdan (Ragnar Lodbrog's son?) had never troubled itself about Wessex, but had taken firm possession in Northumbria. The six territories which we have signalized — Ireland, Western Scotland, England, the three in West Francia which merge into each other by the end of the 9th century — do not comprise the whole field of viking raids or attempted invasion. For farther still to the east they twice sailed up the Elbe (A.D. 851, 880) and burnt Hamburg. Southwards they plundered far up the Garonne, and in the north of Spain; and one fleet of them sailed all round Spain, plundering, but attempting in vain to establish themselves in this Arab caliphate. They plundered on the opposite African coast, and at last got as far as the mouth of the Rhone, and thence to Luna in Italy. What we found in the case of the Irish raids, that at first they are quite anonymous, but that presently the names of the captains of the expeditions emerge, is likewise the case in all other lands. In Ireland, besides the important and successful Turgesius, we read of a Saxulf who early met his death, as well as of Ivar (Ingvar) , famous also in England and called the son of Ragnar Lodbrog, and of Oisla, Ivar's comrade; finally (the vikings in Ireland being mostly of Norse descent) of the well- known Olaf the White, who became king of all the Scandinavian settlements in Ireland. In France, Oscar is one of the earliest and most successful of the invaders. Later the name of Ragnar (probably Ragnar Lodbrog) appears, along with Weland, Hast- ing and one of the sons of Ragnar, Bjorn. Farther to the east we meet the names of Rurik, Godfred and Siegfried. In the eastern region the viking leaders seem to have been closely connected with one of the Danish royal families, the kings of Jutland. The practical though short-lived conquest of England begins under Ivar, Ubbe and Halfdan, reputed sons of Ragnar, and is completed by the last of the three in conjunction with the Guthorm above mentioned. This is, of course, what we should expect, that larger acquaintance gives to the Christian chroniclers more knowledge of their enemy. Precisely the same process in a converse sense develops the casual raids of early times into a scheme of conquest. For at the outset the Christian world was wholly strange to these northmen. We have, it has been said, hardly any means of viewing these raids from the other side. But one small point of light is so suggestive that it may be cited here. The mythical saga of Ragnar Lodbrog is undoubtedly concerned with the Viking Age, though it is im- possible now to identify most of the expeditions attributed to this northern hero, stories of conquest in Sweden, in Finland, in Russia and in England, which belong to quite a different age from this one. In the Christian chronicles the name of Ragnar is associated with an attack on Paris in A.D. 845, when the adventurers were (through the interposition of St Germain, say the Christians) suddenly enveloped in darkness — in a thick fog ? — and fell before the arms of the defenders. In Saxo Grammaticus's account of Ragnar Lodbrog, this event seems to be reflected in the story of an expedition of Ragnar's to Bjarma- land or Perm in Russia. For Bjarmaland, though it gained a local habitation, is also in Norse tradition a wholly mythical and mythological place, more or less identical with the under- world (Niflhel, mist-hell). So it appears in the history given by Saxo Grammaticus of the voyage to Bjarmaland of one " Gorm the old." It " looks like a vaporous cloud " and is full of tricks and illusions of sense. We see then that in virtue of some quite historical misfortune to the viking invaders, VIKING connected with a mist and with a great sickness which invaded the army, the place they have come to (in reality Paris) is in Scandinavian tradition identified with the mythic Bjarmaland; and later, in the history of Saxo Grammaticus, it is identified with the geographical Bjarmaland or Perm. (Saxo Grammat., 11 ht. Dan. p. 452, Gylfaginning (Edda Snorra); Acta SS. i8th May and nth Oct.; Steenstrup, Normannerne, i. p. 97 seq.; Kfary, The Vikings in Western Christendom, pp. 162, 260.) No example could better than this bring home to us the strangeness of the Christian world to the first adventurers from the north, nor better explain the process of familiarity which gradually extended the sphere of their ambition. The expedition which we have made mention of took place almost in the middle of the 9th century, and exactly fifty years after the effective opening of the Viking Age. But after this date events developed rapidly. It was fourteen years later (in A.D. 859) that Ragnar's son Bjorn Ironside and Hasting made their great expedition round Spain to the Mediterranean. In 865 or 866 came to England what we know as the Army, or the Great Army, whose first attacks were in the north of England. Five kings are mentioned in connexion with this veritable invasion of England, and many earls. Their course was not unchequered ; but it was only in Wessex that they met with any effective resistance, and the victory of Ashdown (871) put no end to their advance; for, as we know, Alfred himself had at last to wander a fugitive in the fastnesses of Selwood Forest. Much was retrieved by the victory of Aethandune; yet even after the peace of Wedmore as large a part of the land lay under the power of the Danes as of the English. It is from this time that we discern two distinct tendencies in the viking people. While one section is ready to settle down and receive territory at the hands of the Christian rulers, with or without homage, another section still adheres to a life of mere adventure and of plunder. A large portion of the Great Army refused to be bound by the peace of Wedmore, made some further attempts on England which were frustrated by Alfred's powerful new-built fleet, and then sailed to the continent and spread devastation far and wide. We see them under command of two Danish " kings," Godfred and Siegfried, first in the country of the Rhine-mouth or the Lower Scheldt; after- wards dividing their forces and, while some devastate far into Germany, others extend their ravages on every side in northern France down to the Loire. The whole of these vast countries, Northern Francia, with part of Burgundy, and the Rhineland, seem to lie as much at their mercy as England had done before Aethandune, or Ireland before the death of Turgesius. But in every country alike the wave of viking conquest now begins to recede. The settlement of Normandy was the only permanent outcome of the Viking Age in France. In England under Edward the Elder and Aethelflaed, Mercia recovered a great portion of what had been ceded to the Danes. In Ireland a great expulsion of the invaders took place in the beginning of the roth century. Eventually the Norsemen in Ireland con- tented themselves with a small number of colonies, strictly confined in territory around certain seaports which they them- selves had created: Dublin, Waterford and Wexford; though as the whole of Ireland was divided into petty kingdoms, it might easily happen that the Norse king in Ireland rose to the position — not much more than nominal — of over-king (Ard-RS) for the whole land. Character of the Vikings. — Severe, therefore, as were the viking raids in Europe, and great as was the suffering they inflicted — on account of which a special prayer, A furore Normannorum libera nos, was inserted in some of the litanies of the West — if they had been pirates and nothing more their place in history would be an insignificant one. If they had been no more than what the Illyrian pirates had been in the early history of Rome, or than the Arabic corsairs were at this time in southern Europe, the disappearance of the evil would have been quickly followed by its oblivion. But even at the out- set the vikings were more than isolated bands of freebooters. As we have seen, the viking outbreak was probably part of a xxvm. 3 national movement. We know that at the same time that some Scandinavian folk were harrying all the western lands, others were founding Garflarfki (Russia) in the east; others were pressing still farther south till they came in contact with the eastern empire in Constantinople, which the northern folk knew as MikillgarSr (Mikklegard) ; so that when Hasting and Bjorn had sailed to Luna in the gulf of Genoa the northern folk had almost put a girdle round the Christian world. There is every evidence that the vikings were not a mere lawless folk — that is, in their internal relations — but that a system of laws existed among them which was generally respected. The nearest approach to it now preserved is probably the code of laws attributed to the mythic king Fro5i (the Wise) and preserved in the pages of Saxo Grammaticus. It contains provisions for the partition of booty, punishments for theft, desertion and treachery. But some of the clauses securing a comparative liberty for women appear less characteristic of the Viking Age (cf . Alexa nder Bugge, Vikingerne, vol. i. p. 49). Women, indeed, did not take part in their first expeditions. In the constitution of the Jomborg state and again in that of the eastern Vaerings (a Scandinavian body in the service of the East Roman Empire) we see a constitution which looks like the foretaste of that of the Templars or the Teutonic Knights. Steenstrup thinks the code cited by Saxo may be identical with the laws which Rollo promulgated for his Norman subjects. In any case, they fall more near the viking period than any other northern table of laws. A certain republicanism was professed by these ad- venturers. " We have no king," one body answered to some Prankish delegates. We do read frequently of kings in the accounts of their hosts; but their power may not have extended beyond the leadership of the expedition; they may have been kings ad hoc. On the other hand, the whole character of northern tradition (Teutonic and Scandinavian tradition alike) forbids us to suppose that any would be elected to that office who was not of noble or princely blood. They were not entirely un- lettered; for the use of runes dates back considerably earlier than the Viking Age. But these were used almost exclusively for lapidary inscriptions. What we can alone describe as a literature, first the early Eddie verse, next the habit of narrat- ing sagas: these things the Norsemen learned probably from their Celtic subjects, partly in Ireland, partly in the western islands of Scotland; and they first developed the new literature on the soil of Iceland. Nevertheless, some of the Eddie songs do seem to give the very form and pressure of the viking period.1 In certain material posse'ssions — those, in fact, belonging to their trade, which was war and naval adventure — these viking folk were ahead of the Christian nations: in shipbuilding, for example. There is certainly a historical connexion between the ships which the tribes on the Baltic possessed in the days of Tacitus and the viking ships (Keary, The Vikings in Western Europe, pp. 108-9): a fact which would lead us to believe that the art of shipbuilding had been better preserved there than elsewhere in northern Europe. Merchant vessels must of course have plied between England and France or Frisia. But it is certain that even Charlemagne possessed no adequate navy, though a late chronicler tells us how he thought of building one. His descendants never carried out his designs. Nor was any English king before Alfred stirred up to undertake the same task. And yet the Romans, when threatened by the Carthaginian power, built in one year a fleet capable of holding its own against the, till then, greatest maritime nation in the world. The viking ships had a character apart. They may have owed their origin to the Roman galleys: they did without doubt owe their sails to them.1 Equally certain it is that this special type of shipbuilding was developed in the Baltic, if not before 1 More especially the beautiful series contained in book iii. of the Corpus Poeticum Boreale, and ascribed by the editors of that collection to one poet — " the Helgi Poet." Here vikings are mentioned by name — e.g. : — " Vai* 4ra ymr, ok iarna glymr; Brast r6nd viS rond; rero vlkingar." 1 " Sail " in every Teutonic language is practically* the same word, and derived from the Latin sagulum. 66 VIKRAMADITYA— VILAS the time of Tacitus, l9ng before the dawn of the Viking Age. Their structure is adapted to short voyages in a sea well studded with harbours, not exposed to the most violent storms or most dangerous tides. To the last, judging by the specimens of Scandinavian boats which have come down to us, they must have been not very seaworthy; they were shallow, narrow in the beam, pointed at both ends, and so eminently suitable for manoeuvring (with oars) in creeks and bays. The viking ship had but one large and heavy square sail. When a naval battle was in progress, it would depend for its manceuvring on the rowers. The accounts of naval battles in the sagas show us, too, that this was the case. The rowers in each vessel, though among the northern folk these were free men and warriors, not slaves as in the Roman and Carthaginian galleys, would yet need to be supplemented by a contingent of fighting men, marines, in addition to their crew. Naturally the ship- building developed: so that vessels in the viking time would be much smaller than in the Saga Age. In saga literature we read of craft (of " long ships ") with 20 to 30 benches of rowers, which would mean 40 to 60 oars. There exist at the museum in Christiania the remains of two boats which were found in the neighbourhood: one, the Gokstad ship, is in very tolerable preservation. It belongs probably to the nth century. On this boat there are places for 16 oars a side. It is not probable that the largest viking ships had more than 10 oars a side. As these ships must often, against a contrary wind, have had to row both day and night, it seems reasonable to -imagine the crew divided into three shifts (as they call them in mining districts), which would give double the number of men available to fight on any occasion as to row.1 Thus a zo-oared vessel would carry 60 men. But some 40 men per ship seems, for this period, nearer the average. In 896, toward the end of our age, it is incidentally mentioned in one place that five vessels carried 200 vikings, an average of 40 per ship. Elsewhere about the same time we read of 12,000 men carried in 250 ships, an average of 48. The round and painted shields of the warriors hung outside along the bulwarks: the vessel was steered by an oar at the right side (as whaling boats are to-day), the steerboard or star- board side. Prow and stern rose high; and the former was carved most often into the likeness of a snake's or dragon's head: so generally that " dragon " or " worm " (snake) became synony- mous with a war-ship. The warriors were well armed. The byrnie or mail-shirt is often mentioned in Eddie songs: so are the axe, the spear, the javelin, the bow and arrows and the sword. The Danes were specially renowned for their axes; but about the sword the most of northern poetry and mythology clings. An immense joy in battle breathes through the earliest Norse literature, which has scarce its like in any other literature; and we know that the language recognized a peculiar battle fury, a veritable madness by which certain were seized and which went by the name of " berserk's way " (berserksgangr).* The courage of the vikings was proof against anything, even as a rule against superstitious terrors. " We cannot easily realize how all-embracing that courage was. A trained soldier is often afraid at sea, a trained sailor lost if he has not the pro- tecting sense of his own ship beneath him. The viking ventured upon unknown waters in ships very ill-fitted for their work. He had all the spirit of adventure of a Drake or a Hawkins, all the trained valour of reliance upon his comrades that mark a soldiery fighting a militia " (The Vikings in Western Christendom, p. 143). He was unfortunately hardly less marked for cruelty and faithlessness. Livy's words, " inhumana crudelitas, per- fidia plus quam Punica," might, it is to be feared, have been applied as justly to the vikings as to any people of western 1 Steenstrup (Normannerne, i. p. 352), to get the number of men on (say) a 3O-oared vessel, adds but some 20 more. This seems an unlikely limitation, throwing an impossible amount of work upon the crew, and leaving each ship terribly weak supposing a naval battle had to be undertaken — as with some rival viking fleet, even* before any Christian nation possessed a fleet. J Cf. Grett. S. en. 42, Njila, ch. 104, &c., and many other sources. Europe. It is also true, however, that they showed a great capacity for government, and in times of peace for peaceful organization. Normandy was the best -governed part of France in the nth century; and the Danes in East Anglia and the Five Burgs were in many regards a model to their Saxon neigh- bours (Steenstrup, op. cit. iv. ch. 2). Of all European lands England is without doubt that on which the Viking Age has left most impression: in the number of original settlers after 878; in the way which these prepared for Canute's conquest; and finally in that which she absorbed from the conquering Normans. England's gain was France's loss: had the Normans turned their attention in the other direction, they might likely enough have gained the kingdom in France and saved that country from the intermittent anarchy from which it suffered from the nth till the middle of the I5th century. Sources of Viking History. — These are, as has been said, almost exclusively the chronicles of the lands visited by the vikings. For Ireland we have, as on the whole our best authority, the Annales Ultonienses (C. O'Conor, Scr. Rev. Hib. iv.), supplemented by the Annals of the Four Masters (ed. O'Donovan) and the Chronicon Scottorum (ed. Henessy). Finally, The War of the Gaidhill with the Gaill (ed. Todd); Three Fragments of Irish History (O'Donovan); cf. W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, for England the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Annales Lindisfarnenses (in Pertz, Monumenta, vol. xix.) ; Simeon of Durham, Historia Dunelmi Ecclesiae. For the Prankish empire the chief sources of our information are The Annales Regnl Francorum, Annales Bertiani (Pertz, vol. i.) in three parts (the first anonymous, the second by Prudentius, the third by Hincmar, A.D. 830-82). The Annales Xantenses (A.D. 876, 873; Pertz, vol. ii.) are the authorities for the northern and eastern regions, and the Annales Fuldenses (which begin with Pipin of Herestel and go down to A.D. 900; Pertz, vol. i.) for Germany. Toward the end of the 9th century the Annales Vedastini (Pertz, yols. i. and ii.) are almost the exclusive authority for the western raids. In the historians of Normandy, especially in Dudo of St Quentin, much incidental matter may be found. References to the Viking Age in a general way are to be found in a vast number of books, especially histories of the Scandinavian countries, of which Munch's Del Norske Folks Historie (1852, &c.) is the most distinguished; J. J. A. Worsaae has written Minder om de Danske og Nord-Mcendene i England, Skotland oglrland (1851), an antiquarian rather than an historical study; G. B. Depping, L'Histoire des expeditions maritimes des Normands (1843), a not very critical work, and E. Mabille, " Les Invasions Normandes dans la Loire " (Ecole des chartes bibl. t. 30, 1869). A completer work than either of these is W. Vogel's Die Normannen und das Fran- kische Reich (1906). It does not, however, break any fresh ground. J. C. H. Steenstrup's Normannerne (1876-82), in four volumes, is not a continuous history, but a series of studies of great learning and value; C. F. Keary, The Vikings in Western Europe (1891) is a history of the viking raids on all the western lands, but ends A.D. 888. A. Bugge's Vikingerne (1904-6) is a study of the moral and social side of the vikings, or, one should rather say, of the earliest Scandi- navian folk. (C. F. K.) VIKRAMADITYA, a legendary Hindu king of Uzjain, who is supposed to have given his name to the Vikram Samvat, the era which is used all over northern India, except in Bengal, and at whose court the " nine gems " of Sanskrit literature are also supposed to have flourished. The Vikram era is reckoned from the vernal equinox of the year 57 B.C., but there is no evidence that that date corresponds with any event in the life of an actual king. As a matter of fact, all dates in this era down to the loth century never use the word Vikram, but that of Malava instead, that being the tribe that gives its name to Malwa, The name Vikramaditya simply means " sun of power," and was adopted by several Hindu kings, of whom Chand- ragupta II. (Chandragupta Vikramaditya), who ascended the throne of the Guptas about A.D. 375, approaches most nearly to the legend. See Alexander Cunningham, Book of Indian Eras (1883); and Vincent Smith, Early History of India (.1904). VILAS, WILLIAM FREEMAN (1840-1908), American political leader and lawyer, was born in Chelsea, Vermont, on the 9th of July 1840. His father, Levi B. Vilas, a lawyer and Democratic politician, emigrated in 1851 to Madison, Wisconsin. William graduated at the university of Wisconsin in 1858, and at the Albany (New York) Law School in 1860, and began to practise law in Madison with his father. In 1862 he recruited and be- came captain of Company A of the Twenty-Third Wisconsin VILL— VILLACH Volunteers, of which he was made lieutenant-colonel in 1863, and which he commanded in the siege of Vicksburg. In August 1863 he resigned his commission and resumed his law practice. He was professor of law in the university of Wisconsin in 1868-85, and again in 1889-92, and in 1875-78 was a member of the commission which revised the statutes of Wisconsin. From 1876 to 1886 he was a member of the National Democratic Committee, and virtually the leader of his party in his state; he was a delegate to the National Democratic Conventions of 1876, 1880 and 1884, and was permanent chairman of the last. In 1885 he was a member of the state Assembly. He was postmaster-general in President Grover Cleveland's cabinet from March 1885 until January 1888, and was then secretary of the interior until March 1889. From 1891 until 1897 he was a member of the United States Senate, in which, during President Cleveland's second term, he was recognized as the chief defender of the Administration, and he was especially active in securing the repeal of the silver- purchase clause of the Sherman Act. He was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention of 1896, but withdrew after the adoption of the free-silver plank. He then became one of the chief organizers of the National (or Gold) Democratic party, attended the convention at Indianapolis, and was chairman of its committee on resolutions. In 1881-85 and in 1898-1905 he was a regent of the university of Wisconsin; and he was a member (1897-1903) of the commission which had charge of the erection of the State Historical Library at Madison, and in 1906-8 of the commission for the con- struction of the new state capitol. He died at Madison on the 27th of August 1908. With E. E. Bryant he edited vols. i. to xx., except vol. v., of the Reports of the Wisconsin Supieme Court. VILL, the Anglicized form of the word villa, used in Latin documents to translate the Anglo-Saxon tun, township, " the unit of the constitutional machinery, the simplest form of social organization " (Stubbs, Const. Hist. § 39). The word did not always and at all times have this meaning in Latin- English documents, but " vill " and " township " were ultimately, in English law, treated as convertible terms for describing a village community, and they remained in use in legal nomenclature until the ecclesiastical parishes were con- verted into areas for civil administration under the Poor Law Acts. This technical sense is derived from the late Latin use of villa for vicus, a village. Thus Fleta (vi. c. 51), writing in the time of Edward I., distinguishes the villa, as a collection of habitations and their appurtenances, from the mansio, a single house, nulli vicina, and the manor, which may embrace one or more vittae. In classical Latin villa had meant " country- house," " farm," " villa " (see VILLA); but the word was pro- bably an abbreviation of vicula, diminutive of vicus, and in the sense of vicus it is used by Apuleius in the 2nd century. Later it even displaced civitas, for city; thus Rutilius Numa- tianus in his Itinerarium speaks of vittae ingentes, oppida parva; whence the French ville (see Du Cange, Glossarium lot. s.v. Villa). In the Prankish empire villa was also used of the royal and imperial palaces or seats with their appurtenances. In the sense of a small collection of habitations the word came into general use in England in the French form "village." From villa, too, are derived villein and villenage (q.v.) (see also VILLAGE COMMUNITIES). VILLA, the Latin word (diminutive of vicus, a village) for a country-house. This term, which in England is usually given to a small country-house detached or semi-detached in the vicinity of a large town, is being gradually superseded by such expressions as " country " or " suburban house," " bungalow," &c., but in Italy it is still retained as in Roman times and means a summer residence, sometimes being of great extent. References to the villa are constantly made by Roman writers. Cicero is said to have possessed no less than seven villas, the oldest of which was near Arpinum, which he inherited. Pliny the younger had three or four, of which the example near Laurentium is the best known from his descriptions. There is too wide a divergence in the various conjectural restorations to make them of much value, but the remains of the villa of Hadrian at Tivoli, which covered an area over seven miles long and in which reproductions were made of all the most celebrated buildings he had seen during his travels, those in Greece seeming to have had the most attraction for him, and the villas of the i6th century on similar sites, such as the Villa d'Este near Tivoli, enable one to form some idea of the exceptional beauty of the positions selected and of the splendour of the structures which enriched them. According to Pliny, there were two kinds of villas, the villa urbana, which was a country seat, and the villa rustica, the farm-house, occupied by the servants who had charge generally of the estate. The Villa Boscoreale near Pompeii, which was excavated in 1893-94, was an example of the villa rustica, in which the principal room was the kitchen, with the bakery and stables beyond and room for the wine presses, oil presses, hand mill, &c. The villas near Rome were all built on hilly sites, so that the laying out of the ground in terraces formed a very important element in their design, and this forms the chief attraction of the Italian villas of the i6th century, among which the following are the best known: the Villa Madama, the design of which, attributed to Raphael, was carried out by Giulio Romano in 1520; the Villa Medici (1540); the Villa Albani, near the Porta Salaria; the Borghese; the Doria Pamphili (1650); the Villa di Papa Giulio (1550), designed by Vignola; the Aldobrandini (1592); the Falconieri and the Montdragon Villas at Frascati, and the Villa d'Este near Tivoli, in which the terraces and staircases are of great importance. In the proximity of other towns in Italy there are numerous villas, of which the example best known is that of the Villa Rotunda or Capra near Vicenza, which was copied by Lord Burlington in his house at Chiswick. The Italian villas of the i6th and i?th century, like those of Roman times, included not only the country residence, but the whole of the other buildings on the estate, such as bridges, casinos, pavilions, small temples, rectangular or circular, which were utilized as summer-houses, and these seem to have had a certain influence in England, which may account for the numerous examples in the large parks in England of similar erections, as also the laying out of terraces, grottos and formal gardens. In France the same influence was felt, and at Fontainebleau, Versailles, Meudon and other royal palaces, the celebrated Le N6tre transformed the parks surrounding them and introduced the cascades, which in Italy are so important a feature, as at St Cloud near Paris. (R. P. S.) VILLACH, a town in Carinthia, Austria, 24 m. W. of Klagen- furt by rail. Pop. (1900) 9690. It is situated on the Drave, near its confluence with the Gail, in a broad fertile basin at the foot of the Dobratsch or Villacher Alp (7107 ft.). The parish church is an interesting Gothic edifice of the isth century. The principal industry of Villach consists in the fabrication of various lead wares, and is mostly dependent on the lead mines of Bleiberg, which is situated about 9 m. to the west. This village (pop. 3435) is one of the richest lead-mining centres in Europe. The ores found here comprise silver-free galena, sulphate of zinc and calamine. The mines were already worked during the middle ages. Warmbad Villach, a watering-place with hot sulphur baths, and Mittewald, a favourite summer resort, whence the ascent of the Dobratsch can be made, are in the neighbour- hood of Villach. Some of the prettiest Carinthian lakes are to be found near Villach, as the Ossiacher-see, on whose southern shore stands the ruined castle of Landskron, dating from the middle of the i6th century, the Worther-see and the small but lovely Faaker-see. Villach is an old town, which was given by Heinrich II. to the bishopric of Bamberg in 1007. During the middle ages it was an important centre of commerce between Germany and Italy. With the advent of new trade routes at the beginning of modern times the town lost its importance, and in 1745 the citizens nearly decided to emigrate en masse. Its trade revived during the French occupation of 1800-13, and it 68 VILLA DEL PILAR— VILLAGE COMMUNITIES continued to improve during the igth century. The Turks were defeated here in 1492 by Maximilian I., and an engagement between the Austrians and the French took place here on the 2ist of August 1813. VILLA DEL PILAR, a city of Paraguay, 104 m. S. by E. of Asuncion, on the left bank of the navigable river Paraguay, which receives the Bermejo from the right immediately opposite. Pop. (1910) about 10,000. Villa del Pilar is a thriving modern city, containing barracks, law courts, a national college, several schools and a branch of the Agricultural Bank. It has a fine harbour, and is one of the principal centres in the republic for the exportation of oranges. VILLAFRANCA DI VERONA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Verona, n m. S.S.W. of Verona, on the railway to Mantua, 174 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 5037 (town); 9635 (commune). It has considerable silk industries. Here preliminaries of peace were signed between Napoleon III. and the Austrians in 1859 after the battle of Solferino. Five miles to the N. is Custozza, where the Italians were defeated by the Austrians in 1848 and 1866. Villafranca is a common place name in Italy. VILLAGE COMMUNITIES. The study of village communities has become one of the fundamental methods of discussing the ancient history of institutions. It would be out of the question here to range over the whole field of human society in search for communal arrangements of rural life. It will be sufficient to confine the present inquiry to the varieties presented by nations of Aryan race, not because greater importance is to be attached to these nations than to other branches of humankind, although this view might also be reasonably urged, but principally because the Aryan race in its history has gone through all sorts of experiences, and the data gathered from its historical life can be tolerably well ascertained. Should the road be sufficiently cleared in this particular direction, it will not be difficult. to connect the results with similar researches in other racial surroundings. The best way seems to be to select some typical examples, chiefly from the domain of Celtic, Slavonic and Germanic social history, and to try to interpret them in regard to the general conditions in which communal institutions originate, grow and decay. As the principal problem will consist in ascertaining how far land was held in common instead of being held, as is usual at present, by individuals, it is advisable to look out for instances in which this element of holding in common is very clearly expressed. We ought to get, as it were, acclima- tized to the mental atmosphere of such social arrangements in order to counteract a very natural but most pernicious bent prompting one to apply to the conditions of the past the key of our modern views and habitual notions. A certain acquaint- ance with the structure of Celtic society, more especially the society of ancient Wales, is likely to make it clear from the out- set to what extent the husbandry and law of an Aryan race may depend on institutions in which the individual factor is greatly reduced, while the union first of kinsmen and then of neighbours plays a most decisive part. F. Seebohm has called our attention to the interesting surveys of Welsh tracts of country made in the I4th century, soon after these regions passed into the hands of English lords. The frag- ments of these surveys published by him and his commentary on them are very illuminating, but further study of the docu- ments themselves discloses many important details and helps to correct some theories propounded on the subject. Let us take up a concrete and simple case, e.g. the description of Astret Canon, a trev or township (villata) of the honour of Denbigh, surveyed in 1334. In the time of the native Welsh princes it was occupied entirely by a kindred (progenies) of free tribesmen descended from a certain Canon, the son of Lawaurgh. The kindred was subdivided into four gavells or bodies of joint- tenants. On the half-gavell of Monryk ap Canon, e.g. there are no less than sixteen coparceners, of whom eight possess houses. The peculiarity of this system of land tenure consists in the fact that all the tenants of these gavells derive their position on the land from the occupation of the township by their kindred, and have to trace their rights to shares in the original unit. Although the village of Astret Canon was occupied under the Survey by something like fifty-four male tenants, the majority of whom were settled in houses of their own, it continued to form a unit as well in regard to the payment of tungpound, that is, of the direct land tax and other services and pay- ments, but also in respect of the possession and usage of the soil. On the other hand, movable property is owned in severally. Services have to be apportioned among the members of the kindreds according to the number of heads of cattle owned by them. From the description of another township — Pireyon — we may gather another important feature of this tribal tenure. The population of this village also clustered in gavells, and we hear that these gavells ought to be considered as equal shares in respect of the arable, the wood and the waste of the town- ship. If the shares were reduced into acres there would have fallen to each of the eight gavells of Pireyon ninety-one acres, one rood and a half and six perches of arable and woodland, and fifty-three and one-third of an acre and half a rood of waste land. But as a matter of fact the land was not divided in such a way, and the rights of the tenants of the gavell were realized not through the appropriation of definite acres, but as propor- tionate opportunities in regard to tillage and as to usages hi pasture, wood and waste. Pastoral habits must have greatly contributed to give the system of landholding its peculiar character. It was not necessary, it would have been even harmful, to subdivide sharply the area on which the herds of cows and the flocks of sheep and goats were grazing. Still Welsh rural life in the i4th century had already a definite though subordinate agricultural aspect, and it is important to notice that individual appropriation had as yet made very slight progress in it. We do not notice any systematic equalization between members of the tribal communities of the trevs. In fact, both differences in the ownership of cattle and differences of tribal standing, established by complex reckonings of pedigree and of social rank, led to marked inequalities. But there was also the notion of birthright, and we find in the laws that every free tribesman considered himself entitled to claim from his kindred grazing facilities and five erws for tillage. Such a claim could be made unconditionally only at a time when there was a superabundance of land to dispose of. In the i4th century, to which our typical descriptions refer, this state of things had ceased to be universal. Although great tracts of Welsh land were undoubtedly still in a state of wilderness, the soil in more conveniently situated regions was beginning to be scarce, and considerable pressure of population was already felt, with a consequent transition from pastoral pursuits to agriculture. The tract appropriated to the township of Astret Canon, for instance, contained only 574 acres of land of all kinds. In this case there was hardly room for the customary five erws per • head of grown-up males besides commons. And yet although the population lived on a small pittance, the system of tribal tenure was not abandoned. Although there are no rearrangements or redivision within the tribe as a whole, inside every gavell, representing more narrow circles of kinsmen, usually the descendants of one great- grandfather, i.e. second cousins, the shares are shifted and readjusted according to one of two systems. In one case, that of the trevcyvriv or joint-account village, every man receives " as much as another yet not of equal value " — which means, of course, that the members of such communities were provided with equal allotments, but left to make the best of them, each according to chance and ability. This practice of reallotment was, however, restricted in the I4th century to taeog trevs, to villages occupied by half-free settlers. The free tribesmen, the priodarii of Wales, held by daddenhud, and reallotted shares within the trev on the coming of each new generation or, conversely, on the going out, the dying out, of each older generation. In other words: at the demise of the last of the grandfathers in a gavell, all the fathers took VILLAGE COMMUNITIES 69 equal rank and claimed equal shares, although formerly some of the portions had been distributed equally only between the grandfathers or their offspring (stirps). The right to claim redivision held good only within the circle of second cousins. Members of the kindred who stood further than that from each other, that is, third cousins, were not entitled to reallot- ment on the strength of daddenhud. Another fact which is brought out with complete evidence by the Welsh Surveys is that the tenure is ascribed to com- munities of kinsmen and not to chiefs or headmen. The latter certainly existed and had exerted a powerful influence on the disposal of common land as well as on government and justice. But in the view of 14th-century surveys each township is owned not by this or the other elder, but by numerous bodies of coparceners. The gavell of Owen Gogh, for instance, contained twenty-six coparceners. In this way there is a clear attribution of rights of communal ownership, if we like to use the term, and not merely of rights of maintenance. Nor is there any warrant for a construction of these arrangements on a supposed patriarchal system. Let us now compare this description of Celtic tribal tenure with Slavonic institutions. The most striking modern ex- amples of tribal communities settled on a territorial basis are presented by the history of the Southern Slavs in the Balkan Peninsula and in Austria, of Slovenes, Croats, Serbs and Bul- garians,, but it is easy to trace customs of the same kind in the memories of Western Slavs conquered by Germans, of the Poles and of the different subdivisions of the Russians. A good clue to the subject is provided by a Serb proverb which says that a man by himself is bound to be a martyr. One might almost suggest that these popular customs illustrate the Aristo- telian conception of the single man seeking the " autarkeia," a complete and self-sufficient existence in the society of his fellow-men, and arriving at the stage of the tribal village, the 7eyos, which is also a KUHIJ, as described in the famous intro- ductory chapter of the Greek philosopher's Politics. The Slavs of the mountainous regions of the Balkans and of the Alps in their stubborn struggle with nature and with human enemies have clustered and still cluster to some extent (e.g. in Montenegro) in closely united and widely spreading brother- hoods (bratstva) and tribes (plemena). Some of these brother- hoods derive their names from a real or supposed common ancestor, and are composed of relatives as well as of affiliated strangers. They number sometimes hundreds of members,1 of guns, as the fighting males are characteristically called. Such are — the Vukotici, Kovacevici, as one might say in Old English — the Vukotings or Kovachevings, of Montenegro. The dwell- ings, fields, and pasturages of these brotherhoods or kindreds are scattered over the country, and it is not always possible to trace them in compact divisions on the map. But there was the closest union in war, revenge, funeral rites, marriage ar- rangements, provision for the poor and for those who stand in need of special help, as, for instance, in case of fires, inunda- tions and the like. And corresponding to this union there existed a strong feeling of unity in regard to property, especially property in land. Although ownership was divided among the different families, a kind of superior or eminent domain stretched over the whole of the bratstvo, and was expressed in the participation in common in pasture and wood, in the right to control alienations of land and to exercise pre-emption. If any of the members of the brotherhood wanted to get rid of his share he had to apply first to his next of kin within the family and then to the further kinsmen of the bratstvo. As the Welsh kindred (progenies) were subdivided into gavells formed of extended family communities, even so the Bosnian, Montenegrin, Servian, Slovene tribes fell into house communities, Kucas, Zadrugas, which were built up on the principle of keeping blood-relatives and their property to- gether as long as possible. They consisted generally of some 13 to 20 grown-up persons, some 6 or 7 first and second cousins with their wives and children, living in a hamlet around the 1 They range from 80 or 90 to 700. central house of the domatin, the house leader. In some in- stances the number of coparceners increased to 50 or even to 70. The members of the united house community, which in fact is a small village or hamlet, joined in meals and work. Their rights in the undivided household of the hamlet were apportioned according to the pedigree, i.e. this apportion- ment took account first of the stirpes or extant descendants of former scions of the family, so that, say, the offspring of each of two grandfathers who had been brothers were considered as equal sharers although the stirps, the stock, of one was represented only by one person, while the stirps of the other had grown to consist of two uncles and of three nephews all alive. There was no resettlement of shares, as in the case of Wales, but the life of the house community while it existed unbroken led to work in common, the contributions to which are regulated by common consent and supervised by the leader. Grounds, houses, implements of agriculture (ploughs, oxen, carts) and of viniculture — casks, cauldrons for the making of brandy, &c., are considered to be common capital and ought not to be sold unless by common consent. Divisions were not prohibited. Naturally a family had to divide sooner or later, and the shares have to be made real, to be converted into fields and vineyards. But this was an event which marks, as it were, the close of the regular existence of one union and the birth of similar unions derived from it. As a rule, the kuta kept together as long as it could, because co-operation was needed and isola- tion dangerous — for economic considerations as well as for the sake of defence. Attention, however, should be called more particularly to the parallel phenomena hi the social history of the Russians, wnere the conditions seem to stand out in specially strong contrast with those prevailing among the mountain Slavs of the Balkans and of the Alps. In the enormous extent of Russia we have to reckon with widely different geographical and racial areas, among other, with the Steppe settlements of the so-called Little Russians in the Ukraina and the forest settlements of the Great Russians in the north. In spite of great divergencies the economic history of all these branches of Slavonic stock gravitates towards one main type, viz. towards rural unions of kinsmen, on the basis of .enlarged households. In the south the typical village settlement is the dvoriife, the big court or hamlet consisting of some four to eight related families holding together; in the north it is the petiste, the big oven, a hamlet of somewhat smaller size in which three to five families are closely united for purposes of common husbandry. It is interesting to notice that even the break-up of the joint household does not lead to an entire severance of the ties between its members. They mostly continue in another form, viz. in the shape of an open-field system with intermixture of strips, compulsory rotation of crops, commons of pasture, of wood, sometimes shifting allotments as regards meadows. There is, e.g. an act of division between six brothers from the north of Russia "of the year 1640. They agree to divide bread and salt, house and liberties, money, cloth and stores of all kinds and to settle apart. As to arable, Shumila is to take the upper strip in the field by the settlement, and next to him Tretjak, then Maxim, then Zaviala, then Shestoy, then Luke. In the big harvest furlong likewise, and in the small likewise, and by the meadow likewise and so on through all the furlongs. So that in this case and in innumerable other cases of the same kind the open-field system with its inconvenient intermixture of plots and limited power of every husbandman to manage his land appears as a direct continuation of the joint tribal households. Another fact to be noticed is the tendency to form artificial associations on the pattern of the prevailing unions of kinsmen. People who have no blood-relations to appeal to for clearing the waste, for providing the necessary capital in the way of cattle and plough implements, for raising and fitting out buildings, join in order to carry on these economic under- takings, and also to help each other against enemies and aggressors. The members of these voluntary associations, VILLAGE COMMUNITIES which at once call to mind German, Norse and English gilds, are called " siabri," " skladniki," and the gilds themselves " spolkie," in south Russia. In a district of the Ukraina called the " Ratensky Sharostvo " there were no fewer than 278 such gilds interchanging with natural kindreds. The organization of all these unions could in no way be called patriarchal. Even in cases when there is a definite elder or headman (bol- shoy), he was only the first among equals and exercised only a limited authority over his fellows: all the important decisions had to be taken by the council of the community. In Great Russia, in the districts gathered under the sway of the Moscow tsars, the basis of the household community and of the rural settlements which sprang from it was modified in another direction. The entire agricultural population was subjected to strict supervision and coercive measures for purposes of military organization and taxation. Society was drilled into uniformity and service on the principle that every man has to serve the tsar, the upper class in war and civil administration, the lower class by agricultural labour. A consequence of the heavy burden laid on the land and of the growth of a landed aristocracy somewhat resembling the gentry and the noblesse of the West was a change in the management of land allotments. They became as much a badge of service and a basis for fiscal requirements as a means of livelihood. The result was the practice of reallotments according to the strength and the needs of different families. The shifting of arable (peredel) was not in this case a reapportionment of rights, but a consequence of the correspondence between rights and obligations. But although this admeasurement of claims appears as a comparatively recent growth of the system, the fundamental solidarity between kinsmen or neighbourly asso- ciates grouped into villages was In no way an invention of the tsars or of their officials: it was rooted in traditional customs and naturally suggested by the practices of joint households. When these households become crowded in cer- tain areas, open-field systems arise; when they are burdened with public and private service their close co-operation pro- duces occasional or periodical redivisions of the soil between the shareholders. Let us now pass to village communities in Teutonic countries, including England. A convenient starting-point is afforded by the social and economic conditions of the southern part of Jutland. Now the Saxon or Ditmarschen portion of this region gives us an opportunity of observing the effects of an extended and highly systematized tribal organization on Germanic soil. The independence of this northern peasant republic, which reminds one of the Swiss cantons, lasted until the time of the Reformation. We find the Ditmarschen organized in the isth, as they had been in the loth century, in a number of large kindreds, partly composed of relatives by blood and partly of " cousins " who had joined them. The membership of these kindreds is based on agnatic ties — that is, on relationship through males — or on affiliation as a substitute for such agnatic kinship. The families or households are grouped into brother- hoods, and these again into clans or " Schlachten " (Geschlechter), corresponding to Roman gentes. Some of them could put as many as 500 warriors in the field. They took their names from ancestors and chief tains: the Wollersmannen, Henne- mannen, Jerremannen, &c. — that is, the men of Woll, the men of Henne, the men of Jerre. In spite of these personal names the organization of the clans was by no means a monarchical one: it was based on the participation of the full-grown fight- ing men in the government of each clan and on a council of co-opted elders at the head of the entire federation. We need not repeat here what has already been stated about the mutual support which such clans afforded to their members in war and in peace, in judicial and in economic matters. Let us notice the influence of this tribal organization on husbandry and property. The regular economic arrangement was an open-field one based on a three-field and similar systems. The furlongs were divided into intermixed strips with com- pulsory rotation on the usual pattern. And it is interesting to notice that in these economic surroundings indivisible holdings corresponding to the organic unities required for efficient agriculture arose of themselves. In spite of the equal right of all coheirs to an estate, this estate does not get divided according to their numbers, but either remains undivided or else falls into such fractions, halves or fourths, which will enable the farming to be carried on successfully, without mischievous interruption and disruption. Gradually the people settled down into the custom of united succession for agrarian units. The Hufe or Hof, the virgate, as might have been said in England, goes mostly to the eldest son, but also sometimes to the youngest, while the brothers of the heir either remain in the same household with him, generally unmarried, or leave the house after having settled with the heir, who takes charge of the holding, as to an indemnity for their relinquished claims. This indemnity i; not equivalent to the market price, but is fixed, in case of dispute or doubt, by an award of impartial and expert neighbours, who have to consider not only the claims of interested persons but also the economic quality and strength of the holding. In other words, the heir has to pay so much as the estate can conveniently provide without being wrecked by the outlay. This evidence is of decisive importance in regard to the formation of unified holdings; we are on entirely free soil, with no vestige whatever of manorial organization or of coercion of tenants by the lord, and yet the Hufe, the normal holding, comes to the fore as a result of the economic situation, on the strength of considerations drawn from the efficiency of the farming. This " Anerben " system is widely spread all through Germany. The question whether the eldest or the youngest succeeds is a subordinate one. Anyhow, manorial authority is not necessary to produce the limitation of the rights of succes- sion to land and the creation of the system of holdings, although this has been often asserted, and one of the arguments for a servile origin of village communities turns on a supposed incom- patibility between unified succession and the equal "rights of free coheirs. We need not speak at any length about other parts of Germany, as space does not permit of a description of the innumerable combinations of communal and individual elements in German law, the various shapes of manorial and political institutions with which the influence of blood relationship, gild and neigh- bourly union had to struggle. But we must point out some facts from the range of Scandi- navian customs. In the mountainous districts of Norway we notice the same tendency towards the unification of holdings as in the plains and hills of Schleswig and Holstein. The bonder of Gudbrandsdalen and Telemarken, the free peasantry tilling the soil and pasturing herds on the slopes of the hills since the days of Harold Harfagr to our own times, sit in Odal- gaards, or freehold estates, from which supernumerary heirs are removed on receiving some indemnity, and which are pro- tected from alienation into strange hands by the privilege of pre-emption exercised by relatives of the seller. Equally suggestive are some facts on the Danish side of the Straits, viz. the arrangements of the bids which correspond to the hides and virgates of England and to the Hufen of Germany. Here again we have to do with normal holdings independent of the number of coheirs, but dependent on the requirements of agriculture — on the plough and oxen, on certain constant relations between the arable of an estate and its outlying com- mons, meadows and woods. The bol does not stand by itself like the Norwegian gaard, but is fitted into a very close union with neighbouring bols of the same kind. Practices of coaration, of open-field intermixture, of compulsory rotation of lot-meadows, of stinting the commons, arise of themselves in the villages of Denmark and Sweden. Laws compiled in the I3th century but based on even more ancient customs give us most inter- esting and definite information as to Scandinavian practices of allotment. We catch a glimpse, to begin with, of a method of dividing VILLAGE COMMUNITIES fields which was considered archaic even in those early times. The Swedish laws use the expression " forniskift," which means ancient mode of allotment, and another term corre- sponding to it is " hamarskift," which may possibly be con- nected with throwing the hammer in order to mark the boundary of land occupied by a man's strength. The two principal features of forni or hamar skift are the irregularity of the resulting shapes of plots and the temporary character of their occupation. The first observation may be substantiated by a description like that of Laasby in Jutland: " These lands are to that extent scattered and intermixed by the joint owners that it cannot be said for certain what (or how much) they are." Swedish documents, on the other hand, speak expressly of practices of shifting arable and meadows periodically, some- times year by year. Now the uncertainty of these practices based on occupa- tion became in process of time a most inconvenient feature of the situation and evidently led to constant wrangling as to rights and boundaries. The description of Laasby which I have just quoted ends with the significant remark: " They should be compelled to make allotment by the cord." This making of allotments by the cord is the process of rebning, from reb, the surveyor's cord, and the juridical procedure necessary for it was called " solskift " — because it was a division following the course of the sun. The two fundamental positions from which this form of allotment proceeds are: (i) that the whole area of the village is common land (faelksjord), which has to be lotted out to the single householders; (2) that the partition should result in the creation of equal holdings of normal size (b61s). In some cases we can actually recognize the effect of these allotments by ancient solskift in the i8th century, at a time when the Danish enclosure acts produced a second general revolution in land tenure. The oldest twelve inhabitants, elected as sworn arbitrators for effecting the allotment, begin their work by throwing to- gether into one mass all the grounds owned by the members of the community, including dwellings and farm-buildings, with the exception of some privileged plots. There is a close correspondence between the sites of houses and the shares in the field. The first operation of the surveyors consists in marking out a village green for the night-rest and pasture of the cattle employed in the tillage (fortd), and to assign sites to the houses of the coparceners with orchards appendant to them (tofts); every householder getting exactly as much as his neighbour. From the tofts they proceed to the fields on the customary notion that the toft is the mother of the field. The fields are disposed into furlongs and shots, as they were called in England, and divided among the members of the village with the strictest possible equality. This is effected by assigning to every householder a strip in every one of the furlongs constituting the arable of the village. Meadows were often treated as lot-meadows in the same way as in Eng- land. According to the account of a solrebning executed in 1513 (Oester Hoejsted), every otting, the eighth part of a b61 (corresponding to the English oxgang or bovate), got a toft of 40 roods in length and 6 in breadth. One of the coparceners received, however, 8 roods because his land was worse than that of his neighbours. Of the arable there were allotted to each otting two roods' breadth for the plough in each furlong and appendant commons " in damp and in dry " — in meadow and pasture. After such a "solskift" the peasants held their tenements in undisturbed ownership, but the eminent demesne of the village was recognized and a revision of the allotment was possible. Many such revisions did actually take place, and in such cases all rights and claims were apportioned, accord- ing to the standard of the original shares. Needless to say that these shares were subjected to all the usual limitations of champion farming. After having said so much about different types of village communities which occur in Europe it will be easier to analyse the incidents of English land tenure which disclose the work- ing of similar conceptions and arrangements. Features which have been very prominent in the case of the Welsh, Slavs, Germans or Scandinavians recur in the English instances some- times with equal force and at other times in a mitigated shape. There are some vestiges of the purely tribal form of com- munity on English soil. Many of the place-names of early Saxon and Anglican settlements are derived from personal names with the suffix ing, as designations like Oakington, the town of the Hockings. True, it is just possible to explain some of these place-names as pointing to settlements belonging to some great man and therefore taking their designation from him with the adjunct of an ing indicating possession. But the group of words in question falls in exactly with the common patronymics of Saxon and German families and kindreds, and therefore it is most probable, as Kemble supposed, that we have to do in most of these instances with tribal and family settlements, although the mere fact of belonging to a great landowner or a monastery may have been at the root of some cases. A very noticeable consequence of tribal habits in regard to landownership is presented by the difficulties which stood in the way of alienation of land by the occupiers of it. The Old English legal system did not originally admit of any aliena- tion of folkland, land held by folkright, or, in other words, of the estates owned under the ordinary customary law of the people. Such land could not be bequeathed out of the kindred and could not be sold without the consent of the kinsmen. Such complete disabilities could not be upheld indefinitely, however, in a growing and progressive community, and we find the ancient folkright assailed from different points of view. The Church insists on the right of individual possessors to give away land for the sake of their souls; the kings grant exemption from folkright and constitute privileged estates held by book and following in the main the rules of individualized Roman law; the wish of private persons to make provision for daughters and to deal with land as with other commodities produces con- stant collisions with the customary tribal views. Already, by the end of the Saxon period transfer and alienation of land make their way everywhere, and the Norman conquest brings these features to a head by substituting the notion of tenure — that is, of an estate burdened with service to a superior — for the ancient notion of tribal folkland. But although the tribal basis of communal arrangements was shaken and removed in England in comparatively early times, it had influenced the practices of rural husbandry and landholding, and in the modified form of the village com- munity it survived right through the feudal period, leaving characteristic and material traces of its existence down to the present day. To begin with, the open-field system with intermixture of strips and common rights in pasture and wood has been the prevailing system in England for more than a thousand years. Under the name of champion farming it existed everywhere in the country until the Inclosure Acts of the i8th and igth centuries put an end to it; it may be found in operation even now in some of its features in backward districts. It would have been absurd to build up these practices cf compulsory rotation of crops, of a temporary relapse of plots into common pasture between harvest and ploughing time, of the interdependence of thrifty and negligent husbandmen in respect of weeds and times of cultivation, &c., from the point of view of individual appropriation. On the other hand, it was the natural system for the apportionment of claims to the shareholders of an organic and perpetual joint-stock company. Practices of shifting arable are seldom reported in English evidence. There are some traces of periodical redivisions of arable land in Northumberland: under the name of runrig system such practices seem to have been not uncommon in the outer fields, the non-manured portions of townships in Scotland, both among the Saxon inhabitants of the lowlands and the Celtic population of the highlands. The joining of small tenants for the purpose of coaration, for the formation of the big, VILLAGE COMMUNITIES heavy ploughs, drawn by eight oxen, also produced sometimes the shifting in the possession of strips between the coparceners of the undertaking. But, as a rule, the arable was held in severally by the different members of the township. On the other hand, meadows were constantly owned by entire townships and distributed between the tenements entitled to shares from year to year either by lot or according to a definite order. These practices are in full vigour in some places even at the present day. Any person living in Oxford may witness the distribution by lot on Lammas day (ist of August) of the Lammas meadows, that is, the meadows inclosed for the sake of raising hay-grass in the village of Yarnton, some three miles to the north of Oxford. Let us, however, return for a moment to the arable. Although held in severally by different owners it was subjected to all sorts of interference on the part of the village union as repre- sented in later ages by the manorial court framing by-laws and settling the course of cultivation. It might also happen that in consequence of encroachments, disputes and general uncertainty as to possession and boundaries, the whole distri- bution of the strips of arable in the various fields had to be gone over and regulated anew. In an interesting case reported from •a Cartulary of Dunstable in Bedfordshire, all the possessions of the villagers in a place called Segenhoe were thrown together in the i2th century and redivided according to an award of experts chosen by a meeting of the villagers from among the oldest and wisest inhabitants. Exactly as in the Danish examples quoted before, the strips were apportioned, not to the single owners, but to the normal holdings, the hides, and the actual owners had to take them in proportion to their several rights in the hides. This point is very important. It gives the English village community its peculiar stamp. It is a community not between single members or casual households, but between determined holdings con- structed on a proportional scale. Although there was no provision for the admeasurement and equalization of the claims of Smith and of Brown, each hide or ploughland of a township took as much as every other hide, each virgate or yardland as every other yardland, each bovate or oxgang as every other oxgang. Now the proportions themselves, although vaiying in respect of the number of acres included in each of these units in different places, were constant in their relation to each other. The yardland was almost everywhere one-fourth of the hide or ploughland, and corresponded to the share of two oxen in an eight-oxen plough; the oxgang was reckoned at one-half of the yardland, and corresponded to the share of one ox in the same unit of work. The constant repetition of these fractions and units proves that we have to do in this case with phenomena arising not from artificial devices but from the very nature of the case. Nor can there be a doubt that both the unit and the fractions were produced by the application to land of the chief factor of working strength in agrarian husbandry, the power of the ploughteam for tillage. The natural composition of the holdings has its counterpart, as in Schleswig-Holstein and as in the rest of Germany, in the customs of united succession. The English peasantry worked out customary rules of primogeniture or of so-called Borough English or claim of the youngest to the land held by his father. The German examples adduced in the beginning of this article teach us that the device is not suggested primarily by the inte- rest of the landlord. Unified succession takes the place of the equal rights of sons, because it is the better method for preserving the economic efficiency of the household and of the tenement corresponding to it. There are exceptions, the most notorious being that of Kentish gavelkind, but in agricultural districts the holding remains undivided as long as possible, and if it gets divided, the division follows the lines not of the casual number of coheirs, but of the organic elements of the ploughlands. Fourths and eighths arise in connexion with natural fractions of the ploughteam of eight oxen. One more feature of the situation remains to be noticed, and it is the one which is still before our eyes in all parts of the country, that is, the commons which have survived the wholesale process of inclosure. They were an integral part of the ancient village community from the first, not only because the whole ground of a township could not be taken up by arable and meadows, at a time when population was scanty, but because there existed the most intimate connexion between the agricultural and pastoral part of husbandry in the time of the open-field system. Pasture was not treated as a commodity by itself but was mostly considered as an adjunct, as appendant to the arable, and so was the use of woods and of turf. This fact was duly emphasized, e.g. in an Elizabethan case reported by Coke — Tyrringham's case. The problem of admeasurement of pasture was regulated in the same way as that of the appor- tionment of arable strips, by a reference to the proportional holdings, the hides, yardiands and oxgangs of the township, and the only question to be decided was how many heads of cattle and how many sheep each hide and yardland had the right to send to the common pasturage grounds. When in course of time the open-field system and the tenure of arable according to holdings were given up, the right of free- holders and copyholders of the old manors in which the ancient townships were, as it were, encased, still held good, but it became much more difficult to estimate and to apportion such rights. In connexion with the individualistic policy of inclosure the old writ of admeasurement of commons was abolished in 1837 (3 & 4 Will. IV.). The ordinary expedient is to make out how much commonable cattle could be kept by the tene- ments claiming commons through the winter. It is very characteristic and important that in the leading modern case on sufficiency of commons — in Robertson v. Hartopp — it was admitted by the Court of Appeal that the sufficiency has to be construed as a right of turning out a certain number of beasts on the common, quite apart from the number which had been actually turned out at any given time. Now a vested right has to be construed from the point of view of the time when it came into existence. The standards used to estimate such rights ought not to be drawn from modern practice, which might help to dispense altogether with commons of pasture by stable feeding, substitutes for grass, &c., but ought to correspond to the ordinary usages established at a time when the open-field system was in full vigour. The legal view stands thus at present, but we cannot conceal from ourselves that after all the inroads achieved by individual appropriation it is by no means certain that the reference to the rights and rules of a previous period will continue to be recognized. However this may be, in the present commons we have certainly a system which draws its roots from customs, as to the origin of which legal memory does not ran. We may, in conclusion, summarize very briefly the principal results of our inquiry as to the history of European village communities. It seems that they may be stated under the following heads: (i) Primitive stages of civilization disclose in human society a strong tendency towards mutual support in economic matters as well as for the sake of defence. (2) The most natural form assumed by such unions for defence and co-operation is that of kinship. (3) In epochs of pastoral husbandry and of the beginnings of agriculture land is mainly owned by tribes, kindreds and enlarged households, while individuals enjoy only rights of usage and possession. (4) In course of time unions of neighbours are substituted for unions of kinsmen. (5) In Germanic societies the community of the township rests on the foundation of efficient holdings— bols, hides, hufen — kept together as far as possible by rules of united or single succession. (6) The open-field system, which prevailed in the whole of Northern Europe for nearly a thousand years, was closely dependent on the customs of tribal and neighbourly unions. (7) Even now the treatment of commons represents the last manifestations of ancient communal arrangements, and it can only be reasonably and justly interpreted by reference to the law and practice of former times. AUTHORITIES. — Sir H. S. Maine, Village Communities in the East and West (1872) ; E. de Laveleye, Das Ureigenthum, ubers. von VILLALBA— VILLANELLE 73 K. Biicher (Leipzig, 1879) ; A. Mcitzen, Siedelung und Agrarwesen der Westgermanen und Ostgermanen, der Kelten, Romer, Finnen undSlaven. Wanderungen, Anbau und Agrarrecht der Volker Europas nordlich der Alpen (4 vols., Berlin, 1895); F. de Coulanges, Les Origines de la propriele (Paris, 1893) ; M. Kovalewsky, Die okonomische Enturicklung Europas bis zum Beginn der kapital^schen Wirtsclutftsform (Berlin, 1901); B. H. Baden-Powell, The Indian Village Community (London, 1896); The Land Systems of British India (Oxford, 1892); J. Jolly, Tagore Lectures on the Law of Inheritance and Succession tn India; Tn. Mommsen, Romische Forschungen (Berlin, 1864); P. ( .uiraud, La Propriele fonciere en Grecejusqu' a la conquete Romaine (Paris, 1893); R. Pohlmann, Geschichte des antiken Kommunismus und Socialismus (Miinchen, 1893); F. de Coulanges, La Cite antique (Paris, l872);F. Seebohm, The Tribal System in Wales (London, 1904) ; H. S. Maine, Lectures on the Early History of Institutions (London, 1875) ; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, La Famille celtique (Paris, 1905) ; Cours de litterature celtique (Paris, 1902) ; R. Anderson, History of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1874) ; C. Innes, Lectures on Scotch Legal Anti- quities (Edinburgh, 1872); W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh, 1880); A. Dopsch, Die dltere Sozial- und Wirtschaftsverfassung der Alpenslaven (Weimar, 1909); J. Peisxer, Die alteren Beziehungen der Slawen zu Turkotataren und Germanen und ihre sozialgeschichtliche Bedeutung (Stuttgart, 1905) ; G. Cohn, Gemeindenschaft und Hausgenossenschaft (Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Rechtswissen- schaft, XII!., 1899) ; Bogisic, Zborniken (Servian Collection of modern legal customs of the Southern Slavs (Agram, 1874) ; De la forme dite Inokosna de lafamille rurale chez les Serbes et IKS Creates (Paris, 1884) ; T. T. Smirnoff, Sketch of Culture History of the Southern Slavs (Kazan, 1900) (Russian) ; F. Krauss, Sitte und Brauch der Sudslaven (Wien, 1885); A. Tschuproff, Die Feldgemeinschaft (Strassburg, 1902); A. Efimenko, Southern Russia (Russian), vol. i. (1901); Peasant Land-tenure in the Extreme North, I. (Russian) (1884) ; B. Ciderin, Essays on the History of Russian Law (Russian) ; V. Sergievic, Antiquities of Russian Law, III. (Russian) (St Petersburg, 1903); Kocarovsky, The Russian Village Community (Russian) (1906) ; A. Kaufmann, The Russian Village Community, I. (Russian) (Moscow, 1908) ; G. L. von Maurer, Einleitung zur Geschichle der Mark-, Hof-, Dorf- und Stadtverfassung und der offentlichen Gewall (Munchen, 1854) ; Geschichle der Markenverfassung in Deutschland (Erlangen, 1856); Geschichte der Fronhofe, der Bauernhcfe und der Hofycr- fassung in Deutschland (4 vols., Erlangen, 1862); Geschichte der D&rfverfassung in Deutschland (2 vols,, Erlangen, 1865); F. de Coulanges, Histcire des institutions poliiiques de I'ancienne France (Paris, 1875-91); J. Flach, Les Origines de I'ancienne France (Paris, 1893); E. Glasson, Les Communaux et le domaine rurale a I'epoque franque: reponse d M. Fustel de Coulanges (Paris, 1890); K. Lamprecht, Deutsches Wirtschaftsleben im Mittelalier (4 vols., Leipzig, 1885); F. Knapp, Grundherrschaft und Riltergut (Leipzig, 1897); W. Wittich, Die Grundherrschaft in Nordwest Deutschland (Leipzig, 1896) ; Rhamm, Die Grosshafen der Nordger- manen (1905); G. Haussen, Agrarhistorische Abhandlungen (2 yols., Leipzig, 1880); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1887); R. Schroder, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (2nd ed., 1894); Fr. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (London, 1902); M. Sering, Erbrecht und Agrarverfassung in Schleswig-Holstein (Berlin, 1908) ; F. W. Maitland and Sir F. Pollock, The History of English Law before the Time of Edward I. (Cambridge, 1895) ; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond: Three Essa.ys in the Early History of England (Cambridge, 1897); Township and Borough (Cam- bridge, 1898) ; Fr. Seebohm, The English Village Community (London, 1884); P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892); The Growth of the Manor (London, 1905) ; English Society in the nth Century (Oxford, 1907); G. L. Gomme, The Village Community (London, 1890) ; C. I. Elton, A Treatise on Commons and Waste Lands (London, 1868); Th. E. Scrutton, Commons and Commonfields (Cambridge, 1887); J. Williams, Rights of Commons (London); T. Stecnstrup, Studier over Kong Valdemars Jordebog (Copenhagen); Lauridsen, Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed, II Raekke, vol. ii. (Copenhagen, 1896) ; Steman, Dansk Retshistorie (Copenhagen, 1871) ; A. Taranger, Norsk Retshistorie (Christiania, 1899). (P. Vi.) VILLALBA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo; on the left bank of the river Ladra, one of the head- streams of the Mino, and at the junction of the main roads from Ferrol and Mondonedo to the city of Lugo. Pop. (1900) 13.572- Villalba is the chief town of the' district watered by the Ladra, Tamboga and other small streams — a fertile plateau 1500 ft. above sea-level. Cloth and pottery are manufactured, and there is some trade in grain and live stock. The nearest railway station is Otero, 15 m. S. by E., on the Lugo-Corunna line. VILLAMEDIANA. COUNT DE (1582-1622), Spanish poet, was born at Lisbon towards the end of 1582. His father, a distinguished diplomatist, upon whom the dignity of count was conferred in 1603, entrusted the education of the brilliant boy (Juan de Tassis y Peralta) to Luis Tribaldos de Toledo, the future editor of Mendoza's Guerras de Granada, and to Bartolome Jimenez Pat6n, who subsequently dedicated Mercurius Trismegistus to his pupil. On leaving Salamanca the j'outh married in 1601, and succeeded to the title on the death of his father in 1607; he was prominent in the dissipated life of the capital, acquired a bad reputation as a gambler, was forbidden to attend court, and resided in Italy from 1611 to 1617. On his return to Spain, he soon proved himself a fearless, pungent satirist. Such public men as Lerma, Rodrigo Calderon and Jorge de Tobar writhed beneath his murderous invective; the foibles of humbler private persons were exposed to public ridicule in verses furtively passed from hand to hand. So great was the resentment caused by these envenomed attacks that Villamediana was once more ordered to withdraw from court in 1618. He returned on the death of Philip III. and was appointed gentleman in waiting to Philip IV.'s young wife, Isabel de Bourbon, daughter of Henri IV. Secure in his position, he scattered his scathing epigrams in profusion; but his ostentatious attentions to the queen supplied his countless foes with a weapon which was destined to destroy him. A fire broke out while his masque, La Gloria de Niguea, was being acted before the court on the isth of May 1622, and Villamediana carried the queen to a place of safety. Suspicion deepened; Villamediana neglected a significant warning that his life was in peril, and on the 2ist of August 1622 he was murdered as he stepped out of his coach. The responsibility for his death was divided between Philip IV. and Olivares; the actual assassin was either Alonso Mateo or Ignacio Mendez; and naturally the crime remained unpunished. Villamediana 's works, first published at Saragossa in 1629, contain not only the nervous, blighting verses which made him widely feared and hated, but a number of more serious poems embodying the most exaggerated conceits of gongorism. But, even when adopting the perverse conventions of the hour, he remains a poet of high distinction, and his satirical verses, more perfect in form, are instinct with a cold, concentrated scorn which has never been surpassed. (J. F.-K.) VILLANELLE, a form of verse, originally loose in construc- tion, but since the i6th century bound in exact limits of an arbi- trary kind. The word is ultimately derived from the Latin villa, a country house or farm, through the Italian vittano, a peasant or farm hand, and a villanelle was primarily a round song taken up by men on a farm. The Spaniards called such a song a villancejo or villancete or a villancico, and a man who impro- vised villanelles was a villanciquero. The villanelle was a pastoral poem made to accompany a rustic dance, and from the first 'it was necessary that it should contain a regular system of repeated lines. The old French villanelles, however, were irregular in form. One of the most celebrated, the " Rosette, pour un peu d'absence " of Philippe Desportes (1545-1606), is a sort of ballade, and those contained in the Astree of d'Urf6, 1610, are scarcely less unlike the villanelles of modern times. It appears, indeed, to have been by an accident that the special and rigorously defined form of the villanelle was invented. In the posthumous poems of Jean Passerat (1534-1602), which were printed in 1606, several villanelles were discovered, in different forms. One of these became, and has remained, so deservedly popular, that it has given its exact character to the subsequent history of the villanelle. This famous poem runs as follows: — " J'ai perdu ma tourterelle : Est-ce point celle que j'oi? Je veux aller apres elle. Tu regrettes ta femelle? Helas! aussi fais-je moi : J'ai perdu ma tourterelle. Si ton amour est fidele, Aussi est ferme ma foi : Je veux aller apres elle. Ta plainte se renouvelle? Toujours plaindre je me dois: J'ai perdu ma tourterelle. 74 VILLANI En ne voyant plus la belle Plus rien de beau je ne vois: Je veux aller apres elle. Mort, que tant de fois j'appelle, Prends ce qui se donne a toi: J'ai perdu ma tourterelle, e veux aller apres elle." This exquisite lyric has continued to be the type of its class and the villanelie, therefore, for the last three hundred years has been a poem, written in tercets, on two rhymes, the first and the third line being repeated alternatively in each tercet It is usual to confine the villanelie to five tercets, but that is not essential; it must, however, close with a quatrain, the last two lines of which are the first and third line of the original tercet. The villanelie was extremely admired by the French poets of the Parnasse, and one of them, Theodore de Banville, compared it to a ribband of silver and gold traversed by a thread of rose-colour. Boulmier, who was the first to point out that Passerat was the inventor of the definite villanelie, published collections of these poems in 1878 and 1879, and was preparing another when he died in 1881. When, in 1877, so many of the early French forms of verse were introduced, or reintroduced, into English literature, the villanelie attracted a great deal of attention; it was simultaneously cultivated by W. E. Henley, Austin Dobson, Lang and Gosse. Henley wrote a large number, and he described the form itself in a specimen beginning: — " A dainty thing's the Villanelie, Sly, musical, a jewel in rhyme, It serves its purpose passing well." It has since then been very frequently used by English and American poets. There are several excellent examples in English of humorous villanelles, especially those by Austin Dobson and by Henley. See Joseph Boulmier, Les Villanelles (Paris, 1878; 2nd enlarged edition, 1879). (E. G.) VILLANI, GIOVANNI (c. 1275-1348), Italian chronicler, was the son of Villano di Stoldo, and was born at Florence in the second half of the i$th century; the precise year is unknown. He was of good burgher extraction, and, following the traditions of his family, applied himself to commerce. During the early years of the i4th century he travelled in Italy, France and the Netherlands, seeing men and things with the sagacity alike of the man of business and of the historian. Before leaving Florence, or rather in the interval between one journey and another, he had at least taken some part in that troubled period of civil contentions which Dino Compagni has described and which swept Dante Alighieri into banishment. In 1301 Villani saw Charles, count of Valois, ruining his country under the false name of peacemaker, and was witness of all the misery which immediately followed. Somewhat later he left Italy, and in September 1304 he visited Flanders. It is not well ascertained when he returned to his native city. He was certainly living there shortly after the emperor Henry VII. visited Italy in 1312, and probably he had been there for some time before. While still continuing to occupy himself with commerce, he now began to take a prominent part in public affairs. In 1316 and 1317 he was one of the priors, and shared in the crafty tactics whereby Pisa and Lucca were induced to conclude a peace with Florence, to which they were previously averse. In 1317 he also had charge of the mint, and during his administration of this office he collected its earlier records and had a register made of all the coins struck in Florence. In 1321 he was again chosen prior; and, the Florentines having just then undertaken the rebuilding of the city walls, he and some other citizens were deputed to look after the work. They were afterwards accused of having diverted the public money to private ends, but Villani clearly established his innocence. He was next sent with the army against Castruccio Castracani, lord of Lucca, and was present at its defeat at Altopascio. In 1328 a terrible famine visited many provinces of Italy, including Tuscany, and Villani was appointed to guard Florence from the worst effects of that distressing period. He has left a record of what was done in a chapter of his Chronicle, which shows the economic wisdom in which the medieval Florentines were often so greatly in advance of their age. In 1339, some time after the death of Castruccio, some rich Florentine merchants, and among them Villani, treated for the acquisition of Lucca by Florence for 80,000 florins, offering to supply the larger part of that sum out of their own private means; but the negotiations fell through, owing to the discords and jealousies then existing in the government (Chron. x. 143). The following year Villani superintended the making of Andrea Pisano's bronze doors for the baptistery. In the same year he watched over the raising of the campanile of the Badia, erected by Cardinal Giovanni Orsini (Chron. x. 177). In 1341 the acquisi- tion of Lucca was again under treaty, this time with Martino della Scala, for 250,000 florins. Villani was sent with others as a hostage to Ferrara, where he remained for some months. He was present in Florence during the unhappy period that elapsed between the entry of Walter of Brienne, duke of Athens, and his expulsion by the Florentines (1342-43). Involved through no fault of his own in the failure of the commercial company of the Bonaccorsi, which in its turn had been drawn into the failure of the company of the Bardi, Villani, towards the end of his life, suffered much privation and for some time was kept in prison. In 1348 he fell a victim to the plague described by Boccaccio. The idea of writing the Chronicle was suggested to Villani under the following circumstances: " In the year of Christ 1300 Pope Boniface VIII. made in honour of Christ's nativity a special and great indulgence. And I, finding myself in that blessed pilgrim- age in the holy city of Rome, seeing her great and ancient remains, and reading the histories and great deeds of the Romans as written by Virgil, Sallust, Lucan, Livy, Valerius, Paulus Orosius and other masters of history who wrote the exploits and deeds, both great and small, of the Romans and also of strangers, in the whole world . . . considering that our city of Florence, the daughter and offspring of Rome, is on the increase and destined to do great things, as Rome is in her decline, it appeared to me fitting to set down in this volume and new chronicle all the facts and beginnings of the city of Florence, in as far as it has been possible to me to collect and discover them, and to follow the doings of the Florentines at length . . . and so in the year 1300, on my return from Rome, I began to compile this book, in honour of God and of the blessed John, and in praise of our city of Florence." Villani's work, written in Italian, makes its appearance, so to speak, unexpectedly in the historical literature of Italy, just as the history of Florence, the moment it emerges from the humble and uncertain origin assigned :o it by legend, rises suddenly into a rich and powerful life of thought and action. Nothing but scanty and partly legendary records had preceded Villani's work, which rests in part on them. The Gesta Florentinorum of Sanzanome, starting from these vague origins, begins to be more definite about 1125, at the time of the union of Fiesole with Florence. The Chronica de Origine Civitatis seems to be a compilation, made by various hands and at various :imes, in which the different legends regarding the city's origin lave been gradually collected. The Annales Florentini Primi [1110-1173) and the Annales Florentini Secundi (1107-1247), to- gether with a list of the consuls and podestas from 1197 to 1267, and another chronicle, formerly attributed, but apparently with- mt good reason, to Brunetto Latini, complete the series of ancient "lorentine records. To these must, however, be added a certain luantity of facts which were to be found in various manuscripts, >eing used and quoted by the older Florentine and Tuscan writers mder the general name of Gesta Florentinorum. Another work, ormerly reckoned among the sources of Villani, is the Chronicle )/ the Malespini; but grave doubts are now entertained as to its luthenticity, and many hold that at best it is merely a remodel- ing, posterior to Villani's time, of old records from which several chroniclers may have drawn, either without citing them at all or only doing so in a vague manner. The Historic Florentine, or Cronica universale, of Villani begins with Biblical times and comes down to 1348. The universality of :he narrative, especially in the times near Villani's own, while it >ears witness to the author's extensive travels and to the compre- lensiveness of his mind, makes one also feel that the book was nspired within the walls of the universal city. Whereas Dino Compagni's Chronicle is confined within definite limits of time and )lace, this of Villani is a general chronicle extending over the vhole of Europe. Dino Compagni feels and lives in the facts of lis history; Villani looks at them and relates them calmly and airly, with a serenity which makes him seem an outsider, even vhen he is mixed up in them. While very important for Italian istory in the I4th century, this work is the cornerstone of the VILLANOVA— VILLARD 75 early medieval history of Florence. Of contemporary events Villani has a very exact knowledge. Having been a sharer in the public affairs and in the intellectual and economic life of his native city, at a time when in both it had no rival in Europe, he depicts what he saw with the vividness natural to a clear mind accustomed to business and to the observation of mankind. He was Guelph, but without passion; and his book is much more taken up with an inquiry into what is useful and true than with party considerations. He is really a chronicler, not an historian, and has but little method in his narrative, often reporting the things which occurred long ago just as he heard them and without criticism. Every now and then he falls into some inaccuracy; but such defects as he has are largely compensated for by his valuable qualities. He was for half a century eyewitness of his history, and he provides abundant information on the constitution of Florence, its customs, industries, commerce and arts; and among the chronicleis throughout Europe he is perhaps unequalled for the value of the statistical data he has preserved. As a writer Villani is clear and acute; and, though his prose has not the force and colouring of Compagni's, it has the advantage of greater simplicity, so that, taking his work as a whole, he may be regarded as the greatest chronicler who has written in Italian. The many difficulties connected with the publication of this important text have hitherto prevented the preparation of a perfect edition. However, the Chronicle has been printed by L. A. Muratori in tome xiii. of the Rerum Italicarum Scriptores (Milan, 1728), and has been edited by I. Moutier and F. G. Dragomanni (Florence, 1844). Among other editions is one published at Trieste in 1857 and another at Turin in 1879. Selections have been trans- lated into English by R. E. Selfe (1896). Villani's Chronicle was continued by two other members of his family, (i) MATTEO VILLANI, his brother, of whom nothing is known save that he was twice married and that he died of the plague in 1363, continued it down to the year of his death. Matteo's work, though inferior to Giovanni's, is nevertheless very valuable. A more prolix writer than his brother and a less acute observer, Matteo is well informed in his facts, and for the years of which he writes is one of the most important sources of Italian history. (2) FILIPPO VILLANI, the son of Matteo, flourished in the end of the I4th and the beginning of the 15th century. In his continuation which goes down to 1364, though showing greater literary ability, he is very inferior as an historian to his predecessors. His most valuable work was a collection of lives of illustrious Florentines. Twice, in 1401 and 1404, he was chosen to explain in public the Divina Commedia. The year of his death is unknown. See P. Scheffer-Boichorst, Florentiner Studien (Leipzig, 1874); G. Gervinus, " Geschichte der Florentinen Historiographie " in his Historische Schriften (1833); U. Balzani, Le cronache Italiane nel media evo (Milan, 1884) ; A. Gaspary, Geschichte der italienischen Lileratur (Berlin, 1885) ; O. Knoll, Beitrdge zur italienischen Historio- graphie im 14. Jahrhundert (Gottingen 1876), and O. Hartwig, " G. Villani und die Leggenda di Messer Gianni di Procida " in Band xxv. of H. von Sybers Historische Zeitschrift. (U. B.) VILLANOVA, the name given to an ancient cemetery in the neighbourhood of Bologna, Italy, and generally applied by archaeologists to all the remains of that period, and to the period itself, owing to the discovery therein of a large number of the characteristic remains of the earliest Iron Age of Italy. The antiquities of this culture are widely spread over upper Italy and differ essentially from those of the previous epoch known as Terramara, and they have been described by some as following at a considerable interval, for they show a great advance in metal work. The chief cemeteries of the Villanova period are at Bologna, Este, Villanova, Golasecca, Trezzo, Rivoli and Oppiano. As there can be no doubt that the Terramara culture was that of the aboriginal Ligurians (see, however, TERRAMARA), so the Villanova is that of the Umbrians, who, according to the historians, were masters of all northern Italy, as far as the Alps at the time of the Etruscan conquest (c. 1000 B.C.). They contain cist-graves, the bottoms, sides and tops being formed of flat unhewn stones, though sometimes there are only bottom and top slabs: the dead were burnt, and the remains are usually in urns, each grave containing as a rule but one ossuary; sometimes the vessel is covered with a flat stone or a dish inverted, sometimes the urns are deposited in the ground without any protection. The vases arc often hand-made and adorned with incised linear ornament, though in later times the bones were often placed in bronze urns or buckets. Though iron is steadily making its way into use, flat, flanged, and socketed and looped celts of bronze are found in con- siderable numbers. Brooches of many kinds, ranging from the most primitive safety-pin fashioned out of a common bronze pin (such as those found in the Bronze Age settlement at Peschiera on Lake Maggiore), through many varieties, are in universal use. Representations of the human figure are practically unknown, but models of animals of a rude and primitive kind are very common, probably being votive offerings. These are closely parallel to the bronze figures found at Olympia, where human figures were likewise rare. All these objects are decorated in repoussf with geometric designs. The culture of the Villanova period is part of the Hallstatt civilization, though the contents of the Hallstatt (q.v.) graves differ in several marked features from the anti- quities of the ordinary Villanova period, there is no breach of continuity between Hallstatt and Villanova, for the types of Vadena, Este, Golasecca and Villanova are found in the Hallstatt culture. The connexion between the north and the south of the Alps is never interrupted. The chief difference lies in the fact that the Celts of the Danubian region made greater advances in the development of weapons and defensive armour than their kindred in northern Italy. The Po and Danube regions alike are characterized by bronze buckets, cists, girdles and the like, wrought in repoussi with animal and geometric designs; but the introduction of iron into Italy is considerably posterior to its development in the Hallstatt area. See Montelius, La Civilisation primitive en Italic; Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, vol. i. ; Brizio, in C. R. Acad. Inscr. (1906), 315 sqq.; Grenier, in Melanges de I icole franchise (1907), 325 sqq.; Pigorim and Vaglieri have contributed articles to the Rendiconli del Lincei and the Notizie degli scavi from 1907 onwards. (W. Ri.) VILLANUEVA DE LA SERENA, a town of western Spain, in the province of Badajoz, near the left bank of the river Guadiana, and on the Madrid-Badajoz railway. Pop. (1900) 13,489. Villanueva is a clean and thriving place, with good modern public buildings — town hall, churches, convents and schools. It is the chief town of an undulating plain, La Serena, locally celebrated for red wine and melons. Grain and hemp are also cultivated, and live stock extensively reared in the neighbourhood. VILLANUEVA Y GELTRU, a seaport of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Barcelona; on the Barcelona-Tarragona section of the coast railway. Pop. (1900) 11,850. Villanueva is a busy modern town, with manufactures of cotton, woollen and linen goods, and of paper. It has also iron foundries and an important agricultural trade. The harbour affords safe and deep anchorage; it is a lifeboat station and the head- quarters of a large fishing fleet. The coasting trade is also considerable. Villanueva has a museum, founded by the Catalan poet, historian and diplomat, Vittorio Balaguer (1824- 1901), which contains collections of Roman, Egyptian and prehistoric antiquities, besides paintings, engravings, sculptures, coins and a large library, including many valuable MSS. VILLARD, HENRY (1835-1900), American journalist and financier, was born in Speyer, Rhenish Bavaria, on the loth of April 1835. His baptismal name was Ferdinand Heinrich Gustav Hilgard. His parents removed to Zweibriicken in 1839, and in 1856 his father, Gustav Leonhard Hilgard (d.i867), became a justice of the Supreme Court of Bavaria, at Munich. Henry was educated ar-the gymnasium of Zweibriicken, at the French semi-military academy in Phalsbourg in 1849-50, at the gymnasium of Speyer in 1850-52, and at the universities of Munich and Wurzburg in 1852-53; and in 1853, having had a disagreement with his father, emigrated — without his parents' knowledge — to the United States. It was at this time that he adopted the name Villard. Making his way westward in 1854, he lived in turn at Cincinnati, Belleville (Illinois), Peoria (Illinois) and Chicago, engaged in various employments, and in 1856 formed a project, which came to nothing, for establish- ing a colony of " free soil " Germans in Kansas. In 1856-57 he was editor, and for part of the time was proprietor, of the Racine (Wis.) Volksblatt, in which he advocated the election of John C. Fr6mont (Republican). Thereafter he was associ- ated (in 1857) with the Staats-Zrilung, Frank Leslie's and the Tribune, of New York, and with the Cincinnati Commercial 76 VILLA REAL— VILLA RS in 1859-60; was correspondent of the New York Herald in 1861 and of the New York Tribune (with the Army of the Potomac) in 1862-63, and in 1864 was at the front as the representative of a news agency established by him in that year at Washington. In 1865 he became Washington corre- spondent of the Chicago Tribune, and in 1866 was the corre- spondent of that paper in the Prusso-Austrian War. He began to take an interest in railway financiering in 1871, was elected president of the Oregon & California railroad and of the Oregon Steamship Company in 1876, was receiver of the Kansas Pacific railway in 1876-78, organized the Oregon Railway & Naviga- tion Company in 1879, the Oregon Improvement Company in 1880, and the Oregon & Transcontinental Company in 1881, becoming in that year president of the Northern Pacific rail- way, which was completed under his management, and of which he remained president until 1883. In 1887 he again became connected with the Northern Pacific, and in 1889 was chosen chairman of its finance committee. He was actively identified with the financing of other Western railway projects until 1893. In 1 88 1 he acquired the New York Evening Post and the Nation. In 1883 he paid the debt of the state uni- versity of Oregon, and gave to the institution $50.000, and he also gave to the town of Zweibrucken, the home of his boyhood, an orphan asylum (1891). He died on the I2th of November 1900. See Memoirs of Henry Villard, Journalist and Financier, 1835- 1900 (2 vols., Boston, 1904). VILLA REAL, the capital of the district of [Villa Real, Portugal; 10 m. N. of the river Douro and 47 m. by road 'E.N.E. of Oporto. Pop. (1900) 6716. The town has a large transit trade in wine, mineral waters and live stock, especially pigs. The administrative district of Villa Real corresponds with the western part of the ancient province of Traz os Montes (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 242,196; area, 1650 sq. m. There are alkaline waters and baths at Vidago (near Chaves) and at Pedras Salgadas (near Villa Pouca d'Aguiar). The district adjacent to the Douro is known as the Paiz do vinho, or " wine country"; here are the vineyards from which " port " wine is manufactured. VILLARET DE JOYEUSE, LOUIS THOMAS (1750-1812), French admiral, was born at Auch, of a noble family of Lan- guedoc. He was originally destined for the church, but served for some time in the royal guard, which he had to leave at the age of sixteen after killing one of his comrades in a duel. He then entered the navy, and in 1773 was lieutenant on the " Atalante " in Indian waters. In 1778 he distinguished him- self at the siege of Pondicherry^ and was promoted captain. He afterwards served under Suffren, took part in the battle of Cuddalore, and in 1781 was taken prisoner after a fierce encounter with an English vessel. He was released in 1783, and, unlike the majority of naval officers, did not emigrate during the Revolution. In 1791 he was in command of the " Prudente " in the waters of San Domingo, and in 1794 was appointed rear-admiral and assisted the Conventional, St Andre, in the reorganization of the fleet. Villaret was in com- mand of the French fleet at the battle of the First of June. He was appointed a member of the Council of the Ancients in 1796, and was sentenced to deportation in the following year on ac- count of his royalist sympathies. He escaped arrest, however, and until the Consulate lived in obscurity at Oleron. In 1801 he commanded the squadron which transported the French army to San Domingo, and the following year was made captain- general of Martinique, which he surrendered to the English in 1809 after a brave defence. In 1811, after some hesitation on the part of Napoleon, Villaret was rewarded for his services with the command of a military division and the post of governor- general of Venice. He died at Venice. VILLARI, PASQUALE (1827- ), Italian historian and statesman, was born at Naples on the 3rd of October 1827. He studied together with Luigi la Vista under Francesco de Sanctis. He was implicated in the riots of the isth of May 1848 at Naples, against the Bourbon government, and had to take refuge in Florence. There he devoted himself to teaching and historical research in the public libraries, and in 1859 he published the first volume of his Storia di Girolamo Savona- rola e de' suoi tempi, in consequence of which he was appointed professor of history at Pisa. A second volume appeared in 1861, and the work, which soon came to be recognized as an Italian classic, was translated into various foreign languages. It was followed by a work of even greater critical value, Niccold Machiavelli e i suoi tempi (1877-82). In the mean- while Villari had left Pisa and was transferred to the chair of philosophy of history at the Institute of Studii Superiori in Florence, and he was also appointed a member of the council of education (1862). He served as a juror at the international exhibition of that year in London, and contributed an important monograph on education in England and Scotland. In 1869 he was appointed under-secretary of state for education, and shortly afterwards was elected member of parliament, a position which he held for several years. In 1884 he was nominated senator, and in 1891-92 he was minister of education in the Marchese di Rudini's first cabinet. In 1893-94 he collected a number of essays on Florentine history, originally published in the Nuova. Antologia, under the title of I primi due secoli della storia di Firenze, and in 1901 he produced Le Invasioni bar- bariche in Italia, a popular account in one volume of the events following the dissolution of the Roman empire. All these works have been translated into English by the historian's wife, Linda White Villari. Another side of Villari's activity was his interest in the political and social problems of the day; and although never identified with any political party, his speeches and writings have always commanded considerable public attention. Among his other literary works may be mentioned: Saggi Critici (1868); Arte, Storia, e Filosofia (Florence, 1884); Scritti varii (Bologna, 1894); another volume of Saggi Critici (Bologna, 1896); and a volume of Discussioni critiche e discorsi (Bologna, 1905), containing his speeches as president of the Dante Alighieri Society. His most important political and social essays are col- lected in his Lettere Meridional! ed altri scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia (Turin, 1885), and Scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia (FIorence,'i9O2). The Lettere Meridionali (originally published in the newspaper L'Opinione in 1875) produced a deep impression, as they were the first exposure of the real conditions of southern Italy. A selection of Villari's essays, translated by his wife, has been published in England (1907). See also Francesco Baldasseroni, Pasquale Villari (Florence, 1907). VILLA RICA, the largest city in the interior of Paraguay, on the railway from Asuncion (70 m. N.W.) to Encarnacion. Pop. (1910) about 25,000. Situated in a rich agricultural region watered by the upper Tepicuary, with finely timbered mountains extending to the E. and W., Villa Rica has an im- portant trade in tobacco and yerba mate. It is to a great extent modern, and contains some fine buildings, including a national college, a church, many schools, and a branch of the Agricultural Bank. VILLARREAL, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Castell6n de la Plana; 4 m. from the Mediterranean Sea, near the right bank of the river Mijares, and on the Barcelona- Valencia railway. Pop. (1900) 16,068. Villarreal has a station on the light railway between Onda and the seaports of Castellon de la Plana and Burriana. Under Moorish rule, and up to the expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1609, it was the headquarters of a flourishing trade, and in modern times its industries have revived. Palm-groves, churches with blue- tiled cupolas, and houses with flat roofs and view-turrets (miradores) to some extent preserve the Moorish character of the town. There are extensive orange-groves, watered by the irrigation canal of Castell6n, which is a good example of Moorish engineering skill. The local industries include manufactures of paper, woollen goods and spirits. VILLARS, CLAUDE LOUIS HECTOR DE, PRINCE DE MAR- TIGNES, MARQUIS AND Due DE VILLARS AND VICOMTE DE MELUN (1653-1734), marshal of France, one of the greatest generals of French history, was bom at Moulins on the 8th of May 1653, and entered the army through the corps of pages in 1671. He VILLAVICIOSA— VILLEGAS 77 served in the light cavalry in the Dutch wars, and distinguished himself by his daring and resourcefulness. But in spite of a long record of excellent service under Turenne, Cond6 and Luxembourg, and of his aristocratic birth, his promotion was but slow, for he had incurred the enmity of the powerful Louvois, and although he had been proprietary colonel (mestre de camp) of a cavalry regiment since 1674, thirteen years elapsed before he was made a martchal de camp. In the interval be- tween the Dutch wars and the formation of the League of Augs- burg, Villars, who combined with his military gifts the tact and subtlety of the diplomatist, was employed in an unofficial mission to the court of Bavaria, and there became the constant companion of the elector, with whom he took the field against the Turks and fought at Mohacs. He returned to France in 1690 and was given a command in the cavalry of the army in Flanders, but towards the end of the Grand Alliance War he went to Vienna as ambassador. His part in the next war (see SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR), beginning with Friedlingen (1702) and Hochstett (1703) and ending with Denain (1712), has made him immortal. For Friedlingen he received the marshalate, and for the pacification of the insurgent Cevennes the Saint-Esprit order and the title of duke. Friedlingen and Hochstett were barren victories, and the campaigns of which they formed part records of lost opportunities. Villars's glory thus begins with the year 1709 when France, apparently help- less, was roused to a great effort of self-defence by the exorbi- tant demands of the Coalition. In that year he was called to command the main army opposing Eugene and Marlborough on the northern frontier. During the famine of the winter he shared the soldiers' miserable rations. When the campaign opened the old Marshal Boufflers volunteered to serve under him, and after the terrible battle of Malplaquet (q.v.), in which he was gravely wounded, he was able to tell the king: " If it please God to give your majesty's enemies another such victory, they are ruined. " Two more campaigns passed without a battle and with scarcely any advance on the part of the invaders, but at last Marlborough manoeuvred Villars out of the famous Ne plus ultra lints, and the power of the defence seemed to be broken. But Louis made a last effort, the English contingent and its great leader were withdrawn from the enemy's camp, and Villars, though still suffering from his Malplaquet wounds, outmanoeuvred and decisively defeated Eugene in the battle of Denain. This victory saved France, though the war dragged on for another year on the Rhine, where ViLlars took Landau, led the stormers at Freiburg and negotiated the peace of Rastatt with Prince Eugene. He played a conspicuous part in the politics of the Regency period as the principal opponent of Cardinal Dubois, and only the memories of Montmorency's rebellion prevented his being made constable of France. He took the field for the last time in the War of the Polish Succession (1734), with the title " marshal-general of the king's armies," that Turenne alone had held before him. But he was now over eighty years of age, and the war was more diplomatic than earnest, and after opening the campaign with all the fire and restless energy of his youth he died at Turin on the I7th of June 1734. Villars's memoirs show us a " fanfaron plein d honneur," as Voltaire calls him. He was indeed boastful, with the gas- conading habit of his native province, and also covetous of honours and wealth. But he was an honourable man of high courage, moral and physical, and a soldier who stands above all his contemporaries and successors in the i8th century, on the same height as Marlborough and Frederick. The memoirs, part of which was published in 1734 and afterwards several times republished in untrustworthy versions, were for the first time completely edited by the Marquis de Vogue in 1884-92. VILLAVICIOSA, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on the Ria de Villa viciosa, an estuary formed by the small river Villaviciosa which here enters the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1000) 20,995. The town is the headquarters of a large fishery, and has some coasting trade. Its exports are 'chiefly agricultural produce. Villaviciosa suffers from the competition of the neighbouring ports of Gij6n and Aviles, and from the lack of railway communication. It is connected by good roads with Siero (13 m.) and Infiesto (9 m.) on the Oviedo-Infiesto railway. VILLEFRANCHE-DE-ROUERGUE, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Aveyron, 36 m. W. of Rodez by road. Pop. (1906) town, 6297; commune, 3352. Villefranche, which has a station on the Orleans railway, lies amongst the hills on the right bank of the Aveyron at its junction with the Alzou. One of the three bridges that cross the river belongs to the i3th century, and the straight, narrow streets are full of gabled houses of the I3th and I4th centuries. One of the principal thoroughfares passes beneath the porch of Notre-Dame. the principal church of Villefranche. Notre-Dame was built from 1260 to 1581, the massive tower which surmounts its porch being of late Gothic architecture. The remarkable wood- work in the choir dates from the isth century. A Carthusian monastery overlooking the town from the left bank of the Aveyron derives much interest from the completeness and fine preservation of its buildings, which date from the ijth century. They include a fine refectory and two cloisters, the smaller of which is a masterpiece of the late Gothic style. The manufacture of leather, animal-traps, hosiery, bell-founding, hemp-spinning, &c., are carried on. Quarries of phosphates and mines of argentiferous lead are worked near Villefranche. Villefranche, founded about 1252, owes its name to the numerous immunities granted by its founder Alphonse, count of Toulouse (d. 1271), and in 1348 it was so flourishing that sumptuary laws were passed. Soon afterwards the town fell into the hands of Edward, the Black Prince, but was the first place in Guienne to rise against the English. New privileges were granted to the town by King Charles V., but these were taken away by Louis XI. In 1588 the inhabitants repulsed the forces of the League, and afterwards murdered a governor sent by Henry IV. The town was ravaged by plague in 1463, 1558 and 1628, and in 1643 a revolt, excited by the exactions of the intendants, was cruelly repressed. VILLEFRANCHE-SUR-SAONE, a manufacturing town of east- central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Rh6ne, on the Morgon near its junction with the Sa&ne, 21 m. N. by W. of Lyons by rail. Pop (1006) 14,794. Among its industries the chief are the manufacture of working clothes, the manufacture, dyeing and finishing of cotton fabrics, the spinning of cotton thread, copper founding and the manufacture of machinery and agricultural implements. The wines of Beau- jolais, hemp, cloth, linen, cottons, drapery goods and cattle are the principal articles of trade. An old Renaissance house is used as the town hall. The church of Notre-Dame des Marais, begun at the end of the i4th and finished in the i6th century, has a tower and spire (rebuilt in 1862), standing to the right of the facade (isth century), in which are carved wooden doors. Villefranche is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a com- munal college among its public institutions. Founded in 1212 by Guichard IV. count of Beaujeu, Ville- franche became in the I4th century capital of the Beaujolais. As a punishment for an act of violence towards the mayor's daughter, Edward II. was forced to surrender the Beaujolais to the duke of Bourbon. VILLEGAS, ESTEBAN MANUEL DE (1580-1669), Spanish poet, was born at Matute (Logrofio) on the 5th of February 1589, matriculated at Salamanca on the 2oth of November 1610, and challenged attention by the mingled arrogance and accomplish- ment of Las Eriiicas (1617), a collection of clever translations from Horace and Anacreon, and of original poems, the charm of which is marred by the writer's petulant vanity. Marrying in 1626 or earlier, Villegas practised law at Najera till 1659, when he was charged with expressing unorthodox views on the subject of free will; he was exiled for four years to Santa Maria de Ribaredonda, but was allowed to return for three months to Najera in March 1660. It seems probable that the rest of the sentence was remitted, for the report of the local inquisition lays stress on Villegas's simple piety, on the extravagance of his attire, VILLEHARDOUIN ridiculous in a man of his age, and on the eccentricity of his general conduct and conversation, so marked as to suggest " a kind of mania or lesion of the imagination." In his version of Boetius (1665), Villegas showed that he had profited by his experience, for he made no attempt to translate the last book (in which the problem of free will is discussed), and reprinted the Latin text without comment. He died at Najera on the 3rd of September 1669. His tragedy El Hipdlito, imitated from Euripides, and a series of critical dissertations entitled Variae PhUologiae, finished in 1650, are unpublished; and " a book of satires," found among his papers by the inquisitors, was con- fiscated. VILLEHARDOUIN, GEOFFROY DE (c. n6o-c. 1213), the first vernacular historian of France, and perhaps of modern Europe, who possesses literary merit, is rather supposed than known to have been born at the chateau from which he took his name, near Troyes, in Champagne, about the year 1160. Not merely his literary and historical importance, but almost all that is known about him, comes from his chronicle of the fourth crusade, or Conqutle de Constantinople. Nothing is positively known of his ancestry, for the supposition (originating with Du Cange) that a certain William, marshal of Champagne between 1163 and 1179, was his father appears to be erroneous. Ville- hardouin himself, however, undoubtedly held this dignity, and certain minute and perhaps not very trustworthy indications, chiefly of an heraldic character, have led his most recent bio- graphers to lay it down that he was not born earlier than 1150 or later than 1164. He introduces himself to us with a certain abruptness, merely specifying his own name as one of a list of knights of Champagne who with their count, Thibault, took the cross at a tournament held at Escry-sur-Aisne in Advent 1199, the crusade in contemplation having been started by the preaching of Fulk de Neuilly, who was commissioned thereto by Pope Innocent III. The next year six deputies, two appointed by each of the three allied counts of Flanders, Champagne and Blois, were despatched to Venice to negotiate for ships. Of these deputies Villehardouin was one and Quesnes de Bethune, the poet, another. They concluded a bargain with the seigniory for transport and provisions at a fixed price. Villehardouin had hardly returned when Thibault fell sick and died; but this did not prevent, though it somewhat delayed, the enterprise of the crusaders. The management of that enterprise, however, was a difficult one, and cost Villehardouin another embassy into Italy to prevent if possible some of his fellow-pilgrims from breaking the treaty with the Venetians by embarking at other ports and employing other convoy. He was only in part suc- cessful, and there was great difficulty in raising the charter- money among those who had actually assembled (in 1202) at Venice, the sum collected falling far short of the stipulated amount. It is necessary to remember this when the somewhat erratic and irregular character of the operations which followed is judged. The defence that the crusaders were bound to pay their passage-money to the Holy Land, in one form or other, to the Venetians, is perhaps a weak one in any case for the attack on two Christian cities, Zara and Constantinople; it becomes weaker still when it is found that the expedition never went or attempted to go to the Holy Land at all. But the desire to discharge obligations incurred is no doubt respectable in itself, and Villehardouin, as one of the actual negotiators of the bargain, must have felt it with peculiar strength. The crusaders set sail at last, and Zara, which the Venetians coveted, was taken without much trouble. The question then arose whither the host should go next. Villehardouin does not tell us of any direct part taken by himself in the debates on the question of interfering or not in the disputed succession to the empire of the East— debates in which the chief ecclesiastics present strongly protested against the diversion of the enterprise from its proper goal. It is quite clear, however, that the mar- shal of Champagne, who was one of the leaders and inner counsellors of the expedition throughout, sympathized with the majority, and it is fair to point out that the temptation of chivalrous adventure was probably as great as that of gain. He narrates spiritedly enough the dissensions and discussions in the winter camp of Zara and at Corfu, but is evidently much more at ease when the voyage was again resumed, and, after a fair passage round Greece, the crusaders at last saw before them the great city of Constantinople which they had it in mind to attack. When the assault was decided upon, Ville- hardouin himself was in the fifth " battle," the leader of which was Mathieu de Montmorency. But, though his account of the siege is full of personal touches, and contains one reference to the number of witnesses whose testimony he took for a certain wonderful fact, he does not tell us anything of his own prowess. After the flight of the usurper Alexius, and when the blind Isaac, whose claims the crusaders were defending, had been taken by the Greeks from prison and placed on the throne, Villehardouin, with Montmorency and two Venetians, formed the embassy sent to arrange terms. He was again similarly distinguished when it became necessary to remonstrate with Alexius, the blind man's son and virtual successor, on the non- keeping of the terms. Indeed Villehardouin 's talents as a diplomatist seem to have been held in very high esteem, for later, when the Latin empire had become a fact, he was charged with the delicate business of mediating between the emperor Baldwin and Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, in which task he had at least partial success. He was also appointed marshal of " Romanic " — a term very vaguely used, but apparently signifying the mainland of the Balkan Peninsula, while his nephew and namesake, afterwards prince cf Achaia, took a great part in the Latin conquest of Peloponnesus. Villehardouin himself before long received an important command against the Bulgarians. He was left to maintain the siege of Adrianople when Baldwin advanced to attack the relieving force, and with Dandolo had much to do in saving the defeated crusaders from utter destruction, and conducting the retreat, in which he commanded the rearguard, and brought his troops in safety to the sea of Rodosto, and thence to the capital. As he occupied the post of honour in this disaster, so he had that (the command of the vanguard) in the expedition which the regent Henry made shortly afterwards to revenge his brother Baldwin's defeat and capture. And, when Henry had succeeded to the crown on the announcement of Baldwin's death, it was Ville- hardouin who fetched home his bride Agnes of Montferrat, and shortly afterwards commanded under him in a naval battle with the ships of Theodore Lascaris at the fortress of Cibotus. In the settlement of the Latin empire after the truce with Lascaris, Villehardouin received the fief of Messinople (supposed to be Mosynopolis, a little inland from the modern Gulf of Lagos, and not far from the ancient Abdera) from Boniface of Montferrat, with the record of whose death the chronicle abruptly closes. _ In the foregoing account only those particulars which bear directly on Villehardouin himself have been detailed; but the chronicle is as far as possible from being an autobiography, and the displays of the writer's personality, numerous as they are, are quite involuntary, and consist merely in his way of handling the subject, not in the references (as brief as his functions as chronicler will admit) to his own proceedings. The chronicle of Villehardouin is justly held to be the very best presentation we possess of the spirit of chivalry — not the designedly exalted and poetized chivalry of the romances, not the self-conscious and deliberate chivalry of the I4th century, but the unsophisticated mode of thinking and acting which brought about the crusades, stimulated the vast literary development of the I2th and I3th centuries, and sent knights-errant, principally though not wholly of French blood, to establish principalities and kingdoms throughout Europe and the nearer East. On the whole, no doubt, it is the more masculine and practical side of this enthusiastic state of mind which Ville- hardouin shows. No woman makes any but the briefest appear- ance in his pages, though in reference to this it must of course be remembered that he was certainly a man past middle life when the events occurred, and perhaps a man approaching eld age when he set them down. Despite the strong and graphic touches here and there, exhibiting the impression which the beauty of sea and land, the splendour of Constantinople, the magnitude of the effete but still imposing Greek power, made on him, there is not only an entire absence of dilation on such subjects as a modern would have dilated on (that was to be expected), but an absence likewise of the elaborate and painful description of detail in which contemporary VILLELE 79 trouveres would have indulged. It is curious, for instance, to compare the scanty references to the material marvels of Constan- tinople which Villehardouin saw in their glory, which perished by sack and fire under his very eyes, and which live chiefly in the melancholy pages of his Greek contemporary Nicetas, with the elaborate descriptions of the scarcely greater wonders of fabulous courts at Constantinople itself, at Babylon, and elsewhere, to be found in his other contemporaries, the later chanson de geste writers and the earlier embroiderers of the Arthurian romances and remans d'aventurcs. And this later contrast is all the more striking that Villehardouin agrees with, and not impossibly borrows from, these very writers in many points of style and phraseology. The brief chapters of his work have been justly compared to the laisses or tirades of a chanson in what may be called the vignetting of the subject of each, in the absence of any attempt to run on the narra- tive, in the stock forms, and in the poetical rather than prosaic word-order of the sentences. Undoubtedly this half-poetic style (animated as it is and redeemed from any charge of bastardy by the freshness and vigour which pervade it) adds not a little to the charm of the book. Its succession of word pictures, conventional and yet vigorous as the illuminations of a medieval manuscript, and in their very conventionality free from all thought of literary presentation, must charm all readers. The sober lists of names with which it opens; the account of the embassy, so business-like in its estimates of costs and terms, and suddenly breaking into a fervent description of how the six deputies, " prostrating them- selves on the earth and weeping warm tears, begged the doge and people of Venice to have pity on Jerusalem " ; the story immediately following, how the young count Thibault of Champagne, raising himself from a sickbed in his joy at the successful return of his ambassadors, " leva sus et chevaucha, et laz! com grant domages, car onques puis ne chevaucha que cele foiz," compose a most striking overture. Then the history relapses into, the business vein and tells of the debates which took place as to the best means of carrying out the vow after the count's decease, the rendezvous, too ill kept at Venice, the plausible suggestion of the Venetians that the balance due to them should be made up by a joint attack on their enemy, the king of Hungary. Villehardouin does not in the least conceal the fact that the pope (" 1'apostoilles de Rome," as he calls him, in the very phrase of the chansons) was very angry with this; for his own part he seems to think of little or nothing but the reparation due to the republic, which had loyally kept its bargain and been defrauded of the price, of the infamy of breaking company on the part of members of a joint association, and perhaps of the unknightliness of not taking up an adventure whenever it presents itself. For here again the restoration of the disinherited prince of Constantinople supplied an excuse quite as plausible as the liquida- tion of the debt to Venice. A famous passage, and one short enough to quote, is that describing the old blind doge Dandolo, who had " Grant ochoison de remanoir (reason for staying at home), car viels horn ere, et si avoit les yaulx en la teste biaus et n'en veoit gote (goutte)," and yet was the foremost in fight. It would be out of place to attempt any further analysis of the Conquete here. But it is not impertinent, and is at the same time an excuse for what has been already said, to repeat that Villehar- douin's book, brief as it is, is in reality one of the capital books of literature, not merely for its merit, but because it is the most authentic and the most striking embodiment in contemporary literature of the sentiments which determined the action of a great and important period of history. There are but very few books which hold this position, and Villehardouin's is one of them. If every other contemporary record of the crusades perished, we should still be able by aid of this to understand and realize what the mental attitude of crusaders, of Teutonic knights, and the rest was, and without this we should lack the earliest, the most undoubtedly genuine, and the most characteristic of all such records. The very inconsistency with which Villehardouin is chargeable, the absence of compunction with which he relates the changing of a sacred religious pilgrimage into something by no means unlike a mere filibustering raid on the great scale, addi a charm to the book. For, religious as it is, it is entirely free from the very slightest touch of hypocrisy or indeed of self-consciousness of any kind. The famous description of the crusades, gesta Dei per Francos, was evidently to Villehardouin a plain matter-of-fact description, and it no more occurred to him to doubt the divine favour being extended to the expeditions against Alexius or Theodore than to doubt that it was shown to expeditions against Saracens and Turks. The person of Villehardouin reappears for us once, but once only, in the chronicle of his continuator, Henri de Valenciennes. There is a. great gap in style, though none in subject, between the really poetical prose of the first historian of the fifth crusade and the Latin empire and the awkward mannerism (so awkward that it has been taken to represent a " disrhymed " verse chronicle) of his follower. But the much greater length at which Villehardouin appears on this one occasion shows us the restraint which he must have exercised in the passages which deal with himself in his own work. He again led the vanguard in the emperor Henry's exoedition against Burilas the Bulgarian, and he is represented by the Valenciennes scribe as encouraging his sovereign to the attack in a long speech. Then he disappears altogether, with the exception of some brief and chiefly diplo- matic mentions. Du Cange discovered and quoted a deed of donation by him dated 1207, by which certain properties were devised to the churches of Notre Dame de Foissy and Notre Dame de Troyes, with the reservation of life interests to his daughters Alix and Damerones, and his sisters Emmeline and Haye, all of whom appear to have embraced a monastic life. A letter addressed from the East to Blanche of Champagne is cited, and a papal record of 1212 styles him still " marshal of Romania. " The next year this title passed to his son Erard; and 1213 is accordingly given as the date of his death, which, as there is no record or hint of his having returned to France, may be supposed to have happened at Messinople, where also he must have written the Conquete. The book appears to have been known in the ages immediately succeeding his own; and, though there is no contemporary manu- script in existence, there are some half-dozen which appear to date from the end of the I3th or the course of the I4th century, while one at least appears to be a copy made from his own work in that spirit of unintelligent faithfulness which is much more valuable to posterity than more pragmatical editing. The first printed edition of the book, by a certain Blaise de Vigenere, dates from 1585, is dedicated to the seigniory of Venice (Villenardouin, it should be said, has been accused of a rather unfair predilection for the Venetians), and speaks of either a part or the whole of the memoirs as having been printed twelve years earlier. Of this earlier copy nothing seems to be known. A better edition, founded on a Nether- landish MS., appeared at Lyons in 1601. But both these were completely antiquated by the great edition of Du Cange in 1657, wherein that learned writer employed all his knowledge, never since equalled, of the subject, but added a translation, or rather paraphrase, into modern French which is scarcely worthy either of himself or his author. Dom Brial gave a new edition from different MS. sources in 1823, and the book figures with different degrees of dependence on Du Cange and Brial in the collections of Petitot, Buchon, and Michaud and Poujoulat. All these, however, have been superseded for the modern student by the editions of Natalis de Wailly (1872 and 1874), in which the text is critically edited from all the available MSS. and a new translation added, while there is a still later and rather handier one by E. Bouchet (2 vols., Paris, 1891), which, however, rests mainly on N. de Wailly for text. The charm of Villehardouin can escape no reader; but few readers will fail to derive some additional pleasure from the two essays which Sainte- Beuve devoted to him, reprinted in the ninth volume of the Causeries dulundi. See also A. Debidour, Les Cnroniqueurs (1888). There are English translations by T. Smith (1829), and (more literally) Sir F. T. Marzials (Everyman's Library, 1908). (G. SA.) VILLELE, JEAN BAPTISTS GUILLAUME MARIE ANNE S&RAPHIN, COMTE DE (1773-1854), French statesman, was born at Toulouse on the i4th of April 1773 and educated for the navy. He joined the " Bayonnaise " at Brest in July 1788 and served in the West and East Indies. Arrested in the Isle of Bourbon under the Terror, he was set free by the revolution of Thermidor (July 1794)- He acquired some property in the island, and married in 1799 the daughter of a great proprietor, M. Desbassyns de Richemont, whose estates he had managed. His apprenticeship to politics was served in the Colonial Assembly of Bourbon, where he fought successfully to preserve the colony from the consequences of perpetual interference from the authorities in Paris, and on the other hand to prevent local discontent from appealing to the English for protection. The arrival of General Decaen, sent out by Bonaparte in 1802, restored security to the island, and five years later Villele, who had now realized a large fortune, returned to France. He was mayor of his commune, and a member of the council of the Haute-Garonne under the Empire. At the restoration of 1814 he at once declared for royalist principles. He was mayor of Toulouse in 1814-15 and deputy for the Haute-Garonne in the " Chambre Introuvable " of 1815. Villele, who before the promulgation of the charter had written some Observations sur le projet de constitution opposing it, as too democratic in character, naturally took his place on the extreme right with the ultra-royalists. In the new Chamber of 1816 Villele found his party in a minority, but his personal authority nevertheless increased. He was looked on by the 8o VILLEMAIN— VILLENA, E. DE ministerialists as the least unreasonable of his party, and by the " ultras " as the safest of their leaders. Under the electoral law of 1817 the Abbe Gregoire, who was popularly supposed to have voted for the death of Louis XVI. in the Convention, was admitted to the Chamber of Deputies. The Conservative party gained strength from the alarm raised by this incident and still more from the shock caused by the assassination of the due de Berri. The due de Richelieu was compelled to admit to the cabinet two of the chiefs of the Left, Villele and Corbiere. Villele resigned within a year, but on the fall of Richelieu at the end of 1821 he became the real chief of the new cabinet, in which he was minister of finance. Although not himself a courtier, he was backed at court by Sosthenes de la Rochefoucauld and Madame du Cayla, and in 1822 Louis XVIII. gave him the title of count and made him formally prime minister. He immediately proceeded to muzzle opposition by stringent press laws, and the discovery of minor liberal conspiracies afforded an excuse for further repression. Forced against his will into interference in Spain by Mathieu de Montmorency and Chateaubriand, he contrived to reap some credit for the monarchy from the successful campaign of 1823. Meanwhile he had consolidated the royal power by persuading Louis XVIII. to swamp the liberal majority in the upper house by the nomination of twenty-seven new peers; he availed himself of the temporary popularity of the monarchy after the Spanish campaign to summon a new Chamber of Deputies. This new and obedient legislature, to which only nineteen liberals were returned, made itself into a septennial parliament, thus providing time, it was thought, to restore some part of the ancien regime. Villele's plans were assisted by the death of Louis XVIII. and the accession of his bigoted brother. Prudent financial administration since 1815 had made possible the conversion of the state bonds from 5 to 4%. It was proposed to utilize the money set free by this operation to indemnify by a milliard francs the emigres for the loss of their lands at the Revolution; it was also proposed to restore their former privileges to the religious congregations. Both these propositions were, with some restrictions, secured. Sacrilege was made a crime punishable by death, and the ministry were preparing a law to alter the law of equal inheritance, and thus create anew the great estates. These measures roused violent opposition in the country, which a new and stringent press law, nicknamed the " law of justice and love," failed to put down. The peers rejected the law of inheritance and the press law; it was found necessary to disband the National Guard; and in November 1827 seventy-six new peers were created, and recourse was had to a general election. The new Chamber proved hostile to Villele, who resigned to make way for the short-lived moderate ministry of Martignac. The new ministry made Villele's removal to the upper house a condition of taking office, and he took no. further part in public affairs. At the time of his death, on the i3th of March 1854, he had advanced as far as 1816 with his memoirs, which were completed from his correspondence by his family as Memoires et correspondance du comle de Villele (Paris, 5 vols., 1887-90). See also C. de Mazade, L'Opposition royaliste (Paris, 1894) ; J. G. Hyde de Neuville. Notice sur le comle de Villele (Paris, 1899); and M. Chotard, " L'CEuvre financiere de M. de Villele," in Annales des sciences politiques (vol. v., 1890). VILLEMAIN, ABEL FRANCOIS (1790-1867), French politician and man of letters, was born in Paris on the 9th of June 1 790. He was educated at the lycee Louis-le-Grand, and became assistant master at the lycee Charlemagne, and subsequently at the ficole Normale. In 1812 he gained a prize from the Academy with an eloge on Montaigne. Under the restoration he was appointed, first, assistant professor of modern history, and then professor of French eloquence at the Sorbonne. Here he delivered a series of literary lectures which had an extra- ordinary effect on his younger contemporaries. Villemain had the great advantage of coming just before the Romantic move- ment, of having a wide and catholic love of literature without being an extremist. All, or almost all, the clever young men of the brilliant generation of 1830 passed under his influence; and, while he pleased the Romanticists by his frank apprecia- tion of the beauties of English, German, Italian and Spanish poetry, he had not the least inclination to decry the classics — either the classics proper of Greece and Rome or the so-called classics of France. In 1819 he published a book on Cromwell, and two years later he was elected to the Academy. Ville- main was appointed by the restoration government " chef de 1'imprimerie et de la librairie," a post involving a kind of irregular censorship of the press, and afterwards to the office of master of requests. Before the revolution of July he had been deprived of his office for his liberal tendencies, and had been elected deputy for fivreux. Under Louis Philippe he re- ceived a peerage in 1832. He was a member of the council of public instruction, and was twice minister of that department, and he also became secretary of the Academy. During the whole of the July monarchy he was thus one of the chief dis- pensers of literary patronage in France, but in his later years his reputation declined. He died in Paris on the 8th of May 1867. Villemain's chief work is his Cours de la litterature fran^aise (5 vols., 1828-29). Among his other works are : Tableau de la litterature du moyen Age (2 vols., 1846); Tableau de la litterature au XVIII' sikcle (4 vols., 1864); Souvenirs contemporains (2 vols., 1856); Histoire de Gregoire VII. (2 vols., 1873; Eng. trans., 1874). Among notices on Villemain may be cited that o? Louis de Lomenie (1841), E. Mirecourt (1858), J. L. Dubut (1875). See also Sainte- Beuve, Portraits (1841, vol. iii.), and Causeries du lundi (vol. xi. " Notes et pensees "). VILLENA, ENRIQUE DE (1384-1434), Spanish author, was born in 1384. Through his grandfather, Alphonso de Aragon, count de Denia y Ribagorza, he traced his descent from Jaime II. of Aragon and Blanche of Naples. He is commonly known as the marquess de Villena; but, although a marquessate was at one time in the family, the title was revoked and annulled by Henry III. Villena's father, Don Pedro de Villena, was killed at Aljubarrota; the boy was educated by his grand- father, showed great capacity for learning and was reputed to be a wizard. About 1402 he married Maria de Albornoz, senora del Infantado, who speedily became the recognized mistress of Henry III.; the complaisant husband was rewarded by being appointed master of the military order of Calatrava in 1404, but on the death of Henry at the end of 1406 the knights of the order refused to accept the nomination, which, after a long contest, was rescinded in 1415. He was present at the coronation of Ferdinand of Aragon at Saragossa in 1414, retired to Valencia till 1417, when he moved to Castile to claim com- pensation for the loss of his mastership. He obtained in return the lordship (senorio) of Miesta, and, conscious of his unsuita- bility for warfare or political life, dedicated himself to literature. He died of fever at Madrid on the isth of December 1434. He is represented by a fragment of his Arte de trobar (1414), an indigestible treatise composed for the Barcelona Consistory of Gay Science; by Los Trabajos de Hercules (1417), a pedantic and unreadable allegory; by his Tratado de la Consolacidn and his handbook to the pleasures and fashions of the table, the Arte cisoria, both written in 1423; by a commentary on Psalm viii. ver. 4, which dates from 1424; by the Libra de Aojamienlo (1425), a ponderous dissertation on the evil eye and its effects; and by a translation of the Aeneid, the first ever made, which was finished on the loth of October 1428. His treatise on leprosy exists but has not been published. Villena's writings do not justify his extraordinary fame; his subjects are devoid of charm, and his style is so uncouth as to be almost unintelligible. Yet he has an assured place in the history of Spanish literature; he was a generous patron of letters, his translation of Virgil marks him out as a pioneer of the Re- naissance, and he set a splendid example of intellectual curiosity. Moreover, there is an abiding dramatic interest in the baffling personality of the solitary high-born student whom Lope de Vega introduces in Porfiar hasta morir, whom Ruiz de Alarc6n presents in La Cueva de Salamanca, and who reappears in the VILLENA— VILLENAGE 81 igth century in Larra's Macias and in Hartzenbusch's play La Redoma encantada. (J. F.-K.) VILLENA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante; on the right bank of the river Vinalapo, and at the junction of railways from Valencia, Alicante, Albacete and Yecla. Pop. (1900) 14,099. Villena is a labyrinth of winding alleys, which contain some interesting examples of Moorish domestic archi- tecture. It is dominated by a large and picturesque Moorish castle. The surrounding hills are covered with vines, and to the east there is an extensive salt lagoon. Silk, linen, flour, wine, brandy, oil, salt and soap are the chief industrial products. VILLENAGE (VILLAINAGE, VILLANAGE, VILLEINAGE), a medieval term (from villa, villanus), pointing to serfdom, a condition of men intermediate between freedom and slavery. It occurs in France as well as in England, and was certainly im- ported into English speech through the medium of Norman French. The earliest instances of its use are to be found in the Latin and French versions of English documents in the nth and 1 2th centuries (cf. Domesday Book; Liebermann, Glossary to the Gesetze der Angelsachsen, s.v. villanus, vilain). The history of the word and of the condition is especially instructive in English usage. The materials for the formation of the villein class were already in existence in the Anglo-Saxon period. On the one hand, the Saxon ceorls (twihyndemen) , although considered as including the typical freemen in the earlier laws (/Ethelberht, Hlothhere and Edric, Ine), gradually became differentiated through the action of political and economic causes, and many of them had to recognize the patronage of magnates or to seek livelihood as tenants on the estates of the latter. These ceorls, sitting on gafol-land, were, though personally free, considered as a lower order of men, and lapsed gradually into more or less oppressive subjection in respect of the great landowners. It is characteristic in this connexion that the West Saxon laws do not make any distinction between ceorls and laets or half- freemen as the Kentish laws had done: "this means that the half-free people were, if not Welshmen, reckoned as members of the ceorl class. Another remarkable indication of the decay of the ceorl's estate is afforded by the fact that in the treaties with the Danes the twihynde ceorls are equated with the Danish leysings or freedmen. It does not mean, of course, that their condition was practically the same, but in any case the fact testifies to the gulf which had come to separate the two principal subdivisions of the free class — the ceorl and the thane. The Latin version of the Rcctitudines Singularum Personarum, a document compiled probably in the nth century, not long before the Conquest, renders geneat (a peasant tenant of a superior kind performing lighter services than the gebur, as he was burdened with heavy week-work) by villanus; but the gebur came to be also considered as a villanus according to Anglo- Norman terminology. The group designated as geburs in- Anglo-Saxon charters, though distinguished from mere slaves (theow baerde-burbaerde, Kemble, Cod. Dipl. 1079), undoubtedly included many freedmen who in point of services and economic subjection were not very much above the slaves. Both ceoris and geburs disappear as separate classes, and it is clear that the greater part of them must have passed into the rank of villeins. In the terminology of the Domesday Inquest we find the villeins as the most numerous element of the English popula- tion. Out of about 240,000 households enumerated in Domes- day 100,000 are marked as belonging to villeins. They are rustics performing, as a rule, work services for their lords. But not all the inhabitants of the villages were designated by that name. Villeins are opposed to socmen and freemen on one hand, to bordarii, cottagers and slaves on the other. The distinction in regard to the first two of these groups was evi- dently derived from their greater freedom, although the differ- ence is only one in degree and not in kind. In fact, the villein is assumed to be a person free by birth, but holding land of which he cannot dispose freely. The distinction as against bordarii and cottagers is based on the size of the holding: the villeins are holders of regular shares in the village — that is, of the virgates, bovates or half-hides which constitute the principal subdivisions in the fields and contribute to form the plough- teams — whereas the bordarii hold smaller plots of some 5 acres, more or less, and coUarii are connected with mere cottages and crofts. Thus the terminology of Domesday takes note of two kinds of differences in the status of rustics: a legal one in con- nexion with the right to dispose of property in land, and an economic one reflecting the opposition between the holders of shares in the fields and the holders of auxiliary tenements. The feature of personal serfdom is also noticeable, but it provides a basis only for the comparatively small group of seroi, of whom only about 25,000 are enumerated in Domesday Book. The contrast between this exceptionally situated class and the rest of the population shows that personal slavery was rapidly dis- appearing in England about the time of the Conquest. It is also to be noticed that the Domesday Survey constantly mentions the terra villanorum as opposed to the demesne in the estates or manors of the time, and that the land of the rustics is taxed separately for the geld, so that the distinction between the property of the lord and that of the peasant dependent on him is clearly marked and by no means devoid of practical importance. The Domesday Survey puts before us the state of things in England as it was at the very beginning of the Norman and at the close of the Saxon period. The development of feudal society, of centralizing kingship and ultimately of a system of common law, brought about great changes which all hinge on the fundamental fact that the kings, while increasing the power of the state in other respects, surrendered it completely as regards the relations between the peasants and their lords. The protection of the assizes was tendered in civil matters to free tenants and refused to villeins. The royal courts refused to entertain suits of villeins against their lords, although there was a good deal of vacillation before this position was definitely taken up. Bracton still speaks in his treatise of the possibility for the courts to interfere against intolerable cruelty on the part of the lord involving the destruction of the villein's waynage, that is, of his ploughteam, and in the Notebook of Bracton there are a couple of cases which prove that 13th-century judges occasionally allowed themselves to entertain actions by persons holding in villenage against their lords. Gradually, however, the exception of villenage became firmly settled. As the historical and practical position was developing on these lines the lawyers who fashioned English common law in the I2th and I3th centuries did not hesitate to apply to it the teaching cf Roman law on slavery. Bracton fits his definition of villenage into the Romanesque scheme of Azo's Summa of the Institutes, and the judges of the royal courts made sweeping inferences from this general position. To begin with, the relation between the villein and his lord was regarded as a personal and not a praedial one. Everyone born of villein stock belonged to his master and was bound to undertake any service which might be imposed on him by the master's or the steward's command. The distinction between villeins in gross and villeins regardant, of which much is made by modern writers, was suggested by modes of pleading and does not make its appearance in the Year-Books before the isth century. Secondly, all independent proprietary rights were denied to the villein as against his lord, and the legal rule " quicquid servo acquiritur domino acquiri- tur " was extended to villeins. The fact that a great number, of these serfs had been enjoying' protection as free ceorls in former ages made itself felt, however, in three directions, (i) In criminal matters the villein was treated by the King's Court irrespectively of any consideration as to his debased condition. More especially the police association, organized for the keeping of the peace and the presentation of criminals — the frankpledge groups were formed of all " worthy of were and wite," villeins as well as freemen. (2) Politically the villeins were not elimin- ated from the body of citizens: they had to pay taxes, to serve in great emergencies in the militia, to serve on inquests, &c., and although there was a tendency to place them on a lower footing in all these respects yet the fact of their being lesser members of the commonwealth did not remove the fundamental VILLENAGE qualification of citizenship. (3) Even in civil matters villeins were deemed free as regards third persons. They could sue and be sued in their own name, and although they were able to call in their lords as defendants when proceeded against, there was nothing in law to prevent them from appearing in their own right. The state even afforded them protection against extreme cruelty on the part of their masters in respect of life and limb, but in laying down this rule English lawyers were able to follow the precedents set by late Roman juris- prudence, especially by measures of Hadrian, Antonine and Constantine the Great. There was one exception to this harsh treatment of villeins, namely, the rustic tenantry in manors of ancient demesne, that is, in estates which had belonged to the crown before the Conquest, had a standing-ground even against their lords as regards the tenure of their plots and the fixity of their services. Technically this right was limited to the inhabitants of manors entered in the Domesday Survey as terra regis of Edward the Confessor. On the other hand the doctrine became effective if the manors in question had been granted by later kings to subjects, because if they remained in the hand of the king the only remedy against ejectment and exaction lay in petitioning for redress without any definite right to the latter. If, however, the two conditions mentioned were forthcoming, villeins, or, as they were technically called, villein socmen of ancient demesne manors, could resist any attempt of their lords to encroach on their rights by depriving them of their holdings or increasing the amount of their customary services. Their remedy was to apply for a little writ of right in the first case and for a writ of monsiraverunt in the second. These writs entitled them to appear as plaintiffs against the lord in his own manorial court and, eventually, to have the question at issue examined by way of appeal, on a writ of error, or by reservation on some legal points in the upper courts of the king. A number of cases arising from these privileges of the men of ancient demesne are published in the Notebook of Bracton and in the Abbreviatio placitorum. This exceptional procedure does not simply go back to the rule that persons who had been tenants of the king ought not to have their condition altered for the worse in con- sequence of a royal grant. If this were the only doctrine applicable in the case there would be no reason why similar protection should be denied to all those who held under grantees of manors escheated after the Conquest. A material point for the application of the privilege consists in the fact that ancient demesne has to be proved from the time before the Conquest, and this shows clearly that the theory was partly derived from the recognition of tenant right in villeins of the Anglo-Saxon period who, as we have said above, were mostly ceorls, that is, freeborn men. In view of the great difference in the legal position of the free man and of the villein in feudal common law, it became very important to define the exact nature of the conditions on which the status of a villein depended. The legal theory as to these conditions was somewhat complex, because it had to take account of certain practical considerations and of a rather abrupt transition from a previous state of things based on different premises. Of course, persons born from villein parents in lawful wedlock were villeins, but as to the condition of illegitimate children there was a good deal of hesitation. There was a tendency to apply the rule that a bastard follows the mother, especially in the case of a servile mother. In the case of mixed marriages, the condition of the child is determined by the free or villein condition of the tenement in which it was born. This notion of the influence of the tene- ment is well adapted to feudal notions and makes itself felt again in the case of the pursuit, of a fugitive villein. He can be seized without further formalities if he is caught in his " nest," that is, in his native place. If not, the lord can follow him in fresh pursuit for four days; once these days past, the fugitive is maintained provisionally in possession of his liberty, and the lord has to bring an action de native habendo and has to assume the burden of proof. So much as to the proof of villenage by birth or previous condition. But there were numbers of cases when the dis- cussion as to servile status turned not on these formal points but on an examination of the services performed by the person claimed as a villein or challenged as holding in villenage. In both cases the courts had often recourse to proof derived not from direct testimony but from indirect indications as to the kind of services that had been performed by the supposed villein. Certain services, especially the payment of merchet — the fine for marrying a daughter — were considered to be the badge of serfdom. Another service, the performance of which established a presumption as to villenage, was compulsory service as a reeve. The courts also tried to draw a distinction from the amount and regularity of agricultural services to which a tenant was subjected. Bracton speaks of the contrast between the irregular services of a serf, " who could not know in the evening what he would have to do in the morning," and services agreed upon and definite in their amount. The customary arrangements of the work of villeins, however, render this contrast rather fictitious. The obligations of down- right villeins became to that degree settled and regular that one of the ordinary designations of the class was custumatii. Therefore in most cases there were no arbitrary exactions to go by, except perhaps one or the other tallage imposed at the will of the lord. The original distinction seems to have been made not between arbitrary and agreed but between occasional services and regular agricultural week-work. While the occasional services, even when agricultural, in no way established a presumption of villenage, and many socmen, freemen and holders by serjeanty submitted to them, 'agri- cultural week-work was primarily considered as a trait of villenage and must have played an important part in the process of classification of early Norman society. The villein was in this sense emphatically the man holding " by the fork and the flail." This point brings us to consider the matter-of-fact conditions of the villeins during the feudal period, especially in the i2th, i3th and i4th centuries. As is shown by the Hundred Rolls, the Domesday of St Paul, the Surveys of St Peter, Glouc., Glastonbury Abbey, Ramsey Abbey and countless other records of the same kind, the customary conditions of villenage did not tally by any means with the identification between villenage and slavery suggested by the jurists. It is true that in nomen- clature the word " senti " is not infrequently used (e.g. in the Hundred Rolls) where villani might have been mentioned, and the feminine nief (nativa) appears as the regular parallel of villanus, but in the descriptions of usages and services we find that the power of the lord loses its discretionary character and is in every respect moderated by custom. As personal depend- ents of the lord native villeins were liable to be sold, and we find actual sales recorded: Glastonbury Abbey e.g. sells a certain Philipp Hardyng for 20 shillings. But such transfers of human chattels occur seldom, and there is nothing during the English feudal period corresponding to the brisk trade in men character- istic of the ancient world. Merchet was regarded, as has been stated already, as a badge of serfdom in so far as it was said to imply a " buying of one's own blood " (servus de sanguine suo emando). The explanation is even more characteristic than the custom itself, because fines on marriage may be levied and were actually levied from people of different con- dition, from the free as well as from the serf. Still the tendency to treat merchtl as a distinctive feature of serfdom has to be noted, and we find that the custom spread for this very reason in consequence of the encroachments of powerful lords: in the Hundred Rolls it is applied indiscriminately to the whole rustic population of certain hundreds in a way which can hardly be explained unless by artificial extension. Heriot, the surrender of the best horse or ox, is also considered as the common incident of villein tenure, although, of course, its very name proves its intimate connexion with the outfit of soldiers (here-gealu) . Economically the institution of villenage was bound up VILLENAGE with the manorial organization — that is, with the fact that the country was divided into a number of districts in which central home farms were cultivated by the help of work supplied by villein households. The most important of villein services is the week-work per- formed by the peasantry. Every virgater or holder of a bovate has to send a labourer to do work on the lord's farm for some days in the week. Three days is indeed the most common standard for service of this kind, though four or even five occur sometimes, as well as two. It must be borne in mind in the case of heavy charges, such as four or five days' week-work, that only one labourer from the whole holding is meant, while generally there were several men living on every holding — otherwise the service of five days would be impossible to perform. In the course of these three days, or whatever the number was, many require- ments of the demesne had to be met. The principal of these was ploughing the fields belonging to the lord, and for such ploughing the peasant had not only to appear personally as a labourer, but to bring his oxen and plough, or rather to join with his oxen and plough in the work imposed on the village: the heavy, costly plough with a team of eight oxen had to be made up by several peasants contributing their beasts and implements towards its composition. In the same way the villagers had to go through the work of harrowing with their harrows, and of removing the harvest in their vans and carts. Carriage duties in carts and on horseback were also apportioned according to the time they took as a part of the week-work. Then came innumerable varieties of manual work for the erection and keeping up of hedges, the preservation of dykes, canals and ditches, the threshing and garnering of corn, the tending and shearing of sheep and so forth. All this hand-work was reckoned according to customary standards as day-work and week-work. But besides all these services into which the regular week- work of the peasantry was differentiated, stood some additional duties. The ploughing for the lord, for instance, was not only imposed in the shape of a certain number of days in the week, but took sometimes the shape of a certain number of acres which the village had to plough and to sow for the lord irrespectively of the time employed on it. This was sometimes termed gafolearth. Exceedingly burdensome services were required in the seasons when farming processes are, as it were, at their height — in the seasons of mowing and reaping, when every day is of special value and the working power of the farm hands is strained to the utmost. At that time it was the custom to call up the whole able-bodied population of the manor, with the exception of the housewives for two, three or more days of mowing and reaping on the lord's fields; to these boon-works the peasantry was asked or invited by special summons, and their value was so far appreciated that the villagers were usually treated to meals in cases where they were again and again called off from their own fields to the demesne. The liberality of the lord actually went so far, in exceptionally hard straits, that some ale was served to the labourers to keep them in good humour. In the I4th century this social arrangement, based primarily on natural economy and on the feudal disruption of society, began to give way. The gradual spread of intercourse rendered un- necessary the natural husbandry of former times which sought to produce a complete set of goods in every separate locality. Instead of acting as a little world by itself for the raising of corn, the breeding of cattle, the gathering of wool, the weaving of linen and common cloths, the fabrication of necessary imple- ments of all kinds, the local group began to buy some of these goods and to sell some others, renouncing isolation and making its destiny dependent on commercial intercourse. Instead of requiring from its population all kinds of work and reducing its ordinary occupations to a hard-and-fast routine meeting in a slow and unskilled manner all possible contingencies, the local group began to move, to call in workmen from abroad for tasks of a special nature, and to send its own workmen to look out for profitable employment in other places. Instead of managing the land by the constant repetition of the same processes, by a customary immobility of tenure and service, by communalistic restrictions on private enterprise and will, local society began to try improvements, to escape from the bounds of champion farming. Instead of producing and collecting goods for immediate consumption, local society came more and more into the habit of exchanging corn, cattle, cloth, for money, and of laying money by as a means of getting all sorts of exchangeable goods, when required. In a word, the time of commercial, contractual, cash intercourse was coming fast. What was exceptional and subsidiary in feudal times came to obtain general recognition in the course of the I4th and i sth centuries, and, for this very reason, assumed a very different aspect. A similar transformation took place in regard to government. The local monarchy of the manorial lords was fast giving way to a central power which maintained its laws, the circuits of its judges, the fiscal claims of its exchequer, the police interference of its civil officers all through the country, and, by prevailing over the franchises of manorial lords, gave shape to a vast .dominion of legal equality and legal protection, in which the forces of commercial exchange, of contract, of social intercourse, found a ready and welcome sphere of action. In truth both processes, the economic and the political one, worked so much together that it is hardly possible to say which influenced the other more, which was the cause and which the effect. Government grew strong because it could draw on a society which was going ahead in enterprise and well-being; social intercourse progressed because it could depend on a strong government to safeguard it. If we now turn to the actual stages by which this momentous passage from the manorial to the commercial arrangement was achieved, we have to notice first of all a rapid development of contractual relations. We know that in feudal law there ran a standing contrast between tenure by custom — villein tenure — and tenure by contract — free tenure. While the manorial system was in full force this contrast led to a classification of holdings and affected the whole position of people on the land. Still, even at that time it might happen that a freeholder owned some land in villenage by the side of his free tenement, and that a villein held some land freely by agreement with his lord or with a third person. But these cases, though by no means infrequent, were still exceptional. As a rule people used land as holdings, and those were rigidly classified as villein or free tenements. The interesting point to be noticed is that, without any formal break, leasing land for life and for term of years is seen to be rapidly spreading from the end of the I3th century, and numberless small tenancies are created in the I4th century which break up the disposition of the holdings. From the close of the I3th century downwards countless transactions on the basis of leases for terms of years occur between the peasants themselves, any suit- ably kept set of 14th-century court rolls containing entries in which such and such a villein is said to appear in the halimote and to surrender for the use of another person named a piece of land belonging to the holding. The number of years and the conditions of payment are specified. Thus, behind the screen of the normal shares a number of small tenancies arise which run their economic concerns independently from the cumbersome arrangements of tenure and service, and, needless to add, all these tenancies are burdened with money rents. Another series of momentous changes took place in the arrangement of services. Even the manorial system admitted the buying off for money of particular dues in kind and of specific performance of work. A villein might be allowed to bring a penny instead of bringing a chicken or to pay a rent instead of appearing with his oxen three times a week on the lord's fields. Such rents were called mat or mail in contrast with the gafol, ancient rents which had been imposed inde- pendently, apart from any buying off of customary services. There were even whole bodies of peasants called Molmen, because they had bought off work from the lord by settling with him on the basis of money rents. As time went on these practices of commutation became more and more frequent. There were, for both sides, many advantages in arranging their mutual 84 VILLENEUVE relations on this basis. The lord, instead of clumsy work, goi clear money, a much-coveted means of satisfying needs anc wishes of any kind — instead of cumbrous performances which did not come always at the proper moment, were carried out in a half-hearted manner, yielded no immediate results, anc did not admit of convenient rearrangement. The peasant got rid of a hateful drudgery which not only took up his time and means in an unprofitable manner, but placed him under the rough control and the arbitrary discipline of stewards or reeve: and gave occasion to all sorts of fines and extortions. With the growth of intercourse and security money became more frequent and the number of such transactions increased in proportion. But it must be kept in mind that the con- version of services into rents went on very gradually, as a series of private agreements, and that it would be very wrong to suppose, as some scholars have done, that it had led to a general commutation by the middle or even the end of the 1 4th century. The I4th century was marked by violent fluctua tions in the demand and supply of labour, and particularly the tremendous loss in population occasioned in the middle of this century by the Black Death called forth a most serious crisis. No wonder that many lords clung very tenaciously to customary services, and ecclesiastical institutions seem to have been especially backward in going over to the system of money rents. There is evidence to show, for instance, that the manors of the abbey of Ramsey were managed on the system of enforced labour right down to the middle of the 1 5th century, and, of course, survivals of these customs in the shape of scattered services lived on much longer. A second drawback from the point of view of the landloids was called forth by the fact that commutation for fixed rents gradually lessened the value of the exactions to which they were entitled. Money not only became less scarce but it became cheaper, so that the couple of pence for which a day of manual work was bought off in the beginning of the I3th century did not fetch more than half of their former value at its end. As quit rents were customary and not rack rents, the successors of those who had redeemed their services were gaining the whole surplus in the value of goods and labour as against money, while the successors of those who had commuted their right to claim services for certain sums in money lost all the corresponding difference. These inevitable consequences came to be perceived in course of time and occasioned a backward tendency .towards services in kind which could not prevail against the general movement from natural economy to money dealings, but was strong enough to produce social friction and grave disturbances. The economic crisis of the I4th century has its complement in the legal crisis of the isth. At that time the courts of law begin to do away with the denial of protection to villeins which, as we have seen, constituted the legal basis of villenage. This is effected by the recognition of copyhold tenure (see COPYHOLD). It is a fact of first-rate magnitude that in the I5th century customary relations on one hand, the power of government on the other, ripened, as it were, to that extent that the judges of the king began to take cognizance of the relations of the peasants to their lords. The first cases which occur in this sense are still treated not as a matter of common law, but as a manifestation of equity. As doubtful questions of trust, of wardship, of testamentary succession, they were taken up not in the strict course of justice, but as matters in which redress was sorely needed and had to be brought by the exceptional power of the court of chancery. But this interference of 15th-century chancellors paved the way towards one of the greatest revolutions in the law; without formally enfranchising villeins and villein tenure they created a legal basis for it in the law of the realm: in the formula of copyhold — tenement held at the will of the lord and by the custom of the manor — the first pan lost its significance and the second prevailed, in down- right contrast with former times when, on the contrary, the second part had no legal value and the first expressed the view of the courts. One may almost be tempted to say that these obscure decisions rendered unnecessary in England the work achieved with such a flourish of trumpets in France by the emancipating decree of the 4th of August 1789. The personal condition of villenage did not, however, dis- appear at once with the rise of copyhold. It lingered through the i6th century and appears exceptionally even in the lyth. Deeds of emancipation and payments for personal enfranchise- ment are often noticed at that very time. But these are only survivals of an arrangement which has been destroyed in its essence by a complete change of economic and political conditions. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892) ; Pollock and Maitiand, History of English Law (1895), 'book ii.' c. i. §§ 5, 12, 13; F. W. Maitiand, Domesday and Beyond (1897), Essay I. §§ 2, 3, 4; F. Seebohm, The English Village Community (1883); W. S. Holdsworth, History of English Law, iii. (1909); P. Vinogradoff, Growth of the Manor (1905); P. Vinogradoff, English Society in the Xlth Century (1908) ; A. Savine in the English Historical Review, xvii. (1902); A. Savine in the Economic Quarterly Review (1904) ; A. Savine, " Bondmen under the Tudors," in the Trans- actions of the Royal Historical Society, xvii. (1903). (P. Vi.) VILLENEUVE, PIERRE CHARLES JEAN BAPTISTE SIL- VESTRE (1763-1806), French admiral, was born at Valensoles in Provence on the 3ist of December 1763. He entered the French royal navy as a " garde du Pavilion." Although he belonged to the corps of " noble " officers, who were the object of peculiar animosity to the Jacobins, he escaped the fate of the majority of his comrades, which was to be massacred, or driven into exile. He sympathized sincerely with the general aims of the Revolu- tion, arid had a full share of the Provencal fluency which enabled him to make a timely and impressive display of " civic " sentiments. In the dearth of trained officers he rose with what for the French navy was exceptional rapidity, though it would have caused no surprise in England in the case of an officer who had good interest. He was named post-captain in 1793, and rear-admiral in 1796. At the close of the year he was appointed to take part in the unsuccessful expedition to Ireland which reached Bantry Bay, but the ships which were to have come to Brest from Toulon with him arrived too late, and were forced to take refuge at L'Orient. He accompanied the expedition to Egypt, with his flag in the " Guillaume Tell " (86). She was the third ship from the rear of the French line at the battle of the Nile, and escaped from the general destruction in company with the " Genereux " (78). Villeneuve reached Malta on the 23rd of August. His conduct was severely blamed, and he defended himself by a specious letter to his colleague Blanquet- Duchayla on the I2th of November 1800, when he had returned to Paris. At the time, Napoleon approved of his action. In a letter written to him on the 2ist of August 1798, three weeks after the battle, Napoleon says that the only reproach Villeneuve had to make against himself was that he had not retreated sooner, since the position taken by the French commander-in- chief had been forced and surrounded. When, however, the emperor after his fall dictated his account of the expedition to Egypt to General Bertrand at St Helena, he attributed the defeat at the Nile largely to the " bad conduct of Admiral Villeneuve." In the interval Villeneuve had failed in the exe- cution of the complicated scheme for the invasion of England n 1805. Napoleon must still have believed in the admiral's capacity and good fortune, a qualification for which he had a ;reat regard, when he selected him to succeed Latouche Treville upon his death at Toulon in August 1804. The duty of the Toulon squadron was to draw Nelson to the West Indies, return rapidly, and in combination with other French and Spanish ships, to enter the Channel with an overwhelming force. It is quite obvious that Villeneuve had from the first no confidence n the success of an operation requiring for its execution an amazing combination of good luck and efficiency on the part of the squadrons concerned. He knew that the French were net efficient, and that their Spanish allies were in a far worse state han themselves. It required a very tart order from Napoleon to drive him out of Paris in October 1804. He took the VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON— VILLEROI command in November. On the i7th of January 1805 he left Toulon for the first time, but was driven back by a squall which dismasted some of his awkwardly handled ships. On the 3rd of March he was out again, and this time he headed Nelson by some weeks on a cruise to the West Indies. But Villeneuve's success so far had not removed his fears. Though on taking up his command he had issued .an order of the day in which he spoke boldly enough of the purpose of his cruise, and his de- termination to adhere to it, he was racked by fears of what might happen to the force entrusted to his care. For the details of the campaign see TRAFALGAR. In so far as the biography of Villeneuve is concerned, his behaviour during these trying months cannot escape condemnation. He had undertaken to carry out a plan of which he did not approve. Since he had not declined the task altogether, it was clearly his duty to execute his orders at all hazards. If he was defeated, as he almost certainly would have been, he could have left the responsibility for the disaster to rest on the shoulders of Napoleon who assigned him the task. But Villeneuve could not free him- self from the conviction that it was his business to save his fleet even if he ruined the emperor's plan of invasion. Thus after he returned to Europe and fought his confused action with Sir R. Calder off Ferrol on the 22nd of July 1805, he first hesi- tated, and then, in spite of vehement orders to come on, turned south to Cadiz. Napoleon's habit of suggesting alternative courses to his lieutenants gave him a vague appearance of excuse for making for that port. But it was one which only a very weak man would have availed himself of, for all his instructions ought to have been read subject to the standing injunction to come on to the Channel — and in turning south to Cadiz, he was going in the opposite direction. His decision to leave Cadiz and give battle in October 1805, which led directly to the battle of Trafalgar, cannot be justified even on his own principles. He foresaw defeat to be inevitable, and yet he went out solely because he learnt from the Minister of Marine that another officer had been sent to supersede him. In fact he ran to meet the very destruction he had tried to avoid. No worse fate would have befallen him in the Channel than came upon him at Trafalgar, but it might have been incurred in a manly attempt to obey his orders. It was provoked in a spasm of wounded vanity. At Trafalgar he showed personal courage, but the helpless incapacity of the allies to manoeuvre gave him no opportunity to influence the course of the battle. He was taken as a prisoner to England, but was soon released. Shortly after landing in France he committed suicide in an inn at Rennes, on the 22nd of April 1806. Among the other improbable crimes attributed to Napoleon by the fear and hatred of Europe, was the murder of Villeneuve, but there is not the faintest reason to doubt that the admiral died by his own hand. The correspondence of Napoleon contains many references to Villeneuve. Accounts of the naval operations in which he was concerned will be found in James's Naval History. Troude, in his Batailles navales de la France, vol. iii., publishes several of his letters and orders of the day. (D. H.) VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Card on the right bank of the Rhone opposite Avignon, with which it is connected by a suspension bridge. Pop. (1906) 2582. Villeneuve preserves many remains of its medieval importance. The church of Notre Dame, dating from the I4th century, contains a rich marble altar and remarkable pictures. The hospice, once a Franciscan convent, part of which is occupied by a museum of pictures and antiquities, has a chapel in which is the fine tomb of Innocent VI. (d. 1362). The church and other remains of the Carthusian monastery of Val-de-B6nediction, founded in 1356 by Innocent VI., are now used for habitation and other secular purposes. A gateway and a rotunda, built as shelter for a fountain, both dating from about 1670, are of architectural note. On the Mont Andaon, a hill to the north-east of the town, stands the Fort of St Andre1 (i4th century), which is entered by an imposing fortified gateway and contains a Romanesque chapel and remains of the abbey of St Andr6. The other buildings of interest include several old mansions once belonging to cardinals and nobles, and a tower, the Tour de Philippe le Bel, built in the I4th century, which guarded the western extremity of the Pont St Be'ne'zet (see AVIGNON). In the 6th century the Benedictine abbey of St Andre was founded on Mount Andaon, and the village which grew up round it took its name. In the i3th century the monks, acting in concert with the crown, established a bastide, or " new town," which came to be called Villeneuve. The town was the resort of the French cardinals during the sojourn of the popes at Avignon, and its importance, due largely to its numerous re- ligious establishments, did not decline till the Revolution. VILLENEUVE-SUR-LOT, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, 22 m. N. by E. of Agen on a branch line of the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) town, 6978; commune, 13,540. Villeneuve is divided into two unequal portions by the river Lot, which here runs between high banks. The chief quarter stands on the right bank and is united to the quarter on the left bank by a bridge of the i3th century, the principal arch of which, con- structed in the reign of Louis XIII. in place of two older arches, has a span of 118 ft. and a height of 59 ft. On the left bank portions of the I3th century ramparts, altered and surmounted by machicolations in the isth century, remain, and high square towers rise above the gates to the north-cast and south- west, known respectively as the Porte de Paris and Porte de Pujols. On the right bank boulevards have for the most part taken the place of the ramparts. Arcades of the i3th century surround the Place La Fayette, and old houses of the ijth, i4th and isth centuries are to be seen in various parts of the town. The church of St Etienne is in late Gothic style. On the left bank of the Lot, 2 m. S.S.W. of Villeneuve, are the 13th-century walls of Pujols. The buildings of the ancient abbey of Eysses, about a mile to the N.E., which are mainly of the 1 7th century, serve as a departmental prison and peni- tentiary settlement. The principal hospital, the hospice St Cyr, is a handsome building standing in beautiful gardens. Villeneuve has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce and communal colleges for both sexes. It is an important agricultural centre and has a very large trade in plums (prunes d'enle) and in the produce of the market gardens which surround it, as well as in cattle, horses and wine. The preparation of preserved plums and the tinning of peas and beans occupy many hands; there are also manufactures of boots and shoes and tin boxes. The important mill of Gajac stands on the bank of the Lot a little above the town. Villeneuve was founded in 1254 by Alphonse, count of Poitiers, brother of Louis IX., on the site of the town of Gajac, which had been deserted during the Albigensian crusade. VILLEROI, FRANCOIS DE NEUFVILLE, DUCDE (1644-1730), French soldier, came of a noble family which had risen into prominence in the reign of Charles IX. His father Nicolas de Neufville, Marquis de Villeroi, marshal of France (1598-1685), created a duke by Louis XIV., was the young king's governor, and the boy was thus brought up in close relations with Louis. An intimate of the king, a finished courtier and leader of society and a man of great personal gallantry, Villeroi was marked out for advancement in the army, which he loved, but which had always a juster appreciation of his incapacity than Louis. In 1693, without having exercised any really important and responsible command, he was made a marshal. In 1695, when Luxembourg died, he obtained the command of the army in Flanders, and William III. found him a far more complaisant opponent than the " little hunchback." In 1701 he was sent to Italy to supersede Catinat and was soon beaten by the inferior army of Eugene at Chiari (see SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR). In the winter of 1701 he was made prisoner at the surprise of Cremona, and the wits of the army made at his expense the famous rhyme: " Par la faveur de Bellone, et par un bonheur sans e'gal, Nous avons conserve1 Cre'mone — et perdu notre g6ne'ral." In the following years he was pitted against Marlborough in 86 VILLERS LA VILLE— VILLOISON the Low Countries. Marlborough's own difficulties with the Dutch and other allied commissioners, rather than Villeroi's own skill, put off the inevitable disaster for some years, but in 1706 the duke attacked him and thoroughly defeated him at Ramillies (q.v.). Louis consoled his old friend with the remark, " At our age, one is no longer lucky," but superseded him in the command, and henceforward Villeroi lived the life of a courtier, much busied with intrigues but retaining to the end the friendship of his master. He died on the i8th of July 1730 at Paris. VILLERS LA VILLE, a town of Belgium in the province of Brabant, 2 m. E. of Quatre Bras, with a station on the direct line from Louvain to Charleroi. Pop. (1904) 1166. It is chiefly interesting on account of the fine ruins of the Cistercian abbey of Villers founded in 1147 and destroyed by the French republicans in 1795. In the ruined church attached to the abbey are still to be seen the tombstones of several dukes of Brabant of the i3th and I4th centuries. VILLETTE, CHARLES, MARQUIS DE (1736-1793), French writer and politician, was born in Paris on the 4th of December 1736, the son of a financier who left him a large fortune and the title of marquis. After taking part in the Seven Years' War, young Villette returned in 1763 to Paris, where he made many enemies by his insufferable manners. But he succeeded in gaining the intimacy of Voltaire, who had known his mother and who wished to make a poet of him. The old philosopher even went so far as to call his protege the French Tibullus. In 1777, on Voltaire's advice, Villette married Mademoiselle de Varicourt, but the marriage was unhappy, and his wife was subsequently adopted by Voltaire's niece, Madame Denis. During the Revolution Villette publicly burned his letters of nobility, wrote revolutionary articles in the Chronique de Paris, and was elected deputy to the Convention by the department of Seine-et-Oise. He had the courage to censure the September massacres and to vote for the imprisonment only, and not for the death, of Louis XVI. He died in Paris on the 7th of July 1793. In 1784 he published his (Euvres, which are of little value, and in 1792 his articles in the Chronique de Paris appeared in book form tinder the title Lettres choisies sur les principaux evenements de la Revolution. VILLIERS, CHARLES PELHAM (1802-1898), English states- man, son of George Villiers, grandson of the ist earl of Clarendon of the second (Villiers) creation, and brother of the 4th earl (q.v.), was born in London on the 3rd of January 1802, and educated at St John's College, Cambridge. He read for the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and became an associate of the Bentha- mites and " philosophical radicals " of the day. He was an assistant commissioner to the Poor Law Commission (1832), and in 1833 was made by the master of the Rolls, whose secretary he had been, a chancery examiner of witnesses, holding this office till 1852. In 1835 he was elected M.P. for Wolverhampton, and retained his seat till his death. He was the pioneer of the free-trade movement, and became prominent with Cobden and Bright as one of its chief supporters, being indefatigable in pressing the need for free trade on the House of Commons, by resolution and by petition. After free trade triumphed in 1846 his importance in politics became rather historical than actual, especially as he advanced to a venerable old age; but he was president of the Poor Law Board, with a seat in the Cabinet, from 1859 to 1866, and he did other useful work in the Liberal reforms of the time. Like Bright, he parted from Mr Gladstone on Home Rule for Ireland. He attended parliament for the last time in 1895, and died on the i6th of January 1898. VILLIERS DE L'ISLE-ADAM, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE MATHIAS, COMTE DE (1838-1889), French poet, was born at St Brieuc in Brittany and baptized on the 28th of November 1838. He may be said to have inaugurated the Symbolist movement in French literature, and Axel, the play on which he was engaged during so much of his life, though it was only published after his death, is -the typical Symbolist drama. He began with a volume of Premieres Poesies (1856-58). This was followed by a wild romance of the supernatural, I sis (1862), and by two plays in prose, Elen (1866) and Morgane (1866). La Revolte, a play in which Ibsen's Doll's House seems to be anticipated, was represented at the Vaudeville in 1870; Conies cruets, his finest volume of short stories, in 1883, and a new series in 1889; Le Nouveau Monde, a drama in five acts, in 1880; L'Eve future, an amazing piece of buffoonery satirizing the pretensions of science, in 1886; Tribulat Bonhomet in 1887; Le Secret de I'echafaud in 1888; Axel in 1890. He died in Paris, under the care of the Freres Saint-Jean-de-Dieu, on the I9th of August 1889. Villiers has left behind him a legend probably not more fantastic than the truth. Sharing many of the opinions of Don Quixote, he shared also Don Quixote's life. He was the descendant of a Grand Master of the Knights of Malta, famous in history, and his pride as an aristocrat and as an idealist were equal. He hated mediocrity, science, prog- ress, the present age, money and " serious " people. In one division of his work he attacked all the things which he hated with a savage irony; in another division of his work be dis- covered at least some glimpses of the ideal world. He remains a remarkable poet and a remarkable satirist, imperfect as both. He improvised out of an abundant genius, but the greater part of his work was no more than improvisation. He was ac- customed to talk his stories before he wrote them. Sometimes he talked them instead of writing them. But he has left, at all events, the Contes cruels, in which may be found every classic quality of the French conle, together with many of the qualities of Edgar Allan Poe and Ernst Hoffman; and the drama of Axel, in which the stage takes a new splendour and a new subtlety of meaning. Villiers's influence on the younger French writers was considerable. It was always an exaltation. No one in his time followed a literary ideal more romantically. (A. SY.) See also R. du Pontavice de Heussey, Villiers del' Isle- Adam (1893), a biography, English trans. (1904) by Lady Mary Loyd; S. Mallarme', Les Miens. Villiers de I Isle-Adam (1892); R. Martineau, Un yivant et deux marts (1901), bibliography. A selection from his stories, Histoires souveraines, was made by his friends (Brussels, 1899). VILLINGEN, a town of Germany in the grand duchy of Baden, pleasantly situated amid well-wooded hills, 52 m. by rail N. of Schaffhausen. Pop. (1905) 9582. It is in part still surrounded by walls, with ancient gate towers. It is the chief seat of the watch-making industry of the Black Forest. It also produces musical-boxes, glass and silk, and has a Gothic church of the i3th century and another of the nth, a 15th- century town hall, with a museum of antiquities, and music, technical and agricultural schools. VILLOISON, JEAN BAPTISTE GASPARD D'ANSSE (or DANNSE) DE (1750-1805), French classical scholar, was born at Corbeil-sur-Seine on the sth of March 1750 (or 1753; authori- ties differ). He belonged to a noble family (De Ansso) of Spanish origin, and took his surname from a village in the neighbour- hood. In 1773 he published the Homeric Lexicon of Apollonius from a MS. in the abbey of Saint Germain des Pres. In 1778 appeared his edition of Longus's Daphnis and Chloe. In 1781 he went to Venice, where he spent three years in examining the library, his expenses being paid by the French government. His chief discovery was a loth-century MS. of the Iliad, with ancient scholia and marginal notes, indicating supposititious, corrupt or transposed verses. After leaving Venice, he accepted the invitation of the duke of Saxe- Weimar to his court. Some of the fruits of his researches in the library of the palace were collected into a volume (Epistolae Vinarienses, 1783), dedicated to his royal hosts. Hoping to find a treasure similar to the Venetian Homer in Greece, he returned to Paris to prepare for a journey to the East. He visited Constantinople, Smyrna, the Greek islands, and Mount Athos, but the results did not come up to his expectation. In 1786 he returned, and in 1788 brought out the Codex Venetus of Homer, which created a sensation in the learned world. When the revolution broke out, being banished from Paris, he lived in retirement at Orleans, occupying himself chiefly with the transcription of the notes VILLON in the library of the brothers Valois (Valesius). On the restora- tion of order, having returned to Paris, he accepted the pro- fessorship of modern Greek established by the government, and held it until it was transferred to the College de France as the professorship of the ancient and modern Greek languages. He died soon after his appointment, on the 25th of April 1805. Another work of some importance, Anecdota Graeca (1781), from the Paris and Venice libraries, contains the Ionia, (violet garden) of the empress Eudocia, and several fragments of liunblichus, Porphyry, Procopius of Gaza, Choricius and the Greek grammarians. Materials for an exhaustive work con- templated by him on ancient and modern Greece are preserved in the royal library of Paris. See J. Dacier, Notice kistorique :ur la vie et les ouvrages de ison (1806); Chardon de la Rochette, Melanges de critique et' de philologie, iii. (1812) ; and especially the article by his friend and pupil E. Quatremere in Nouvelle biographie generale, xiii., based upon private information. VILLON, FRANCOIS (1431-*;. 1463), French poet (whose real surname is a matter of much dispute, so that he is also called De Montcorbier and Des Loges and by other names, though in literature Villon is the sole term used), was born in 1431, and, as it seems, certainly at Paris. The singular poems called Testaments, which form his chief if not his only certain work, are largely autobiographical, though of course not fully trust- worthy. But his frequent collisions with the law have left more certain records, which have of late been ransacked with extraordinary care by students, especially by M. Longnon. It appears that he was born of poor folk, that his father died in his youth, but that his mother, for whom he wrote one of his most famous ballades, was alive when her son was thirty years old. The very name Villon was stated, and that by no mean authority, the president Claude Fauchet, to be merely a common and not a proper noun, signifying " cheat " or " rascal "; but this seems to be a mistake. It is, however, certain that Villon was a person of loose life, and that he continued, long after there was any excuse for it in his years, the reckless way of living common among the wilder youth of the university of Paris. He appears to have derived his surname from a friend and benefactor named Guillaume de Villon, chaplain in the collegiate church of Saint-Benoit-le- Bestourne, and a professor of canon law, who took Villon into his house. The poet became a student in arts, no doubt early, perhaps at about twelve years of age, and took the degree of bachelor in 1449 and that of master in 1452. Between this year and 1455 nothing positive is known of him, except that nothing was known against him. Attempts have been made, in the usual fashion of conjectural biography, to fill up the gap with what a young graduate of Bohemian tendencies would, could, or might have done; but they are mainly futile. On the sth of June 1455 the first important incident of his Hie that is known occurred. Being in the company of a priest named Giles and a girl named Isabeau, he met, in the rue Saint-Jacques, a certain Breton, Jean le Hardi, a master of arts, who was with a priest, Philippe Chermoye or Sermoise or Sermaise. A scuffle ensued; daggers were drawn; and Sermaise, who is accused of having threatened and attacked Villon and drawn the first blood, not only received a dagger- thrust in return, but a blow from a stone which struck him down. Sermaise died of his wounds. Villon fled, and was sentenced to banishment — a sentence which was remitted in January 1456, the formal pardon being extant, strangely enough, in two different documents, in one of which the culprit is described as " Francois des Loges, autrement dit Villon," in the other as " Francois de Montcorbier." That he is also said to have described himself to the barber-surgeon who dressed his wounds as Michel Mouton is less surprising, and hardly needs an addition to the list of his aliases. It should, however, be said that the documents relative to this affair confirm the date of his birth, by representing him as twenty- six years old or thereabouts. By the end of 1456 he was again in trouble. In his first broil " la femme Isabeau " is only generally named, and it is impossible to say whether she had anything to do with the quarrel. In the second, Catherine de Vaucelles, of whom we hear not a little in the poems, is the declared cause of a scuffle in which Villon was so severely beaten that, to escape ridicule, he fled to Angers, where he had an uncle who was a monk. It was before leaving Paris that he composed what is now known as the Petit testament, of which we shall speak presently with the rest of his poems, and which, it should be said, shows little or no such mark of profound bitterness and regret for wasted life as does its in every sense greater successor the Grand testament. Indeed, Villon's serious troubles were only beginning, for hitherto he had been rather injured than guilty. About Christmas-time the chapel of the college of Navarre was broken open, and five hundred gold crowns stolen. The robbery was not dis- covered till March 1457, and it was not till May that the police came on the track of a gang of student-robbers owing to the indiscretion of one of them, Guy Tabarie. A year more passed, when Tabarie, being arrested, turned king's evidence and accused Villon, who was then absent, of being the ring-leader, and of having gone to Angers, partly at least, to arrange for similar burglaries there. Villon, for this or some other crime, was sentenced to banishment: and he did not attempt to return to Paris. In fact for four years he was a wanderer; and he may have been, as each of his friends Regnier de Montigny and Colin des Cayeux certainly was, a member of a wandering thieves' gang. It is certain that at one time (in 1457), and probable that at more times than one, he was in correspondence with Charles d'Orleans, and it is likely that he resided, at any rate for some period, at that prince's court at Blois. He had also something to do with another prince of the blood, Jean of Bourbon, and traces are found of him in Poitou, in Dauphin6, &c. But at his next certain appearance he is again in trouble. He tells us that he had spent the summer of 1461 in the bishop's prison (bishops were fatal to Villon) of Meung. His crime is not known, but is supposed to have been church-robbing; and his enemy, or at least judge, was Thibault d'Aussigny, who held the see of Orleans. Villon owed his release to a general gaol-delivery at the accession of Louis XI., and became a free man again on the 2nd of October. It was now that he wrote the Grand testament, the work which has immortalized him. Although he was only thirty at the date (1461) of this composition (which is unmistakable, because given in the book itself), there seems to be no kind of aspiration towards a new life, nor even any hankering after the old. Nothing appears to be left him but regret; his very spirit has been worn out by excesses or sufferings or both. Even his good intentions must have been feeble, for in the autumn of 1462 we find him once more living in the cloisters of Saint-Benoit, and in November he was in the Chatelet for theft. In default of evidence the old charge of the college of Navarre was revived, and even a royal pardon did not bar the demand for restitution. Bail was, however, accepted, but Villon fell promptly into a street quarrel, was arrested, tortured and condemned to be hanged, but the sentence was commuted to banishment by the parlement on the 5th of January 1463. The actual event is unknown: but from this time he disappears from history. Rabelais indeed tells two stories about him which have almost necessarily been dated later. One is a countryside anecdote of a trick supposed to have been played by the poet in his old age at Saint Maixent in Poitou, whither he had retired. The other, a coarse but pointed jest at the expense of England, is told as having been addressed by Villon to King Edward V. during an exile in that country. Now, even if King Edward V. were not evidently out of the question, a passage of the story refers to the well-known scholar and man of science, Thomas Linacre, as court physician to the king, and makes Villon mention him, whereas Linacre was only a young scholar, not merely at the time of Edward V.'s supposed murder, but at the extreme date (1489) which can be assigned to Villon's life. For in this year the first edition of the poet's work appeared, obviously not published by himself, 88 VILNA and with no sign in it of his having lived later than the date (1461) of the Grand testament. It would be easy to dismiss these Rabelaisian mentions of Villon as mere humorous inven- tions, if it were not that the author of Pantagruel was born almost soon enough to have actually seen Villon if he had lived to anything that could be called old age, that he almost certainly must have known men who had known Villon, and that the poet undoubtedly spent much time in Rabelais's own country on the banks of the lower Loire. The obscurity, the unhappiness and the evil repute of Villon's life would not be in themselves a reason for the minute investiga- tion to which the events of that life have been subjected, and the result of which has been summed up here. But his poetical work, scanty as the certainly genuine part of it is, is of such extraordinary quality, and marks such an epoch in the history of European litera- ture, that he has been at all times an interesting figure, and, like all very interesting figures, has been often praised for qualities quite other than those which he really possessed. Boileau's famous verses, in which Villon is extolled for having first known how to smooth out the confused art of the old romancers, are indeed a prodigy of blundering or ignorance or both. As far as art or the technical part of poetry goes, Villon made not the slightest advance on his predecessors, nor stood in any way in front of such contemporaries as his patron Charles d'Orleans. His two Testaments (so called by the application to them of a regular class-name of medieval poetry and consisting of burlesque legacies to his acquaintances) are mads up of eight-line stanzas of eight-syllabled verses, varied in the case of the Grand testament by the insertion of ballades and rondeaux of very great beauty and interest, but not formally different in any way from poems of the same kind for more than a century past. What really distinguishes Villon is the intenser quality of his poetical feeling and expression, and what is perhaps arrogantly called the modern character of his subjects and thought. Medieval poetry, with rare exceptions, and, with exceptions not quite so rare, classical poetry, are distinguished by their lack of what is now called the personal note. In Villon this note sounds, struck with singular force and skill. Again, the simple joy of living which distinguishes both periods — the medieval, despite a common opinion, scarcely less than the ancient — has disappeared. Even the riot and rollicking of his earlier days are mentioned with far less relish of remembrance than sense of their vanity. This sense of vanity, indeed, not of the merely religious, but of the purely mundane and even half-pagan kind, is Villon's most prominent characteristic. It tinges his narrative, despite its burlesque bequests, all through; it is the very keynote of his most famous and beautiful piece, the Ballade des dames du temps jadis, with its refrain, " Mais ou sont les neiges d'antan ? " as well as of his most daring piece of realism, the other ballade of La Crosse Margot, with its burden of hopeless entanglement in shameless vice. It is nowhere more clearly sounded than in the piece which ranks with these two at the head of his work, the Regrets de la Bdle Heaulmiere, in which a woman, once young and beautiful, now old and withered, laments her lost charms. So it is almost throughout his poems, including the grim Ballade des pendus, and hardly excluding the very beautiful Ballade pour sa mere, with its description of sincere and humble piety. It is in the profound melancholy which the dominance of this note has thrown over Villon's work, and in the suitableness of that melancholy to the temper of all generations since, that his charm and power have consisted, though it is difficult to conceive any time at which his poetical merit could be ignored. His certainly genuine poems consist of the two Testaments with their codicil (the latter containing the Ballade des pendus, or more properly £pitaphe en forme de ballade, and some other pieces of a similarly grim humour), a few miscellaneous poems, chiefly ballades, and an extraordinary collection (called Le Jargon ou jobelin) of poems in argot, the greater part of which is now totally unintelligible, if, which may perhaps be doubted, it ever was otherwise. Besides these, several poems of no inconsiderable interest are usually printed with Villon's works, though they are certainly, or almost certainly, not his. The chief are Les Repues Franches, a curious series of verse stories of cheating tavern-keepers, &c., having some resemblance to those told of George Peele, but of a broader and coarser humour. These, though in many cases "common form ' of the broader tale-kind, are not much later than his time, and evi- dence to reputation if not to fact. Another of these spurious pieces is the extremely amusing monologue of the Franc Archier de Bag- nolet, in which one of the newly constituted archers or regularly trained and paid soldiery, who were extremely unpopular in France, is made to expose his own poltroonery. The third most important piece of this kind is the Dialogue de Mallepaye et de Baillevent, a dramatic conversation between two penniless spendthrifts, which is not without merit. These poems, however, were never attributed to Villon or printed with his works till far into the i6th century. It has been said that the first dated edition of Villon is of 1489, though some have held one or more than one undated copy to be 'still earlier. Between the first, whenever it was, and 1542 there were very numerous editions, the most famous being that (i533) of Clement Marot, one of whose most honourable distinctions is the care he took of his poetical predecessors. The Pleiade movement and the classicizing of the grand siecle put Villon rather out of favour, and he was not again reprinted till early in the l8th century, when he attracted the attention of students of old French like Le Duchat, Bernard de la Monnoye and Prosper Marchand. The first critical edition in the modern sense — that is to say, an edition founded on MSS. (of which there are in Villon's case several, chiefly at Paris and Stockholm) — was that of the Abbe J. H. R. Promp- sault in 1832. The next was that of the " Bibliophile Jacob ' (P. Lacroix) in the Bibliotheque Elzevirienne (Paris, 1854). The standard edition is CEuvres completes de Fro.nc.ois Villon, by M. Auguste Longnon (1892). This contains copies of the documents on which the story of Villon's life is based, and a bibliography. The late M. Marcel Schwob discovered new documents relating to the poet, but died before he could complete his work, which was posthumously published in 1905. See also A. Campaux, F. Villon, sa vie et ses ceuvres (1859); A. Longnon, Etude biographique (1877); and especially G. Paris, Frangois Villon (1901), a book of the first merit. A complete translation of Villon was written by Mr John Payne (1878) for the Villon Society. There are also translations of individual poems in Mr Andrew Lang's Ballads and Lyrics of Old France (1872) and in the works of D. G. Rossetti and Mr Swinburne. Among critical studies of Villon may be menlioned those by Sainte-Beuve in the Causeries du lundi, vol. xiv., by Theo- phile Gautierin Grotesques, and by R. L. Stevenson in his Familiar Studies of Men and Books (1882). An unedited ballad by Villon, with another by an unknown poet of the same date, was published by W. G. C. Bijvanck (1891) as Un poele inconnu. M. Pierre d'Alheim published (1892) an edition of Le Jargon with a translation into ordinary French. (G. SA.) VILNA, or WILNO, a Lithuanian government of West Russia, having the Polish government of Suwalki on the W., Kovno and Vitebsk on the N., and Minsk and Grodno on the E. and S. Area, 16,176 sq. m.; pop. (1906 estimate) 1,806,300. Vilna lies on the broad marshy swelling, dotted with lakes, which separates Poland from the province of East Prussia and stretches E.N.E. towards the Valdai Plateau. Its highest parts are a little more than 1000 ft. above sea-level. On its western and eastern boundaries it is deeply trenched by the valleys of the Niemen and the S. Dvina. It is chiefly built up of Lower Tertiary deposits, but in the north Devonian sandstones appear on the surface. The Tertiary deposits consist of Eocene clay, slates, sandstones, limestones and chalk, with gypsum, and are partly of marine and partly of terrene origin. The whole is overlain with thick layers of Glacial boulder clay and post-Glacial deposits, containing remains of the mammoth and other ex- tinct mammals. Interesting discoveries of Neolithic implements, especially of polished stone, and of implements belonging to the Bronze Age and the early years of the Christian epoch, have been made. Numerous lakes and marshes, partly covered with forests, and scarcely passable except when frozen, as well as wet meadow- land, occupy a large area in the centre of the government. The Niemen, which flows along the southern and western borders for more than 200 m., is the chief artery of trade, and its importance in this respect is enhanced by its tributary the Viliya, which flows west for more than 200 m. through the central parts of Vilna, receiving many affluents on its course. Among the tributaries of the Niemen is the Berezina, which acquired renown during Napoleon's retreat in 1812; it flows in a marshy valley in the south-east. The S. Dvina for SO m. of its course separates Vilna from Vitebsk. The climate of the government is only slightly tempered by its proximity to the Baltic Sea (January, 2i°-8; July, 64°-5) ; the average temperature at the town of Vilna is only 43°-5. But in winter the thermometer descends very low, a minimum of -30° F. having been observed. The flora and fauna are inter- mediate between those of Poland and middle Russia. The government is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which are Vilna, Vileiki, Disna, Lida, Oshmyany, Zventsyany and Troki. VILNA, or WILNO, a town of Russia, capital of the govern- ment of the same name, 436 m. S.S.W. of St Petersburg, at the intersection of the railways from St Petersburg to Warsaw and from Libau to the mouth of the Don. Pop. (1883) 93,760; (1900) 162,633. With its suburbs Antokol, Lukishki, Pogul- yanka and Sarechye, it stands on and around a knot of hills (2450 ft.) at the confluence of the Vileika with the Viliya. Its streets are in part narrow and not very clean; but Vilna is an old town, rich in historical associations. Its imperial palace, and the cathedral of St Stanislaus (1387, restored 1801), con- taining the silver sarcophagus of St Casimir and the tomb of Prince Vitoft, are fine buildings. There is a second cathedral, that of St Nicholas, built in 1596-1604; also several churches dating VILVORDE— VINCENT, ST 89 from the I4th to the i6th centuries. The Ostra Brama chapel contains an image of the Virgin greatly venerated by Orthodox ks and Roman Catholics alike. The museum of antiquities valuable historical collections. The ancient castle of the Jagcllones is now a mass of ruins. The old university, founded in 1578, was restored (1803) by Alexander I., but has been closed since 1832 for political reasons; the only departments which remain in activity are the astronomical observatory and a nu'dical academy. Vilna is an archiepiscopal see of the Ortho- dox Greek Church and an episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Church, and the headquarters of the governor-general of the Lithuanian provinces and of the III. army corps. The city sses a botanical garden and a public library, and is adorned with statues to Catherine II. (1903), the poet Pushkin and C'ount M. Muraviev (1898). It is an important centre for trade in timber and grain, which are exported; and has theological seminaries, both Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic, a military school, a normal school for teachers and professional schools. It is the seat of many scientific societies (geographical, medical and archaeological), and has a good antiquarian museum and a public library. History. — The territory of Vilna has been occupied by the Lithuanians since the loth century, and probably much earlier; their chief fortified town, Vilna, is first mentioned in 1128. A temple to the god Perkunas stood on one of its hills till 1387, when it was destroyed by Prince Jagiello, after his baptism. After 1323, when Gedymin, prince of Lithuania, abandoned Troki, Vilna became the capital of Lithuania. The formerly independent principalities of Minsk and Lidy, as well as the territory of Disna, which belonged to the Polotsk principality, were annexed by the Lithuanian princes, and from that time Vilna, which was fortified by a stone wall, became the chief city of the Lithuanian state. It was united with Poland when its prince, Casimir IV., was elected (1447) to the Polish throne. The plague of 1588, a fire in 1610 and still more the wars between Russia and Poland, which began in the I7th century, checked its further growth. The Russians took Vilna in 1655, and in the following year it was ceded to Russia. The Swedes captured it in 1702 and in 1706. The Russians again took possession of it in 1788; and it was finally annexed to Russia in 1795, after the partition of Poland. Its Polish inhabitants took an active part in the risings of 1831 and 1863, for which they were severely punished by the Russian government. VILVORDE, a town of Belgium in the province of Brabant, 9 m. N. of Brussels and on the Senne. Pop. (1904) 14,418. The old castle of Vilvorde, which often gave shelter to the dukes of Brabant in their days of trouble, is now used as a prison. The younger Teniers lived and died at a farm outside Vilvorde, and is buried in the parish church of Dry Toren. VINCENNES, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine, on a wooded plateau ij m. E. of the fortifications of Paris, with which it is connected by rail and tram. Pop. (1906) town, 29,791; commune, 34,185. Its celebrated castle, situated to the south of the town and on the northern border of the Bois de Vincennes, was formerly a royal residence, begun by Louis VII. in 1164, and more than once rebuilt. It was frequently visited by Louis IX., who held informal tribunals in the neigh- bouring wood, a pyramid marking the spot where the oak under which he administered justice is said to have stood. The chapel, an imitation of the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, was begun by Charles V. in 1379, continued by Charles VI. and Francis I., consecrated in 1552 and restored in modem times. In the sacristy is the monument erected in 1816 to the memory of the duke of Enghien, who was shot in the castle moat in 1804. Louis XI. made the castle a state prison in which Henry of Navarre, the great Cond6, Mirabeau and other distinguished persons were afterwards confined. Under Napoleon I. the castle became a magazine of war-material. Louis XVIII. added an armoury, and under Louis Philippe numerous case- mates and a new fort to the east of the donjon were constructed. The place now serves as a fort, arsenal and barracks. It forms a rectangle 417 yds. long by 245 yds. wide. The enclosing wall was originally flanked by nine towers, which were cut down to its level between 1808 and 1811, and now serve as bastions. The donjon is a square tower, 170 ft. high, with turrets at the corners. The Bois de Vincennes, which covers about 2300 acres and stretches to the right bank of the Marne, contains a race-course, a military training-ground, a school of military explosives (pyrotechnic), several artificial lakes, an artillery polygon and other military establishments, an experimental farm, the redoubts of Gravelle and La Faisanderie and the normal school of military gymnastics. The wood, which now belongs to Paris, was laid out during the second empire on the same lines as the Bois de Boulogne. On its south border is the asylum of Vincennes, founded in 1855 for the benefit of con- valescents from the hospitals. In the town there is a statue of General Daumesnil, celebrated for his defense of the castle against the allies in 1814 and 1815. Vincennes has a school of military administration and carries on horticulture and the manufacture of ironware of various kinds, rubber goods, chemicals, perfumery, mineral waters, &c. VINCENNES, a city and the county-seat of Knox county, Indiana, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, on the E. bank of the Wabash river, about 117 m. S.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 8853; (1900) 10,249, of whom 736 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,895. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South- Western, the Cleveland, Cincinnati , Chicago & St Louis, the Evansville & Terre Haute, and the Vandalia railways. Extensive levees, 15 m. in length, prevent the overflow of the Wabash river, which for nine months in the year is navigable from this point to the Ohio. The city is level and well drained, and has a good water-supply system. In Vincennes are a Roman Catholic cathedral, erected in 1835, one of the oldest in the West, occupying the site of a church built early in the i8th century; Vincennes University (1806), the oldest educational institution in the state, which in 1910 had 14 instructors and 236 students; St Rose Female Academy, and a public library. Coal, natural gas and oil are found near Vincennes. The city is a manufactur- ing and railway centre, and ships grain, pork and neat cattle. The total value of the factory products in 1905 was $3,172,279. Vincennes was the first permanent settlement ia Indiana. On its site Francois Margane, Sieur de Vincennes, established a French military post about 1731, and a permanent settlement was made about the fort in 1735. After the fall of Quebec the place remained under French sovereignty until 1777, when it was occupied by a British garrison. In 1778 an agent of George Rogers Clark took possession of the fort on Behalf of Virginia, but it was soon afterwards again occupied by the British, who called it Fort Sackville and held it until February 1779, when it was besieged and was captured (on the 25th of February) by George Rogers Clark, and passed finally under American juris- diction. The site of the fort is marked by a granite shaft erected in 1905 by the Daughters of the Revolution. Vincennes was the capital of Indiana Territory from 1800 to 1813, and was the meeting-place in 1805 of the first General Assembly of Indiana Territory. In 1839 it was incorporated as a borough, and it became a city in 1856. See J. Law, The Colonial History of Vincennes (Vincennes, 1858); W. H. Smith, " Vincennes, the Key to the North-VVest," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Western States (New York, 1901) ; " The Capture of Vincennes by George Rogers Clark," Old South Leaflets, No. 43 (Boston, n.d.) ; also chap. ii. of J. P. Dunn's Indiana (Boston, 1892). VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST, deacon and martyr, whose festival is celebrated on the 22nd of January. In several of his discourses St Augustine pronounces the eulogy of this martyr, and refers to Acts which were read in the church. It is doubtful whether the Acts that have come down to us (Ada Sanctorum, January, ii. 394~397) are those referred to by St Augustine, since it is not certain that they are a contemporary document. According to this account, Vincent was bom of noble parents in Spain, and was educated by Valerius, bishop of Saragossa, who ordained him to the diaconate. Under the persecution of Diocletian, Vincent was arrested and taken to Valencia. Having stood firm in his profession before Dacianus, 9o VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS the governor, he was subjected to excruciating tortures and thrown into prison, where angels visited him, lighting his dungeon with celestial light and relieving his sufferings. His warders, having seen these wonders through the chinks of the wall, forthwith became Christians. He was afterwards brought out and laid upon a soft mattress in order that he might regain sufficient strength for new torments; but, while Dacianus was meditating punishment, the saint gently breathed his last. The tyrant exposed his body to wild beasts, but a raven miraculously descended and protected it. It was then thrown into the sea, but was cast up on the shore, recovered by a pious woman and buried outside Valencia. Prudentius devoted one of his hymns (Peristeph. v.) to St Vincent, and St Augustine attests that in his lifetime the festival of the saint was celebrated throughout the Christian world (Serm. 276, n. 4). See T. Ruinart, Acta martyrum sincera (Amsterdam, 1713), pp. 364-66; Le Nain de Tillemont, Memoires pour servir & I'histoire ecclesiastique (Paris, 1701, seq.), v. 215-225, 673-675. (H. DE.) VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS, or VINCENTIUS BELLOVACENSIS (c. iigo-c. 1264), the encyclopaedist of the middle ages, was probably a native of Beauvais.1 The exact dates of his birth and death are unknown. A tolerably old tradition, preserved by Louis a Valleoleti (c. 1413), gives the latter as 1264;* but Tholomaeus de Luca, Vincent's younger contemporary (d. 1321), seems to reckon him as living during the pontificate of Gregory X. (1271-76). If we assume 1264 as the year of his death, the immense volume of his works forbids us to think he could have been born much later than 1190. Very little is known of his career. A plausible conjecture makes him enter the house of the Dominicans at Paris between 1215 and 1220, from which place a second conjecture carries him to the Dominican monastery founded at Beauvais in 1228-29. There is no evidence to show that the Vincent who was sub-prior of this foundation in 1246 is the encyclopaedist; nor indeed is it likely that a man of such abnormally studious habits could have found time to attend to the daily business routine of a monastic establishment. It is certain, however, that he at one time held the post of " reader " at the monastery of Royaumont (Mons Regalis), not far from Paris, on the Oise, founded by St Louis between 1228 and 1235. St Louis read the books that he compiled, and supph'ed the funds for procuring copies of such authors as he required for his com- pilations. Queen Margaret, her son Philip and her son-in-law, Theobald V. of Champagne and Navarre, are also named among those who urged him to the composition of his " little works," especially the De Institutione Principum. Though Vincent may well have been summoned to Royaumont even before 1 240, there is no actual proof that he lived there before the return of Louis IX. and his wife from the Holy Land, early in the summer of 1254. But it is evident that he must have written his work De Eruditione FUiorum Regalium (where he styles himself as " Vincentius Belvacensis, de ordine praedicatorum, qualiscumque lector in monasterio de Regali Monte ") after this date and yet before January 1260, the approximate date of his Traclatus Consolatorius. When he wrote the latter work he must have left Royaumont, as he speaks of returning from the funeral of Prince Louis (isth January 1260) "ad nostram domum," a phrase which can hardly be explained otherwise than as referring to his own Dominican house, whether at Beauvais or elsewhere. The Speculum Majus, the great compendium of all the knowledge of the middle ages, as it left the pen of Vincent, seems to have con- sisted of three parts only, viz. the Speculum Naturale, Doctrinale and Historiale. Such, at least, is Echard's conclusion, derived from an examination of the earliest extant MSS. All the printed editions, however, consist of four parts, the additional one being entitled Speculum Morale. This has been clearly shown to be the production of a later hand, and is ascribed by Echard to the period between 1310 and 1325. In arrangement and style it is quite different from 'He is sometimes styled Vincentius Burgundus; but, according to M. Daunou, this appellation cannot be traced back further than the first half of the isth century. 1 Apparently confirmed by the few enigmatical lines preserved by Echara from his epitaph — " Pertulit iste necem post annos mille ducentos, Sexaginta decem sex habe, sex mihi retentos." the other three parts, and indeed it is mainly a compilation from Thomas Aquinas, Stephen de Bourbon, and two or three other contemporary writers. The Speculum Naturale fills a bulky folio volume of 848 closely printed double-columned pages. It is divided into thirty-two books and 3718 chapters. It is a vast summary of all the natural history known to western Europe towards the middle of the I3th century. It is, as it were, the great temple of medieval science, whose floor and walls are inlaid with an enormous mosaic of skilfully arranged passages from Latin, Greek, Arabic, and even Hebrew authors. To each quotation, as he borrows it, Vincent prefixes the name of the book and author from whom it is taken, distinguish- ing, however, his own remarks by the word " actor." The Speculum Naturale is so constructed that the various subjects are dealt with according to the order of their creation; it is in fact a gigantic commentary on Genesis i. Thus book i. opens with an account of the Trinity and its relation to creation; then follows a similar series of chapters about angels, their attributes, powers, orders, &c., down to such minute points as their methods of communicating thought, on which matter the author decides, in his own person, that they have a kind of intelligible speech, and that with angels to think and to speak are not the same process. The whole book, in fact, deals with such things as were with God " in the beginning." Book ii. treats of our own world, of light, colour, the four elements, Lucifer and his fallen angels, thus corresponding in the main with the sensible world and the work of the first day. Books iii. and iv. deal with the phenomena of the heavens and of time, which is measured by the motions of the heavenly bodies, with the sky and all its wonders, fire, rain, thunder, dew, winds, &c. Books v.-xiv. treat of the sea and the dry land: they discourse of the seas, the ocean and the great rivers, agricultural operations, metals, precious stones, plants, herbs, with their seeds, grains and juices, trees wild and cultivated, their fruits and their saps. Under each species, where possible, Vincent gives a chapter on its use in medicine, and he adopts for the most part an alphabetical arrangement. In book vi. c. 7 he incidentally discusses what would become of a stone if it were dropped down a hole, pierced right through the earth, and, curiously enough, decides that it would stay in the centre. Book xv. deals with astronomy — the moon, stars, and the zodiac, the sun, the planets, the seasons and the calendar. Books xvi. and xvii. treat of fowls and fishes, mainly in alphabetical order and with reference to their medical qualities. Books xviii.-xxii. deal in a similar way with domesticated and wild animals, including the dog, serpents, bees and insects; they also include a general treatise on animal physiology spread over books xxi.-xxii. Books xxiii.-xxviii. discuss the psychology, physiology and anatomy of man, the five senses and their organs, sleep, dreams, ecstasy, memory, reason, &c. The remaining four books seem more or less supplementary ; the last (xxxii.) is a summary of geography and history down to the year 1250, when the book seems to have been given to the worjd, perhaps along with the Speculum Historiale and possibly an earlier form of the Speculum Doctrinale, The Speculum Doctrinale, in seventeen books and 2374 chapters, is a summary of all the scholastic knowledge of the age and does not confine itself to natural history. It is intended to be a practical manual for the student and the official alike ; and, to fulfil this object, it treats of the mechanic arts of life as well as the subtleties of the scholar, the duties of the prince and the tactics of the general. The first book, after defining philosophy, &c., gives a long Latin vocabulary of some 6000 or 7000 words. Grammar, logic, rhetoric and poetry are discussed in books ii. and iii., the latter including several well-known fables, such as the lion and the mouse. Book iv. treats of the virtues, each of which has two chapters of quotations allotted to it, one in prose and the other in verse. Book v. is of a somewhat similar nature. With book vi. we enter on the practical part of the work; it deals with the ars oeconomica, and gives directions for building, gardening, sowing, reaping, rearing cattle and tending vineyards; it includes also a kind of agricul- tural almanac for each month in the year. Books vii.-ix. have reference to the ars politico: they contain rules for the education of a prince and a summary of the forms, terms and statutes of canonical, civil and criminal "law. Book xi. is devoted to the artes mechanicae, viz. those of weavers, smiths, armourers, merchants; hunters, and even the general and the sailor. Books xii.— xiv. deal with medicine both in practice and in theory : they contain practical rules for the preservation of health according to the four seasons of the year, and treat of various diseases from fever to gout. Book xv. deals with physics and may be" regarded as a summary of the Speculum Naturale. Book xvi. is given up to mathematics, under which head are included music, geometry, astronomy, astrology, weights and measures, and metaphysics. It is noteworthy that in this book Vincent shows a knowledge of the Arabic numerals, though be does not call them by this name. With him the unit is termed "digitus"; when multiplied by ten it becomes the "articulus"; while the combination of the articulus and the digitus is the " numerus compositus." In this chapter (xvi. 9), which is super- scribed " actor," he clearly explains how the value of a number increases tenfold with every place it is moved to the left. He is even acquainted with the later invention of the " cifra " or cipher. VINCENT, G.— VINCENT DE PAUL, ST The last book (xvii.) treats of theology or (as we should now say) mythology, and winds up with an account of the Holy Scriptures and of the Fathers, from Ignatius and Dionysius the Areopagite to Jerome and Gregory the Great, and even of later writers from Isidore and Uede, through Alcuin, Lanfranc and Anselm, down to Bernard of Clairvaux and the brethren of St Victor. As the fifteenth book of the Speculum Doctrinale is a summary of the Speculum Naturale, so the Speculum Historiale may be regarded as the expansion of the last book of the same work. It consists of thirty-one books divided into 3793 chapters. The first book opens with the mysteries ol God and the angels, and then passes on to the works of the six days and the creation of man. It includes disserta- tions on the various vices and virtues, the different arts and sciences, and carries down the history of the world to the sojourn in Egypt. The next eleven books (ii.-xii.) conduct us through sacred and secular history down to the triumph of Christianity under Constantine. The story of Barlaam and Josaphat occupies a great part of book xv. ; and book xvi. gives an account of Daniel s nine kingdoms, in which account Vincent differs from his professed authority, Sigebert of Gembloux, by reckoning England as the fourth instead of the fifth. In the chapters devoted to the orieines of Britain he relies on the Brutus legend, but cannot carry his catalogue of British or English kings further than 735, where he honestly con- fesses that his authorities fail him. Seven more books bring us to the rise of Mahomet (xxiii.) and the days of Charlemagne (xxiv.). Vincent's Charlemagne is a curious medley of the great emperor of history and the champion of romance. He is at once the gigantic eater of Turpin, the huge warrior eight feet high, who could lift the armed knight standing on his open hand to a level with his head, the crusading conqueror of Jerusalem in days before the crusades, and yet with all this the temperate drinker and admirer of St Augustine, as his character had filtered down through various channels from the historical pages of Einhard. Book xxv. includes the first crusade, and in the course of book xxix., which contains an account of the Tatars, the author enters on what is almost contemporary history, winding up in book xxxi. with a short narrative of the crusade of St Louis in 1250. One remarkable feature of the Speculum Historiale is Vincent's constant habit of devoting several chapters to selections from the writings of each great author, whether secular or profane, as he mentions him in the course of ,his work. The extracts from Cicero and Ovid, Origen and St John, Chrysostom, Augustine and Jerome are but specimens of a useful custom which reaches its culminating point in book xxviii., which is devoted entirely to the writings of St Bernard. One main fault of the Speculum Historiale is the unduly large space devoted to miracles. Four of the medieval historians from whom he quotes most frequently are Sigebert of Gembloux, Hugh of Fleury, Helinand of Froidmont, and William of Malmesbury, whom he uses for Continental as well as for English history. Vincent has thus hardly any claim to be reckoned as an original writer. But it is difficult to speak too highly of his immense in- dustry in collecting, classifying and arranging these three huge volumes of 80 books and 9885 chapters. The undertaking to com- bine all human knowledge into a single whole was in itself a colossal one and could only have been born in a mind of no mean order. Indeed more than six centuries passed before the idea was again resuscitated ; and even then it required a group of brilliant French- men to do what the old Dominican had carried out unaided. The number of writers quoted by Vincent is almost incredible: in the Speculum Naturale alone no less .than 350 distinct works are cited, and to these must be added at least 100 more for the other two Specula. His reading ranges from Arabian philosophers and naturalists to Aristotle, Eusebius, Cicero, Seneca, Julius Caesar (whom he calls Julius Celsus), and even the Jew, Peter Alphonso. But Hebrew, Arabic and Greek he seems to have known solely through one or other of the popular Latin versions. He admits that his quotations are not always exact, but asserts that this was the fault of careless copyists. A list of Vincent's works, both MS. and printed, will be found in the Histoire Htteraire de France, vol. xviii., and in Jacques Echard's Scriptores ordinis praedicatorum (1719-21). The Tractatusconsolatorius pro morte amid and the Liber de eruditione filiorum regalium (dedi- cated to Queen Margaret) were printed at Basel in December 1480. The Liber de Institution^ Pnncipum, a treatise on the duties of kings and their functionaries, has never yet been printed, and the only MS. copy the writer of this article has been able to consult does not contain in its prologue all the information which Echard seems to imply is to be found there. The so-called first edition of the Speculum Majus, including the Speculum Morale, ascribed to Johann Mentelin and long celebrated as the earliest work printed at Strassburg, has lately been challenged as being only an earlier edition of Vincent's three genuine Specula (c. 1468-70), with which has been bound up the Speculum Morale first printed by Mentelin (c. 1473-76). The edition most frequently quoted is that by the Jesuits (4 vols., Douai, 1624). See J. B. Bourgeat, fjudes sur Vincent de Beauvais, thfologien, philosophe, encychpediste (Paris, 1856); E. Boutaric, Examen des sources du Speculum historiale de Vincent de Beauvais (Paris, 1863), and in tome xvii. of the Revue des questions historiques (Paris, 1875); 91 W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Ceschichtsquellen, vol. ii. (1894; B. Haureau, Notices . . . de M 55. latins de fa Bibliotheque Nationale, tome v. (1892) ; and E. Male, L'artrelieieuxdu XIII' sticle en France, (T.A.A.) VINCENT. GEORGE (1796-1831?), English landscape and marine painter, was born at Norwich in June 1796. He studied art under " Old " Crome, and at the age of fifteen began to contribute to the Norwich exhibition. From 1814 till 1823 he exhibited occasionally at the Royal Academy, and also in the Water-Colour Exhibition and the British Institution. In 1819 he removed from Norwich to London, and he was a contributor to the Suffolk Street gallery from its foundation in 1824 till 1830. He possessed great artistic abilities; but he fell into dissipation, and his works became slight and hastily executed. Finally he dropped out of sight, and he is believed to have died about 1831. His most important work, a " View of Greenwich Hospital," was shown in the International Exhibition of 1862. His " London from the Surrey Side of Waterloo Bridge " is also a fine work. VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887), American actress, was born in Portsmouth, England, on the i8th of September 1818, the daughter of an Irishman named Farlin. Left an orphan at an early age, she turned to the stage, making her first appearance in 1834 as Lucy in The Review, at Cowes, Isle of Wight. The next year she married J. R. Vincent (d. 1850), an actor, with whom she toured England and Ireland for several, years. In 1846 Mrs J. R. Vincent went to America to join the stock company of the old National theatre hi Boston. Here she became a great favourite. No actress in America, except Mrs Gilbert, has ever been such " a dear old lady " to so wide a circle of constant admirers. She died in Boston on the 4th of September 1887. Her memory is honoured by the Vincent Memorial Hospital, founded in that city in 1890 by popular subscription, and formally opened on the 6th of April 1891, by Bishop Phillips Brooks, as a hospital for wage-earning women and girls. VINCENT DE PAUL, ST (1576-1660), French divine, founder of the " Congregation of Priests of the Mission," usually known as Lazarites (?.».), was born on the 24th of April 1576 at Pouy, near Dax, in Gascogne, and was educated by the Franciscans at Dax and at Toulouse. He was ordained priest in 1600. Voyaging from Toulouse to Narbonne, he was captured by Barbary pirates, who took him to Tunis and sold him as a slave. He converted his third master, a renegade Italian, and escaped with him to Aigues-Mortes near Marseilles in June 1607. After short stays at Avignon and Rome, Vincent found his way to Paris, where he became favourably known to Monsieur (after- wards Cardinal) de Berulle, who was then founding the con- gregation of the French Oratory. At Beiulle's instance he became curate of Clichy near Paris (1611); but this charge he soon exchanged for the post of tutor to the count of Joigny at Folleville, in the diocese of Amiens, where his success in dealing with the spiritual needs of the peasants led to the " missions " with which his name is associated. In 1617 he accepted the curacy of Chatillon-les-Dombes (or sur-Chala- ronne), and here he received from the countess of Joigny the means by which he was enabled to found bis first " confreiie de charit6," an association of women who ministered to the poor and the sick. In 1619 Louis XIII. made him royal almoner of the galleys. Among the works of benevolence with which his name is associated are the establishment of a hospital for galley slaves at Marseilles, the institution of two establishments for foundlings at Paris, and the organization of the " Filles de la Charite," to supplement the work of the confrSries, whose members were mainly married women with domestic duties. He died at Paris on the 27th of September 1660, and was buried in the church of St Lazare. He was beatified by Benedict XIII. in 1729, and canonized by Clement XII. in 1737, his festival (duplex) being observed on the i9th of July. The Society of St Vincent de Paul was founded by Frederic Ozanam and others in 1833, "* reply to a charge brought by some free-thinking contemporaries that the church no longer had the strength to inaugurate a practical enterprise. In a variety of ways it does a great deal of social service similar VINCENT OF LERINS, ST- -VINE to that of gilds of help. Its administration has always been in the hands of laymen, and it works through local " conferences " or branches, the general council having been suspended because it declined to accept a cardinal as its official head. Lives by Maynard (4 vols., Paris, 1860); Bougaud (2 vols., Paris, 1891); E. de Broglie (sth edition, Paris, 1899); Letters (2 vols., Paris, 1882); A. Loth (Paris, 1880); H. Simard (Lyons, 1894). VINCENT OF LERINS, ST, or VINCENTIS LERINENSIS (d. c. A.D. 450), an ecclesiastical writer of the Western Church of whose personal history hardly anything is known, except that he was a native of Gaul, possibly brother of St Loup, bishop of Troyes, that he became a monk and priest at Lerinum, and that he died in or about 450. Lerinum (Lerins, off Cannes) had been made by Honoratus, afterwards bishop of Aries, the seat of a monastic community which produced a number of eminent churchmen, among them Hilary of Aries. The school did not produce an extensive literature, but it played an important part in resisting an exaggerated Augustinianism by reasserting the freedom of the will and the continued exist- ence of the divine image in human nature after the fall. As regards Vincent he himself tells us that only after long and sad experience of worldly turmoil did he betake himself to the haven of a religious life. In 434, three years after the council of Ephesus, he wrote the Commonitorium adversus profanas omnium haereticorum novitates, in which he ultimately aims at Augustine's doctrine of grace and predestination. In it he discusses the " notes " which distinguish Catholic truth from heresy, and (cap. 2) lays down and applies the famous threefold test of orthodoxy — quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditum est. It is very striking that in his appeal to tradition Vincent assigns no part to the bishops as such — apart from the council; he appeals to the ancient " teachers," not to any apostolic succession. His " semi-Pelagian " opposition to Augustine is dealt with by Prosper of Aquitania in his Pro Augustini doctrina responsiones ad capitula objectionum Vin- centiarnarium. It explains why the Commonitorium has reached us only in a mutilated form. The Commonitorium has been edited by Baluze (Paris, 1663, 1669 and 1684) and by Klupfel (Vienna, 1809). It also occurs in vol. 1. of Migne's Patrol. Ser. Lai. (18^6). A full summary is given in A. Harnack's History of Dogma, iii. 230 ff. See also F. H. Stanton, Place of Authority in Religion, pp. 167 ff.; A. Cooper-Marsdin, The School of Lerins (Rochester, 1905). VINCENT FERRER, ST (1355-1419), Spanish Dominican preacher, was born of respectable parentage at Valencia on the 23rd of January 1355. In February 1374 he took the Domini- can habit, and after spending some years in teaching, and in completing his theological studies, he was licensed to preach. He graduated as doctor of theology at Lerida in 1374, and his sermons in the cathedral of Valencia from 1385 onwards soon became famous. Cardinal Peter de Luna took him with him to Paris in 1391; and on his own election to the pontificate as antipope Benedict XIII. made Ferrer his confessor and master of the sacred palace. Finding, however, the ecclesiastical atmosphere of Avignon an uncongenial one, he in 1397 resumed his work as a preacher, and Spain, France, Italy, Germany and Great Britain and Ireland were successively visited by him; and in every case numerous conversions were the result of his eloquence, which is described as having been singularly power- ful and moving. In 1412 he was delegated by his native city to take part in the election of a successor to the vacant crown of Aragon; and in 1416 he received a special invitation to attend the council of Constance, where he supported the cause of the Flagellants (q.v.). He died at Vannes on the 5th of April 1419, and was canonized by Calixtus III. in 1455, his festival (duplex) being observed on the 5th of April. See A. Sorbelli, // trattato di S. Vincenzo Ferrer intorno al Grande Scisma d' Occidente (Bologna, 1906). VINCI, LEONARDO (1690-1730), Italian musical composer, was bom at Strongoli in Calabria in 1690 and educated at Naples under Gaetano Greco in the Conservatorio dei Poveri di Gesu Cristo. He became known first by his comic operas in Neapolitan dialect in 1719; he also composed many serious operas. He was received into the Congregation of the Rosary at Formiello in 1728 and died by poisoning in 1730, not 1732, as is generally stated. His comic operas, of which Le Zite 'n Galera (1722) is the best, are full of life and spirit; in his serious operas, of which Didone Abbandonata (Rome, 1728) and Arlaserse (Rome, 1730) are the most notable, have an incisive vigour and directness of dramatic expression deservedly praised by Burney. The well-known air " Vo solcando," from Artaserse, is a good example of his style. VINDELICIA, in ancient geography, a country bounded on the S. by Raetia, on the N. by the Danube and the Vallum Hadriani, on the E. by the Oenus (Inn), on the W. by the territory of the Helvetii. It thus corresponded to the N.E. portion of Switzerland, the S.E. of Baden, and the S. of Wurt- temberg and Bavaria. Together with the neighbouring tribes it was subjugated by Tiberius in 15 B.C., and towards the end of the ist century A.D. was made part of Raetia (q.v.). Its chief town was Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg). Its in- habitants were probably of Celtic origin (cf. the recurrence of Vind- in other Celtic names — Vindobona, Vindonissa); some authorities, however, regard them as German. According to Dio Cassius (liv. 22) they were an agricultural people, and later writers (e.g. Isidorus, Origines, i. 4), describe the country as very fertile. VINDHYA, a range of mountains in Central India. It forms a well-marked, though not quite continuous, chain across India, separating the Ganges basin from the Deccan. Starting on the west in Gujarat, the Vindhyas cross Malwa and the central portions of India, until their easternmost spurs abut on the valley of the Ganges at Rajmahal. They thus roughly form the northern side of the triangle, of which the other two sides are the Eastern and Western Ghats. They have an elevation of 1500 to 4500 ft., nowhere exceeding 5000 ft. Geo- logically they give their name to the " Vindhyan formation," one of the recognized rock systems of India. In legendary tradition they formed the demarcating line between the Madya- desha or middle land of the Sanskrit invaders and the non- Aryan Deccan, and they are still largely inhabited by aboriginal races such as the Bhils. VINE. The grape-vine, botanically Vitis, is a genus of about thirty species, widespread in the north temperate zone, but richest in species in North America. The best known and longest cultivated species is the old-world grape-vine, Vitis vinifera; a variety of this, silvestris, occurs wild in the Medi- terranean region, spreading eastwards towards the Caucasus and northwards into southern Germany, and may be regarded as the parent of the cultivated vine. It is of interest to note that grape-stones have been found with mummies in Egyptian tombs of not later age than 3000 years. The seeds have the characteristics of those of V. vinifera, but show some very slight variations from the type of seed now prevalent. Among the Greeks in the time of Homer wine was in general use. The cultivation of the vine must also have been introduced into Italy at a very early period. In Virgil's time the varieties in cultivation seem to have been exceedingly numerous; and the varied methods of training and culture now in use in Italy are in many cases identical with those described by Columella and other Roman writers. Grape-stones have been found among the remains of Swiss and Italian lake dwellings of the Bronze period, and others in tufaceous volcanic deposits near Montpellier, not long before the historic era. The old-world species is also extensively cultivated in California, but the grape industry of the eastern United States has been developed from native species, chiefly V. Labrusca and V. aestivalis and their hybrids with V. vinifera. Some of the American varieties have been introduced into France and other countries infested with Phylloxera, to serve as stocks on which to graft the better kinds of European vines, because their roots, though perhaps equally subject to the attacks of the insects, do not suffer so much injury from them as the European species. VINE 93 The vine requires a high summer temperature and a pro- longed period in which to ripen its fruit. Where these are forthcoming, it can be profitably cultivated, even though the winter temperature be very low. Tchihatchef mentions that at Erivan in Russian Armenia the mean winter temperature is 7°-i C. and falls in January to -30° C., and at Bokhara the mean temperature of January is 4° C. and the minimum -22° C., and yet at both places the vine is grown with success. In the Alps it is profitably cultivated up to an altitude of 1870 ft., and in the north of Piedmont as high as 3180 ft. At the present time the limit of profitable cultivation in Europe passes from Brittany, lat. 47° 30', to beyond the Rhine by Liege and through Thuringia to Silesia in lat. 51° 55'. In former centuries vines were cultivated to the north of this region, as, for instance, in Holland, in Belgium largely, and in England, where they might still be grown. Indeed, experiments have been made in this direction near Cardiff in South Wales. The yield is satisfactory, and the wine made, the variety known as Camay noir, is described as being like still champagne. In the middle ages, owing to various causes, the better wines of France and Germany could not be obtained in England except at prohibitive prices; but when this state of things ceased, and foreign wine could be imported, the English con- sumers would no longer tolerate the inferior productions of their own vineyards. It is also probable that the English mixed sugar or honey with the wine and thus supplied artificially that sweetness which the English sun denied. It is a curious fact that at the present day much or even most of the wine of finest quality is made at or near to the northern limits of possible cultivation with profit. This circumstance is probably explained by the greater care and attention bestowed both on the cultivation of the vine and on the manufacture of the wine in northern countries than in those where the climate is more propitious. The relative inferiority of the wines made at the Cape of Good Hope and in Australia is partly due to variations of climate, the vine not yet having adapted itself to the new conditions, and partly to the deficient skill of the manufacturers. That such inferiority may be expected to disappear is suggested by the success of vine-culture in Madeira and the Canary Islands. The development of other species of Vitis, such as the curious succulent species of the Soudan and other parts of equatorial Africa, or the numerous kinds in India and Cochin China, is of course possible under suitable conditions; but it is obvious that an extremely long period must elapse before they can successfully compete with the product of many centuries. [See also generally the article WINE. For currants and raisins, both produced by varieties of the grape-vine, see the respective articles.] Apart from their economic value, vines are often cultivated for purely ornamental purposes, owing to the elegance of their foliage, the rich coloration they assume, the shade they afford, and their hardihood. Vines have woody climbing stems, with ahernate, entire or palmately lobed leaves, provided at the base with small stipules. Opposite some of these leaves springs a tendril, by aid of which the plant climbs. There are numerous transitional states between the ordinary form of tendril and the inflorescence. • The flowers are small, green and fragrant,